a Symmetrical Faults Cireuil Transients ay * A is 1 t=0 t) = V2V sinfwt + al (~ Bu LAO. Raq = Viv sin(or +0) 120 (1a) The solution to (7.1.1) is z t= tel) rig) + asynnedricek fault curven = BLA [sin(we + — 0) —sin(a — A)e/T] A (7.1.2) synmetival, Shady-Tile de offet where jao(0) = sin(ot+a—6) A (7.1.3) 4 2V fae() = —“F- sin(a—)e® A (71.4) R+ (ol = ~R4X? Q (7.1.5) -1@L_) 4X = tan! Fe = tan oF (7.1.6) L_x_x ROR IR § (7.1.7) _ELC 4340 Lecture Mle #2 | ae |Moles At tao, Alt)=o > sTeady —slate carted = de offret If &-O= 0, hk, de offret = O - _ 4 veVv aAe=5% oe pret = + Fat (a) a-6 =0 7?) tanaxiinum de. offret BLAS Values: for At) , asymmetriceR ? Ea = EE sin (wt+d4-6) > Z,. -¥ elt) = ~ BY z Y sin (ol- ae wr zx temaxinun a A-0=-% Ated= VE Ty. [sin (at - B) + © can Trms(t) = [ac]? + flas())? = lel? + [Vig HIV+ 22 A (7.1.10) It is convenient to use T = X/(2nfR) and ¢ = Ne ae an onf{V Ee FR ve o | = eet WE | Za armature cunent’ Zyy' armature reaction flax Cay? armature reaction wa voltae | eee g, > vesultant flex 2 ul obtes Sina Ear lage Fe. by 90 ys 70% ant volta ye Eg, = ~HaXar > anol BE, = Ey + Eq = Ey — ilaXer |Ferminck Voblfage: V,= E, -jl,X, | E3ui valent Cireail Y= Ey ~1(Ra +X) X= Xar +Xz | Synchronous Feadance. ee armefure vesistanca. |. Effect of Armature Current Ty Ear Ee O& Ear Ey E, I, (a) (a) ) Figure 6.7 Phasor diagrams showing the relation between E, and E,, when current delivered by a generator is (a) lagging E, by 90° and (b) leading E, by 90°. (a) Over-excited generator (b) Under-excited generator Figure 6.9 Phasor diagrams of (a) overexcited and (b) underexcited generator. I, is current delivered by the generator.Figure 10.3 Current as a function of time for a synchronous generator short-circuited while running at no load, The unidirectional transient component of current has been eliminated in redrawing the oscillogram, | Envelope of current of| | Fig, 10.3 minus steady-state value Current (logarithmic seale) Figure 10.4 Excess of the current envelope of Fig, 103 over the sustained maximum current, plotted on semilogarithmie scales. TimeShe 4) Aivect -axis geadratic ~ aris Mote* Direck axis armature yeacton flex, Bbyy enpyel Ra | frell flux, 4. | | => Reducos exif and coment Paring farlt, shot crreuil cunert Az Aiphyy yeactive Aue to ragligible vestslanee, TAs Tercds | rede airgap flax» Arrahre Reaction => Verb tr reclue Tn. oa E, i= =e ob py) = 22, LE Wax oc _ [Bl pr =, = Leal UO efi aax, | transient current, rms value excluding de component | subtransient current, rms value excluding de component X, = direct-axis synchronous reactance | where steady-state current, rms value | X‘, = direct-axis transient reactance X% = direct-axié subtransient reactance |E,| =rms voltage from one terminal to neutral at no load | 04, ob, oc = intercepts shown in Fig. 10.3. _| 2-10 Theorem £ Corvlant Flux Ne —_ | Flux linkage cannef chan Jnsterfaneons/s. . | | Tittisly fared to flow rssh igh rele fana pot, | ce, re Yeactanw PoR. | Reluctana> R _ F wr 4a, > Flux: P= Fe = SLT Aen moves Cowarle rKe Gower *elechnapa Ce, Kphk veactanea parK, > Time- Vary ie Jadlactena Lt) ow reactane Xl = WL, Defire: a ’ Xa < Xa < XA | Trstentanens fawtt current: fao(t y= viE| (gy - -su)e ump + (5 xem +z sin(or +22) f At fo: Ty60) = Z =I ° subbroniient current, O=E for R=0, ae d-axin subtvansien® cuvent time consfant | oar t Lie = » transient current, (A. “hn current) | pr mech bagert, Tyeleo) = ra -L, (ax de offre: @xl=0, 3 be a6 asl oh | = peak sf @t=o | es ; % — time. consfant Tors. || EXAMPLE 7.2 eM Three-phase short-circuit currents, unloaded synchronous generator ‘A.500-MVA 20-KV, 60-Hz synchronous generator with reactances Xf = 0.15, X/=0.24,X4= 1.1 per unit and time constants Ti = 0,035, Ti, = 2.0, T, = 0.20 s is connected to a circuit breaker. The generator is operating at 5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted three-phase short cir- cuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The breaker interrunts the fault 3 oyoles after fault inception. Determine (a) the subtransient fault current in per-unit and kA rms; (b) maximum de offset as a function of time; and (c) mms asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assuming maximum de offset. SOLUTION a. The no-load voltage before the fault occurs is Ey = 1.05 per unit. From (7.2.2), the subtransient fault current that occurs in each of the three phases is 1.05 ; = yg 70 per unit ‘The generator base current is Srated 500 aes = 1443 V3Viated — (V3)(20) ‘The rms subtransient fault current in kA is the per-unit value multiplied by the base current: 1" = (7.0)(14.43) = 101.0 kA b. From (7.2.5), the maximum de offset that may occur in any one phase is V2(101.0)e~1!92 = 142.9e° 192 kA ce, From (7.2.1), the ms ac fault current at ¢ = 3 cycles = Tee(0.05 8) = 1.05 \Gs a am) 05/0038 +(ns = 4.920 per unit = (4.920)(14.43) = 71.01 kA Modifying (7.1.10) to account for the time-varying symmetrical compo- nent of fault current, we obtain Tyne (0.05) = 1 [Too(0.08)]* + [V21"e-VT9]? Toas jaemax(#) 05 sis ar [_ EY | -2rta ao (0205) ecco e 101]? . 101)", -2(003)/0.20 (71.01) 1+2[z] e = (71.01)(1.8585) =132 kA aExample 10.1 Two generators are connected in parallel to the low-voltage side of a three-phase A-Y transformer as shown in Fig. 10.5. Generator 1 is rated 50,000 KVA, 13.8 KV. Generator 2 is rated 25,000 kVA, 13.8 kV, Each generator has a subtransient reactance of 25%. The transformer is rated 75,000 kVA, 13.8A/69Y KV, with a reactance of 10%. Before the fault occurs, the voltage on’ the high-tension side of the transformer is 66 kV. The trans- former is unloaded, and there is no circulating current between the genera- tors, Find the subtransient current in each generator when a three-phase short circuit occurs on the high-tension side of the transformer. SOLUTION Select as base in the high-tension circuit 69 kV, 75,000 kVA. Then the base voltage on the low-tension side is 13.8 kV. Si Figure 10.5 One-line diagram for Example 10.1 @ shy Generator 1: X45 = 0.25 ee = 0375 per unit Ey: -§ = 0.957 per unit Generator 2: X4=0.25 a = 0.750 per unit Ea= $ 0.957 per unit X =0.10 per unit 0375 TOOT 0.0 ~TOTO™ iP A+ _ 4078 TOOT Be Ss Figure 10.6 Reactance diagram for Example 10.. Neutral busFigure 10.6 shows the reactance diagram before the fault. A three-phase fault at P is simulated by closing switch S. The internal voltages of the two machines may be considered to be in parallel since they must be identical in magnitude and phase if no circulating current flows between them. The equivalent parallel subtransient reactance is 0375 x 0.75 0375+ 0.75 Therefore, as a phasor with E, as reference, the subtransient current in the short circuit is = 0.25 per unit 0957 125 + 70.10 The voltage on the delta side of the transformer is (~J2.735)(j0.10) = 0.2735 per unit and in generators 1 and 2 0.957 - 0.274 j2.735 per unit =/1.823 per unit —j0.912 per unit To find the current in amperes, the per-unit values are multiplied by the base current of the circuit: 75,000 In] = 1.823 —-—— = 57204 Mil V3 x 13.8 75,000 le] = 0.912 "= = 2860 A tal V3 x 13.8 Although machine reactances are not true constants of the machine and depend on the degree of saturation of the magnetic circuit, their values usually lie within certain limits and can be predicted for various types of machines,A. Internal Vektapes of Loadock /achines @ o 4 three-phase fault at P is simulated by closing switch S. (a) Usual steady-state generator equivalent Figure 10.7 Equivalent circuits for a generator supplying a balanced three-phase load, Application of circuit with load, (b) Circuit for calculation of 1" | Generator: voltage behind rhe subbransient reactance, oF subtransient Prnternah voltage E,= Vit iXs vortege behind te transient Yeactone, oe Coantient aferral vilfasa Epa VAjLXS Motor: snertia sf rotor end field energized. Ey=V-iXt > acts as a generator Ey =V-ieXe Pkevenin Equivalert: Figure 10.9 is the Thévenin equivalent of Fig. 10.7b. The impedance Zi, is equal to (Ze + jX4)Z1/(Z1 + Zey + iX%). Upon the occurrence of a three- phase short circuit at P, simulated by ciosing S, the subtransient current in the fault is Ve _VlZ + Zen + 5X9) I = Zn Zi (Zen + iX4) (10.10) P Ze % s Figure 10.9 Thévenin equivalent of the circuit of Fig. 10.7b. Tors.Systems that contain generators and motors under load may be solved either by Thévenin's theorem or by the use of transient or subtransient internal vol- tages, as is illustrated in the following examples. Example 10.2 A synchronous generator and motor are rated 30,000 kVA, | 13.2 kV, and both have subtransient reactances of 20%, The line connecting them has a reactance of 10% on the base of the machine ratings. The motor is drawing 20,000 kW at 0.8 power factor leading and a terminal voltage of 12.8 kV when a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Find the subtransient current in the generator, motor, and fault by using the internal voltage of the machines. SOLUTION Choose as base 30,000 kVA, 13.2 kV. If we use the voltage at the fault V, as the reference phasor, | 12.8 Vp = 55 = 0:97 0% per unit 30,000 : | Base current = —=———— = 1312 A V3 x 13.2 | 20,000 /36.9° | fy = OS = 1128 /36.9° A + 0.8 x V3 x 128 ae = WE ABE 95569" pr nt = 0.86(0.8 + j0.6) = 0.69 + j0.52 per unit For the generator, V, = 0,970 + j0.1(0.69 + j0.52) = 0.918 + j0.069 per unit Ef = 0.918 + j0.069 +, j0.2(0.69 + j0.52) = 0.814 + j0.207 per unit 0.814 + 70.207 _ 9 69 _ j2.71 per unit 703 = 1312(0.69 — j2.71) = 905 — j3550 A Neutral bus Neutral bus | (a) Before the fault (b) During the fault Figure 108 Equivalent circuits for Example 10.2For the motor, V, = Vy = 0.97/0° per unit Ef, = 0.97 + j0 — j0,2(0.69 + j0.52) = 0.97 — j0.138 + 0.104 = 1.074 — j0.138 per unit 1.074 = j0.138 02 1312(—0.69 — j5,37) = —905 — j7050 A I = —0.69 — j5.37 per unit In the fault, M1 = 0,69 — j2.71 — 0.69 — j5.37 = —j8.08 per unit = —j8.08 x 1312 = —j10,600 A Figure 10.8 shows the paths of Ij, Im, and I. Example 10.3 Solve Example 10.2 by the use of Thévenin’s theorem. SoLuTION jo3 +02 0.97/02 per unit = 0.12 per unit In the fault, 1, 097+ tO j012 —j8.08 per unit (a) Before the fault (b) During the fauit Figure 10.10 Circuits illustrating the application of the superposition theorem to determine the proportion of the fault current in each branch of the system.Fault current from generator = 0. Fault current from motor = —/8.08 x 375 = —J4.85 per unit To these currents must be added the prefault current 1, to obtain the total subtransient currents in the machines: Ty = 0.69 + j0.52 — 3.23 = 0.69 — j2.71 per unit If, = —0.69 — j0.52 — j4.85 = —0.69 — j5.37 per unit Note that J, is in the same direction as I but opposite to I’,. The per-unit values found for 17, If, and If, ate the same as in Example 10.2, and so the ampere values will also be the same, Usually load current is omitted in determining the current in each line upon the occurrence of a fault. In the Thévenin method neglect of load current means that the prefault current in each line is not added to the component of current flowing toward the fault in the line. The method of Example 10.2 neglects load current if the subtransient internal voltages of all machines are assumed equal to the voltage V, at the fault before the fault ‘occurs, for such is the case if no current flows anywhere in the network prior to the fault. Neglecting load current in Example 10.3 gives Fault current from generator = 3.23 x 1312 = 4240 A Fault current from motor = 4.85 x 1312 = 6360 A Current in fault = 8.08 x 1312 = 10,600 A The current in the fault is the same whether or not load current is con- sidered, but the contributions from the lines differ. When load current is included, we find from Example 10.2 Fault current from generator = |905 — j3550| = 3660 A —905 — j7050| Fault current from moto1 7200 A The arithmetic sum of the generator and motor current magnitudes does not equal the fault current because the currents from the generator and motor are not in phase. 7-77.3 POWER SYSTEM THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS 1, th FIGURE 7.3 1 2 Single-line diagram of a synchronous generator ppp feeding a synchronous 100MVA TOG MVA —Xag = 209 100/MVA 100 MYA gut motor 13.8KkV 138 kV.A/198 KVY 138 KVY/I38kVA 13.8 KV X= 0.10 X" = 0.20 015 X= 0.10 : 1X Kine ira 2 a J0.1 [0.1060 sw (a) Three-phase short circuit {b) Short circuit represented by two opposing voltage sources is a = + j0.505 ve j0.18) (4) Ve set equal to prefault voltage at fault FIGURE 7.4 Application of superposition to a power system three-phase short circuit| | 2-19 | EXAMPLE 7.3 _Three-phase short-circuit currents, power system | ‘The synchronous generator in Figure 7.3 is operating at rated MVA, 0.95 p.f.. | lagging and at 5% above rated voltage when a bolted three-phase short cir- cuit occurs at bus 1. Calculate the per-unit values of (a) subtransient fault current; (b) subtransient generator and motor currents, neglecting prefault | current; and (c) subtransient generator and motor currents including prefault | current. SOLUTION a. Using a 100-MVA base, the base impedance in the zone of the transmis- sion line is 2 Zaina = A) = 190.44 2 and = 0.1050 per unit The per-unit reactances are shown in Figure 7.4. From the first circuit in Figure 7.4(d), the Thévenin impedance as viewed from the fault is (0.15)(0.505) (0.15 + 0.505) and the prefault voltage at the generator terminals is Zon = iXtm = j 0.11565 per unit Ve = 1.05/0° per unit The subtransient fault current is then Ye 1.05/08 11565 79.079 per unit cry " b. Using current division in the first circuit of Figure 7.4(4), | =( 0.505 = omeenns) = (0.7710)(—j9.079) = —j7.000 per unit | i, (smeeon)#-© 2290)(—j9.079) = —j2.079 per unit 505 + 0.15| 7-20 | c. The generator base current is henge = pl hasan = CASS) and the prefault generator current is ie 7 uy [cos 0.95 = 3.9845/—18.19° kA 1837 kA (\/3)(1.05 x 13.8) SS 1% = 0,9524/—18.19° = 0.9048 — 70.2974 per unit The subtransient generator and motor currents, including prefault current, are then Ii =I + fy = — 7.000 + 0.9048 — 70.2974 = 0.9048 — /7.297 = 7.353/—82.9° per unit If, — i = —j2.079 ~ 0.9048 + 70.2974 = —0.9048 — 1.782 = 1.999/243.1° per unit An alternate method of solving Example 7.3 is to first calculate the | internal voltages £ and £)” using the prefault load current J. Then, instead of using superposition, the fault currents can be resolved directly from the cireuit in Figure 7.4(a) (see Problem 7.11). However, in a system with many synchronous machines, the superposition method has the advantage that all machine voltage sources are shorted, and the prefault voltage is the only source required to calculate the fault current, Also, when calculating the con- tributions to fault current from each branch, prefault currents are usually small, and hence can be neglected. Otherwise, prefault load currents could be obtained from a power-flow program. .7-2 BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX We now extend the results of the previous section to calculate sub- transient fault currents for three-phase faults in an N-bus power system. The system is modeled by its positive-sequence network, where lines and transformers are represented by series reactances and synchronous ma- chines are represented by constant-voltage sources behind subtransient re- actances. As before, all resistances, shunt admittances, and nonrotating impedance toads are neglected. For simplicity, we also neglect prefault load currents. j0.2 0.1 Ee % + OOF | Figure 10.11 Reactance diagram obtained from Fig. 7.3 | | by substituting subtransient for synchronous reactances ‘Figure 10.12 Circuit of Fig. 10.11 with | of the machines and subtransient internal voltages for _admittances marked in per unit and a no-load generated voltages. Reactance values are marked three-phase fault on bus 4of the system in per unit. simulated by V; and —V; in series | A three-phase fault at bus 4 is simulated by the network of Fig. 10.12 where the impedance values of Fig. 10.11 have been changed to admittances. The gen- | erated voltages V, and ~V; in series constitute the short circuit, Generated | voltage V, alone in this branch would cause no current in the branch, With V, and —V; in series the branch is a short circuit, and the branch current is I’. Admittances rather than impedances have been marked in per unit on this diagram. If Ej, Ej, Ei, and V; are short-circuited, the voltages and currents are those due only to —V;. Then the only current entering a node from a source is that from —V; and is —I7 into node 4 (I; from node 4) since there is no current in this branch until the insertion of — V,. The node equations in matrix form for the network with —V; the only source are 0 SEH (NM) | cI 0 0.0 -10.83 25 5.0 V3 _ Ole 7 25-1783 oj) ya} (OLD -ly 5.0 5.0 80 -18.0]|—-¥y,7-22_| when the superscript A indicates that the voltages are due only to —V,. The A sign is chosen to indicate the change in voltage due to the fault. By inverting the bus admittance matrix of the network of Fig. 10.12 we obtain the bus impedance matrix. The bus voltages due to — V; are given by | vi 0 | vy 0 = Lous (10.12) v3 * 0 | ae ay | and so | V, Mask 10.13 KZ (10.13) and pean =- 7s (10.14) When the generator voltage —V; is short-circuited in the network of | Fig. 10.12 and Ex, Ef, E%, and V, are in the circuit, the currents and voltages | everywhere in the network are those existing before the fault. By the principle of superposition these prefault voltages added to those given by Eqs. (10.14) yield the voltages existing after the fault occurs, Usually the faulted network is assumed to have been without loads before the fault. In such a case no current is flowing before the fault, and all voltages throughout the network are the same | and equal to V;. This assumption simplifies our work considerably, and apply- ing the principle of superposition gives WaVtVb= Vy = TpZis Va Vy + VE= Vy ~TpZ2e WaV, + VE=V;—TjZs0 V=Vp-Vp=0 These voltages exist when subtransient current flows and Z,,, has been formed for a network having subtransient values for generator reactances. In general terms for a fault on bus k, and neglecting prefault currents, (10.15) y | poe 10.16) a (ar) | and the postfault voltage at bus n is | Zan | ips 10.17) haVi-F (10.17) ek| ee Using the numerical values of Eq. (10.11), we invert the square matrix Yu, of that equation and find 0.1488 0.0651 0.0864 0.0978 =; | 0.0651 0.1554 0.0799 0.0967 Bous =) 0.0864 0.0798 0.1341 0.1058 (10.18) 0.0978 0.0967 0.1058 0.1566 Usually V; is assumed to be 1.0/0° per unit, and with this assumption for our faulted network a T= 1566 = 0.0978 6 ; _ 10.0967 0.1566 __ j0.1058 40.1566 | Currents in any part of the network can be found from the voltages and impedances. For instance, the fault current in the branch connecting nodes 1 and 3 flowing toward node 3 is —j6.386 per unit = 0.3755 per unit = 0.3825 per unit = 0.3244 per unit {0.2044 per unit From the generator connected to node 1 the current is _EL-¥, _1-03755 03 03 = —j2.0817 per unit Other currents can be found in a similar manner, and voltages and currents with the fault on any other bus are calculated just as easily from the impedance matrix. Equation (10.16) is simply an application of Thévenin’s theorem, and we recognize that the quantities on the principal diagonal of the bus impedance matrix are the Théyenin impedances of the network for calculating fault current at the various buses, Power companies furnish data to a customer who must determine the fault current to specify circuit breakers for an industrial plant or distribution system connected to the utility system at any point. Usually the data supplied lists the short-circuit megavoltamperes, where Short-circuit MVA = ,/3 x (nominal kV) x I,. x 107? (10.19)| 7-24 | With resistance and shunt capacitance neglected, the single-phase Thévenin equi- valent circuit which represents the system is an emf equal to the nominal line voltage divided by \/3 in series with an inductive reactance of x, = mominal Wi) x 1000 6 (10.20) Solving Eq, (10.19) for Ig and substituting in Eq, (10.20) yield x, = (nominal kV)? * short-circuit MVA If base kilovolts is equal to nominal kilovolts, converting to per unit yields base MVA . Xy = ee MV per unit 10.22) * = Short-cirouit MVA Por UP! (10.22) (1921) || Xn foe per unit (10.23) 10.5 A BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX EQUIVALENT NETWORK Although we cannot devise a physically realizable circuit employing the im- pedances of the bus impedance network, we can draw a circuit with transfer | impedances indicated between branches, Such a diagram will be helpful in under- standing the significance of the equations developed in Sec. 10.4. In Fig. 10.13 brackets have been drawn between branch 4 and the other three branches of a network which has four nodes in addition to the reference node.t Associated with these brackets are the symbols Zs, Zz, and Z34, which + This equivalent network is drawn in the manner adopted in J. R. Neuenswander, Modern Power Systems, Intext Educational Publishers, New York, 1971, which refers to the bus impedance matrix equivalent network as the rake equivalent, © Ve Figure 10.13 Bus impedance matrix equivalent network with four indepen- © dent nodes. Closing switch $ simu- TF lates a fault on node 4, Only the transfer admittances for node 4 are shown, F7 Se @ @7937 © 8.952 Figure 10.14 Admittance diagram. for Example 10.4. The network with admittances marked in per unit is shown in Fig. 10.14 from which the node admittance matrix is — 22.889 EL nr 0.0 0.0 7. a 5.952 —13.889 7.937 0.0 0.0 Yous =J 0.0 7.937 —23.175 2.976 4.762 0.0 0.0 2976 -6.944 3.968 7.937 0.0 4.762 3.968 — 16.667 This 5 x 5 bus is inverted on a digital computer to yield the short-circuit matrix | 0.0793 0.0558 0.0382 0.0511 0.0608 0.0558 0.1338 0.0664 0.0630 0.0605 0.0382 0.0664 0.0875 0.0720 0,0603 0.0511 0.0630 0.0720 0.2321 0.1002 0.0608 0.0605 0.0603 0.1002 0.1301 Visualizing a network like that of Fig. 10.13 will help in finding the desired currents and voltages. The subtransient current in a three-phase fault on bus 4 is | 10 50.2321 At buses 3 and 5 the voltages are Vy = 10 — (—j4.308)(j0.0720) = 0.6898 per unit Vs = 10 — (—j4.308)(j0.1002) = 0.5683 per unit Currents to the fault are From bus 3: 0.6898(—j2.976) = —j2.053 From bus 5: 0.5683(—j3.968) = —2.255 — 4.308 per unit ~ 4.308 per unit From the same short-circuit matrix we can find similar information for faults on any of the other buses,