3.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Show relationship of stress
and strain using experimental
methods to determine stress-
strain diagram of a specific
material
• Discuss the behavior
described in the diagram for
commonly used engineering
materials
• Discuss the mechanical properties and other test
related to the development of mechanics of
materials
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Tension and Compression Test
2. Stress-Strain Diagram
3. Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle
Materials
4. Hooke’s Law
5. Strain Energy
6. Poission’s Ratio
7. Shear Stress-Strain Diagram
8. *Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
• Strength of a material can only be determined by
experiment
• One test used by engineers is the tension or
compression test
• This test is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the average normal stress
and average normal strain in common
engineering materials, such as metals, ceramics,
polymers and composites

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Performing the tension or compression test
• Specimen of material is made into “standard”
shape and size
• Before testing, 2 small punch marks identified
along specimen’s length
• Measurements are taken of both specimen’s initial
x-sectional area A0 and gauge-length distance L0;
between the two marks
• Seat the specimen into a testing machine shown
below

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Performing the tension or compression test
• Seat the specimen into a testing machine shown
below
• The machine will stretch
specimen at slow constant
rate until breaking point
• At frequent intervals during
test, data is recorded of the
applied load P.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Performing the tension or compression test
• Elongation δ = L − L0 is measured using either a
caliper or an extensometer
• δ is used to calculate the normal strain in the
specimen
• Sometimes, strain can also be read directly using
an electrical-resistance strain gauge

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• A stress-strain diagram is obtained by plotting the
various values of the stress and corresponding
strain in the specimen
Conventional stress-strain diagram
• Using recorded data, we can determine nominal
or engineering stress by
P
σ=
A0

Assumption: Stress is constant over the x-section

and throughout region between gauge points
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram
• Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is found
directly from strain gauge reading, or by

δ
ε=
L0

Assumption: Strain is constant throughout region

between gauge points
By plotting σ (ordinate) against ε (abscissa), we
get a conventional stress-strain diagram

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
• Figure shows the characteristic stress-strain
diagram for steel, a commonly used material for
structural members and mechanical elements

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
Elastic behavior.
• A straight line
• Stress is proportional to
strain, i.e., linearly elastic
• Upper stress limit, or
proportional limit; σpl
• If load is removed upon
reaching elastic limit,
specimen will return to its
original shape
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
Yielding.
• Material deforms
permanently; yielding;
plastic deformation Figure 3-4
• Yield stress, σY
• Once yield point reached, specimen continues to
elongate (strain) without any increase in load
• Note figure not drawn to scale, otherwise induced
strains is 10-40 times larger than in elastic limit
• Material is referred to as being perfectly plastic
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
Strain hardening.
• Ultimate stress, σu
• While specimen is
elongating, its x- Figure 3-4
sectional area will
decrease
• Decrease in area is fairly
uniform over entire gauge
length

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
Necking.
• At ultimate stress, x-
sectional area begins to
decrease in a localized Figure 3-4
region
• As a result, a constriction
or “neck” tends to form in
this region as specimen
elongates further
• Specimen finally breaks at fracture stress, σf
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Conventional stress-strain diagram
Necking.
• Specimen finally breaks
at fracture stress, σf
Figure 3-4

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
True stress-strain diagram
• Instead of using original cross-sectional area and
length, we can use the actual cross-sectional area
and length at the instant the load is measured
• Values of stress and strain thus calculated are
called true stress and true strain, and a plot of their
values is the true stress-strain diagram

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
True stress-strain diagram
• In strain-hardening range, conventional σ-ε
diagram shows specimen supporting decreasing
load
• While true σ-ε diagram shows material to be
sustaining increasing stress

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
True stress-strain diagram
• Although both diagrams are different, most
engineering design is done within elastic range
provided
1. Material is “stiff,” like most metals
2. Strain to elastic limit remains small
3. Error in using engineering values of σ and ε is
very small (0.1 %) compared to true values

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Defined as any material that can be subjected to
large strains before it ruptures, e.g., mild steel
• Such materials are used because it is capable of
absorbing shock or energy, and if before
becoming overloaded, will exhibit large
deformation before failing
• Ductility of material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at time of
fracture

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture
strain expressed as a percent
Lf − L0
Percent elongation = (100%)
L0

• Percent reduction in area is defined within

necking region as

A0 − Af
Percent reduction in area = (100%)
A0

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
• Most metals do not exhibit constant yielding
behavior beyond the elastic range, e.g. aluminum
• It does not have well-defined yield point, thus it is
standard practice to define its yield strength using
a graphical procedure called the offset method

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Ductile materials
Offset method to determine yield strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is
chosen.
2. From this point on the ε
axis, a line parallel to
initial straight-line portion
of stress-strain diagram is
drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve
defines the yield strength.
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Brittle Materials
• Material that exhibit little or no yielding before
failure are referred to as brittle materials, e.g.,
gray cast iron
• Brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress, since appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.3 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE & BRITTLE MATERIALS

Brittle Materials
• Instead, the average fracture stress from a set of
observed tests is generally reported

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
• Most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain with the
elastic region
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using
springs, known as Hooke’s law
σ = Eε
• E represents the constant of proportionality, also
called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus
• E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
• As shown above, most grades
of steel have same modulus of
elasticity, Est = 200 GPa
• Modulus of elasticity is a
mechanical property that
indicates the stiffness of a
material
• Materials that are still have
large E values, while spongy
materials (vulcanized rubber)
have low values

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
IMPORTANT
• Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a
material has linear-elastic behavior.
• Also, if stress in material is greater than the
proportional limit, the stress-strain diagram ceases
to be a straight line and the equation is not valid

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• If a specimen of ductile material (steel) is loaded
into the plastic region and then unloaded, elastic
strain is recovered as material returns to its
equilibrium state
• However, plastic strain remains, thus material is
subjected to a permanent set

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• Specimen loaded beyond yield point A to A’
• Inter-atomic forces have to be overcome to
elongate specimen elastically, these same
forces pull atoms back together when load is
removed
• Since E is the same,
slope of line O’A’ is the
same as line OA

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• Load reapplied, atoms will be displaced until
yielding occurs at or near A’, and stress-strain
diagram continues along same path as before
• New stress-strain
diagram has higher
yield point (A’), a result
of strain-hardening
• Specimen has a
greater elastic region
and less ductility

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.4 HOOKE’S LAW
Strain hardening
• As specimen is unloaded and loaded, heat or
energy may be lost
• Colored area between the curves represents lost
energy and is called mechanical hysteresis
• It’s an important
consideration when
selecting materials to
serve as dampers for
vibrating structures and
equipment

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.5 STRAIN ENERGY
• When material is deformed by external loading, energy
is stored internally throughout its volume
• Internal energy is also referred to as strain energy
• Stress develops a force,
∆F = σ ∆A = σ (∆x ∆y)

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.5 STRAIN ENERGY
• Strain-energy density is strain energy per unit volume of
material
∆U σε
u= =
∆V 2

• If material behavior is linear elastic, Hooke’s law applies,

σ σ σ2
u= ( )
2 ε
=
2E

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.5 STRAIN ENERGY
Modulus of resilience
• When stress reaches proportional limit, strain-energy-
energy density is called modulus of resilience

σpl εpl σpl2

ur = =
2 2E

• A material’s resilience represents its

ability to absorb energy without any
permanent damage

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.5 STRAIN ENERGY
Modulus of toughness
• Modulus of toughness ut,
indicates the strain-energy density
of material before it fractures

• Shaded area under stress-strain

diagram is the modulus of
toughness
• Used for designing members that may be accidentally
overloaded
• Higher ut is preferable as distortion is noticeable before
failure
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1
Tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress-strain
diagram below.
Calculate the
modulus of
elasticity and the
yield strength
based on a 0.2%.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Modulus of elasticity
Calculate the slope of initial straight-line portion of the
graph. Use magnified curve and scale shown in light blue,
line extends from O to A, with coordinates (0.0016 mm,
345 MPa)

345 MPa
E=
0.0016 mm/mm
= 215 GPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Yield strength
At 0.2% strain, extrapolate line (dashed) parallel to OA
till it intersects stress-strain curve at A’

σYS = 469 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Ultimate stress
Defined at peak of graph, point B,
σu = 745.2 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.1 (SOLN)
Fracture stress
When specimen strained to maximum of εf = 0.23
mm/mm, fractures occur at C.
Thus,
σf = 621 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates
and contracts laterally
• Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand laterally
when subjected to an axial compressive force

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• Strains of the bar are:
δ δ’
εlong = εlat =
L r
• Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic
range, ration of the two strains is a constant value,
since both are proportional.

εlat
Poisson’s ratio, ν = − ε
long

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 POISSON’S RATIO
• ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic material
• Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation cause
lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice versa
• Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions
• Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4
Bar is made of A-36 steel and behaves elastically.
Determine change in its length and change in dimensions
of its cross section after load is applied.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4 (SOLN)
Normal stress in the bar is
P
σz = = 16.0(106) Pa
A
From tables, Est = 200 GPa, strain in z-direction is
σz
εz = = 80(10−6) mm/mm
Est
Axial elongation of the bar is,
δz = εzLz = [80(10−6)](1.5 m) = −25.6 μm/m

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.4 (SOLN)
Using νst = 0.32, contraction strains in both x and y
directions are
εx = εy = −νstεz = −0.32[80(10−6)] = −25.6 μm/m

Thus changes in dimensions of cross-section are

δx = εxLx = −[25.6(10−6)](0.1 m) = −25.6 μm

δy = εyLy = −[25.6(10−6)](0.05 m) = −1.28 μm

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Use thin-tube specimens and subject it to torsional
loading
• Record measurements of applied torque and resulting
angle of twist

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Material will exhibit linear-elastic behavior till its
proportional limit, τpl
• Strain-hardening continues till it reaches ultimate shear
stress, τu
• Material loses shear strength till it fractures, at stress of
τf

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.6 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• Hooke’s law for shear
τ = Gγ

G is shear modulus of
elasticity or modulus of
rigidity
• G can be measured as slope of line on τ-γ diagram, G =
τpl/ γpl
• The three material constants E, ν, and G is related by
E
G=
2(1 + ν)
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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.5
Specimen of titanium alloy tested in
torsion & shear stress-strain diagram
shown below.
Determine shear modulus G, proportional
limit, and ultimate shear stress.

Also, determine the maximum

distance d that the top of the block
shown, could be displaced
horizontally if material behaves
elastically when acted upon by V.
Find magnitude of V necessary to
cause this displacement.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.5 (SOLN)
Shear modulus
Obtained from the slope of the straight-line portion OA of
the τ-γ diagram. Coordinates of A are (0.008 rad, 360 MPa)

360 MPa
G=
0.008 rad
= 45(103) MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.5 (SOLN)
Proportional limit
By inspection, graph ceases to be linear at point A, thus,

τpl = 360 MPa

Ultimate stress
From graph,

τu = 504 MPa

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
EXAMPLE 3.5 (SOLN)
Maximum elastic displacement and shear force
By inspection, graph ceases to be linear at point A, thus,

d
tan (0.008 rad) ≈ 0.008 rad =
50 mm
d = 0.4 mm

V V
τavg = 360 MPa =
A (75 mm)(100 mm)

V = 2700 kN

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

Creep
• Occurs when material supports a load for very long
period of time, and continues to deform until a sudden
fracture or usefulness is impaired
• Is only considered when metals and ceramics are used
for structural members or mechanical parts subjected to
high temperatures
• Other materials (such as polymers & composites) are
also affected by creep without influence of temperature

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

Creep
• Stress and/or temperature significantly affects the rate
of creep of a material
• Creep strength represents the highest initial stress the
material can withstand during given time without
causing specified creep strain
Simple method to determine creep strength
• Test several specimens simultaneously
– At constant temperature, but
– Each specimen subjected to different axial stress

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

Creep
Simple method to determine creep strength
• Measure time taken to produce allowable strain or
rupture strain for each specimen
• Plot stress vs. strain
• Creep strength
inversely proportional
to temperature and
applied stresses

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

Fatigue
• Defined as a metal subjected to repeated cycles of
stress and strain, breaking down structurally, before
fracturing
• Needs to be accounted for in design of connecting rods
(e.g. steam/gas turbine blades, connections/supports
for bridges, railroad wheels/axles and parts subjected
to cyclic loading)
• Fatigue occurs at a stress lesser than the material’s
yield stress

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
*3.7 FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP & FATIGUE

Fatigue
• Also referred to as the endurance or fatigue limit
Method to get value of fatigue
• Subject series of specimens to specified stress and
cycled to failure
• Plot stress (S) against
number of cycles-to-
failure N
(S-N diagram) on
logarithmic scale

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Tension test is the most important test for
determining material strengths. Results of normal
stress and normal strain can then be plotted.
• Many engineering materials behave in a linear-
elastic manner, where stress is proportional to strain,
defined by Hooke’s law, σ = Eε. E is the modulus
of elasticity, and is measured from slope of a stress-
strain diagram
• When material stressed beyond yield point,
permanent deformation will occur.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Strain hardening causes further yielding of material
with increasing stress
• At ultimate stress, localized region on specimen
begin to constrict, and starts “necking”. Fracture
occurs.
• Ductile materials exhibit both plastic and elastic
behavior. Ductility specified by permanent
elongation to failure or by the permanent reduction
in cross-sectional area
• Brittle materials exhibit little or no yielding before
failure

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Yield point for material can be increased by strain
hardening, by applying load great enough to cause
increase in stress causing yielding, then releasing the
load. The larger stress produced becomes the new
yield point for the material
• Deformations of material under load causes strain
energy to be stored. Strain energy per unit
volume/strain energy density is equivalent to area
under stress-strain curve.

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• The area up to the yield point of stress-strain
diagram is referred to as the modulus of resilience
• The entire area under the stress-strain diagram is
referred to as the modulus of toughness
• Poisson’s ratio (ν), a dimensionless property that
measures the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
[0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5]
• For shear stress vs. strain diagram: within elastic
region, τ = Gγ, where G is the shearing modulus,
found from the slope of the line within elastic
region

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• G can also be obtained from the relationship of
G = E/[2(1+ ν)]
• When materials are in service for long periods of
time, creep and fatigue are important.
• Creep is the time rate of deformation, which occurs
at high stress and/or high temperature. Design the
material not to exceed a predetermined stress called
the creep strength

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3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Fatigue occur when material undergoes a large
number of cycles of loading. Will cause micro-
cracks to occur and lead to brittle failure.
• Stress in material must not exceed specified
endurance or fatigue limit

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