Chapter 6

Hardware Components
for Automation and
Process Control

CHAPTER CONTENTS
6.1 Sensors
6.2 Actuators
6.2.1 Electric Motors
6.2.2 Other Types of Actuators
6.3 Analog–Digital Conversions
6.3.1 Analog-to-Digital Converters
6.3.2 Digital-to-Analog Converters
6.4 Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
6.4.1 Contact Input/Output Interfaces
6.4.2 Pulse Counters and Generators

To implement automation and process control, the control computer must collect data
from and transmit signals to the process. In Section 5.1.2, process variables and param-
eters were classified as continuous or discrete, with several subcategories in the discrete
class. The digital computer operates on digital (binary) data, whereas at least some of
the data from the physical process are continuous and analog. Accommodations for this
difference must be made in the computer–process interface. The components required to
implement this interface are the following:
1. Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables.
2. Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters.
3. Devices to convert continuous analog signals into digital data and digital data into
analog signals.
4. Input/output devices for discrete data.
121
122 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

Continuous parameters Continuous variables

Discrete parameters Process and equipment Discrete variables

Analog
Act Act Discrete actuators Discrete sensors Sens Sens Analog sensors
actuators

Output devices Control computer Input devices

Digital/analog DAC ADC Analog/digital
converter converter
Output devices Input devices

Figure 6.1 The computer process control system, showing the various types of components required
to interface the process with the computer.

Figure 6.1 shows the overall configuration of the process control system and how
these four categories are used to interface the process with the computer. This model rep-
resents the general arrangement of the control systems in CNC machine tools, industrial
robots, and PLC systems described in Chapters 7 through 9, as well as most of the mate-
rial handling systems and manufacturing systems described in Chapters 10 through 19.
The present chapter is organized around the four component categories.

6.1 SENSORS

A wide variety of sensors are available for collecting data from the manufacturing process
for use in feedback control. A sensor is a transducer, which is a device that converts a phys-
ical variable of one form into another form that is more useful for the given application. In
particular, a sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or variable of interest (such
as temperature, force, pressure, or displacement) into a more convenient form (usually an
electrical quantity such as voltage) for the purpose of measuring the stimulus. The conver-
sion process quantifies the variable, so that it can be interpreted as a numerical value.
Sensors can be classified in various ways, the most relevant of which for this discus-
sion is by the category of stimulus or physical variable measured, as presented in Table 6.1.
For each category, there may be multiple variables that can be measured, as indicated in
the right-hand column. These variables are typical of those found in industrial processes.
In addition to the type of stimulus, sensors are also classified as analog or discrete,
consistent with the classification of process variables in Chapter 5. An analog sensor
produces a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage, whose value varies in an
analogous manner with the variable being measured. Examples are thermocouples, strain
gages, and potentiometers. The output signal from an analog measuring device must be
converted to digital data by an analog-to-digital converter (Section 6.3.1) in order to be
used by a digital computer.
A discrete sensor produces an output that can have only certain values. Discrete
sensors are often divided into two categories: binary and digital. A binary sensor pro-
duces an on/off signal. The most common devices operate by closing an electrical contact
from a normally open position. Limit switches operate in this manner. Other binary sen-
sors include photoelectric sensors and proximity switches. A digital sensor produces a
Sec. 6.1 / Sensors 123

TABLE 6.1 Stimulus Categories and Associated Physical Variables

Category Examples of Physical Variables

Mechanical Position (displacement, linear and angular), velocity, acceleration,
force, torque, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density
Electrical Voltage, current, charge, resistance, conductivity, capacitance
Thermal Temperature, heat, heat flow, thermal conductivity, specific heat
Radiation Type of radiation (e.g., gamma rays, X-rays, visible light), intensity,
wavelength
Magnetic Magnetic field, flux, conductivity, permeability
Chemical Component identities, concentration, pH levels, presence of toxic in-
gredients, pollutants
Sources: Based on similar tables in [6] and [7].

digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status bits (e.g., a photoelectric
sensor array) or as a series of pulses that can be counted (e.g., an optical encoder). In
either case, the digital signal represents the quantity that is measured. Digital transducers
are becoming increasingly common because they are easy to read when used as stand-
alone measuring instruments and because they are compatible with digital computer
systems. Many of the common sensors and measuring devices used in industrial control
systems are listed alphabetically in Table 6.2. A significant trend in sensor technology has
been the development of very small sensors. The term microsensor refers to measuring
devices whose physical features have dimensions in the micron range, where 1 micron
11 mm2 = 10-6 m. Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon using processing
techniques associated with integrated circuit manufacture.
Sensors are distinguished as active or passive. An active sensor responds to the stimu-
lus without the need for any external power. An example is a thermocouple, which re-
sponds to an increase in temperature by generating a small voltage (millivolt range) that
is functionally related to temperature (in the ideal, its voltage is directly proportional to
temperature). A passive sensor requires an external source of power in order to operate. A
thermistor illustrates this case. It also measures temperature, but its operation requires an
electric current to be passed through it. As the temperature increases, the thermistor’s elec-
trical resistance is altered. The resistance can be measured and related back to temperature.
For each sensor, there is a transfer function, which is the relationship between the
value of the physical stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the sensor in re-
sponse to the stimulus. The transfer function is the input/output relationship. The stimu-
lus is the input, and the signal generated by the device is the output. The transfer function
can be expressed simply as:
S = f1s2 (6.1)
where S = the output signal, usually voltage; s = the stimulus; and f1s2 is the functional
relationship between them.
Limit switches and other binary sensors have functional relationships that are
binary, defined by the following expressions:
S = 1 if s 7 0 and S = 0 if s … 0 (6.2)
The ideal functional form for an analog measuring device is a simple proportional
relationship, such as
S = C + ms (6.3)
124 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

TABLE 6.2 Common Measuring Devices Used in Automation

Measuring Device Description
Accelerometer Analog device used to measure vibration and shock. Can be based on various
physical phenomena (e.g., capacitive, piezoresistive, piezoelectric).
Ammeter Analog device that measures the strength of an electrical current.
Bimetallic switch Binary switch that uses a bimetallic coil to open and close electrical contact as
a result of temperature change. A bimetallic coil consists of two metal strips
of different thermal expansion coefficients bonded together.
Bimetallic thermometer Analog temperature-measuring device consisting of bimetallic coil (see
previous definition) that changes shape in response to temperature change.
Shape change of coil can be calibrated to indicate temperature.
Dynamometer Analog device used to measure force, power, or torque. Can be based on
various physical phenomena (e.g., strain gage, piezoelectric effect).
Float transducer Float attached to lever arm. Pivoting movement of lever arm can be used to
measure liquid level in vessel (analog device) or to activate contact switch
(binary device).
Fluid flow sensor Analog measurement of liquid flow rate, usually based on pressure difference
between flow in two pipes of different diameter.
Fluid flow switch Binary switch similar to limit switch but activated by increase in fluid pressure
rather than by contacting object.
Limit switch (mechanical) Binary contact sensor in which lever arm or pushbutton closes (or opens) an
electrical contact.
Linear encoder Digital device used to measure linear position and/or speed using a transducer
that reads a stationary linear scale indicating position. Speed can be mea-
sured as position divided by time lapse. Transducer technologies include
optical, magnetic, and capacitive.
Linear variable differential Analog position sensor consisting of primary coil opposite two secondary coils
transformer separated by a magnetic core. When primary coil is energized, induced volt-
age in secondary coil is function of core position. Can also be adapted to
measure force or pressure.
Manometer Analog device used to measure pressure of gas or liquid. It is based on com-
parison of known and unknown pressure forces. A barometer is a specific
type of manometer used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Ohmmeter Analog device that measures electrical resistance.
Photoelectric sensor array Digital sensor consisting of linear series of photoelectric switches. Array is de-
signed to indicate height or size of object interrupting some but not all of the
light beams.
Photoelectric switch Binary noncontact sensor (switch) consisting of emitter (light source) and re-
ceiver (photocell) triggered by interruption of light beam. Two common types
are: (1) transmitted type, in which object blocks light beam between emitter
and receiver; and (2) retroreflective type, in which emitter and receiver are
located in one device and beam is reflected off remote reflector except when
object breaks the reflected light beam.
Photometer Analog sensor that measures illumination and light intensity. Can be based on
various photodetector devices, including photodiodes, phototransistors, and
photoresistors.
Piezoelectric transducer Analog device based on piezoelectric effect of certain materials (e.g., quartz)
in which an electrical charge is produced when the material is deformed.
Charge can be measured and is proportional to deformation. Can be used to
measure force, pressure, and acceleration.
Potentiometer Analog position sensor consisting of resistor and contact slider. Position of
slider on resistor determines measured resistance. Available for both linear
and rotational (angular) measurements.

(continued)
Sec. 6.1 / Sensors 125

TABLE 6.2 (continued)

Measuring Device Description
Proximity switch Binary noncontact sensor is triggered when nearby object induces changes in
electromagnetic field. Can be based on any of several physical principles,
including inductance, capacitance, ultrasonics, and optics.
Radiation pyrometer Analog temperature-measuring device that senses electromagnetic radiation
in the visible and infrared range of spectrum.
Resistance-temperature Analog temperature-measuring device based on increase in electrical
detector resistance of a metallic material as temperature is increased.
Rotary encoder Digital device used to measure angular position and/or speed, using a transducer
that converts location on a circular scale into rotational position. Rotational
speed can be measured as position divided by time lapse. Transducer
technologies include optical, magnetic, and capacitive. The optical encoder
is described in more detail in Section 7.4.2 on numerical control positioning
systems.
Strain gage Widely used analog sensor to measure force, torque, or pressure. It is based
on change in electrical resistance resulting from strain of a conducting
material.
Tachometer Analog device consisting of DC generator that produces an electrical voltage
proportional to rotational speed.
Tactile sensor Measuring device that indicates physical contact between two objects. Can
be based on any of several physical devices such as electrical contact (for
conducting materials) and piezoelectric effect.
Thermistor Contraction of thermal and resistor. Analog temperature-measuring device
based on change in electrical resistance of a semiconductor material as
temperature is increased.
Thermocouple Analog temperature-measuring device based on thermoelectric effect, in which
the junction of two dissimilar metal wires emits a small voltage that is a func-
tion of the temperature of the junction. Common standard thermocouples
include chromel-alumel, iron-constantan, and chromel-constantan.
Ultrasonic range sensor Time lapse between emission and reflection (from object) of high-frequency
sound pulses is measured. Can be used to measure distance or simply to
indicate presence of object.

where C is the output value at a stimulus value of zero, and m is the constant of
proportionality between s and S. The constant m can be thought of as the sensitivity of
the sensor. It is a measure of how much the output or response of the sensor is affected
by the stimulus. For example, the sensitivity of a standard chromel/alumel thermocouple
generates 40.6 microvolts 1mV2 per degree Celsius (°C). Other transfer functions have
more complex mathematical forms, including differential equations that include time
dynamics, which means that there is a time delay between when the stimulus occurs and
when the output signal accurately indicates the value of the stimulus.
Before using any measuring device, the operator must calibrate it to determine
the transfer function, or the inverse of the transfer function, which converts the output
S into the value of the stimulus or measured variable s. The ease with which the calibra-
tion procedure can be accomplished is one criterion by which a measuring device can
be evaluated. A list of desirable features of sensors for process control is presented in
Table 6.3. Few sensors achieve perfect scores in all of these criteria, and the control sys-
tem engineer must decide which features are the most important in selecting among the
variety of available sensors and transducers for a given application.
126 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

TABLE 6.3 Desirable Features for Selecting Sensors Used in Automated Systems

Desirable Feature Definition and Comments

High accuracy The measurement contains small systematic errors about the
true value.
High precision The random variability or noise in the measured value is low.
Wide operating The sensor possesses high accuracy and precision over
range a wide range of values of the physical variable being
measured.
High speed of The device responds quickly to changes in the physical variable
response being measured. Ideally, the time lag would be zero.
Ease of calibration Calibration of the device is quick and easy.
Minimum drift Drift refers to the gradual loss in accuracy over time. High
drift requires frequent recalibration of the sensor.
High reliability The device is not subject to frequent malfunctions or failures
during service. It is capable of operating in the potentially
harsh environment of the manufacturing process where it
will be applied.
Low cost The cost to purchase (or fabricate) and install the device is
low relative to the value of the data provided by the sensor.

6.2 ACTUATORS

In industrial control systems, an actuator is a hardware device that converts a control-

ler command signal into a change in a physical parameter. The change in the physical
parameter is usually mechanical, such as a position or velocity change. An actuator is
a transducer, because it changes one type of physical quantity, such as electric current,
into another type of physical quantity, such as rotational speed of an electric motor. The
controller command signal is usually low level, and so an actuator may also require an
amplifier to strengthen the signal sufficiently to drive the actuator.
Most actuators can be classified into one of three categories, according to the type
of amplifier: (1) electric, (2) hydraulic, and (3) pneumatic. Electric actuators are most
common; they include electric motors of various kinds, solenoids, and electromechanical
relays. Electric actuators can be either linear (output is linear displacement) or rotational
(output is angular displacement). Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the
controller command signal. The available devices provide either linear or rotational mo-
tion. Hydraulic actuators are often specified when large forces are required. Pneumatic
actuators use compressed air (typically “shop air” in the factory) as the driving power.
Again, both linear and rotational pneumatic actuators are available. Because of the rela-
tively low air pressures involved, these actuators are usually limited to relatively low-force
applications compared with hydraulic actuators.
This section is organized into two topics: (1) electric motors, and (2) other types
of actuators, including some that are powered electrically. The coverage is not com-
prehensive. Its purpose is to provide an introductory treatment of the different types
of actuators available to implement automation and process control. More complete
coverage can be found in several of the references, including [2], [3], [11], [13], [15],
[16], [17], and [20].
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 127

6.2.1 Electric Motors

An electric motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. Most electric motors are
rotational. They are available in many different styles and sizes, one of which is depicted in
Figure 6.2(a). Their operation can be explained with reference to Figure 6.2(b). The motor
consists of two basic components, a stator and a rotor. The stator is the ring-shaped station-
ary component, and the rotor is the cylindrical part that rotates inside the stator. The rotor is
assembled around a shaft that is supported by bearings, and the shaft can be coupled to ma-
chinery components such as gears, pulleys, leadscrews, or spindles. Electric current supplied
to the motor generates a continuously switching magnetic field that causes the rotor to de-
velop torque and rotate in its attempt to align its poles with the opposite poles of the stator.
The details relating to type of current (alternating or direct), how the continuously switching
magnetic field is created, and other aspects of the motor’s construction give rise to a great
variety of electric motors. The simplest and most common classification is between direct
current (DC) motors and alternating current (AC) motors. Within each category, there are
several subcategories. Four types that are used in automation and industrial control are dis-
cussed here: (1) DC motors, (2) AC motors, (3) stepper motors, and (4) linear motors.

DC Motors. DC motors are powered by a constant current and voltage. The con-
tinuously switching magnetic field is achieved by means of a rotary switching device,
called a commutator, which rotates with the rotor and picks up current from a set of
carbon brushes that are components of the stator assembly. Its function is to continually
change the relative polarity between the rotor and the stator, so that the magnetic field
produces a torque to continuously turn the rotor. Use of a commutator is the traditional
construction of a DC motor. This is a disadvantage because it results in arcing, worn
brushes, and maintenance problems. A special type of DC motor avoids the use of the
commutator and brushes. Called a brushless DC motor, it uses solid-state circuitry to re-
place the brushes and commutator components. Elimination of these parts has the added
benefit of reducing the inertia of the rotor assembly, allowing higher speed operation.

Axis of stator field

Mounting Axis of rotor field

Motor plate
housing

N
Stator
Motor
Air gap
Shaft S
Rotor
N
Motor shaft
S

Power cable

(a) (b)

Figure 6.2 A rotary electric motor: (a) typical configuration and

(b) diagram showing its operation.
128 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

DC motors are widely used for two reasons. The first is the convenience of using
direct current as the power source. For example, the small electric motors in automo-
biles are DC because the car’s battery supplies direct current. The second reason for the
popularity of DC motors is that their torque–speed relationships are attractive in many
applications compared to AC motors.
DC servomotors are a common type of DC motor used in mechanized and automated
systems, and it will be used to represent this class of electric motors. The term servomotor
simply means that a feedback loop is used to regulate speed. In a DC servomotor, the sta-
tor typically consists of two permanent magnets on opposite sides of the rotor. The rotor,
called the armature in a DC motor, consists of copper wire windings around a ferrous metal
core. Input current is provided to the windings through the commutator and interacts with
the magnetic field of the stator to produce the torque that drives the rotor. The magnitude
of the rotor torque is a function of the current passing through the windings, and the rela-
tionship can be modeled by the following equation:
T = KtIa (6.4)
where T = motor torque, N-m; Ia = current flowing through the armature, A; and
Kt = the motor’s torque constant, N-m/A. When current is first applied to the motor,
torque is at its maximum value. This is called the stall torque, and the corresponding
current is also a maximum value. As the armature begins to rotate, both torque and
current decrease because rotating the armature in the magnetic field of the stator pro-
duces a voltage across the armature terminals, called the back-emf. In effect, the motor
acts like a generator, and the back-emf increases with rotational speed as follows:
Eb = Kvv (6.5)
where Eb = back@emf, V; v = angular velocity, rad/sec; and Kv = the voltage constant
of the motor, V/(rad/sec). The effect of the back-emf is to reduce the current flowing
through the armature windings. The angular velocity in rad/sec can be converted to the
more familiar rotational speed as follows:
60v
N = (6.6)
2p
where N = rotational speed, rev/min.
Given the resistance of the armature Ra and an input voltage Vin supplied to the
motor terminals, the starting armature current is given by the following:
Vin
Ia = (6.7)
Ra
This starting current produces a starting torque as given by Equation (6.4). But as the
armature begins to rotate, it generates the back-emf Eb, which reduces the available
voltage. Thus, the actual armature current depends on the rotational speed of the rotor,
Vin - Eb Vin - Kvv
Ia = = (6.8)
Ra Ra
where all of the terms are defined earlier. Combining Equations (6.4) and (6.8), the
torque produced by the DC servomotor at a speed v is

Vin - Kvv
T = Kt a b (6.9)
Ra
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 129

The mechanical power delivered by the motor is the product of torque and velocity,
as defined in the following equation:

P = Tv (6.10)

where P = power in N-m/sec (Watts); T = motor torque, N-m; and v = angular veloc-
ity, rad/sec. The corresponding horsepower is given by

Tv
HP = (6.11)
745.7

where the constant 745.7 is the conversion factor 745.7 W = 1hp.

The servomotor is connected either directly or through a gear reduction to a piece
of machinery. The machinery may be a fan, pump, spindle, table drive, or similar me-
chanical apparatus. The apparatus represents the load that is driven by the motor. The
load requires a certain torque to operate, and the torque is usually related to rotational
speed in some way. In general, the torque increases with speed. In the simplest case, the
relationship is proportional:

TL = KLv (6.12)

where TL = load torque, N-m; and KL = the constant of proportionality between torque
and angular velocity, N-m/(rad/sec). The functionality between KL and TL may be other
than proportional, such that KL itself depends on the angular velocity. For example, the
torque required to drive a fan increases approximately as the square of the rotational
speed, that is, TL ∝ v2.
The torque developed by the motor and the torque required by the load must be
balanced. That is, T = TL in steady-state operation and this torque is called the operat-
ing point. The motor torque relationship with angular velocity can be plotted as shown
in Figure 6.3, called the torque–speed curve. Also shown in the figure is the load torque
relationship. The intersection of the two plots is the operating point, which is defined by
the values of torque and angular velocity.

Torque T

Starting torque

Motor

Load
Operating point

No-load speed

Speed w

Figure 6.3 Torque–speed curve of a DC servo-

motor (idealized), and typical load torque rela-
tionship. The intersection of the two plots is the
operating point.
130 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

EXAMPLE 6.1 DC Servomotor Operation

A DC servomotor has a torque constant Kt = 0.095 N@m>A. Its voltage con-
stant is Kv = 0.11 V> 1rad>sec2. The armature resistance is Ra = 1.6 ohms.
A terminal voltage of 24 V is used to operate the motor. Determine (a) the
starting torque generated by the motor just as the voltage is first applied, (b)
the maximum speed at a torque of zero, and (c) the operating point of the
motor when it is connected to a load whose torque characteristic is given by
TL = KLv and KL = 0.007 N@m> 1rad>sec2. Express the rotational speed as
rev/min.
Solution: (a) At v = 0, the armature current is
Ia = Vin >Ra = 24>1.6 = 15 A.

The corresponding torque is therefore T = KtIa = 0.0951152 = 1.425 N@m

(b) The maximum speed is achieved when the back-emf Eb equals the terminal
voltage Vin.
Eb = Kvv = 0.11v = 24 V
v = 24>0.11 = 218.2 rad>sec
N = 601218.22 >2p = 2,084 rev , min

(c) The load torque is given by the equation TL = 0.007v

The motor torque equation is given by Equation (6.9). Using the given data,
T = 0.095124 - 0.11v2 >1.6 = 1.425 - 0.00653v
Setting T = TL and solving for v results in v = 105.3 rad>sec
Converting this to rotation speed, N = 601105.32 >2p = 1,006 rev>min

EXAMPLE 6.2 DC Servomotor Power

In the previous example, what is the power delivered by the motor at the oper-
ating point? Express the answer as (a) Watts and (b) horsepower.
Solution: At v = 105.3 rad>sec, and using the load torque equation,
TL = 0.0071105.32 = 0.737 N@m
(a) Power P = Tv = 0.7371105.32 = 776 W
(b) Horsepower HP = 77.6>745.7 = 0.104 hp

The preceding model of DC servomotor operation neglects certain losses and inef-
ficiencies that occur in these motors (similar losses occur in all electric motors). These
losses include brush contact losses at the commutator, armature losses, windage (air drag
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 131

losses at high rotational speeds of the rotor), and mechanical friction losses at the bear-
ings. The model also neglects the dynamics of motor operation. In fact, the inertial char-
acteristics of the motor itself and the load that is driven by it, as well as any transmission
mechanisms (e.g., gearbox), would play an important role in determining how the motor
operates as a function of time. Despite their limitations, the equations do illustrate one
of the significant advantages of a DC servomotor: its ability to deliver a very high torque
at a starting velocity of zero. In addition, it is a variable-speed motor, and its direction of
rotation can be readily reversed. These are important considerations in many automation
applications where the motor is called upon to frequently start and stop its rotation or to
reverse direction.

AC Motors. Although DC motors have several attractive features, they have two
important disadvantages: (1) the commutator and brushes used to conduct current from
the stator assembly to the rotor result in maintenance problems with these motors,1 and
(2) the most common electrical power source in industry is alternating current, not direct
current. In order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier must be added to con-
vert the alternating current to direct current. For these reasons, AC motors are widely
used in many industrial applications. They do not use brushes, and they are compatible
with the predominant type of electrical power.
Alternating current motors operate by generating a rotating magnetic field in the
stator, and the rotational speed of the rotor depends on the frequency of the input electri-
cal power. The rotor is forced to turn at a speed that depends on the rotating magnetic
field. AC motors can be classified into two broad categories: synchronous motors and
induction motors.
Synchronous motors operate by energizing the rotor with alternating current, which
generates a magnetic field in the gap separating the rotor and the stator. This magnetic
field creates a torque that turns the rotor at the same rotational speed as the magnetic
forces in the stator. The term synchronous derives from the fact that the rotor rotation
is synchronized with the AC frequency in steady-state operation. Synchronous motors
cannot start by themselves from zero speed; they require a device, sometimes called an
exciter, to initiate rotation of the rotor when power is first supplied to the motor. The ex-
citer, which may be an electric motor itself, accelerates the rotational speed of the rotor
so that it can be synchronized with that of the stator’s rotating magnetic field.
Induction motors are probably the most widely used motors in the world, due to
their relatively simple construction and low manufacturing cost. In the operation of this
motor type, a magnetic field is induced (hence the term induction) in the rotor from the
stator. Because of this feature, the rotor in most induction motors does not need electrical
current from an external power supply. Thus, no brushes or other means of connection
are required for the rotating component of an induction motor. Unlike synchronous mo-
tors, induction motors operate at speeds that are slower than the synchronous speed. The
steady-state rotational speed depends on the load that the motor is driving. In fact, if the
rotor speed were equal to the synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field, then no
induced voltage and no torque would be generated in the rotor. By the same reasoning,
when AC power is first applied to an induction motor, the induced magnetic field and
torque are maximum, so no exciter is needed to start the motor turning.

1
This disadvantage is eliminated by the use of brushless DC motors.
132 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

Both synchronous motors and induction motors operate at constant speeds. Most
of their applications are those in which running at a fixed speed is required. This is a
disadvantage in many automation applications because frequent speed changes are often
necessary with much starting and stopping. The speed issue is sometimes addressed by
using adjustable-frequency drives (called inverters) that control the cycle rate of the AC
power to the motor. Motor speed is proportional to frequency, so changing the frequency
changes the motor speed. Advances in solid-state electronics have also improved speed
control for AC motors, and they are now competitive in some applications traditionally
reserved for DC motors.

Stepper Motors. Also called step motors and stepping motors, this motor type
provides rotation in the form of discrete angular displacements, called step angles. Each
angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse. The total angular rotation is con-
trolled by the number of pulses received by the motor, and rotational speed is controlled
by the frequency of the pulses. The step angle is related to the number of steps for the
motor according to the relationship

360
a = (6.13)
ns

where a = the step angle, degrees, °; and ns = the number of steps for the stepper
motor, which must be an integer value. Typical values for the step angle in commercially
available stepper motors are 7.5°, 3.6°, and 1.8°, corresponding to 48, 100, and 200 steps
(pulses) per revolution of the motor. The total angle through which the motor rotates Am
is given by
Am = npa (6.14)
where Am is measured in degrees, °; np = the number of pulses received by the motor;
and a = the step angle. The angular velocity v (rad/sec) and speed of rotation N (rev/
min) are given by the expressions

2pfp
v = (6.15)
ns

60fp
N = (6.16)
ns
where fp = pulse frequency, pulses/sec or Hz; and ns = the number of steps in the motor,
steps/rev or pulses/rev.
The typical torque–speed relationships for a stepper motor are shown in Figure 6.4.
As in the DC servomotor, torque decreases with increased rotational speeds. And because
rotational speed is related to pulse frequency in the stepper motor, torque is lower at higher
pulse rates. As indicated in the figure, there are two operating modes, locked-step and
slewing. In the locked-step mode, each pulse received by the motor causes a discrete an-
gular step to be taken; the motor starts and stops (at least approximately) with each pulse.
In this mode the motor can be started and stopped, and its direction of rotation can be re-
versed. In the slewing mode, usually associated with higher speeds, the motor’s rotation is
more or less continuous and does not allow for stopping or reversing with each subsequent
step. Nevertheless, the rotor does respond to each individual pulse; that is, the relationship
between rotating speed and pulse frequency is retained in the slewing mode.
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 133

Torque T

Slewing
mode
Locked-step
mode

Speed w

Figure 6.4 Typical torque–speed curve

of a stepper motor.

Stepper motors are used in open-loop control systems for applications in which
torque and power requirements are low to modest. They are widely used in machine tools
and other production machines, industrial robots, x–y plotters, medical and scientific in-
struments, and computer peripherals. Probably the most common application is to drive
the hands of analog quartz watches.

Rotary-to-Linear Motion Conversion. The motor types discussed above all pro-
duce rotary motion and apply torque. Many actuator applications require linear motion
and the application of force. A rotating motor can be used in these applications by con-
verting its rotary motion into linear or translational motion. The following are some of
the common conversion mechanisms used for this purpose:

Leadscrews and ball screws. The motor shaft is connected to a leadscrew or ball
screw, which have helical threads throughout their lengths. A lead nut or ball nut is
threaded onto the screw and prevented from rotating when the screw rotates; thus,
the nut is moved linearly along the screw. Direction of linear motion depends on the
direction of rotation of the screw.
Pulley systems. The motor shaft is connected to the driver wheel in a pulley system,
around which a belt, chain, or other flexible material forms a loop with an idler
wheel. As the motor shaft rotates, the flexible material is pulled linearly between
the pulley wheels.
Rack and pinion. The motor shaft is connected to a pinion gear that is mated with
a rack, which is a straight gear with tooth spacings that match those of the gear. As
the gear is rotated, the rack is moved linearly.

These arrangements are depicted in Figure 6.5. Of the three categories, the use of
leadscrews and ball screws is most common in machine tools, industrial robots, and other
automation applications. A gear reduction box is often inserted between the motor shaft
and the screw to reduce speed and increase torque and precision. Ball screws are to lead-
screws as ball bearings are to conventional sliding bearings. The use of screws is discussed
in the context of numerical control positioning systems in Section 7.4. Pulley systems are
common in material transport equipment such as belt and chain conveyors and hoists.
134 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

Worktable
Motor
Leadscrew or
ball screw

Nut
(a)

Worktable
Belt

Driver wheel Idler wheel

(b)

Pinion gear

Rack

(c)

Figure 6.5 Mechanisms to convert rotary motion into linear motion:

(a) leadscrew or ball screw, (b) pulley system, and (c) rack and pinion.

Belt-driven pulley systems can also be used for positioning. Rack-and-pinion mechanisms
are found in gear systems, for example, rack-and-pinion steering in automobiles.

Linear Motors. A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly; it does
not require a rotary-to-linear conversion. Its operation is similar to that of rotary elec-
tric motors, except that the ring-shaped stator and cylindrical-shaped rotor are straight
rather than circular. The rotor, known as the forcer in linear motor terminology, consists
of wire windings encased in a non-conducting material such as epoxy, and the magnetic
field that drives the forcer consists of a series of magnets contained in a straight track,
which corresponds to the stator. Just as a rotary motor requires bearings to align the
rotor inside the stator, creating a small air gap between them, a linear motor requires
straight guideways that support the forcer and maintain a gap between it and the mag-
netic track. Linear encoders can be used to indicate the position and speed of the forcer
along the track, just as rotary encoders are used to determine angular position and speed
of a rotary motor.
Unlike a rotary motor, in which the rotor rotates inside a stationary stator, a linear
motor can be designed so that either the forcer or the track moves. The usual application in
positioning systems is for the forcer to move relative to a stationary track, because the mass
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 135

Ways Shaft Housing

v
Forcer Forcer

Track v
Cable
v

Cable

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.6 Three styles of linear motor: (a) flat, (b) U-channel, and
(c) cylindrical.

of the forcer is less than the mass of the track. The disadvantage of this arrangement is that
a flexible cable apparatus must be connected to the moving forcer. This flexible cable ap-
paratus is not required in linear motors that move the track relative to a fixed forcer.
Linear motors are available in three styles [13]: flat, U-channel, and cylindrical, pic-
tured in Figure 6.6. The flat style consists of a straight, flat track, along which the forcer
moves. The U-channel design has a track whose cross section consists of two parallel rails
connected at the base to form a “U.” The forcer moves inside the two rails and is sup-
ported mechanically by two straight ways at the top of the rails. In the cylindrical style,
the forcer is a round shaft that moves linearly inside a housing containing the magnets.
The housing serves the purpose of the track in this design.
Applications of linear motors include mechanical and electronic assembly, metrol-
ogy, and laser positioning. They are sometimes used as alternatives to rotary motors with
linear motion converters, where they often compare favorably in terms of accuracy, re-
peatability, acceleration, speed, and ease of installation [14]. One limitation is that they
should not be used where vertical lifting is required, because if power to the motor is lost,
gravity would cause any load that had been lifted to fall.

6.2.2 Other Types of Actuators

There are other types of electrical actuators in addition to motors. These include sole-
noids and relays, which are electromagnetic devices like electric motors, but they operate
differently. There are also actuators that operate using hydraulic and pneumatic power.

Electrical Actuators Other Than Motors. A solenoid consists of a movable

plunger inside a stationary wire coil, as pictured in Figure 6.7. When a current is ap-
plied to the coil, it acts as a magnet, drawing the plunger into the coil. When current is
switched off, a spring returns the plunger to its previous position. Linear solenoids of the
type described here are often used to open and close valves in fluid flow systems, such as
chemical processing equipment. In these applications, the solenoid provides a linear push
or pull action. Rotary solenoids are also available to provide rotary motion, usually over
a limited angular range (e.g., neutral position to between 25° and 90°).
An electromechanical relay is an on–off electrical switch consisting of two main com-
ponents, a stationary coil and a movable arm that can be made to open or close an electrical
contact by means of a magnetic field that is generated when current is passed through the
coil. The reason for using a relay is that it can be operated with relatively low current levels,
136 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

Spring (return)

Coil (not energized)

Length of travel Plunger

Figure 6.7 Solenoid.

but it opens and closes circuits that carry high currents and/or voltages. Thus, relays are a
safe way to remotely switch on and off equipment that requires high electrical power.

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators. These two categories of actuators are

powered by pressurized fluids. Oil is used in hydraulic systems, and compressed air is
used in pneumatic systems. The devices in both categories are similar in operation but
different in construction due to the differences in fluid properties between oil and air.
Some of the differences in properties, and their effects on the characteristics and applica-
tions of the two types of actuators, are listed in Table 6.4.
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators that provide either linear or rotary motion are
available. The cylinder, illustrated in Figure 6.8, is a common linear-motion device. The
cylinder is basically a tube, and a piston is forced to slide inside the cylinder due to fluid
pressure. Two types are shown in the figure: (a) single acting with spring return and (b)
double acting. Although these cylinders operate in a similar way for both types of fluid
power, it is more difficult to predict the speed and force characteristics of pneumatic cyl-
inders because of the compressibility of air in these devices. For hydraulic cylinders, the

TABLE 6.4 Comparison of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

System Characteristic Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

Pressurized fluid Oil (or water–oil emulsion) Compressed air
Compressibility Incompressible Compressible
Typical fluid pressure level 20 MPa (3,000 lb/in2) 0.7 MPa (100 lb/in2)
Forces applied by devices High Low
Actuation speeds of devices Low High
Speed control Accurate speed control Difficult to control accurately
Problem with fluid leaks Yes, potential safety hazard No problem when air leaks
Relative cost of devices High (factor of 5–10 times) Low
Automation applications Preferred when high forces Preferred when low cost and
and accurate control are high-speed actuation are
required required
Sec. 6.2 / Actuators 137

Piston rod Piston rod

Fluid port

Spring (return)

Piston Piston

Cylinder Cylinder

Fluid port Fluid port

(a) (b)

Figure 6.8 Cylinder and piston: (a) single acting

with spring return and (b) double acting.

fluid is incompressible, and the speed and force of the piston depend on the fluid flow
rate and pressure inside the cylinder, respectively, as given by the expressions
Q
v = (6.17)
A
F = pA (6.18)
where v = velocity of the piston, m/sec (in/sec); Q = volumetric flow rate, m3/sec (in3/
sec); A = area of the cylinder cross section, m2 (in2); F = applied force, N (lbf); and
p = fluid pressure, N>m2 or Pa 1lb>in2 2. It should be noted that in a double-acting cylin-
der, the area is different in the two directions due to the presence of the piston rod. When
the piston is retracted into the cylinder, the cross-sectional area of the piston rod must
be subtracted from the cylinder area. This means that the piston speed will be slightly
greater and the applied force will be slightly less when the piston is retracting (reverse
stroke) than when it is extending (forward stroke).
Fluid-powered rotary motors are also available to provide a continuous rotational
motion. Hydraulic motors are noted for developing high torques, and pneumatic mo-
tors can be used for high-speed applications. There are several different mechanisms by
which these motors operate, including the use of pistons, vanes, and turbine blades. The
performance characteristics of the air-driven rotary motors are more difficult to analyze,
just like the operation of the pneumatic cylinder. On the other hand, hydraulic motors
have well-behaved characteristics. In general, the rotation speed of a hydraulic motor is
directly proportional to the fluid flow rate, as defined in the equation
v = KQ (6.19)
where v = angular velocity, rad/sec; Q = volumetric fluid flow rate, m3 >sec 1in3 >sec2;
and K is a constant of proportionality with units of rad>m3 1rad>in3 2. Angular velocity
(rad/sec) can be converted to revolutions per minute (rev/min) by multiplying by 60>2p.
138 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

6.3 ANALOG–DIGITAL CONVERSIONS

Continuous analog signals from a process must be converted into digital values to be used by
the computer, and digital data generated by the computer must be converted to analog signals
to be used by analog actuators. The two conversion procedures are discussed in this section.

6.3.1 Analog-to-Digital Converters

The procedure for converting an analog signal from the process into digital form typically
consists of the following steps and hardware devices, as illustrated in Figure 6.9:

1. Sensor and transducer. This is the measuring device that generates the analog signal
(Section 6.1).
2. Signal conditioning. The continuous analog signal from the transducer may require
conditioning to render it into more suitable form. Common signal conditioning
steps include (1) filtering to remove random noise and (2) conversion from one
signal form to another, for example, converting a current into a voltage.
3. Multiplexer. The multiplexer is a switching device connected in series with each input
channel from the process; it is used to time-share the analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) among the input channels. The alternative is to have a separate ADC for
each input channel, which would be costly for a large application with many input
channels. Because the process variables need only be sampled periodically, using a
multiplexer provides a cost-effective alternative to dedicated ADCs for each channel.
4. Amplifier. Amplifiers are used to scale the incoming signal up or down to be com-
patible with the range of the analog-to-digital converter.
5. Analog-to-digital converter. As its name indicates, the function of the ADC is to
convert the incoming analog signal into its digital counterpart.

Consider the operation of the ADC, which is the heart of the conversion process.
Analog-to-digital conversion occurs in three steps: (1) sampling, (2) quantization, and (3)
encoding. Sampling consists of converting the continuous signal into a series of discrete
analog signals at periodic intervals, as shown in Figure 6.10. In quantization, each discrete
analog signal is assigned to one of a finite number of previously defined amplitude levels.
The amplitude levels are discrete values of voltage ranging over the full scale of the ADC.

Process
(1) Sensor and
transducer

(5) ADC
Digital (2) Signal
input to conditioning
computer
(4) Amplifier Other signals

(3) Multiplexer

Figure 6.9 Steps in analog-to-digital conversion of

continuous analog signals from process.
Sec. 6.3 / Analog–Digital Conversions 139

Analog signal
Variable

Discrete
sampled signal

Time

Figure 6.10 Analog signal converted into series of

discrete sampled data by analog-to-digital converter.

In the encoding step, the discrete amplitude levels obtained during quantization are con-
verted into digital code, representing the amplitude level as a sequence of binary digits.
In selecting an analog-to-digital converter for a given application, the following fac-
tors are relevant: (1) sampling rate, (2) conversion time, (3) resolution, and (4) conversion
method.
The sampling rate is the rate at which the continuous analog signals are sampled or
polled. A higher sampling rate means that the continuous waveform of the analog signal
can be more closely approximated. When the incoming signals are multiplexed, the maxi-
mum possible sampling rate for each signal is the maximum sampling rate of the ADC
divided by the number of channels that are processed through the multiplexer. For exam-
ple, if the maximum sampling rate of the ADC is 1,000 samples/sec, and there are 10 input
channels through the multiplexer, then the maximum sampling rate for each input line is
1,000>10 = 100 sample>sec. (This ignores time losses due to multiplexer switching.)
The maximum possible sampling rate of an ADC is limited by the ADC conver-
sion time. Conversion time of an ADC is the time interval between the application of
an incoming signal and the determination of the digital value by the quantization and
encoding steps of the conversion procedure. Conversion time depends on (1) the type of
conversion procedure used by the ADC and (2) the number of bits n used to define the
converted digital value. As n is increased, conversion time increases (bad news), but reso-
lution of the ADC improves (good news).
The resolution of an ADC is the precision with which the analog signal is evaluated.
Because the signal is represented in binary form, precision is determined by the number
of quantization levels, which in turn is determined by the bit capacity of the ADC and the
computer. The number of quantization levels is defined as
Nq = 2n (6.20)
where Nq = number of quantization levels; and n = number of bits. Resolution can be
defined in equation form as
L L
RADC = = n (6.21)
Nq - 1 2 - 1
where RADC = resolution of the ADC, also called the quantization-level spacing, which
is the length of each quantization level; L = full@scale range of the ADC, usually 0–10 V
(the incoming signal must typically be amplified, either up or down, to this range); and
Nq = the number of quantization levels, defined in Equation (6.20).
Quantization generates an error, because the quantized digital value is likely to
be different from the true value of the analog signal. The maximum possible error oc-
curs when the true value of the analog signal is on the borderline between two adjacent
140 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

quantization levels; in this case, the error is one-half the quantization-level spacing. By
this reasoning, the quantization error is defined
1
Quantization error = { RADC (6.22)
2
Various conversion methods are available by which to encode an analog signal into
its digital equivalent. The most commonly used technique, called the successive approxi-
mation method, is discussed here. In this method, a series of known trial voltages are
successively compared to the input signal whose value is unknown. The number of trial
voltages corresponds to the number of bits used to encode the signal. The first trial volt-
age is half the full-scale range of the ADC, and each successive trial voltage is half the
preceding value. Comparing the remainder of the input voltage with each trial voltage
yields a bit value of “1” if the input exceeds the trial value and “0” if the input is less than
the trial voltage. The successive bit values, multiplied by their corresponding trial voltage
values, provide the encoded value of the input signal.

EXAMPLE 6.3 Successive Approximation Method

Suppose the input signal is 6.8 V. Use the successive approximation method to
encode the signal for a 6-bit register for an ADC with a full-scale range of 10 V.
Solution: The encoding procedure for the input of 6.8 V is illustrated in Figure 6.11. In
the first trial, 6.8 V is compared with 5.0 V. Because 6.8 7 5.0, the first bit
value is 1. Comparing the remainder 16.8 - 5.02 = 1.8 V with the second trial
voltage of 2.5 V yields a 0, because 1.8 6 2.5. The third trial voltage = 1.25 V.
Because 1.8 7 1.25, the third bit value is 1. The rest of the 6 bits are evaluated
in the figure to yield an encoded value = 6.718 V.

Input
voltage
8
6.8 V
6

4
For six digit precision,
the resulting binary
2 1.8 V
digital value is 101011,
0.55 0.238 which is interpreted as:
1 × 5.0 V
0.312 0.156 0 × 2.5 V
0.625
1.25 1 × 1.25 V
0 × 0.625 V
2.5 V
1 × 0.312 V
1 × 0.156 V
Trial Total = 6.718 V
voltage 5V

Digital 1 0 1 0 1 1
output

Figure 6.11 Successive approximation method applied to

Example 6.3.
Sec. 6.3 / Analog–Digital Conversions 141

6.3.2 Digital-to-Analog Converters

The process performed by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is the reverse of the ADC
process. The DAC transforms the digital output of the computer into a continuous signal
to drive an analog actuator or other analog device. Digital-to-analog conversion consists
of two steps: (1) decoding, in which the digital output of the computer is converted into
a series of analog values at discrete moments in time, and (2) data holding, in which each
successive value is changed into a continuous signal (usually electrical voltage) used to
drive the analog actuator during the sampling interval.
Decoding is accomplished by transferring the digital value from the computer to a
binary register that controls a reference voltage source. Each successive bit in the regis-
ter controls half the voltage of the preceding bit, so that the level of the output voltage is
determined by the status of the bits in the register. Thus, the output voltage is given by
Eo = Eref 50.5B1 + 0.25B2 + 0.125B3 + g + 12n 2 -1 Bn 6 (6.23)
where Eo = output voltage of the decoding step, V; Eref = reference voltage, V;
B1, B2, p , Bn = status of successive bits in the register, 0 or 1; and n = number of bits
in the binary register.
The objective in the data holding step is to approximate the envelope formed by
the data series, as illustrated in Figure 6.12. Data holding devices are classified according
to the order of the extrapolation calculation used to determine the voltage output during
sampling intervals. The most common extrapolator is a zero-order hold, in which the out-
put voltage is a sequence of step signals, as in Figure 6.12(a). The voltage function during
the sampling interval is constant and can be expressed simply as
E1t2 = Eo (6.24)
where E1t2 = voltage as a function of time t during the sampling interval, V; and
Eo = voltage output from the decoding step, Equation (6.23).
The first-order data hold is less common than the zero-order hold, but it usually
approximates the envelope of the sampled data values more closely. With the first-order
hold, the voltage function E(t) during the sampling interval changes with a constant slope
determined by the two preceding Eo values. Expressing this mathematically,
E1t2 = Eo + at (6.25)

Voltage Ideal Zero-order Voltage First-order

envelope envelope envelope

0 0
Time Time
(a) (b)

Figure 6.12 Data holding step using (a) zero-order hold and
(b) first-order hold.
142 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

where a = rate of change of E(t); Eo = output voltage from Equation (6.24) at the start
of the sampling interval, V; and t = time, sec. The value of a is computed each sampling
interval as
Eo - Eo 1 -t2
a = (6.26)
t

where Eo = output voltage from Equation (6.23) at the start of the sampling interval,
V; t = time interval between sampling instants, sec; and Eo 1 -t2 = value of Eo from
Equation (6.23) from the preceding sampling instant (removed backward in time by t), V.
The result of the first-order hold is illustrated in Figure 6.12(b).

EXAMPLE 6.4 Zero-Order and First-Order Data Holds

A digital-to-analog converter uses a reference voltage of 100 V and has 6-bit
precision. In three successive sampling instants, 0.5 sec apart, the data con-
tained in the binary register are the following:

Instant Binary Data

1 101000
2 101010
3 101101

Determine (a) the decoder output values for the three sampling instants, (b)
the voltage signals between instants 2 and 3 for a zero-order hold, and (c) the
voltage signals between instants 2 and 3 for a first-order hold.
Solution: (a) The decoder output values for the three sampling instants are computed
according to Equation (6.23) as follows:

Instant 1, Eo = 10050.5112 + 0.25102 + 0.125112 + 0.0625102 + 0.03125102 + 0.0156251026

= 62.50 V
Instant 2, Eo = 10050.5112 + 0.25102 + 0.125112 + 0.0625102 + 0.03125112 + 0.0156251026
= 65.63 V
Instant 3, Eo = 10050.5112 + 0.25102 + 0.125112 + 0.0625112 + 0.03125102 + 0.0156251126
= 70.31 V

(b) The zero-order hold between sampling instants 2 and 3 is a constant volt-
age E1t2 = 65.63 V according to Equation (6.24).
(c) The first-order hold yields a steadily increasing voltage. The slope a is given
by Equation (6.26):

65.63 - 62.5
a = = 6.25
0.5
Sec. 6.4 / Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data 143

and from Equation (6.25), the voltage function between instants 2 and 3 is
E1t2 = 65.63 + 6.25t
These values and functions are plotted in Figure 6.13. Note that the first-order
hold more accurately anticipates the value of Eo at sampling instant 3 than
does the zero-order hold.

Voltage
70.31
70

65.63
65 First-order hold
62.50 Zero-order hold

60

Time

Figure 6.13 Solution to Example 6.4.

6.4 INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES FOR DISCRETE DATA

Discrete data can be processed by a digital computer without the kinds of conversion
procedures required for continuous analog signals. As indicated earlier, discrete data
divide into three categories: (a) binary data, (b) discrete data other than binary, and
(c) pulse data.

6.4.1 Contact Input/Output Interfaces

Contact interfaces are of two types, input and output. These interfaces read binary data
from the process into the computer and send binary signals from the computer to the pro-
cess, respectively. The terms input and output are relative to the computer.
A contact input interface is a device by which binary data are read into the com-
puter from some external source (e.g., a process). It consists of a series of simple con-
tacts that can be either closed or open (on or off) to indicate the status of binary devices
connected to the process such as limit switches (contact or no contact), valves (open or
closed), or motor pushbuttons (on or off). The computer periodically scans the actual
status of the contacts to update the values stored in memory.
The contact input interface can also be used to enter discrete data other than binary.
This type of data is generated by devices such as a photoelectric sensor array (Table 6.2)
144 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

and can be stored in a binary register consisting of multiple bits. The individual bit values
(0 or 1) can be entered through the contact input interface. In effect, a certain number of
contacts in the input interface are assigned to the binary register, the number of contacts
being equal to the number of bits in the register. The binary number can be converted to
a conventional base 10 number as needed in the application.
The contact output interface is a device that communicates on/off signals from the
computer to the process. The contact positions are set either on or off. These positions are
maintained until changed by the computer, perhaps in response to events in the process.
In computer process-control applications, hardware controlled by the contact output in-
terface include alarms, indicator lights (on control panels), solenoids, and constant-speed
motors. The computer controls the sequence of on/off activities in a work cycle through
this contact output interface.
The contact output interface can be used to transmit a discrete data value other
than binary by assigning an array of contacts in the interface for that purpose. The 0 and 1
values of the contacts in the array are evaluated as a group to determine the correspond-
ing discrete number. In effect, this procedure is the reverse of that used by the contact
input interface for discrete data other than binary.

6.4.2 Pulse Counters and Generators

Discrete data can also exist in the form of a series of pulses. Such data is generated by
digital transducers such as optical encoders. Pulse data are also used to control certain
devices such as stepper motors.
A pulse counter is a device that converts a series of pulses (pulse train, as shown
in Figure 5.1) into a digital value. The value is then entered into the computer through
its input channel. The most common type of pulse counter is one that counts electrical
pulses. It is constructed using sequential logic gates, called flip-flops, which are electronic
devices that possess memory capability and that can be used to store the results of the
counting procedure.
Pulse counters can be used for both counting and measurement applications. A
typical counting application might add up the number of packages moving past a photo-
electric sensor along a conveyor in a distribution center. A typical measurement applica-
tion might indicate the rotational speed of a shaft. One possible method to accomplish
the measurement is to connect the shaft to a rotary encoder (Table 6.2), which generates
a certain number of electrical pulses for each rotation. To determine rotational speed,
the pulse counter measures the number of pulses received during a certain time period
and divides this by the duration of the time period and by the number of pulses in each
revolution of the encoder. Counters are discussed in the context of digital control in
Section 9.1.2.
A pulse generator is a device that produces a series of electrical pulses whose
total number and frequency are determined and sent by the control computer. The total
number of pulses might be used to drive a stepper motor in a positioning system. The
frequency of the pulse train, or pulse rate, could be used to control the rotational speed
of a stepper motor. A pulse generator operates by repeatedly closing and opening an
electrical contact, thus producing a sequence of discrete electrical pulses. The ampli-
tude (voltage level) and frequency are designed to be compatible with the device being
controlled.
Review Questions 145

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[18] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_encoder
[19] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_encoder
[20] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_motor

REVIEW QUESTIONS

6.1 What is a sensor?

6.2 What is the difference between an analog sensor and a discrete sensor?
6.3 What is the difference between an active sensor and a passive sensor?
6.4 What is the transfer function of a sensor?
6.5 What is an actuator?
6.6 Nearly all actuators can be classified into one of three categories, according to type of drive
power. Name the three categories.
6.7 Name the two main components of an electric motor.
146 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

6.8 In a DC motor, what is a commutator?

6.9 What are the two important disadvantages of DC electric motors that make the AC motor
relatively attractive?
6.10 How is the operation of a stepper motor different from the operation of conventional DC
or AC motors?
6.11 What are three mechanical ways to convert a rotary motion into a linear motion?
6.12 What is a linear electric motor?
6.13 What is a solenoid?
6.14 What is the difference between a hydraulic actuator and a pneumatic actuator?
6.15 Briefly describe the three steps of the analog-to-digital conversion process?
6.16 What is the resolution of an analog-to-digital converter?
6.17 Briefly describe the two steps in the digital-to-analog conversion process?
6.18 What is the difference between a contact input interface and a contact output interface?
6.19 What is a pulse counter?
6.20 What is a pulse generator?

PROBLEMS

Answers to problems labeled (A) are listed in the appendix.

Sensors
6.1 (A) During calibration, an iron/constantan thermocouple emits a voltage of 1.02 mV at
20°C and 27.39 mv at 500°C. The reference temperature is to be set to emit a zero volt-
age at 0°C. Assume the transfer function is a linear relationship between 0°C and 500°C.
Determine (a) the transfer function of the thermocouple and (b) the temperature corre-
sponding to a voltage output of 24.0 mV.
6.2 A digital tachometer will be used to determine the surface speed of a rotating workpiece
in surface meters per sec. The tachometer is designed to read rotational speed in rev/sec,
but in this case the shaft of the tachometer is directly coupled to a wheel whose outside rim
is made of rubber. When the wheel rim is pressed against the surface of the rotating work-
piece, the tachometer should provide a direct reading of surface speed in m/sec. What is
the diameter of the wheel rim that will provide a direct reading of surface speed in m/sec?
6.3 A rotary encoder is connected directly to the spindle of a machine tool to measure its ro-
tational speed. The encoder generates 72 pulses for each revolution of the spindle. In one
reading, the encoder generated 237 pulses in a period of 0.25 sec. What was the rotational
speed of the spindle in (a) rev/min and (b) rad/sec?
6.4 A digital flow meter operates by emitting a pulse for each unit volume of fluid flowing
through it. The particular flow meter of interest has a unit volume of 50 cm3 per pulse. In a
certain process control application, the flow meter emitted 3,688 pulses during a period of
2.5 min. Determine (a) the total volume of fluid that flowed through the meter and (b) the
flow rate of fluid flow. (c) What is the pulse frequency (Hz) corresponding to a flow rate of
60,000 cm3/min?
6.5 A tool-chip thermocouple is used to measure cutting temperature in a turning operation.
The two dissimilar metals in a tool-chip thermocouple are the tool material and the work-
piece metal. During the turning operation, the chip from the work metal forms a junction
with the rake face of the tool to create the thermocouple at exactly the location where it is
desired to measure temperature: the interface between the tool and the chip. A separate
Problems 147

calibration procedure must be performed for each combination of tool material and work
metal. In the combination of interest here, the calibration curve (inverse transfer func-
tion) for a particular grade of cemented carbide tool when used to turn C1040 steel is the
following: T = 48.94Etc - 53, where T = temperature, °C; and Etc = the emf output of
the thermocouple, mV. (a) Revise the temperature equation so that it is in the form of
a transfer function similar to that given in Equation (6.3). What is the sensitivity of this
tool-chip thermocouple? (b) During a straight turning operation, the emf output of the
thermocouple was 9.25 mV. What was the corresponding cutting temperature?

Actuators

6.6 (A) A DC servomotor has a torque constant of 0.075 N-m/A and a voltage constant of
0.12 V/(rad/sec). The armature resistance is 2.5 Ω. A terminal voltage of 24 V is used to
operate the motor. Determine (a) the starting torque generated by the motor just as the
voltage is applied, (b) the maximum speed at a torque of zero, and (c) the operating point
of the motor when it is connected to a load whose torque characteristic is proportional to
speed with a constant of proportionality = 0.0125 N@m>(rad>sec).
6.7 In the previous problem, what is the power delivered by the motor at the operating point in
units of (a) Watts and (b) horsepower?
6.8 A DC servomotor is used to actuate one of the axes of an x–y positioner. The motor has
a torque constant of 10.0 in-lb/A and a voltage constant of 12.0 V/(1,000 rev/min). The
armature resistance is 3.0 Ω. At a given moment, the positioning table is not moving and
a voltage of 48 V is applied to the motor terminals. Determine the torque (a) immediately
after the voltage is applied and (b) at a rotational speed of 500 rev/min. (c) What is the
maximum theoretical speed of the motor?
6.9 A DC servomotor generates 50 W of mechanical power in an application in which the
constant of proportionality between the load and angular velocity = 0.022 N@m>(rad>sec).
The motor has a torque constant of 0.10 N-m/A and a voltage constant of 0.15 V/(rad/sec).
A voltage of 36 V is applied to the motor terminals. Determine the armature resistance of
the motor.
6.10 A voltage of 24 V is applied to a DC motor whose torque constant = 0.115 N@m>A and
voltage constant = 0.097 V>(rad>sec). Armature resistance = 1.9 Ω. The motor is di-
rectly coupled to a blower shaft for an industrial process. (a) What is the stall torque of
the motor? (b) Determine the operating point of the motor if the torque–speed charac-
teristic of the blower is given by the following equation: TL = KL1v + KL2v2, where
TL = load torque, N-m; v = angular velocity, rad/sec; KL1 = 0.005 N@m>(rad>sec), and
KL2 = 0.00033 N@m>(rad>sec)2. (c) What horsepower is being generated by the motor at
the operating point?
6.11 The input voltage to a DC motor is 12 V. The motor rotates at 2,200 rev/min at no load
(maximum speed). Stall torque is 0.44 N-m, and the corresponding current is 9.0 A.
Operating at 1,600 rev/min, the torque is 0.12 N-m, and the current is 2.7 A. Based on these
values, determine (a) the torque constant, (b) voltage constant, and (c) armature resistance
of the motor. (d) How much current does the motor draw operating at 1,600 rev/min?
6.12 The step angle of a stepper motor = 1.8°. The motor shaft is to rotate through 15 complete
revolutions at an angular velocity of 7.5 rad/sec. Determine (a) the required number of
pulses and (b) the pulse frequency to achieve the specified rotation. (c) How much time is
required to complete the 15 revolutions?
6.13 (A) A stepper motor has a step angle = 3.6°. (a) How many pulses are required for the
motor to rotate through five complete revolutions? (b) What pulse frequency is required
for the motor to rotate at a speed of 180 rev/min?
148 Chap. 6 / Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control

6.14 The shaft of a stepper motor is directly connected to a leadscrew that drives a worktable
in an x–y positioning system. The motor has a step angle = 5°. The pitch of the leadscrew
is 6 mm, which means that the worktable moves in the direction of the leadscrew axis by
a distance of 6 mm for each complete revolution of the screw. It is desired to move the
worktable a distance of 275 mm at a top speed of 20 mm/sec. Determine (a) the number of
pulses and (b) the pulse frequency required to achieve this movement. (c) How much time
is required to move the table the desired distance at the desired speed, assuming there are
no delays due to inertia?
6.15 A single-acting hydraulic cylinder with spring return has an inside diameter of 95 mm. Its
application is to push pallets off of a conveyor into a storage area. The hydraulic power
source can generate up to 2.5 MPa of pressure at a flow rate of 100,000 mm3/sec to drive
the piston. Determine (a) the maximum possible velocity of the piston and (b) the maxi-
mum force that can be applied by the apparatus. (c) Is this a good application for a hydrau-
lic cylinder, or would a pneumatic cylinder be better?
6.16 (A) A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has an inside diameter of 80 mm. The piston rod
has a diameter of 15 mm. The hydraulic power source can generate up to 4.0 MPa of pres-
sure at a flow rate of 125,000 mm3/sec to drive the piston. (a) What are the maximum
possible velocity of the piston and the maximum force that can be applied in the forward
stroke? (b) What are the maximum possible velocity of the piston and the maximum force
that can be applied in the reverse stroke?
6.17 A double-acting hydraulic cylinder is used to actuate a linear joint of an industrial robot.
The inside diameter of the cylinder is 3.5 in. The piston rod has a diameter of 0.5 in. The hy-
draulic power source can generate up to 500 lb/in2 of pressure at a flow rate of 1,200 in3/min
to drive the piston. (a) Determine the maximum velocity of the piston and the maximum
force that can be applied in the forward stroke. (b) Determine the maximum velocity of the
piston and the maximum force that can be applied in the reverse stroke.

Analog–Digital Conversion

6.18 (A) A continuous voltage signal is to be converted into its digital counterpart using an
analog-to-digital converter. The maximum voltage range is {30 V. The ADC has a 12-bit
capacity. Determine (a) number of quantization levels, (b) resolution, and (c) the quanti-
zation error for this ADC.
6.19 A voltage signal with a range of 0 to 115 V is to be converted by means of an ADC.
Determine the minimum number of bits required to obtain a quantization error of
(a) {5 V maximum, (b) {1 V maximum, (c) { 0.1 V maximum.
6.20 A digital-to-analog converter uses a reference voltage of 120 V DC and has eight
binary digit precision. In one of the sampling instants, the data contained in the
binary register = 01010101. If a zero-order hold is used to generate the output signal,
determine the voltage level of that signal.
6.21 A DAC uses a reference voltage of 80 V and has 6-bit precision. In four successive sam-
pling periods, each 1 sec long, the binary data contained in the output register were 100000,
011111, 011101, and 011010. Determine the equation for the voltage as a function of time
between sampling instants 3 and 4 using (a) a zero-order hold and (b) a first-order hold.
6.22 In the previous problem, suppose that a second-order hold were to be used to gen-
erate the output signal. The equation for the second-order hold is the following:
E(t) = E0 + at + bt 2, where E0 = starting voltage at the beginning of the time interval.
(a) For the binary data given in the previous problem, determine the values of a and b
that would be used in the equation for the time interval between sampling instants 3 and 4.
(b) Compare the first-order and second-order holds in anticipating the voltage at the 4th
instant.