12

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents a selection of varied related literature, readings and studies

that further discusses viewpoints from other authors and publishing institutions that are

utilized as the foundation of knowledge of this study.

Definitions of Code-Switching

In societies characterized by the coexistence of two or more languages, the

phenomenon of code-switching takes center stage. Code-switching involves the strategic

alternation between languages within a single conversation, offering bilinguals a

powerful tool to optimize communication (Grosjean, 2020). Jamshidi and Navehebraim

(2013) defined code-switching as the interchange of two languages within a single

speech, phrase, or sentence. This process capitalizes on the linguistic repertoire of

bilingual speakers, enhancing communicative efficiency.

Bullock and Toribio (2009) emphasized that code-switching fulfills diverse

functions, including the expression of ethnic identity, bridging linguistic gaps, and

achieving specific communicative objectives. Swan (2016) takes a more precise stance,

characterizing code-switching as the manipulation of lexical or morphological elements.

This might entail replacing a noun phrase in the first language (L1) with its counterpart

from the second language (L2) within a sentence, or combining morphemes from both

languages. Notably, Swan distinguishes code-switching from borrowing, where L1 words

are integrated into the L2 lexicon, losing their foreignness.

 According to Kumar (2021) In code-switching, two or more languages are used in

a conversation without changing topics. The studies investigate only about the code-

switching between two languages, the native language and the target language. The

phenomenon of bilingualism occurs when two groups of people using different and more

importantly; the perceptions of language teachers towards code-switching in the

classroom in the process of teaching lesson delivery.

(Bhatti, Shamsudin, & Said, 2018) English, as a global language, provides a

platform for communication for people who speak the language. Due to the growing

trend in linguistic globalisation, bilingualism has become a very common phenomenon in

today's world. In bilingual communities all over the world, speakers frequently switch

from one language to another to meet communication demands. This phenomenon of

alternation between languages is known as code-switching. The present study aims to

focus on the teachers' use of code-switching as a language teaching tool in EFL

classrooms in Pakistan. It also deals with the functions and types of code-switching in

EFL classrooms.

“Code switching” is a language behavior demonstrated by people who acquire

two languages. Considered as a form of “bilingualism”, researchers proved that code

switching may improve understanding of a concept. Experts and researchers in the field

avers that code switching is unnecessarily a hindrance or deficiency in acquiring or using

a language. Bilingual speakers alternate the codes for numerous reasons during face-to-

face conversation. Thus, this descriptive quantitative study explores the factors, forms,

and functions of senior high school students’ code-switching behavior in academic or

classroom interaction (Roxas, 2019)

Functions of Code Switching

 Code switching, a linguistic phenomenon observed in stable bilingual

communities, is often misunderstood as a sign of confusion or incompetence, even in

young children (Cook, 2003). In classrooms with bilingual or culturally diverse students,

code switching is a common occurrence, as highlighted by Hammink (2000).

There are several reasons behind code switching. Firstly, a speaker might resort to the

second language when they struggle to convey their thoughts clearly in their native

tongue, especially when translating for someone with limited English proficiency.

This can also serve to illustrate the misunderstanding of the other person's comprehension

(Cook, 2003), particularly during times of agitation, exhaustion, or preoccupation (Soho,

2000). When code switching is used to overcome language challenges, it might be

perceived as interference (Skiba, 1997). However, when it aids understanding between

individuals who are not equally fluent in both languages, this form of code switching can

be seen as a strength.

Wardhaugh in his book described two functions of code switching there are

situational and metaphorical (Wardhaugh, 2006). Situational code switching occurs when

somebody switch his language based on his situation, he speaks one language in one

situation and another in a different one, without change the topic. But when somebody

changes the topic of speaking it is called by metaphorical, moreover some topics may be

spoken in either language. On the contrary, these markers foster pride and solidarity

among group members (Novak, 2000).

For instance, the "n-word" carries vastly different connotations when used by non-

African Americans versus African Americans, signifying inclusion or exclusion.

It can also be employed to signal that the following sentence should be interpreted

differently due to a change in emphasis (Chan, 2004). Moreover, code switching aids in
avoiding misunderstandings by employing a word better articulated in the other language

(Sert, 2005).

Ultimately, code switching is employed to clarify, emphasize, distinguish facts

from emotions, and create a dramatic effect. Different languages encapsulate distinct

nuances (Cook, 2003), enabling multilingual speakers to communicate their ideas more

effectively. This phenomenon can even generate humor through wordplay or highlighting

opposing notions from different languages (Cook, 2003), enhancing communication

richness and depth.

Types of Code-switching

Scholars frequently divide code-switching into two categories: intersentential and

intrasentential, with a third category, tag switches, infrequently identified (Mahootian,

2006). Intersentential switches occur when different languages are used across distinct

sentences (Kebeya, 2013). Intrasentential switches are more intricate, involving language

shifts within a single sentence, constituent, or even a solitary word, and these have

captured the attention of researchers most significantly (Poplack, 2001). Poplack

(2001) asserts that

scholars universally agree on the grammatical constraints associated with intrasentential

switches. However, Bentahila and Davies (1994) point out that despite claims of

universal switching constraints, there exists research that casts doubt on this assertion.

Within linguistics, a "tag" refers to a question structure typically comprising an

auxiliary verb with an added pronoun at the end of a sentence. The intonation of a tag

determines whether it functions as an inquiry or a statement (Crystal, 2008). Crystal

(2008) notes the acceptability of tag statements within various grammatical frameworks.

Tag switches transpire when tag forms from one language infiltrate a phrase from another

language (Mahootian, 2006).

Examining the distribution of code-switching instances, Cook (2008) presents

findings from a study indicating that 84% of switches involve single words, 10% involve

phrases, and 6% constitute entire clauses. Nevertheless, these percentages exhibit

considerable variability influenced by factors such as the languages involved, the

generation, and the age of the bilingual speaker.

Code-Switching in the Philippines

The usage of code switching by Filipinos emphasizes their bilingualism. This

constant switching of linguistic codes is the result of the majority of Filipinos' openness

to the use of the English language and their loyalty to the Filipino language.

Code switching research continues to provide a rich setting for investigation. This

is due to the fact that code switching has permeated every aspect of society, particularly
the media, social media, business, and academics. Outside of the classroom, code

switching is extensively utilized for a number of purposes. Tajolosa (2013), for example,

focused on code switching study and how it works for specific product endorsements.

Her research uncovered five roles, including: a. linguistic resource, b. economy of

language, c. d. euphemism communication and display of numerous identities for stylistic

reasons.

This is also not a new practice in the business world. Pascasio was able to learn

about how code switching functioned as a linguistic function during speech by

interviewing businesspeople about it. (For instance, utilizing direct quote marks,

directing a message to a specific recipient, asking questions rather than offering answers,

and exhibiting civility, to name a few examples) (Pascasio 1978). This indicates how

common language switching has become, and how its use in academic settings has

become even more unavoidable.

The introduction of Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual Education, often

known as MTB-MLE, is another linguistic development that fundamentally altered

the academic environment in the Philippines.

For years, scholars and academics have focused their attention on the English and

Filipino languages; the two standardized languages have been taught interchangeably in

Philippine classrooms for a very long time. Today, however, officials at the Department

of Education have opted to employ pupils' mother languages as their principal language

of teaching from preparatory school through the first three levels of primary school.
 Furthermore, the same institution recently ordered that teachers in Grades 1-3

teach a separate subject called Mother-Tongue. This decision was taken in light of

research on the benefits of utilizing one's mother language while educating students,

particularly in the early stages. The revelation that employing students' native languages

may boost engagement and improve their chances of learning the second or target

language without trouble was the fundamental argument for the usage of MTB-MLE

(Walter & Decker 2011

On Classroom Code-Switching

In the classroom, code switching may serve very particular purposes or functions. Code-

switching is a phenomenon that occurs when multiple languages are used in the learning

process to serve linguistic functions and ensure that students understand instructions and

content (Lee, 2016). Code-switching, according to Bashir and Naveed (2015), can be

used for a variety of purposes, including content distribution, disciplinary management,

sense of humor, and tone switching. It may be used in bilingual communities to improve

the effectiveness and meaning of communication, particularly in second or foreign

language classes. Linguists have emphasized that switching between languages is an

interactional choice offered to bilingual members of a language system to easily

communicate thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others.

Al-Qaysi and Al-Emran (2017) stated that code-switching can be a motivating and

effective educational approach that can be used in the field of education. Ibrahim et al.

(2013) stated that a code-switching is a communicative approach that bilinguals may use

successfully to reveal socially influenced connotations and grammatical patterns of one or

more languages. They went on to say that English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers

practice code-switching in the classroom setting for pedagogical purposes.

 Lee (2016), also stated that code-switching is to help learn languages depending on

the requirements of the learners. According to Mochacha and Lwangale (2020), it helps

learners accomplish a range of purposes, such as improving strategies and techniques to

make tasks more understandable. Ataş and Sağın-Şimşek (2021) indicated that code-

switching is for improving communication, explaining content, and managing classrooms.

Bhatti et al. (2018) studied EFL teachers' use of code-switching as a language

teaching tool and found that teachers used code-switching to follow rules, translate

unfamiliar words, and incorporate project delivery among students in the classrooms.

Altun (2019) found that teachers are resistant to using code- switching in their classrooms

to keep students from becoming reliant on the first language (L1). Besides, according to

Horasan (2014), code-switching was used primarily for meta-language when discussing

grammar or language tasks by students and teachers. It was also a tool that promoted

learning at the beginner level and could be used to capture students' attention, but it

should be discontinued as proficiency levels rise.

According to Meutia (2021), code-switching is a "natural phenomenon in (EFL)

classrooms" that is employed for a variety of purposes such as explaining grammar,

managing the class, facilitating comprehension, translating unknown words, clarifying

key teaching points, giving instructions, and displaying effective expressions.

 Ijudin et al. (2021), who studied the role of code-switching in EFL classrooms,

concluded that code-switching, as a form of multilingualism, is required and unavoidable

in language classrooms. Lee (2016) also studied EFL School teachers’ attitudes toward

code-switching types and functions and revealed that code-switching is preferred by the

majority of participants as a method of assisting students in learning English.

Furthermore, Puspawati (2018) investigated teachers' opinions toward code-

switching use and function in the EFL classroom. The findings revealed that teachers

were aware of the importance of code-switching in assisting students with low L2

proficiency to understand L2 in the classroom. Furthermore, knowledge construction and

the transmission, class management, and the development of interpersonal relationships

with students were all code-switching functions performed by teachers.

Moreover, Mochacha and Lwangale (2020) investigated the impact of code-

switching on secondary school students' mastery of English-speaking skills. They

concluded that because students' speaking skills are still developing, codeswitching

improves communication skills and gives those who are unable to express themselves in a

single language a choice to understand. Fachriyah (2017) investigated code-switching

functions in an English language classroom as well. She concluded that code-switching

was an effective tool for facilitating interactions between teachers and students while

teaching L2. In her study, she specified 14 code-switching functions: “clarification,

reiteration or repetition, explanation, asking, translation, checking for understanding,

emphasizing a language element, making inferences, developing vocabulary, class

discussions of student tasks, giving feedback, aiding memorization, class management,

and entertainment and general communications”.

On Class Recitation

Beyond its linguistic nuances, code-switching holds a positive influence on

enhancing learners' confidence and active participation within English classes. This

influence is often amplified by the role of educators in fostering students' motivation to

engage in discussions and recitations. Notably, Olivera's study (2021) uncovered that

encouraging the use of vernacular languages encourages greater interaction among peers

during group activities.

Evidently, code-switching contributes to heightened class participation Ibrahim et

al. (2013), stated that a code-switching is a communicative approach that bilinguals may

use successfully to reveal socially influenced connotations and grammatical patterns of

one or more languages. They went on to say that English as a foreign language (EFL)

teachers practice code-switching in the classroom setting for pedagogical purposes. A

similar viewpoint is expressed Willis (2021), believes that using one's mother tongue has

a positive and important effect on improving the target language. As a result, code-

switching has emerged as a key research subject in the area of EFL classrooms.

In addition to its pedagogical role in teaching and learning, code-switching

notably influences the overall classroom ambiance, particularly evident in graded

recitations. The classroom setting reveals instances where both teachers and students

engage in code-switching to motivate a reciting student. This practice appears to draw

upon the concept of "we-code" among students, creating an environment akin to

interactions among friends. Consequently, code-switching during graded recitation fosters

a comfortable and casual atmosphere, lightening the mood and alleviating tension within

the class.
 In essence, the utilization of code-switching not only enriches the learning

experience but also contributes to the modification of classroom dynamics. By

encouraging students to leverage their linguistic repertoire and engage in their

preferredlanguages,educatorsfacilitateamoreinclusiveandinteractivelearning environment.

This, in turn, enhances students' self-assurance, participation, and overall sense of

belonging within the classroom community.

On Class Demonstration

In the context of higher education institutions, classroom communication

predominantly takes the form of oral presentations, involving interactions among peers or

between lecturers and students. Lecturers commonly rely on oral presentations to deliver

their lessons, and students are often required to present their work as part of their

assessments. During these oral presentations and class demonstrations, students

occasionally switch languages to communicate information about their assignments and

projects. Past research, such as Maftoon and Amjadiparvar (2018) indicate, this

alternation is considered predetermined result of mastering different language varieties

and has always been seen in multilingual communities.

According to Meutia (2021), code-switching is a "natural phenomenon in (EFL)

classrooms" that is employed for a variety of purposes such as explaining grammar,

managing the class, facilitating comprehension, translating unknown words, clarifying

key teaching points, giving instructions, and displaying effective expressions.

 In the Philippines, code-switching remains prevalent in higher education, even

within English language classrooms. Notably, code-switching is frequently observed in

oral presentations by students pursuing English majors. This practice tends to surface

when students face challenges communicating in English or when they seek to ensure

comprehension among their audience. Additionally, students turn to code-switching when

they aim to convey fresh ideas more effectively and when they desire a heightened sense

of ease in their communication. Yana and Nugraha (2019) elaborate on the advantages of

code- switching in the English classroom. They highlight benefits such as facilitating

easier comprehension of materials, vocabulary expansion, accelerated English language

learning, comprehensive understanding of English sentences, capturing the essence of

learning materials, eliminating confusion, and fostering comfort and confidence in the

process of learning English.

Subon's study (2021) adds to this understanding by showcasing students' positive

perceptions of code-switching during class demonstrations. A majority of participants

agreed that code-switching aids in conveying new words effortlessly, instills comfort and

confidence, offers practice in the second language, enhances comprehension of the

content being presented, refines communication skills, and contributes to language

development in the context of oral presentations. Moreover, participants strongly agreed

that code-switching empowers them to express ideas that may elude them in another

language and is often resorted to when the English word is unfamiliar.

In essence, code-switching is deeply intertwined with the higher education

landscape, serving as a natural and strategic tool for effective communication and
learning. Its advantages, including improved comprehension, enhanced vocabulary, and

increased comfort, resonate among students and educators alike, ultimately enriching the

educational experience within bilingual classrooms.

On Asking questions

Questioning stands as a pivotal element in the journey of learning, aiding students

in navigating the fusion of prior knowledge with new information, ultimately forming

coherent ideas. The questions students pose serve as significant markers of meaningful

learning and motivation, offering valuable insights into their thought processes,

conceptual comprehension, alternative frameworks, uncertainties, reasoning, and

knowledge gaps (Almeida, 2011).

However, there are instances where students encounter difficulties in formulating

questions. Especially for learners in the process of acquiring English, grappling with

sentence structure and grammatical organization can be daunting. Their struggle to

express themselves adequately due to limited vocabulary further compounds the

challenge. The fear of committing errors and facing ridicule from peers or criticism from

instructors often discourages students from posing questions (Hieu, 2011).

In response, students often employ a pragmatic strategy to overcome these barriers

– code-switching or alternating between languages. This approach

becomesparticularlyprominentwhenstudentsfinditchallengingtoconstruct questions in

English, prompting them to switch to their native language. The study conducted by

Johansson (2013) sheds lighten this practice. Interestingly, it reveals

that even when students opt to ask questions in their native language, a significant portion

expresses a preference for the teacher's response to be primarily in English, supplemented

by their native language or a combination of both languages. Only a minority indicates a

desire for responses solely in English. Evidently, code-switching emerges as a power

fultool aiding students in overcoming linguistic hurdles when posing questions. It is

noteworthy that the inclination towards English-dominant responses despite posing

questions in the native language underscores the importance of English proficiency in

educational contexts. In essence, code-switching not only serves as a linguistic bridge but

also reflects students' recognition of the value of English a same medium of instruction

and communication in the learning process.

 27
International Review of Related Literature Code-switching

There are three (3) distinct forms of code-switching, which are extra-sentential,

intra-sentential, and inter-sentential. Inter-sentential code-switching, which

occurs at the beginning or end of sentences, especially when words and phrases

are involved, is a common practice among fluent bilingual speakers. The

inadvertent shifting of a sentence's structure in the middle of a sentence without

any hesitations, pauses, or breaks to signify a change in the clause or word level

is known as intra-sentential code-switching. Extra-sentential, also known as tag

swapping, can involve a single word or tag phrase that is inserted from one

language into another (Esen, 2022).

Code-switching as the act of bilingual or varietal speakers alternating between

one or more languages or dialects throughout a discussion (Lanwermeyer,

2016).

The fact that code-switching occurs in multilingual and bilingual cultures is widely

acknowledged by linguists worldwide (Muhammad Malek, 2015), particularly in

Asian countries where English is not the primary language of communication.

Students Code-switching in the Classroom

While both parties would prefer to complete and check the task in English, the

majority of the time, both the teachers and the students used code-switching for

meta-language (to discuss the task, comment, evaluate, and for grammar

explanation). Teachers feel that they should not and should not code-switch for

grammar teachers, but the results showed that both the teachers and the

students did so. It makes sense that teachers would not want to appear

traditional in their teaching methods (Horasan, 2014).

 28
The study of teacher reflections revealed that, in cases where the instructional

emphasis was more on the subject matter than language, teachers regularly

employed code-switching to help students understand newly introduced

concepts. Interpersonal and affective contacts with pupils as well as behavior

management were also part of it. Because the teachers intentionally integrated

the two languages in order to improve communication and student involvement,

their code-switching often served as a form of translanguaging (Cahyani, Courcy,

& Barnett, 2018). For this reason, the teachers' actions often constituted

translanguaging.

College Students English Language Fluency

In the literature section of English classes, instructors employ a variety of literary

texts as a jumping off point for teaching language. Since there are many different

civilizations represented in literature, certain works are translated into other

languages. Since English is the universal language, it is employed for the

translation of these works. A selection of carefully picked books are taught in

English classes. However, because learning a new language is difficult for them,

low proficiency English speakers typically view these literary pieces as useless

(Muhammad Malek, 2015)

 29
Local Review of Related Literature Code-switching

Since the signing of a republic act in the Philippines that supports contextualizing

educational materials and using the student's native tongue, code-switching has

become commonplace. Republic Act 10533 is an act that aims to improve the

Philippine education system by strengthening the curriculum, lengthening the

basic education years, allocating funds for the program, and accomplishing other

goals. The Enhanced Basic Education Program, section 4, specifies that basic

education must be provided in languages that the students can understand, as

language interpretation is crucial in forming the formative years of the students'

development (OG, 2013). As a result, instruction, teaching materials, and

assessments for kindergarten and grades 1, 2, and 3 must be provided in the

learners' regional or mother tongue. Additionally, starting in grades 4 and 6, a

mother tongue language transition program is used to progressively introduce

Filipino and English until the two are the main languages used for secondary

instruction.

Code-switching piques students' curiosity. By using codes-witching as a tactic,

this would challenge the conventional wisdom that the teacher is the only source

of knowledge and facilitate students' absorption of literary content. The spark of

learners' curiosity that results from facilitation encourages active communication

between the teacher and the student (Ramos, 2022).

Code-switching is a popular language activity used by English teachers for a

variety of pedagogical goals. Teachers also employ code-switching as an

educational method. (Mangila, 2018).

 30
Code-switching serves a variety of pedagogical purposes, including elucidating

new vocabulary and grammatical rules, providing feedback, assessing

comprehension, drawing comparisons between English and Filipino, building

strong teacher-student relationships, fostering a welcoming classroom

environment, and promoting group dynamics. It is not solely a result of a lack of

proficiency to carry on a conversation in English (Dela Rosa, 2016).

On the other hand, code-switching refers to the blending of two or more

languages in a single sentence or exchange of ideas (Lesada, 2017).

Filipino College Students Code-switching in the Classroom

The Philippines has historically been colonized. English is regarded as a second

language and Filipino as the official language. Furthermore, Filipinos speak

Filipino for local communication and English in professional and academic

settings (Esquivel, 2018).

Lack of English vocabulary is the main cause of students' code-switching during

class presentations. Other characteristics that were seen included making

communication easier, preventing misunderstandings, sharing information, and

emphasizing points. In English class, students strive to provide the best response

they can to demonstrate their knowledge. In order to provide the teacher with

accurate responses, kids engage in code-switching with their buddies while doing

this (Dela Rosa, 2016). What counts are the context and the content of these

topic subject instructors' lectures, not the language they use to deliver them and

engage with the students (Torres, 2015).

 31
In addition to the beneficial effects of code-switching on learners' confidence and

engagement in English classes, teachers are also instrumental in enhancing

students' enthusiasm to participate in class and actively participate in

discussions. Additionally, it seems that the more they are permitted to converse

and utilize colloquialisms, the more likely it is that they would engage in social

interactions with their peers, particularly during group projects (Olivera, 2021).

Filipino College Students English Language Fluency

One of the biggest English-speaking countries is thought to be the Philippines

(Cabigon, 2015). Nevertheless, code-switching makes it more difficult to speak

English fluently. However, with the aid of Cummins' bilingualism theories—the

Common Underlying Theory—it was established that age-appropriate

competency levels rather than codes-witching are the primary causes of

students' lack of fluency in the English language (Ramos, 2022). When learning a

new language or skill, age has a big role. There is a belief that younger pupils

pick up language more quickly and easily than older students. The majority of

Filipinos are fluent in both speaking and understanding English since they belong

to the group known as "simultaneous bilinguals" (Santos, Fernandez, & Ilustre,

2022).
 32
Relationship between Code-switching and English Language Fluency

The learners' ability to switch codes and their degree of communicative

proficiency in speaking English are significantly correlated negatively. This

indicates that learners' communicative competence in speaking English was

adversely damaged when they expressed ideas through code-switching. Their

degree of communicative skill decreases with increasing frequency of code-

switching (De Castro, Parajito, Realco & Dacara, 2021).

 33

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