Sugar Tech (September and December 2010) 12(3–4):267–275

DOI 10.1007/s12355-010-0039-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

Seed Production and Processing

Albert Kockelmann • Ralf Tilcher • Uwe Fischer

Received: 31 August 2010 / Accepted: 15 November 2010 / Published online: 26 January 2011
Ó Society for Sugar Research & Promotion 2011

Abstract Sugar beet cultivation is highly dependent on Introduction

the supply of high quality seed as carriers of specific and
requested varietal characteristics. Seed production of the The successful production of sugar beet requires high per-
biennial sugar beet is conducted in two main phases: the forming varieties, optimum plant establishment after sowing
production of small beet plants (stecklings) in the first year in spring and good agronomical practices in order to achieve
of vegetative growth and seed production in the second the maximum sugar yield. Sugar beet growers therefore
year after the bolting and flowering of vernalized plants. demand seeds with the highest germination ability and
Optimal conditions for sugar beet seed production are vigour to ensure an early and high level of field emergence.
mainly found in regions with a Mediterranean climate. All efforts in sugar beet seed production are directed towards
Parental lines in hybrid seed production are specifically meeting the requirements of high seed quality and seed
handled to ensure a high level of varietal purity and seed purity. Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) is a biennial plant.
quality. Particular post-harvest processing steps and tech- Although the beet root crop for sugar production is grown in
niques are well integrated to select seed lot fractions with only one season in the first year, sugar beet requires a second
the best quality and the highest field emergence potential. year after a period of cold temperatures (vernalization) for
Additionally, seeds are covered by specifically developed reproduction. Therefore, specific climatic conditions are
pellets to support their placement in sugar beet fields and to required for seed production. Favourable conditions are
act as carriers for plant protection agents. During the last mainly found in Mediterranean areas: in the south of France,
few years an increasing amount of seeds were also sub- in northern Italy and the black sea region in Turkey. In North
jected to pre-treatments in order to further improve seed America, the main seed producing areas are in the north-
quality characteristics for optimal plant establishment in western regions, mainly in Oregon. Temperatures in these
sugar beet production fields. areas are cold enough during winter to induce homogeneous
bolting without the risk of frost damage to the beet crops.
Keywords Sugar beet
Seed production
Conditions during flowering and seed maturation are opti-
Seed processing
Pelleting
Pre-treatment mal to guarantee good seed formation and a uniform seed
quality. Seed producers have developed crop management
techniques specifically adapted for sugar beet seed produc-
tion, which enable optimal development of the seed plant as
well as high seed yields and quality.
Sugar beet seed quality is primarily determined by the
A. Kockelmann (&)
R. Tilcher
U. Fischer
KWS SAAT AG, Grimsehlstr. 31, 37555 Einbeck, Germany growing conditions and technologies in seed production.
e-mail: a.kockelmann@kws.com Subsequent processing procedures enable the recovery of
R. Tilcher high quality seed with a high level of varietal purity. The
e-mail: r.tilcher@kws.com current states of production procedures, processing, seed
U. Fischer activation, pelleting and chemical treatment shall be
e-mail: u.fischer@kws.com reviewed in the following chapter.

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Methods of Sugar Beet Seed Production Since sugar beet is a biennial plant seed production can
be considered in two phases: the production of small beet
The methods of sugar beet seed production are essentially roots (called stecklings) in the first year and, after receiving
determined by the fact that common monogerm sugar beet cold treatment (vernalization), the production of seeds in
varieties are hybrids and that sugar beet is a biennial plant. the second year.
Certified commercial seed of hybrid varieties is grown The optimum temperatures for vernalization and
from basic seed of the parental lines (Fig. 1). Hybrid seed induction of the reproductive phase are in the range of
production combines a monogerm male sterile elite line 4–10°C, for the duration of 15–20 weeks (Wood et al.
(seed parent), which does not produce pollen, with a 1980; Longden 1986; Milford 2006). High temperatures
multigerm fertile line (pollinator). The parental lines used above 15°C immediately after vernalization may dever-
in commercial seed production may also be hybrids nalize plants, meaning that they would not be able to flower
themselves. The seed parent is diploid, and the pollinator is or produce any seeds. Variety components differ in their
diploid or tetraploid. Both hybrid components need to be requirements for vernalization, but winter and spring con-
handled with distinct care by seed producers during the ditions in Mediterranean climates are generally sufficient to
seed production process to ensure optimal flowering syn- induce homogeneous reproductive development (bolting
chronization, maximum hybridization during flowering and and flowering).
to guarantee that the seeds produced are carrying the In common monogerm seed production systems, basic
desired traits from both parent lines. seed from male and female lines is sown separately in
nursery fields in August and the stecklings grown are
harvested at the end of winter. After selection and cali-
bration, these small beet plants of desired parental lines are
Seed parent Pollinator
(male sterile lines, diploid) (fertile lines, diploid /tetraploid) transplanted into separate fields in distinct planting
schemes for seed production, often in regions spatially
separated from the steckling nursery fields. At the end of
Pre-basic seed Pre-basic seed
the production cycle the hybrid seed is harvested from
mid-July to the beginning of August (Fig. 2).
Basic seed Basic seed
In contrast to the prevailing transplanting method with
X stecklings, plants in the direct production method stay in
the same field for the complete production cycle of sowing
the basic seed to harvesting the seed crop. This method is
Certified seed production
less work intensive but also less flexible in the control of
seed production and quality. Multigerm varieties are still
produced in France and in England using the direct
method, but for monogerm seed production this system no
Sugar beet crop longer has any importance. The characteristics of sugar
beet production methods are summarized by Kockelmann
Fig. 1 Scheme of hybrid seed production for sugar beet varieties and Meyer (2006).

Fig. 2 Timetable of sugar beet Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

seed production
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb

Basic seed sowing Steckling harvest Seed harvest

Transplanting

Steckling production Seed production Seed processing

Vernalization Flowering and Maturation

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Steckling Production

The main objectives in steckling production are:

– A high level of field emergence of basic seed lines
sown in nurseries.
– A high uniformity of plant development and steckling
size.
– The assurance of vernalization and the overwintering of
stecklings.
– A high recovery of healthy, homogeneous and vigou-
rous stecklings, which enable the establishment of
healthy seed crops in the reproductive phase.
The need for efficient mechanization in steckling pro- Fig. 3 Covering of steckling fields for frost protection with fleece
duction led to the development of production systems on
light sandy soils in Europe: in the Adriatic region in the
exigua) and avoid virus transmissions by the black bean
northern part of Italy and in the Bordeaux region in the
aphid and the green peach aphid (Aphis fabae and Myzus
south-west of France. A crop rotation period of at least
persicae, respectively). Spray applications with fungicides
5 years is one of the main requirements for the production
control the major fungal diseases, especially the most
of healthy and vigorous stecklings in the sugar beet nurs-
important leaf spot disease caused by Cercospora beticola.
ery. Fields used for steckling production have not previ-
The stecklings remain in the nurseries over winter where
ously been used for seed production of sugar beet or any
they are vernalized. To prevent plants from being damaged
other Beta species to ensure that the stecklings of the
from severe frost, the steckling fields are covered with a
hybrid lines are produced with a high level of purity.
protective fleece before winter (mid-December, Fig. 3).
Moreover, only fields free of rhizomania and nematode
After removing the fleece the stecklings are harvested just
(Heterodera schachtii) infestations are selected for stec-
before transplantation in February. The foliage is chopped
kling production.
without damaging the apical meristem of the plants before
Basic seed is sown between the end of July and the end
the stecklings are rooted out using appropriate machines.
of August. Nursery growers plant 0.9–1.1 million seeds per
Afterwards, the stecklings are selected and sized to obtain
ha to produce stecklings of 2–4 cm top diameter (40–80 g
plants with a size of 2–4 cm. One hectare of a steckling
per root). Female and male hybrid components are sown in
field yields an average of 300,000–400,000 plants, enough
separate plots which are recorded on field maps to ensure
to transplant 8–12 ha of seed crop.
traceability at any stage of the development. Appropriate
irrigation is essential for homogenous crop development.
Depending on climatic conditions, repeated irrigations
Seed Production
of 15–25 mm ensure a continuous water supply and
avoid damage by wind erosion on sandy soils. Steckling
Immediately after harvest, the vernalized stecklings are
crops in France and Italy require 90–130 kg/ha nitrogen,
transplanted into new production fields for seed production.
40–140 kg/ha P2O5 and 60–120 kg/ha K2O, according to
These fields are well isolated from fields containing other
soil analyses. As boron is important for beet production,
varieties or other Beta species to minimize the possibility
stecklings usually receive additional boron applications of
of unintended cross-pollination and to ensure a high level
100–120 g/ha each in the 4–6 or 6–8 leaf stage.
of desired hybridization. The minimum isolation require-
Weed control is essentially performed in the same way
ments are prescribed by the European seed regulations and
as for the sugar beet root crop, but steckling growers need
by the OECD Seed Schemes (Table 1). Breeding compa-
to take special care to keep the young plants healthy and to
nies often apply more stringent safety measures to avoid
protect them from any pests during vegetation. The basic
impurities via cross-pollination between varieties.
seed is usually treated with appropriate insecticides and
All measures in seed production are directed to reach the
fungicides to protect the crop in the emergence phase and
following objectives:
in the early stages of development (against pathogens from
the damping-off complex, e.g., Aphanomyces cochlioides, – To ensure a healthy and uniform development of male
Pythium spp. and Phoma betae, and against aphids). Fur- sterile seed plants and male pollinator plants.
ther applications of insecticides control the occurrence – To reach an optimum matching of flowering between
of pests such as lepidopterans (Agrotis sp., Spodoptera male sterile and pollinator plants. This ensures a high

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Table 1 Minimum isolation distances in sugar beet seed production Plant nutrition of the seed bearers is managed according
(according OECD 2010) to the results of soil analyses, the preceding crop and
(i) Seed crops using the same pollinator – regional experiences in production. Phosphorus and
(ii) All seed crops to produce Basic Seed from any pollen 1,000 m potassium are usually applied within the rotation before
source of the genus Beta transplanting, whereas nitrogen is split into several appli-
(iii) All seed crops to produce Certified Seed of sugar beet: cations with a total amount of 160–250 kg/ha. Since the
From any pollen source of the genus Beta not included 1,000 m application of boron may play an important role in sugar
below beet seed yield and quality, seed producers apply about
The intended pollinator being diploid, from tetraploid 600 m 100–120 g/ha boron twice, at the stages of topping and the
sugar beet pollen sources
beginning of flowering. Positive results from the applica-
The intended pollinator being tetraploid, from diploid 600 m tion of boron were reported by Lehnhardt and Bonk (1991)
sugar beet pollen sources
and Dordas et al. (2007). The nutrition of sugar beet seed
From sugar beet pollen sources of the same ploidy level 300 m
crops is reviewed in more detail by Draycott and Chris-
tenson (2003).
Seed producers have worked out protocols for control-
ling pests and diseases for a healthy crop development.
level of fecundation, seed formation on seed plants,
Among the main pests are weevils (e.g., Conorhynchus sp.,
high seed yields and minimizes cross-pollination with
Lixus sp., Cassida sp.) and aphids such as Aphis fabae
other varieties or other Beta species.
and Myzus persicae. Important diseases occurring in seed
– To support optimal development of the seeds and a
production are: Cercospora beticola and powdery mildew
uniform maturation.
(Erysiphe communis).
The best fields for seed production are those with a high Seed companies closely monitor crop development at all
water-holding capacity. Fields with nematode infestation stages. One of the key factors for achieving a high seed
(Heterodera schachtii) are excluded from production quality is the irrigation of seed plants. Appropriate water
because the seed yields will be negatively affected. The quantities and the correct timing of irrigation are especially
minimum rotation requirement is 5 years between two seed important at flowering and during maturation (Fig. 5).
crops from stecklings in order to avoid the occurrence of During the reproductive phase following several weeks
voluntary beets and to maintain varietal purity. Sugar beets of vernalization, the plants start bolting in spring with
or any other crop of the Beta species are excluded from this elongation of the internodes and form the seed bearer with
rotation. branches of a second, third or fourth order. The seed plants
Stecklings of male sterile plants and pollinators are are usually topped (cutting of primary shoots) in the bolting
planted in strips with specific ratios of female to male phase by hand or mechanically to reduce apical dominance,
plants (Fig. 4). This ratio varies from 6:2 to 8:2, according enhance the formation of side branches and to improve
to the varieties or the breeder’s strategy. The total plant plant development (Fig. 6). Additionally, flowering and
population per hectare varies between 30,000 and 45,000 maturation of seed plants will be more homogeneous and
plants, according to specific requirements related to plant the seed can be harvested at an optimal stage of maturity
vigour and branching characteristics, as well as to regional (Figs. 7, 8). The timing and intensity of topping are also
experiences of seed producers. key factors for an improved synchronization of flowering.

Fig. 4 Seed production with male and female lines in Italy Fig. 5 Installation of drip irrigation in a seed field in France

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Flowering intensity is highest in the morning and is

enhanced by warm, sunny weather. Wood et al. (1980)
described the most suitable flowering conditions as average
temperatures of 15–20°C with a maximum at 35°C. High
humidity decreases the release of pollen (Scott 1970). Most
sugar beet parental lines flower over a period of 3–4 weeks.
The stigmas on the male sterile plants may stay receptive
for more than 2 weeks depending on weather conditions
(Crane and Walker 1984). Nevertheless, when weather
conditions are not optimal or pollen tube growth is dis-
turbed, seed development may be terminated and empty
fruits are produced which have to be eliminated during
subsequent processing of the seed lot (Alcaraz et al. 1998).
Fig. 6 Mechanical topping of seed plants Sugar beet pollen is mainly transported by wind. Insects
are less important for pollen movement, but they can also
contribute to cross-pollination with undesired foreign pol-
len sources (Free et al. 1975).
At the end of flowering the pollinator plants are
destroyed by chopping; only the hybrid seed on the male
sterile seed parent is harvested. Determination of the right
harvesting time is essential for obtaining a physiologically
mature seed of the highest quality. Practically, the seed
should have a farinaceous texture with a brownish testa at
harvest. When cutting the seed bearers, the dry matter
content of the seed should be at least 40% to achieve the
best seed quality. The optimal maturation can also be
calculated by the accumulated temperature (heat units)
from the beginning of flowering. In the investigations
Fig. 7 Maturation of seeds on the seed parent
by Casals (2006), sugar beet seed reached maximum
germination 45 days after flowering, corresponding to
950–1000°C heat units. Snyder (1971) and Grimwalde
et al. (1987) applied a base temperature of 7–7.2°C and
discussed heat unit requirements of 456–612°C in order to
reach maximum germination.
The sugar beet seed bearers are cut onto a swath and
optimally threshed when the seed moisture content is
below 12%. Alternatively, the plants are directly harvested
after application of a desiccant (diquat) and the seeds are
immediately dried.
After harvest, the seed fields should be cultivated using
appropriate machines to superficially work the seed into
the soil. After these seeds have germinated the young
sugar beet seedlings can be destroyed in order to mini-
mize the generation of volunteer beets in the crop
rotation.

Fig. 8 Development of sugar beet fruits on a branch

Seed Processing
Since parental lines in hybrid seed production can be very
different in their flowering behaviour, the topping tech- Cleaning and Processing
nique ensures that as many flowers as possible are polli-
nated and that any cross-pollination from outside the crop After harvest, raw seed lots are pre-cleaned as quickly as
is minimized. possible. At the same time, during this first processing step,

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the seed is sampled and tested according to the following

objectives:
– Testing for humidity. Seed lots with a moisture content
of more than 12% need to be dried immediately to
conserve seed quality. The maximum drying temper-
ature should not exceed 38°C in order to avoid
deterioration of seed quality.
– Checking for technical purity, calibration and germi-
nation of seed lots to determine the intensity of further
processing.
– Testing for varietal purity and identity. Intensive
greenhouse tests are conducted to check for impurities
with annual bolters resulting from cross-pollination Fig. 9 View to open sugar beet fruit containing the true seed
with wild beet species. Alternatively, seeds are tested
by marker analysis for specific traits. development of true seeds and for adjusting the
selection machines accordingly.
A second cleaning process might be necessary before
– Pelleting of bare seed to ensure precision drilling.
the seed is processed in order to reach a high level of filled
– Seed treatment by film coating according to specific
clusters and technical purity. Usually, cleaned seed is cal-
market requirements.
ibrated to a range of 3.25–6.00 mm for monogerm seed and
3.25–8.00 mm for multigerm seed. Multigerm seeds are not marketed as pellets. The pro-
The physiological quality of seeds is determined to a cessing is therefore reduced to air and gravity selection for
large extent by the growing conditions during seed pro- obtaining 100% filled clusters of the required size.
duction, especially during flowering and the maturation
phases of the seeds. The main objective of subsequent seed Pelleting and Chemical Treatment
processing is the optimal separation and selection of frac-
tions with the best seed quality characteristics within a seed Seeds of monogerm varieties for most of the European and
lot. The technology of monogerm seed processing is spe- American sugar beet production areas are pelleted. The
cific to seed companies, but in principal it consists of the main advantages for beet growers in using pelleted instead
following stages and objectives: of incrusted bare seeds are: (i) drilling to final stand, (ii)
homogeneity of drilling and (iii) applicability of the active
– Calibration into size fractions for each of the specific
ingredients without the risk of phytotoxicity.
processing stages.
The common pellet sizes in European sugar beet areas
– Hulling or polishing to remove the pericarp. The aim of
are between 3.50 and 4.75 mm or 3.75 and 4.75 mm. In
polishing is to reduce seed size to an optimal grade
some markets (e.g. the US and Turkey) pellets with lower
suitable for pelleting. Removing the pericarp also leads
amounts of pelleting material (approximately 20–50% of a
to an increase in the speed of germination, because
regular pellet) are also used. The principles for producing
germination inhibitors, located in the pericarp, are
treated pellets from bare sugar beet seed are (Fig. 10):
removed and water uptake is improved. Nevertheless,
polishing must be done gently to avoid cracks in the – Moistening or washing of bare seeds as a physical
pericarp and embryo damage, especially to the radicle. prerequisite for starting the pelleting process. The seed
– Removal of seeds that are too small or too big, as well quality may already improve by removing germination
as bigerm seeds. inhibitors from the pericarp.
– Air and gravity selection. The aim here is to eliminate – Application of a fungicide (e.g., Thiram) close to the bare
empty fruits and to recover only those that are seed to control seed borne pathogens (e.g., Phoma betae).
completely filled with well-developed seeds (botani- – Building up pellets with solid mineral and organic
cally, the dispersal units of sugar beets are fruits, substances and stickers (adhesives) to targeted pellet
including both the ‘botanically true’ seeds as well as sizes. The components of the pellets, as well as details
the covering pericarps, Fig. 9). of the pelleting process, are generally specific to the
– The seed processing stages are continuously monitored seed producers.
by suitable testing methods to optimize the recovery – Application of additional fungicides and insecticides.
rate. X-ray analysis is very important for estimating the – Finishing the pellets with an outer pigment layer.

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Fig. 11 Sugar beet pellets after chemical treatment

Fig. 10 Structure of a sugar beet pellet

The materials and the structure of pellets significantly pellet surfaces. The latter is controlled by laboratories
affect their water absorption kinetics, which is a key factor specialized in chemical analyses. After the application of
in germination and field emergence. Therefore, all of the fungicides and insecticides, a second film-coating process
developments in pellet composition have to ensure that the applies a layer of formulated pigment which prevents
pellet structure surrounding the seed is optimized also for abrasion of the plant protection products (Fig. 11).
water uptake characteristics.
Controlled drying processes, often on basis of fluidized Seed Pre-Treatment
bed systems, are used to reduce the moisture content of
pellets (after pelleting) from approximately 40–50 to In actual commercial practices, sugar beet seeds are also
\10%. Online measurements of the moisture content of the frequently subjected to specific pre-treatments (or priming)
pellets and the regulation of air temperatures whilst drying in order to further improve their germination characteris-
prevent damage during drying. tics, especially the speed and homogeneity of emergence,
Plant protection products are applied for two purposes: even under stressful environmental conditions in the field.
on the one hand to control seed borne fungi like Phoma In the following, a brief outline of the concept of these pre-
betae, and on the other to control soil borne pests and treatments is given.
diseases, which have gained importance during the few last A basic requirement for seeds to germinate is the uptake
decades. Fungicides (e.g., Hymexazol) mainly aim to of water, which often follows a characteristic triphasic
control pathogens from the damping-off complex, such as pattern: a fast increase in seed moisture content driven
Aphanomyces cochlioides, Pythium ultimum and Fusarium solely by physical processes (phase I, imbibition) is fol-
spp. The application of insecticides (Table 2) focuses on lowed by a plateau (phase II, germination) in which the
controlling the pigmy mangold beetle Atomaria linearis seed metabolism is activated and pre-germination pro-
and lepidopteran species such as Agriotes sp., the most cesses (e.g., repair processes, protein synthesis) take place.
important aphids in beets (Aphis fabae and Mycus persi- Finally, another steep increase in moisture content (phase
cae), the beet leaf miner Pegomyia betae and flea beetles III, growth) is indicative of radicle growth. By definition,
(Chaetocnema sp.). The fungicides and insecticides are germination is completed when the root tip becomes visible
generally applied via a fluidized bed film-coating process. after protruding out of its covering layers.
This process results in a correct quantitative application The uptake of water is limited during seed pre-treat-
rate and a uniform distribution of active substances on the ments by appropriate methods in such a way that the seeds

Table 2 Options for insecticide

Product name Active ingredient (g/unit)
applications to sugar beet pellets
in Germany 2010 Clothianidin Imidacloprid Thiamethoxam ß-Cyfluthrin Tefluthrin

Poncho Beta ? 60 30 8
Cruiser Force 60 8
Janus Forte 10 10 8
Force Magna 15 6

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are in fact able to activate their metabolism (enter into properties, resulting in high levels of final field emergence
phase II) after a period of quiescence, but they are not able and a homogenous plant stand even under stressful envi-
to germinate. The treatment is finally stopped by drying the ronmental conditions, and also by a high level of varietal
seeds to a low moisture content (\10%) to make them purity. Sugar beet growers are increasingly asking for vari-
suitable for further handling and storage (Corbineau and eties which combine several traits for tolerance/resistance
Côme 2006). against diseases or pests (like rhizomania, Cercospora or
The beneficial effect of the pre-hydration treatment is nematodes) with a high level of varietal purity. Therefore,
expressed when seeds are sown in the field and receive the development of marker technologies will continue as a
water a second time. Because they have already gone tool to enable seed producers to verify and track traits of
through some of the pre-germination processes during pre- interest in the produced hybrid seed. Additionally, trans-
treatment, germination and emergence are accelerated and genic traits such as herbicide tolerance (already commer-
more homogenous compared to untreated seeds. This cialized in the US) or tolerance/resistance against diseases or
advantage will become even more pronounced under sub- pests will further challenge the seed industry. Seed pro-
optimal emergence conditions. Increases in sugar yields ducers will have to adapt appropriate production and quality
have been reported for primed sugar beet seeds (Draycott assurance systems for the production of genetically modified
2006; Mukasa et al. 2003) as a result of their earlier hybrid seeds within the framework of legal requirements.
emergence and thereby their extended growth periods. The extent of these measures will basically be dependent on
Priming processes generally differ in the way seed the available threshold levels for the adventitious presence
hydration is controlled. One possibility is to limit the of genetically modified seeds in seed of varieties developed
amount of water added to the seed batch (e.g., drum by conventional plant breeding methods.
priming). Alternatively, water uptake may be controlled Increasing requirements from legal authorities, farmers
over time (e.g., steeping). Other methods restrict the and society will also lead to further investigations into the
transfer of water into the seed by the use of solutions potential environmental impact of treated seeds. Therefore,
(instead of water) with an appropriate osmotic potential the development of highly efficient, environmentally safe
(osmopriming). The same result can be achieved by plant protection products, including non-chemical alterna-
exploiting the matric potential of water bound to a solid tives such as biological agents, and of application methods
matrix (matric priming) (Halmer 2003). will be important.
Although the level of seed hydration is a major factor The consistent development of sugar beet seed produc-
for the success of a seed pre-treatment, other factors such tion and processing systems, as well as seed treatment
as treatment duration, the temperature regime or oxygen technologies, in order to ensure the production of high
supply are also important process variables. Additionally, quality seed will be a basic requirement for enabling the
seed lots may differ in their individual requirements for economically valuable production of the sugar beet crop.
achieving optimal treatment effects. Therefore, pre-trials
may be necessary for developing seed lot-specific opti-
mized priming protocols. Priming processes have to be
controlled carefully in such a way that the treated seeds References
still tolerate the concluding drying process. This desicca-
tion tolerance is essential for avoiding negative ‘over- Alcaraz G., T. Genter, G. Laillet, and D. Rageot. 1998. Sugar beet
pollen biology. In Proceedings of the 61st Congress of the
priming’ effects indicated by reduced germination rates International Institute for Beet Research, Brussels, 393–399.
or an increase in abnormal seedlings or dead seeds, for Casals, M.L. 2006. L’acquisition des propriétés germinatives: Com-
example. ment le fruit devient semence. Bulletin Semence 188: 39–41.
Meanwhile, pre-treated sugar beet seeds are well Corbineau, F., and D. Côme. 2006. Priming: a technique for
improving seed quality. Seed Testing International 132: 38–40.
established in all markets and all seed producers offer seed Crane, E., and P. Walker. 1984. Pollination directory for world crops.
of varieties that have been pre-treated in some way. London: International Bee Research Association.
Dordas, C., G.E. Apostolides, and O. Goundra. 2007. Boron
application affects seed yield and seed quality of sugar beets.
Journal of Agricultural Science 145: 377–384.
Future Needs and Development Draycott, A.P. 2006. The advantage of advantage on sugar beet?
British Sugar Beet Review 74: 13–17.
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treated sugar beet seeds is of major importance and seed Production: Soil–Plant Relationships, 191–197. Wallingford,
UK: CABI Publishing.
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quality or even to increase it in future. This quality is basi- Insect pollination of sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris) seed crops.
cally characterized by improved germination and emergence Annals of Applied Biology 81: 127–134.

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