Chapter One

Fundamentals of
Database Systems
 Chapter 1 - Objectives
⚫ Some common uses of database systems.
⚫ Characteristics of file-based systems.
⚫ Problems with file-based approach.
⚫ Meaning of the term database.
⚫ Meaning of the term Database Management System
(DBMS).
⚫ Typical functions of a DBMS.
⚫ Major components of the DBMS environment.
⚫ Personnel involved in the DBMS environment.
⚫ Generations of the development of DBMSs.
⚫ Advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs.

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 Chapter 1 - Objectives Cont’d…
⚫ Purpose of three-level ANSI-SPARC database
architecture.
⚫ Contents of external, conceptual, and internal levels.
⚫ Purpose of external/conceptual and
conceptual/internal mappings.
⚫ Meaning of logical and physical data independence.
⚫ Distinction between DDL,DCL,TCL and DML.
⚫ A classification of data models.
⚫ Architecture for Multi-User Database System

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 Database systems
⚫ Today, Databases are essential to
every business. They are used to
maintain internal records, to
present data to customers and
clients on the
World-Wide-Web, and to
support many other
commercial processes.
⚫ Databases are likewise found at
Fundamentals of Database Systems
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 Examples of Database Applications
⚫ Purchases from the supermarket
⚫ Purchases using your credit card
⚫ Booking a holiday at the travel agents
⚫ Using the local library
⚫ Taking out insurance
⚫ Renting a video
⚫ E- Commerce
⚫ Banking, Insurance and other Financial Systems
⚫ Social media (in general the WWW)

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 Data Handling Approaches
in Organizations
⚫ Data management passes through
different levels of development along
with the development in technology
and services. These levels could best be
described by categorizing the levels into
three levels of development. Even
though there is an advantage and a
problem to overcome at each new level,
all methods of data handling are in use
even today to some extent. The major
three levels are;
Fundamentals of Database Systems
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⚫ Traditional File Based Approach
 Manual Approach
⚫ Cards and paper are used for the purpose
⚫ Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are
used to store information.
⚫ Each of the files containing various kinds of information is
labelled and stored in one or more cabinets.
⚫ The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose
based on the sensitivity of the information contained in it (
Cabinet Lockers).
⚫ Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right
cabinet then for the right the file then the information.
⚫ One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the
data
⚫ Limitations of the Manual approach
⚫ Prone to error
⚫ Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
⚫ You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
⚫ Limited to small size information
⚫ Cross referencing is difficult
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 Manual – Approach to data Management

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 File-Based Systems
⚫ Collection of application programs that perform
services for the end users (e.g. reports).
⚫ Each program defines and manages its own data.
⚫ A file is simply a collection of records,
which contains logically related data.
⚫ Each record contains a logically
connected set of one or more fields,
where each field represents some
characteristic of the real-world object
that is being modeled.
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 File-Based Processing

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Fundamentals of Database Systems \
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 Limitations of File-Based Approach
⚫ Separation and isolation of data
⚫ Each program maintains its own set of data.
⚫ Users of one program may be unaware of
potentially useful data held by other programs.

⚫ Duplication of data (Uncontrolled

Redundancy)
⚫ Same data is kept by different programs.
⚫ Wasted space and potentially different values
and/or different formats for the same item.

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 Limitations of File-Based Approach
⚫ Data dependence (Program Data Dependence)
⚫ File structure is defined in the program code.
⚫ Any change in the data structure need to changes the
program as well

⚫ Incompatible file formats

⚫ Programs are written in different languages, and so
cannot easily access each other’s files. (C, COBOL) – Data
Structures are different for different Languages

⚫ Fixed Queries/Proliferation of application programs

⚫ Programs are written to satisfy particular functions.
⚫ Any new requirement needs a new program.
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 Database Approach
⚫ Problems of file approach arose because:
⚫ Definition of data was embedded in application
programs, rather than being stored separately and
independent of the applications.
⚫ No control over access and manipulation of data
beyond that imposed by application programs.

⚫ Solution(Result):
⚫ The database and Database Management System
(DBMS).
⚫ This approach solves the problems of the File-based
Approach

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 Database
⚫ Shared collection of logically related data and a
description of this data, designed to meet the
information needs of an organization.

⚫ System catalogue (metadata) provides description

of data to enable program–data independence.

⚫ Logically related data comprises entities,

attributes, and relationships between entity of an
organization’s information.

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 Database Management System
(DBMS)
⚫ A software system that enables users to define,
create, maintain, and control access to the
database.

⚫ (Database) application program: a computer

program that interacts with database by issuing an
appropriate request (SQL statement) to the DBMS.

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 Database Management System
(DBMS)

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 Database Approach Cont’d…..
⚫ Structured Query Languages (SQL)- is the formal
and de facto Standard for RDBMS
⚫ Having a query facility alleviates the Problem of fixed
query/application proliferation in file base approach.
⚫ DBMSs Provides Four types of SQL Statements
⚫ DDL (Data Definition Language)
⚫ DML (Data Manipulation Language)
⚫ DCL (Data Control Language)
⚫ TCL (Transaction Control Language)

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 Database Approach Cont’d…
⚫ Data definition language (DDL).
⚫ Permits specification of data types, structures and any data
constraints.
⚫ All specifications are stored in the database.
⚫ Enables the Creation, Alteration and Removal of a Database
Object
⚫ Data manipulation language (DML).
⚫ General enquiry facility (query language -retrieval) of the
data.
⚫ In addition to querying, we can also have manipulation of
Data (Adding New info, Updating info, Deleting info)

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 Database Approach Cont’d…
⚫DCL (Data Control Language)
⚫ DCL statements control the level of access that users have
on database objects.
⚫ GRANT – allows users to read/write on certain database objects
⚫ REVOKE – keeps users from read/write permission on database
objects
⚫TCL (Transaction Control Language)
⚫ TCL statements allow you to control and manage
transactions to maintain the integrity of data within SQL
statements.
⚫ BEGIN Transaction – opens a transaction
⚫ COMMIT Transaction – commits a transaction
⚫ ROLLBACK Transaction – ROLLBACK a transaction in case of
any error

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 Database Approach– Access Control
⚫ Controlled access to database may
include: (User/Role- definition, Privilege
Assignment/Revocation, Access
Enforcement )
⚫ a security system
⚫ an integrity system
⚫ a concurrency control system
⚫ a recovery control system
⚫ a user-accessible catalogue.

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 Data base Views
⚫ The Database Approach( with all the functionalities
stated above) introduces a little complexity on part
of the end user.
⚫ Although the Database is a shared collection, users
are interested in their specific data needs
⚫ A view allows each user to have his or her own view
of the database.
⚫ A view is essentially some subset of the database.
⚫ Data Irrelevant to a user is not at all visible

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 Views - Benefits
⚫ Reduce complexity
⚫ Provide a level of security
⚫ Provide a mechanism to customize the appearance
of the database
⚫ Present a consistent, unchanging picture of the
structure of the database, even if the underlying
database structure is changed ( Abstraction)

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 Components of DBMS Environment

In A DBMS Environment there are Five basic

Components
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• Procedure
23
• People
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 Components of DBMS Environment
⚫ Hardware
⚫ Can range from a PC to a network of computers.
⚫ Includes all the necessary input, output , storage
and backup devices
⚫ Software
⚫ DBMS, operating system, network software (if
necessary) and also the database application
programs.
⚫ Data
⚫ Data used by the organization and a description of
this data called the schema(Metadata).

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 Components of DBMS Environment
⚫ Procedures
⚫ Instructions and rules that should be applied to
the design and use of the database and DBMS.
⚫ People
⚫ Different Roles taken by people while designing and
using a Database systems

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 Roles in the Database Environment
⚫ Data Administrator (DA)
⚫ Responsible on management of data resources.
This involves in database planning,
development, maintenance of standards,
policies and procedures at the conceptual and
logical design phases.
⚫ Database Administrator (DBA)
⚫ This is more technically oriented role. DBA is
responsible for the physical realization of the
database. It is involved in physical design,
implementation, security and integrity control
of the database.
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⚫Fundamentals
Also dealsofwith
Database Systems
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 Database Designers
⚫ Database Designers (Logical and Physical)
⚫ Identifies the data to be stored and choose
the appropriate structures to represent and
store the data.
⚫ Should understand the user requirement and
should choose how the user views the
database.
⚫ Involve on the design phase before the
implementation of the database system.
⚫ We have two distinctions of database
designers, one involving in the logical
&conceptual design and another
Fundamentals of Database Systems
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 Database Designers- Cont’d…
⚫ Logical and Conceptual DBD
⚫ Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship)
relevant to the organization
⚫ Identifies constraints on each data
⚫ Understand data and business rules in the
organization
⚫ Sees the database independent of any data model at
conceptual level and consider one specific data
model at logical design phase.
⚫ Physical DBD
⚫ Take logical design specification as input and decide
how it should be physically realized.
⚫ Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS
with respect to tables and integrity constraints.
(DBMS dependent designing)
⚫ Select
Fundamentals specific
of Database storage structure and access path to
Systems
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 Application Programmers
⚫ System analyst determines the user
requirement and how the user wants to
view the database.
⚫ The application programmer implements
these specifications as programs; code, test,
debug, document and maintain the
application program.
⚫ The application programmer determines
the interface on how to retrieve, insert,
update and delete data in the database.

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 End Users
⚫ Naïve Users:
⚫ Sizable proportion of users
⚫ Unaware of the DBMS
⚫ Only access the database based on their access level and
demand
⚫ Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
⚫ Sophisticated Users
⚫ Users familiar with the structure of the Database and
facilities of the DBMS.
⚫ Have complex requirements
⚫ Have higher level queries
⚫ Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business
analysts, etc
⚫ Casual Users
⚫ Users who access the database occasionally.
⚫ Need different information from the database each
time.
⚫ Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.
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 Advantages of DBMSs
⚫ Control of data redundancy
⚫ Data consistency
⚫ More information from the same amount of data
⚫ Sharing of data
⚫ Improved data integrity
⚫ Improved security
⚫ Enforcement of standards
⚫ Economy of scale

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 Advantages of DBMSs
⚫ Balance conflicting requirements
⚫ Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
⚫ Increased productivity
⚫ Improved maintenance through data independence
⚫ Increased concurrency
⚫ Improved backup and recovery services

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 Disadvantages of DBMSs
⚫ Complexity
⚫ Size ( in terms of storage space and memory
required)
⚫ Cost of DBMS
⚫ Additional hardware costs(Computers, storage)
⚫ Cost of conversion( Data, Application, Training
Users)
⚫ Performance ( Since DBMSs are generic solutions)
⚫ Higher impact of a failure ( since it is centralized)

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 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture

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 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
⚫ External Level
⚫ Users’ view of the database.
⚫ Describes that part of database that is relevant to a
particular user.

⚫ Conceptual Level
⚫ Community view of the database.
⚫ Describes what data is stored in database and
relationships among the data.

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 ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture
⚫ Internal Level
⚫ Physical representation of the database on the
computer.
⚫ Describes how the data is stored in the database.
⚫ This is how the OS and DBMS view Data

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 Differences between Three Levels of
ANSI-SPARC Architecture

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 Objectives of Three-Level
ANSI-SPARC Architecture
⚫ All users should be able to access same data.

⚫ A user’s view is immune to changes made in other

user’s views.

⚫ Users should not need to know physical database

storage details.

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 Objectives of Three-Level
ANSI-SPARC Architecture
⚫ DBA should be able to change database storage
structures without affecting the users’ views.

⚫ Internal structure of database should be unaffected

by changes to physical aspects of storage.

⚫ DBA should be able to change conceptual structure

of database without affecting all users.

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 ANSI-SPARC Data Independence
⚫ Main Concept is Upper layers are immune to
changes in the lower layers
⚫ Logical Data Independence
⚫ Refers to immunity of external schemas to changes in
conceptual schema.
⚫ Conceptual schema changes (e.g. addition/removal of
entities) should not require changes to external
schema or rewrites of application programs.
⚫ Obviously particular users will be affected but not all
users

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 Data Independence
⚫ Physical Data Independence
⚫ Refers to immunity of conceptual schema to changes in
the internal schema.
⚫ Internal schema changes (e.g. using different file
organizations, storage structures/devices) should not
require change to conceptual or external schemas.

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 Schema Mapping- Provision for
Data Independence
⚫ ANSI-SPARC has three Layers of
Describing Organizational Data
⚫ The DBMS is responsible for mapping
between these three types of schema.
⚫ External/Conceptual Mapping
⚫ This enables the DBMS to map names in the
user’s view on to the relevant part of the
conceptual schema.
⚫ Conceptual/Internal Mapping
⚫ This enables the DBMS to find the actual
record or combination of records in physical
storage that constitute a logical record in the
conceptual schema, together with any
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for that logical record.
 Data Independence and the
ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture

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 Database Manipulation Languages
⚫ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
⚫ Provides basic data manipulation operations on data
held in the database.
⚫ Procedural DML
⚫ allows user to tell system exactly how to manipulate
data.
⚫ Non-Procedural DML
⚫ allows user to state what data is needed rather than
how it is to be retrieved.
⚫ Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)
⚫ Automated CASE tools

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 Data Model
A Definition: Integrated collection of concepts for describing
data, relationships between data, and constraints on the data
in an organization.
⚫ Data Model comprises:
⚫ a structural part;
⚫ a manipulative part;
⚫ possibly a set of integrity rules.
⚫ Can have Three types of Models ( In-line with
ANSI-SPARC)
1. an external data model, to represent each user’s view of
the organization, sometimes called the Universe of
Discourse (UoD);
2. a conceptual data model, to represent the logical (or
community) view that is DBMS independent;
3. an internal data model, to represent the conceptual
schema in such a way that it can be understood by the
DBMS.
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 Data Model
⚫ Purpose
⚫ To represent data in an understandable way.

⚫ Categories of data models include:

⚫ Object-based
⚫ Record-based
⚫ Physical.

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 Data Models
⚫ Object-Based Data Models-
⚫ based on the concept of Entity (distinct object)
⚫ Entity-Relationship- Considers only the data aspect
⚫ Object-Oriented- considers both data and behaviour.

⚫ Record-Based Data Models (Hierarchical, Network and

Relational)
⚫ based on fixed format records
⚫ Each record has fixed number of fields
⚫ Each field is of a fixed length(Number of Characters)

⚫ Physical Data Models

⚫ Models for describing physical storage characteristics

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 Hierarchical Data Models
⚫ Record type is referred to as node or segment
⚫ The top node is the root node
⚫ Nodes are arranged in a hierarchical
structure as sort of upside down tree
⚫ A parent node can have more than one child
node
⚫ A child node can only have one parent node
⚫ The relationship between parent and child is
one-to-many
⚫ Relation is established by creating physical
link between stored records (implemented as
pointer)
⚫ To add new record type or relationship, the
database must be redefined and then stored in
a new form.
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 Hierarchical Data Model

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 Network Data model
⚫ Allows record types to have more than
one parent unlike hierarchical model
⚫ A network data models sees records as
set members
⚫ Each set has an owner and one or more
members
⚫ Allows many to many relationship
between entities(Parent and Child)
⚫ Like hierarchical model network
model is a collection of physically
linked records.
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than one owner
 Network Data Model

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 1st Generation Data Models
⚫ Hierarchical and Network
⚫ Navigational and procedural
approach to data processing
⚫ Need to know the physical Database
to access the data
⚫ Treat records as individual objects
linked with pointers i.e. cannot
process in sets

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 nd
Relational Data Model (2 Gen.)
⚫ ‘Relational Model for Large Shared Data Banks‘ famous
paper of Dr. Edgar F. Codd
⚫ Terminologies originates from the branch of mathematics
called set theory and predicate logic and is based on the
mathematical concept called Relation
⚫ Can define more flexible and complex relationship
⚫ Viewed as a collection of tables called “Relations” equivalent
to collection of record types
⚫ Relation: Two dimensional table
⚫ Stores information or data in the form of tables 🡪 rows and
columns
⚫ A row of the table is called tuple🡪 equivalent to record
⚫ A column of a table is called attribute🡪 equivalent to fields
⚫ Data value is the value of the Attribute
⚫ Records are related by the data stored jointly in the fields of
records in two tables or files. The related tables contain
information that creates the relationship
⚫ Uses Declarative ( as Opposed to Procedural) approach to
Database Processing
⚫ Can Treats Records as a Group (Set)
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 Relational Data Model

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 Physical Data Models
⚫ Used in Internal Database Design
⚫ structure / Class/ Type Def
⚫ Eg. Frame Memory, Unifying Model

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 Conceptual Modelling
⚫ Conceptual schema is the core of a system
supporting all user views.
⚫ Should be complete and accurate representation of
an organization’s data requirements.

⚫ Conceptual modelling is process of developing a

model of information use in an organization that is
independent of implementation details such as the
target DBMS, application programs, programming
languages, or any other physical considerations.
⚫ Result is a conceptual data model.
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 Logical Modeling
⚫ Conceptual models are also referred to as
logical models in some literature.
⚫ However, critically speaking, we make a
distinction between conceptual and
logical data models.
⚫ The conceptual model is independent of
all implementation details, whereas the
logical data model assumes knowledge of
the underlying data model of the target
DBMS.

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 Functions of a DBMS
⚫ Data Storage, Retrieval, and Update.

⚫ A User-Accessible Catalog.

⚫ Transaction Support.

⚫ Concurrency Control Services.

⚫ Recovery Services.

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 Functions of a DBMS
⚫ Authorization Services.

⚫ Support for Data Communication.

⚫ Integrity Services.

⚫ Services to Promote Data Independence.

⚫ Utility Services( Import/Export, Task Scheduler,

…etc)

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 System Catalog
⚫ Repository of information (metadata) describing
the data in the database.
⚫ One of the fundamental components of DBMS.
⚫ Typically stores:
⚫ names, types, and sizes of data items;
⚫ constraints on the data;
⚫ names of authorized users;
⚫ data items accessible by a user and the type of access;
⚫ usage statistics.

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 Components of a DBMS

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 Components of Database Manager (DM)

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 Multi-User DBMS
Architectures
⚫ There are Common architectures that are
used to implement multi-user database
management systems.
We will see the following
⚫ Teleprocessing,
⚫ File-server, and
⚫ Client–server.

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 Tele-Processing
⚫ The traditional architecture for multi-user
systems was teleprocessing, where there is
one computer with a single central
processing unit (CPU) and a number of
terminals
⚫ User terminals are typically ‘dumb’ ones,
incapable of functioning on their own. Just
cabled to the main computer.

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 Disadvantage
⚫ Unfortunately, this architecture placed a
tremendous burden on the central
computer, which not only had to run the
application programs and the DBMS, but
also had to carry out a significant amount
of work on behalf of the terminals (such as
formatting data for display on the screen).

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 File-Server Architecture
⚫ In a file-server environment, the
processing is distributed about the
network, typically a local area network
(LAN). The file-server holds the files
required by the applications and the
DBMS.
⚫ However, the applications and the DBMS
run on each workstation requesting files
from the file-server when necessary.
⚫ In this way, the file-server acts simply as a
shared hard disk drive. The DBMS on each
workstation sends requests to the
file-server for all data that the DBMS
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 File-Server Cont’d…

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 The file-server architecture -
three main disadvantages
⚫ (1) There is a large amount of network
traffic.
⚫ (2) A full copy of the DBMS is required on
each workstation.
⚫ (3) Concurrency, recovery, and integrity
control are more complex because there
can be multiple DBMSs accessing the same
files at the same time.

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 Client–Server Architecture
⚫ To overcome the disadvantages of the first two
approaches and accommodate an increasingly
decentralized business environment, the
client–server architecture was developed.
⚫ Client–server refers to the way in which
software components interact to form a
system.
⚫ As the name suggests, there is a client process,
which requires some resource, and a server,
which provides the resource. There is no
requirement that the client and server must
reside on the same machine.
⚫ Has three different topologies: 1 client 1 server,
multiple client 1 server, multiple client multiple
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 Possible combinations of the
client–server topology.

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 Traditional Two tier
Applications

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 Two Tier- Problems
⚫ The need for enterprise scalability
challenged this traditional two-tier
client–server model.
⚫ In the mid-1990s, as applications became
more complex and potentially could be
deployed to hundreds or thousands of
end-users, the client side presented two
problems that prevented true scalability:
⚫ A ‘fat’ client, requiring considerable
resources on the client’s computer to run
effectively. This includes disk space, RAM,
and CPU power.
A significant
⚫Fundamentals of Database client-side
Systems administration
72
overhead.
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 Three tier-Client Server
Architecture

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 Database Project Template
⚫ Chapter 1 Introduction
⚫ Background
⚫ Purpose of the system
⚫ Statements of the problem
⚫ Scope of the project
⚫ Objective of the project
⚫ General objective
⚫ Specific objectives
⚫ Database Development Methodology
⚫ Data Sources & Collection Methods
⚫ DB Analysis and Design Methods
⚫ Deliverables of the Project
⚫ Development Tools, Platforms and Technologies
⚫ Project Time Plan
⚫ Chapter 2-Requirement Specification
⚫ Data Requirements
⚫ Transaction Requirements
⚫ Data Entry Requirements
⚫ Data Retrieval Requirements
⚫ Data Updating Requirements
⚫ Data Removal Requirements
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 Database Project Template
⚫ Chapter 3 Database Design
⚫ Conceptual database design of the new system
⚫ Entities with their description
⚫ Attributes with their description
⚫ Relation ships between the entities
⚫ E-R diagram
⚫ Logical Database Design
⚫ ER-Relation Mapping
⚫ Validating model with Normalization
⚫ First Normal Form (1NF)
⚫ Second Normal form (2NF)
⚫ Third Normal Form (3NF)
⚫ Relational Schema with referential Integrity after normalization
⚫ Physical database design
⚫ Physical design strategy
⚫ Database Deployment details
⚫ Chapter 4 Implementation and testing
⚫ SQL script for creating the database
⚫ SQL Scripts for creating the tables, view, indexes.
⚫ Testing
⚫ References
⚫ Appendix (Forms, Reports of the Organization etc.)

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 Database Project Template

⚫ Attachment (On CD)

⚫ Implemented Database files (*.mdf & *.ldf)
⚫ SQL Script for creating the Database and
other test Statement

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