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Structural modelling for analysis:

Section 7 in BS EN 1993-1-1:2022
The updated version of EN 1993-1-1, BS EN 1993-1-1:2022, has been finalized and is being
considered by the team draughting the UK National Annex. Adoption of an updated version
of BS EN 1993-1-1 is likely to be in 2028. According to a paper by Marcus Knobloch et al 1,
Section 5 of EN 1993-1-1 led to many questions and misunderstandings attributed to the
different understanding of engineers in different countries, often due to different traditional
approaches. The corresponding section in BS EN 1993-1-1:2022 has been completely
restructured and rewritten as a result. The section is also renumbered. Richard Henderson of
the SCI considers some of the changes.

Introduction
Effect of joints
Section 7 of the code addresses structural analysis and begins by discussing
joint modelling in para. 7.1.2. This paragraph indicates that the effects of joint
behaviour only need to be taken into account in the analysis where they
significantly affect the distribution of internal forces and moments in the
structure. The assumption of simple (pinned) and continuous (rigid) joints
does not need any specific treatment in the analysis.

Consideration of second order effects

Second order effects are considered in para. 7.2.1. The code gives the same
requirements as BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 and states that the effects of the
deformed geometry should be considered if they increase the action effects or
modify the structural behaviour significantly. Two conditions are provided
which determine if second order analysis is required. The first (equation 7.1 in
the code) indicates whether second order effects due to member buckling may
Figure 1.2: Buckling Curves
be neglected in the global analysis. If:
F Where the condition is not met, splices in compressed members must be
α cr,ns = Fcr,ns ≥ k0
d designed for the strut moment resulting from the member imperfection.
where the recommended value of k₀ is 25, second order effects due to in-plane The second condition (equation 7.2 in the code) indicates whether second
or out-of-plane non-sway buckling (see Figure 1.1) may be neglected for the order effects due to global in-plane sway (see Figure 1.3) may be neglected in
global analysis. Fcr,ns is the minimum elastic critical flexural buckling load of the the global analysis.
structure and Fd is the design load. (The value of k₀ is to be given in the Fcr,sw
α cr,sw = F ≥ 10
National Annex). d

This is the familiar condition from BS EN 1993-1-1:2005 para. 5.2.1 which

indicates that second order effects due to sway may be ignored where the design
vertical load on the structure is no more than 10% of the critical load for global
buckling. The condition is aimed at ensuring that the increase in the internal
forces and moments due to sway second order effects is no more than 10% of
the internal forces and moments according to first order theory.
Consideration of lateral torsional buckling may be neglected only when the
section is not susceptible to this behaviour. This applies to:
▬ most hollow sections;
Figure 1.1: Non-Sway Buckling (Figure 7.1 BS EN 1993-1-1:2022)
▬ when bending is about one cross sectional axis but the second moment of
This condition means that if the design load in the structure is less than 1/25 area is larger in the other axis;
or 0.04 times the minimum elastic critical flexural buckling load, member ▬ when the member is sufficiently restrained that lateral torsional buckling
buckling may be neglected. The non-dimensional slenderness λ falls on the cannot occur.
buckling curve plateau if: Para. 7.2.1(10)B indicates that αcr,sw may be calculated for a storey
λ ≤ 0.2 using equation 7.3, provided the axial compression in the beams is not
so that the buckling reduction factor χ = 1.0: see Figure 1.2 significant:
The condition in equation 7.1 can be demonstrated by considering buckling K H H
α cr,sw = stN st ; Kst = Δ f
of an individual member as indicated: Σ ed,i f

Afy Kst is the lateral rigidity of the storey of height Hst given by a horizontal force
(λ)2 = ≥ 0.04
Ncr Hf applied at the top of the storey divided by the corresponding lateral
N displacement Δf. The denominator is the sum of the design axial forces of all the
Ned = Afy ⇒ N cr ≥ 25
ed columns in the storey. The minimum value of αcr,sw in any storey is adopted for ▸26

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▸24 the whole building. The value of Kst must be determined from an analysis structures extraordinarily stiff and strong. Such structures would only be
model where equivalent fictitious loads are applied to every storey in the adopted in very particular circumstances.
structure, in proportion to the design vertical loads applied at that storey.
Alternatively a buckling analysis of the whole structure may be carried out for a Method M1
vertical load case where αcr,sw is the eigenvalue for the first global lateral Details are given in para.7.2.2(5). Method M1 is similar to M0 except that
buckling mode for the structure. members are prone to lateral-torsional buckling because of their shape,
orientation, degree of restraint or slenderness (see para. 7.2.1(6)). No global
imperfection is considered because of the strength and stiffness of the
structure. A cross section check based on first order internal forces and
moments is sufficient. Verification of the lateral-torsional buckling resistance
of beam members is required, based on first order internal forces and
moments. Note that no reduction of member resistance due to flexural
buckling is applicable because equation 7.1 is satisfied.

Figure 1.3: Figure 7.1 BS EN 1993-1-1:2022 Sway Buckling

Methods of analysis for ultimate limit state checks

Para. 7.2.2 identifies three approaches to dealing with second order effects:
▬ entirely in the global analysis;
▬ partially in the global analysis and partially by verification of the buckling
resistance of individual members;
▬ by verification of the buckling resistance of “Equivalent Members” using
appropriate buckling lengths in accordance with the global buckling modes
of the structure.
Methods of analysis that may be used for ultimate limit state design checks
are labelled M0, M1, M2, M3, M4, M5 and EM in order of increasing
Figure 2.1: Methods M0 and M1
complexity. These methods are set out in Figure 7.3 of the code which gives a
flow chart for determining the circumstances in which a given analysis method Method M2
is suitable. For ease of understanding, the methods of analysis described Details are given in para. 7.2.2(6). In this case, equation 7.1 is not satisfied
should be considered with the analysis of rigid frames in mind, where the and the non-dimensional slenderness of compression members does not lie on
major axis bending of beams and columns provide the resistance to lateral the buckling curve plateau. The resistance of members to in-plane and out-of-
loads on the frame. They are discussed in turn below. plane flexural buckling must therefore be verified. Equation 7.2 is satisfied so
global second order effects do not result in significant increases in internal
Method M0 forces and moments. However, global imperfections are considered so global
Details are given in para. 7.2.2(4). Method M0 applies if equations 7.1 and 7.2 EHFs are applied to allow for an out-of-plumb structure.
are satisfied i.e. Cross section checks are based on first order internal forces and moments.
▬ Compression members are not susceptible to flexural buckling; In-plane and out-of-plane buckling checks are required based on first order
▬ Second order effects due to sway can be ignored because the structure is internal forces and moments, considering appropriate buckling lengths for the
laterally stiff; non-sway mode (effective length factors of 1.0 or less) and corresponding
▬ In addition, members are not prone to lateral-torsional buckling. bending moments.
Imperfections do not need to be included in the global analysis and a cross-
section check is sufficient. Excluding imperfections from the global analysis Method M3
means that no equivalent horizontal forces (EHFs) need to be applied. Details are given in para. 7.2.2(7)a). In this case, neither equation 7.1 nor
The elements in structures satisfying these criteria are stocky, making the equation 7.2 is satisfied. Global imperfections are included in the analysis.

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Member imperfections may be neglected in the global analysis where the axial
load in compressed members that contribute to the sway stiffness of the
structure is less than one quarter of the critical buckling load about the major
axis. Internal forces and moments should be determined from a second order
global analysis. (An approximate method is to use factor kamp to amplify first-
order values). Cross section checks are carried out using the partial factor γM1
instead of γM0, contrary to section 8.2. In-plane and out-of-plane flexural
buckling checks are carried out using internal forces and moments from the
second order global analysis. The checks are carried out considering
appropriate buckling lengths for the non-sway mode (effective length factors
of 1.0 or less).
Columns and beams are designed conventionally and member
imperfections are allowed for in the buckling checks – section 8.3 in the code.
Figure 2.3: Methods M4 and M5

As the global analysis allows for all second order effects in the behaviour of
members, verification of the buckling resistance of members is not necessary
and a cross section check using the partial factor γM1 should be applied.

Method EM
Details are given in para. 7.2.2(9). In method EM, either equation 7.1 or
equation 7.2 is not satisfied or both are not satisfied. Imperfections do not
need to be included in the global analysis. The Equivalent Member method
includes verification of the cross-sectional resistance based on first order
internal forces and moments. The effective length of each individual member
for buckling checks is determined using the stiffnesses of the members
Figure 2.2: Methods M2 and M3 coincident at the joints of the member being considered. Second order effects
are neglected in this method and the implications of doing so must be
considered. For accuracy, they should be included and this renders use of this
Method M4 method inappropriate.
Details are given in para. 7.2.2(7)b). As for method M3, neither equation 7.1
nor equation 7.2 is satisfied. Internal forces and moments are determined from Conclusion
a second order global analysis. The effect of member imperfections in Many different structural analysis packages are available and they deal with
compressed members is to reduce the stiffness of the frame and further second order effects in different ways. The structural engineer must be aware
increase the internal load effects. All in-plane second order effects (including of the capability of the analysis package used for a particular project so that the
the effects of residual stresses are allowed for in the global analysis and analysis results can be applied appropriately and the necessary member design
therefore the in-plane member buckling checks may be omitted. Members are checks can be carried out. It is expected that methods M2 and M3 will be most
subject to a cross-section check using the partial factor γM1. Out-of-plane commonly used for building structures. T
buckling checks are carried out using the usual method.
References
Method M5 1. Marcus Knobloch et al, Structural member stability verification in the new Part 1-1
Details are given in para.7.2.2(8). In method M5, neither equation 7.1 nor 7.2 of the second generation of Eurocode 3 - Part 1: Evolution of Eurocodes,
is satisfied. Global and member second order effects are included in the global background to partial factors, cross-section classification and structural analysis,
analysis for both in-plane and out-of-plane effects, including torsional effects. Steel Construction 13(2), May 2020

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