Form two

TRADE
Definition of trade
It’s the buying and selling goods or exchange of goods for mutual benefit.
Origin and development of trade
There were exchanges between countries of different environment in more
favourable surrounding; there was an organised trade between hunting and
gathering communities and their more advanced neighbour.
In Africa it was through the production and exchange of commodities such as cattle,
salt-smoked fish, kola nuts, minerals and metals which were instrumental in
maintaining trade flow, this shows that food was more important.
As people became more and more advanced, so did their needs, like clothing,
improved methods of farming, improved crops and livestock and the use of modern
tools in cultivation.
Modern civilisation has also contributed to world insecurity, which has lead to
manufacture of weapons such as guns and ammunition.
Methods of trade
a) Barter trade
Barter trade is the oldest method of trade in the history of human civilization.
Barter involves the exchange of goods and services for other goods or
services, like game meat with agricultural produces, cloth, horses, salt, copper
foe gold, slaves, ivory, kola-nuts, animal skins and ostrich feathers.
These exchanges could take the form of silent trade or dumb barter. This is
where is no common language and also in a form of sign language.
Advantages
It’s suitable where there is no currency
Disadvantages
It’s not easy to establish the actual value of the goods
Some goods could not be divided into smaller quantities
Lack of double coincidence of wants.( similar demand)
Bulky and perishable commodities had poor transportation
Lack of a common language
b) Currency trade
It’s the use of money to purchase commodities or to pay for services.
Currency is a medium of exchange accepted by a community as a measure of
value for goods and services.
Important characteristics of currency
It should be accepted by society
It should be stable and retain value without depreciating
It should be durable and of quality to be kept for a long time
It should be divisible into smaller units
It should be convertible into other currencies
It should be portable to allow easy transportation
Major modern currencies
United kingdom- sterling pound
USA- dollar
Germany- deutsche mark (DM)
 France – franc (FF)
Japan – yen
European – EURO
Advantages
It can be divided into smaller units
It is possible to store wealth sine money is a store of wealth
Its portable since it’s not bulky
It is a measure of value/ worth of goods and services
It has intrinsic value as currencies are generally made from precious
and rare metals
Disadvantages
The value of the currency may fluctuate depending on the strength of a
county’s economy
Types of trade
Local trade
Regional trade
International trade
a) Local trade
This is the exchange of goods at the village level within a geographical region.
It includes neighbouring villages; one village could produce baskets and
exchange them for pots from another village.
Origin: it began due to
i) Climatic and environment conditions. These affect the distribution of
various kinds of animals and plants. Situations arise where peoples
requirements are not found in the locality
ii) Uneven distribution of natural resources. No regions have all the natural
resources they require
iii) Specialization, some skills were preserving for a few people, like iron-
working, pottery and cloth- making. The people who didn’t have such
skills acquired what they could not produce through trade.
iv) Surplus production. There was also need for local demand; people
exchanged the excess of what they had in plenty with what they
needed from other communities.
Development
Local trade developed in order to satisfy the need of goods that were not available in
a village and production of surplus goods made it necessary to sell what was not
required to the neighbouring villages, as continuous supply and demand of goods led
to further development of trade.
Peaceful co-existence of neighbouring communities also contributed to development
of trade.
Regional and international trade further encouraged the development
Organisation
It was organised between individuals, families, clans and alter communities which
exchanged trade goods like grains, pots, iron implements, skins and livestock.
It was organised along a common clan or tribal border on a regular basis such as
weekly or fortnightly
Trade routes facilitated the easy movements of trade
It was conducted mainly using the barter method
Characteristics of local trade
It was carried out within a small area
 The range of goods was limited to availability
The numbers of traders were few
It was the basis of regional and international trade
It was done by small- scale trade
Impact
It promoted good relations between the communities involved.
There was interaction between communities leading to the adoption of new
cultural practices
There was intermarriage
Development of trading centres which grew into towns
There was availability of goods and materials
Early industries were established to produce items of trade
Chiefdoms emerge as a result of levies and tributes paid to traders
It provided a base for regional and international trade.
b) Regional trade
It’s the exchange of goods conducted between two or more geographical regions like
trans-Saharan trade.
The trans-Saharan trade
It was conducted between North Africa and West Africa. It derived its name from
crossing of the Saharan desert by traders.
Origin
It’s not clear when this trade started, merchants were travelling o n horse drawn
chariots between north and West Africa, due to increased aridity, the volume of trade
decreased, but with the introduction of the camel from Asia the trade was revived.
The Arabic who originally settled in parts of North Africa and from there they started
moving south, first as traders and later as settlers.
Development
The camel which was used as a means of transport made it easier to travel
and conduct trade across the hot and hostile desert as the camel could
withstand extremely harsh conditions.
The availability of trade commodities like, gold, ivory, slaves, leather, kola-nuts,
pepper and gum were readily available in the West Africa. Similarly the
commodities such as salt, horses, weapons, iron tools, cloth, silk, beads,
cowries shells, glass ware and dries fruit.
Strong kingdom. There were strong kingdoms like Ghana, Mali and Songhai.
The rulers ensured that the trade prospered and that trade routes were
secure.
The tuaregs. They served as guides to the caravans as they were conversant
with the desert routs. They guarded the caravans against hostile desert
communities who sought to rob them; they acted as middlemen and
maintained oases through providing food stuffs.
Wealthy merchants. They financed the caravans as an investment that hoped
would bring those profits.
Oases. This lead to growth of trans-Saharan trade through refreshment and
replenishing supplies.
Islam. As islam spread through the region, it served to unify the traders as
brothers and sisters.

Organization
Wealthy merchants in the North African financed the caravans. It was done where
merchants gathered commodities and commits them to their employees who would
organise caravans and they would commit their merchandise as loans to their
traders who would then organise caravans.
The traders would collect commodities that were in demand in West African such as
horses and weapons. The trader’s would team up with other traders to form a
caravan. The caravans would be made up of several hundreds of people.
The traders would engage the services of the tuareg or Berber guides, also known
as takshifs who would guide the caravans to the locations with the highest demand
at the time.
During their trips, the traders would engage local agents who would serve as
intermediaries.
There were two types of trade routes used namely, the main or primary routes and
the secondary routes.
a) The western route. It began at fez in morocco and went through Sijilmasa,
then Taghaza, Timbukutu, Audaghast and ended in the Niger belt.
b) The central route. This route began in Tunis through Ghat, Agades, Kano
and ended within the Hausa state.
c) The eastern route. This route started from Tripoli then went through Murzuk
,Bilma and finally ended at Njimi in Karnem Bornu.
Difficulties encountered by traders
The journey was long and tiring, sometimes the caravan traders ran out of
supplies for themselves and animals
The caravans encountered insecurity in the desert like robbers and terrorisms
which were hostile
The routes in the desert changed frequently, the caravans would occasionally
get lost
The desert climate was harsh with very high temperatures during the day and
very low at night
There was a language barrier between the traders and the desert communities
Blinding sand storms hampered the progress of the caravan
The caravans were always danger of attack by various desert creatures such
as scorpions and snakes
The takshifs would turn against the employers and attack and rob them
There was rivalry among traders over the monopoly and control of trade and
trade routes
Factors that lead to decline of the trans-Saharan trade
The gold and salt fields got exhausted reducing supply
Fall of empires like Songhai caused political instability and insecurity in the
region
External invasion by morocco cost destruction of some commercial centres like
Gao and Timbukutu
The rise and growth of trans-Atlantic trade rendered trans-Saharan trade
unpopular
European trading activities along West African coast undermine the trade
Abolition of slave trade from the 1840s denied the traders a main trade` item’
The tuaregs changed their roles as guides and became robbers of the
caravans
The desert condition like sand storms and desert insects.
Impact
 The trade provided an important link between western Sudan and North Africa
It stimulated the growth of small settlement which later grew into big ancient
towns
It created a new social class in western Sudan
The trade brought about islamisation of people in West Africa
New types of goods were introduced to the people of West Africa
They built schools and university were Arabic literature and philosophy were
taught
C) International trade
It refers to trade between countries outside geographical regions. It can also be
define as trade which involves travel across seas and oceans.
The trans-Atlantic trade
It also referred to as triangular trade, because it was conducted between Africa,
America and Europe across the Atlantic Ocean
Origins
It began in 15th century as a result of Portuguese and Spanish exploration. At first
Portuguese took slave to Europe, where they worked as domestic servants. In the
16th c. with the discovery and colonization of America, slaves were exported there
from west Africa by European merchants.
Europeans in Portugal, Spain, Holland, France and Britain started plantation of
sugar, tobacco and cotton in the lands. This created an agent need for cheap labour
as indigenous red Indians were un willing and un fit to work in the plantation. The
solution to labour problem was found in Africa.
Why African slave were more preferred than other races
The supply of African slave was high
They were cheaper to acquire
They were stronger than the European and Red Indian labourers
They were regarded as immune to tropical diseas
Their complexion prevented them from escaping them easily
Development
This was influenced by the activities of Portuguese as they were to sail to West
Africa and established trade links. They captured a few Africans slave whom they
took too Europe to work as domestic servants. they were shipped to Hispaniola in
1510. The successes of their experiment lead to more slaves being shipped directly
to America from Africa
Factors for the development of trans-Atlantic trade
European nations hand links with West Africa.
African chiefs had developed a taste for European goods such as glass,
clothes, rum and fir –arms
The introduction of fire-arms in West Africa made it easier to raid communities
for slaves and to conduct wars of conquest in order to capture slaves.
The establishment of mines and plantations and in new lands increased the
demand for slaves
The increased demand of raw materials by European industries resulted in an
increased in demand for slaves in America.
There was competition and rivalry among European nations to control the
trade
The trade was lucrative and profitable to the merchants.
Ship – building technology improved with building of larger ships with a greater
capacity for such as slaves.
Organization
It was conducted between three continents that are Africa, America and Europe; it
involved Portugal, Spain, Holland, Britain and France. From Africa, slaves were
shipped to plantations in the Caribbean and the America while raw materials
including gold, pepper, ivory, hides, gum, bees wax, rice and ginger were sent to
Europe. From plantations in America and Caribbean, raw materials such as sugar,
tobacco and cotton were sent to factories in Europe for processing.
The slaves were the main commodity that were shipped from the West African coast
and destined for plantations in America and Caribbean.
Cheap manufactured goods were shipped from European ports to middlemen on the
West African coast. The middlemen held the merchandise in trust and used it to
trade with the slaves captors. This lead to growth of the West African ports such as
Accra, Lagos and Dakar.
When European traders arrived in the West Africa, agents of the local kings collected
fees from them after which they were entertained.
Methods used to acquired slaves
They were sold by rulers such as chiefs and kings to the slave traders
The captives of war were sold to the slave traders
They were exchanged with other commodities e.g gun and cloth
Some lonely travellers were kidnapped by the slave traders
Commodities raided their neighbours and captured people who were sold to
slave traders
Children were enticed with gifts liked sweets and then captured to be sold to
slave traders
Debtors were sold to slave traders to pay debts through a method known as
panyaring
Reasons for the decline
There was decline in demand of sugar as France began producing cheaper
sugar that penetrated and dominated the European market.
In the 1776, the U.S.A attained political independence from Britain, a move
that deprived the British of profits made from the slave trade
During the industrial revolution in Europe, machines replaced human labour as
they were more efficient.
The Christian missionaries began to advocate for the abolition of slave trade,
as did humanitarians in Britain during 19th c.
Influential economists like Adam smith advanced arguments for a free
enterprise economy; men were less productive when enslaved than free men.
The U.S.A. experienced a civil war between the north and south over the
institution of slavery, the north which was against slavery won the war leading
to the abolition of slavery in the U.S.A.
Leading Africans actively campaigned against slave trade. King nzinga
mbemba of Congo wrote a letter to the king of Portugal requesting him to stop
his men buying slave in the Congo.
Impact
The trade led to the development of ports like Bristol and Liverpool.
It contributed to the emergence of a class of wealthy traders who invested in
plantation.
It led to settlement of Africans in America.
There was depopulation in Africa as slaves were captured and taken to
America.
 Slave raiding led to an increased in inter-tribal wars, the wars increased
insecurity.
Kingdoms like the Fante, Asente, Dahomey and Oyo which controlled the trade
became very powerful.
There was economic decline because the young and able were taken away,
leaving the weak and old.
Slave raiding involved the destruction of property; villages were often burnt
down and left in ruins.
There was decline in traditional industries due to introduction of goods such as
clothes and glassware at the expense of local ones.
The trans-Saharan trade decline as goods were diverted towards the West
African coast from them was exported overseas.
Long- lasting trade links were established between West Africa, Europe and
America.
Slave market and ports like Lagos and Elmina from where slave were shipped,
developed into urban centres along the coast of West Africa.
Slave trade weakened African societies to the level that they could not
effectively resist colonisation.
The abolition of trade lead to the creation of Sierra Leone and Liberia as
settlements for freed slaves
DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Definition of trade
It’s from two wards; Trans which means across, beyond, over or to the far side of
and port meaning the carrying of goods. It’s therefore the carrying of goods and
people from one place to another.
Traditional forms of transport
These are human port rage, pack of animals, raft, boats and sailing ships
Land transport
a) Human port rage
This was carried on heads, shoulders and backs
Advantages
It was readily available
It was cheap methods
It was flexible because it hard no fixed times for departure and arrival
Disadvantages
It was time-consuming as movement was slow
There porter could carry only a small load
It was tiresome, forcing the porter to make frequent rest
Porters were affected by adverse weather condition
b) Pack and draught animals
Animals were initially domesticated only for food, later they did carry goods and
people. At first the load was placed directly on the animals back, later, some of the
animals began to pull vehicles. Animals like ox, donkey, horse, mule, elephant,
camel, reindeer and dogs
Advantages
Animals are cheap to maintain since they require only feeding
Accidents are rare since animals do not over speed
Animals can be used in accessible areas
Some animals can sense danger by sniffing out an enemy from a distance.
Animals do not need fuel apart from teaching and training
Disadvantages
Animals may be attacked by wild animals
It is slow and tedious mode of transport
The amounts of load which animals can carry are low when compared to motor
vehicle.
Pack animals are stubborn when tired or heavily loaded
The animals can only cover a limited distance
c) Vehicles without wheels
The earliest vehicles were crude contraptions without wheels. As they were
cumbersome to drag along the ground, they moved slowly and carried small loads.
The sleigh (sledge)
The sleigh glided on runners placed from back to front. It was commonly used in the
snow terrains of northern Europe and North America. It was initially pulled by people;
later teams of dogs were harnessed to it. The reindeer was also used in some parts
of the arctic and sub- arctic regions.
The travois
It was v-shaped with the narrower side harnessed to a horse or dogs using a pole.
The broader side which was dragged along the ground, had cross-pieces that served
as a base for the load. The travois was most commonly used in the North America
because of its treeless, dry and flat terrain.
The sedan chair
This was a special chair fitted with two poles running on the sides from back to front.
Four men carried it on these poles.
The development of wheel
The idea of the wheel was developed from the use of wooden rollers. These loose
lengths of logs placed under a load. The load was then pulled forward over the
rollers. As each roller was fixed at the back. It was carried and placed again at the
front.
The wheel in Mesopotamia
It was first used by Sumerians in Mesopotamia about 5000 years ago. It was solid,
heavy and fixed to the axle. The spoke wheel was developed around 2500 bc. It was
used on a horse-drawn chariot, making them lighter and swifter. These were the 1st
vehicles to be used in warfare.
Later rubber strip was added on the outside. A metal strip, instead of rubber, was
introduced by Assyrians. All these made the wooden spoke wheel more durable. It
was also used in shadoofs, a pulley system with which farms were irrigated in
Mesopotamia.
Impact of the wheel in Mesopotamia
It enabled the Sumerians built war chariots which increased mobility of the
solders.
It enhanced transportation of people and goods.
The chariots gave the Sumerians solders height advantage over their enemies,
enabling them to fight more efficient.
It promoted trade through efficiency of transportation of goods and traders
It facilitated the construction of roads
It enhance the making of pots of high quality
It promoted early agriculture as the wheel was used on shadoof for irrigation.
The wheel in china
They invented the wheel about 4000 years ago. They used the potter’s wheel to
produce fine porcelain vessels. They were fixed on horse- drawn chariots and carts
drawn water buffaloes for carrying people and goods.
The wheel in Africa
It spread through Egypt from south East Asia when the country was invaded by the
Hyksos in 1800 BC. The invaders used horse drawn chariots. When they were
defeated, the Egyptians used the wheel to make their own carts, this spread to other
parts of Africa.
The wheel in Europe
The Greeks were the 1st Europeans to use the wheel, during the Olympics which
were held every four years; one event was a fourteen- kilometre chariot race.
Military chariots were 1st used during the reign of Alexander the great. Using horse
–drawn chariots and wheeled siege to wars, the Greeks conquered turkey, Persia,
parts of India and Egypt.
The Romans learned the use of the wheel from the Greeks. They improved two-
wheeled chariots for sport, postal services and warfare.
Water transport
The 1st means of water transport was just a log to which a man could cling, the early
people must have discovered that they could hold onto a tree trunk, remain afloat
and actually be transported.

The earliest vessels

Rafts
It’s made up of several logs tied together. This helped to improve on the stability of
the log. A long pole reached the bottom of the river was to propel and steer the raft.
However, it was still difficult to move upstream.
The dug-out canoe
The earliest boats were simply dug-out tree trunk. The hallowed out section provided
room for passengers. These were used for crossing rivers over shallow waters and
fishing , but they were not unstable.
Oar-driven boats
Oars were used to push or row the boat against water currents thus increasing the
speed and power. They were used by Egyptians, Romans, Phoenicians and Greeks.
Sailing boats
They were propelled by wind; it was done by trapping winds in cloth that was
attached to a mast on the boat. They had greater speed than oar-driven boats.
Sailing ship
They were larger and bigger than the sailing boats. A mast was erected in the centre
of the vessel and a square sail attached on it.
Limitations of early forms of water transport
They could easily sink during strong wind and storms.
They could only move down stream as their movement relied on water current.
They carried only a few passengers and goods at a time
Passengers and goods were exposed to the elements of weather.
Development in modern means of transport
Road transport
Roman roads
The 1st road to be built was by Romans about 312bc. The main aim was to ensure
rapid movement of troops and administrators.
Every region was accompanied by an engineer to supervise construction and
maintenance. The building was done by soldiers, assisted by local labourers.
The roads had foundations of up to one and half meters deep and made with
whatever local material that was available, usually heavy rocks were thrown in 1st,
followed by other layers of smaller stones and rubble. There was a drain on each
side and kerbstones to prevent the surface from sliding outwards.
The 1st roman road called the apian way, connected Rome and Capua, a distance of
209km. at the height of the empire; over 85000km of roads had been built.
Characteristics of roman roads
They were constructed straight
They were raised high above the ground to avoid flooding.
They were well drained on each side
They were built with bridges across rivers and tunnels through hills.
Macadam roads
John macadam (1756-1830) devised a faster but cheaper way of constructing roads.
He realised that ordinary ground could still be used to make good roads if it was kept
dry. He removed only the top soil and then put three layers of small, broken stones,
carriage wheels were used to press the stones tightly and grit to break off and bind
everything together. The surface was curved to allow water to run off into ditches on
the sides. The soil underneath remained dry and made the road durable.
These roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface
called tar-Mac. The word was coined from the word tar, and from macadam’s name.
Advantage of macadam roads.
 They were all- weather roads
The roads were wide hence could accommodate more traffic
They were durable
They were straight hence reduced accidents
They had a smooth surface hence the motoring surface was comfortable.
The bicycle
It means two wheels; it was invented in 1700 by a Frenchman de sivrac. It has two
wheels were placed in front of the other on a framework rather than side by side on a
single axle.
The velocipede
It’s also known as the hobby horse, this kind of a bicycle was 1st used in 1820. There
was no transmission of power to the wheels. The rider sat on it and pushed it forward
with his feet and some speed was built up.
The penny farthing
The name was derived from the British coins, the penny, and the farthing, because
one wheel was bigger than the other. The rider transmitted power from pedals
attached to the front bigger wheel over which the he sat.
The safety bicycle
It was developed from 1884. Chain gearing was invented by Englishman J.K
Stanley. It consisted of two sprocket-wheels, the bigger one attached to the pedals in
the centre and the smaller one to the rear wheel.
Another Englishman, J.B Dunlop, invented the pneumatic tyres which replace the
uncomfortable solid rubber ones.
The last improvement was the invention of the free-wheel which allowed the rear
wheel to rotate when the rider was not pedalling.
The motor-cycle
The motor-cycle is a motorised bicycle. The 1st was made by Gottlied Daimler in
1855. The frame was made stronger and wheels wider, an engine and a gear box
were added to ease riding. It was faster than a bicycle and cheaper than an
automobile, it could access rough terrain, carried only one passenger or a small
load.
The motor vehicle
It was not a sudden invention of any one person. It was the result of a contribution of
many people over several hundred years, in 1789, a French engineer, and Joseph
Cugnot, built a three-wheeled vehicle powered by a steam engine. It moved at a
slow, walking pace, although it could carry passengers, it was designed to transport
cannons.
In 1858 petroleum oil was discovered in the U.S.A in 1859, Frenchman Etienne
Lenoir developed the internal combustion engine instead of steam, the engine used
petroleum vapour which was ignited to give an internal explosion.
An Australian, Marcu, built two vehicles but they were banned from the roads
because they were too noisy.
A German engineer, Nicolas Otto also made significant contributions to design of the
engine.
In 1886, Daimler built a four-wheeled car with a high-speed petrol engine. A
converted horse-drawn carriage, this vehicle was the forerunner of the modern car.
Towards the end of the 1880s, a French company, Panhard-levassor, bought the
right to use Daimlers engine within a few years, their factory produced its 1st car.
Advantages of road transport
It is the cheapest form of transport over short distance
 Road transport is flexible
Its faster compared to water and rail transport
Can be used by many means e.g. human and animals
Disadvantages of road transport
Accidents are high on roads, leading to loss of lives.
Traffic congestion leading to jams
Exhaust fumes motor vehicles cause air pollution
It is expensive to construct all weather roads.
Rail transport
It was developed from the idea of vehicles moving along a fixed track. The 1st
railways were used in Germany from 16th c in the coal mines.
The steam engine
Thomas savery, a British engineer, designed and built the 1st steam- drive pump
which was used to pump water out of coal mine.
In 1780, a Scottish engineer, James watt developed a smaller, more efficient steam
engine.
1n 1801, Richard Trevithick installed watts engine in a vehicle which ran on an
ordinary road.
In 1813, Christopher bracket and William Hedler made another steam engine,
nickname puffing Billy because of the smoke it produced.
The introduction of locomotion by George Stephenson and Robert which was the 1st
steam locomotive to pull a passenger train along a public railway from Stockton to
Burlington.
The diesel engine
In 1892, a German engineer, Rudolph diesel designed a heavy-oil engine to work on
a compression ignition system. His engine, built in 1895, achieved compression far
higher than that required for self-ignition in order to obtain the greatest possible
efficiency.
The electric engine
The 1st electric railway system was built in Britain in 1883. Designed by Siemens
brothers and john Hopkinson. Electric 240 volts, was picked up from a third rail.
In U.S.A many instillations involving electric tramways were built in the 1890s. They
were operated by power taken either from overhead cables or live rail. They were
designed by F.J. Sprague and C.J van depoele.
The trans-Siberian railway line.
This is found in Russia. It was built in 1891 from Leningrad to Vladivostok on the
shores of the Pacific Ocean
The great American railway
It is found in the U.S.A it starts on the Atlantic coast and stretches to the Pacific
Ocean coast on the west.
The Canadian pacific railway
It is found in Canada. It was built in 1881 and links the eastern coast of the Atlantic
Ocean to the western coast of the Pacific Ocean.
Advantages of rail transport
It is suitable for transportation of heavy bulky goods
It is economical for transportation of goods and services over a long distance.
Electric trains are a fast means of transport.
It follows a regular timetable which enables passengers to plan their
movement.
It is safe means of transport as accidents are rare.
 Underground trains help to reduce traffic congestion on the roads.
Disadvantages of railway transport
It is expensive to construct railways and buy the wagons.
Accidents though rare are always fatal when they occur.
Diesel engines emit a lot of smoke leading to air pollution.
Rail transport is heavily affected by terrain.
Railway transport is not flexible and has to be supplemented by other means of
transport.
Impact of railway transport
It has promoted urbanization as towns have developed along railway lines.
It led to the development of international trade as bulky goods could be easily
transported to the markets.
It led to industrial revolution in Europe as raw materials could be transported to
industrial and finished products to markets.
It opened remote continental interiors of Africa, Asia and n. America for
agricultural and mineral exploitation.
It helped the colonialist to establish effective control over their colonies through
quick movement of administrators and troops.
Railway transport has offered employment to many people.
It led to widespread migration and settlement of people.
Water transport
Steamships
In the 18th c. it was discovered that steam power could be used to drive machines. In
1736, an Englishman, Jonathan hulls, built a boat driven by steam power. It was
tested on the river Avon, but it was not a success. The 1st successful steam boat
was built in 1783 by a Frenchman, Marquis de Jouffroy. It was driven by peddle-
wheels, one on each side of the hull.
In 1787, John Fitch, an American, built a steam boat driven by sis oars on each side.
In 1790 he built another ship which could travel at 112km/h with it he began services
on the Delaware River between Philadelphia and Trenton.
Another was built by Scottish engineer, William Symington. His steamship was
driven by two paddle wheels. Then Robert Fulton, an American, built the clermont,
which was driven by two paddle-wheels. In 1807, the clermont began a regular
passenger service between albanyon on the Hudson River and New York.
A propeller under the ship replaced paddle-wheels. The 1st propeller steamer was
the Archimedes, built in 1838.
Three developments which increased the popularity of steamships included-:
In 1854, John Elder invented an economical two –cylinder compound engine which
cut fuel consumption by about 60%.
The Suez Canal was opened in 1869; it shortened the route to the east by about
5000km.
Coal stations were opened all along the main sea-routs. It was no longer necessary
to carry a lot of fuel and so there was more cargo space.
Development of modern ships.
The modern cruise ship is a luxurious ship designed to offer entertainment to
passengers as the ship takes a cruise in the ocean.
These ships are about 3oom long and carry up to 2000 passengers
Canals.
A canal is a man-made water channel usually dug on a straight course. The main
reason for the construction of the canals in Europe and North America was the poor
conditions of the roads and also shorten distance.
They also saves costs by reducing the distance this means they are cheap.
Ship canals
It’s deeper and can be used by ocean-going vessels. They were constructed to link
the industrial centres to ports or to shorten routes, like the Manchester-Liverpool
canal, the Suez Canal and Panama Canal.
Advantages of water transport
It enhanced the exploration of the world especially after the discovery of the
magnetic compass
It promoted trade through transportation of bulky goods between continents.
It reduced the cost of transport by providing the cheapest means of
transporting bulky goods over long distances.
Promoted exploitation of natural resources under the water.
Disadvantages of water transport
Its slow means of moving passengers and cargo.
Construction of port facilities is expensive.
It can only be used by countries that are bordered by oceans, hence land-
locked countries are disadvantaged.
May lead to pollution of water through oil spills.
Delays are caused by port congestion especially where adequate loading and
unloading facilities are lacking.
Impact of water transport
It is a convenient means of transporting bulky goods
It is a major source of employment
It has boosted international trade
It is a major source of government revenue.
It has enhanced inter-continental connections
It has expanded mans knowledge about the deep seas.
Some towns emerged where there are harbours and ports.
Air transport
The desire to fly was a dream of mankind for many countries; some pioneers were
even killed while trying to get airborne.
Kits were probably the 1st objects to be flown.
The 1st was a hot air balloon designed and built by two brothers, Jacques and
Joseph Montgolfier. It covered only eight kilometres that lasted twenty minutes.
Brazilian inventor, alberto Santos dumont, developed the 1 st airship in 1898.
Although it was a balloon, it was powered by an engine and called therefore be
steered.
The aeroplane.
The 1st successful heavier than air powered flight was made by Orville Wright at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina in the U.S.A.
Air transport and aircraft design advanced rapidly. By 1909, aeroplanes were being
commercially produced, in 1911, the 1st airmail services was introduced.
The jet engine
The demand for higher speeds for military planes produced the gas turbine, which
made possible the jet plane.
The jet engine gave greater power and higher speed to aircraft. In 1970s, the jumbo
jets were introduced which can cruise long distances at speeds of up to 1000km/h
with 400 passengers on board.
Today, the Concorde is the fastest passenger aircraft; it cruises at up to 2000km/h.
Impact of air transport
It has promoted international trade especially perishable goods.
It provides transport to in accessible remote areas.
It has revolutionised warfare as countries are able to strike their enemies with
precision.
It has contributed immensely to space exploration through space shuttle and
satellites.
Air transport has enhanced international co-operation and understanding.
It has enhanced emergency and relief services for example; it is used by flying
doctors in emergency situations.
Accidents though rare are often fatal for all passengers and crew.
Space exploration
The discovery of the telescope in 1610 by Galileo Galilei made space exploration
easier; astronomers began to study the moon through a telescope in the early
1600s.
The rocket
It was invented and 1st used by the Chinese around 1000ad. They were used as
weapons and space exploration.
In a simple rocket, burning fuel produces large amounts of gas. This is freed out of a
hole at back, causing the rocket to move forward.
Satellites
It’s a small body that travels in orbit around a large body used as space exploration
more than a hundred satellites are launched into the orbit around the earth by
various countries every year.
They are used to facilitate communication between the continents.
They help geologists to prospect for minerals and assist astronomers in the study of
the solar system.
Space shuttle
This craft is partly a rocket and partly plane. It is propelled into space like a rocket,
bit it returns to earth like a aeroplane. Presently, several robotic missions have been
sent into space. There is a permanent international space station orbiting the earth.
Advantages of space exploration.
It has enhanced human understanding of the universe like Pluto.
It has led to the development of advanced air defence system, like the
American star wars system.
It has enhanced effective mapping and surveillance on earth through global
positioning system.
Space exploration has encouraged space tourism.
Disadvantages of space exploration
Accidents though rare have fatal consequences.
It is very expensive and preserve of only the rich nations.
It is an activity that contributes to environmental degradation e.g. degradation
of the ozone layer.
Impact of modern means of transport.
An efficient transport network reaching all corners of every country has
resulted in great expansion of both internal and external trade.
There is migration of people from one part of the world to another is faster and
easier.
Advancement of transport made people settle in places where there were good
means of transport.
 Faster transport has resulted into a quick transfer of ideas in technology.
Farmers can easily transport their produce even to the most distant markets
anywhere in the world.
Raw materials have to be transported to factories, while finished goods have to
reach markets.
Enhance tourism as people require efficient transport services to visit areas of
attraction in other parts of the world.
Modern transport has created millions of jobs as aeroplanes, ship, trains and
cars have to be built and serviced.
It’s new possible to rush help to victims even in very remote places by air.
Modern means of transport have expanded mans knowledge about universe
and deep seas.
It has also encouraged the exploitation of natural resources.
Government benefit from revenue collection for the issuance of several types
of licences and sale petroleum.
Security is also boosted because personnel and officials can be moved easily
from one part to another.
Negative impacts
There are accidents which lead to loss of many lives and causing permanent
injuries.
Increasing numbers of vehicles have resulted in serious traffic jams in many
cities.
Vehicles emit dangerous gases into the atmosphere.
Fast and efficient systems of transport have changed the nature of modern
warfare. Troops can be moved quickly to trouble spots.
The rapid interaction of people encourages spread of diseases e.g. aids, avian
flu, ebola.
Definition of communication.
It’s the sending and receiving of messages through a medium. This involves the
receiver sending back a response to the sender.

Factors to consider for effectiveness.

The languages of the receiver of the message.
It’s also important to consider the distance of the receiver from the sender.
Consider the urgency of the message.
The cost of sending messages is also another factor to consider.
Also consider the geographical factors in which the receiver is operating from.
Traditional forms of communication.
As people began to live together, they found it necessary to share ideas, information
and experiences.
a) Fire and smoke signals.
It was lit on raised ground, where it could be seen from a distance. It was used to
send urgent message i.e. warning of an approaching invasion.
Advantages
They were visible
The message was delivered very fast
It was a cheaper way of passing a message.
The message was limited to the users and outsiders could not understand.
Disadvantages
 It was difficult to start fire in wet conditions.
Smoke was not visible on a cloudy misty day and on a windy day it is easily
blown away.
The signals were of no use if no one was on the lookout.
Messages could only be sent over short distance.
They conveyed limited range of messages.
b) Drum beats
It was paled by skilled drummers who could imitate the sound of speech. Drums
were used to announce village festivities, weddings, deaths or even to summon
warriors to assemble in a squire. Drum signals could be relayed from one village to
another.
Advantages
They could relay a wide range of messages.
Messages could be conveyed over a wide area.
Could be used at any time, e.g. day or night, wet or dry season.
The message conveyed faster.
Disadvantages
The message could not be clearly interpreted
It needed the expertise of skilled drummers.
There is no privacy of the message sent.
The distance covered was short.
c) Messengers
Runners were often sent to deliver messages particularly longer ones that could not
be communicated by fire, smoke or drum boats. Confidential messages were also
safely derived by messengers.
Advantages
Suitable where there are no other means of communication.
Messages were delivered instantly.
Disadvantages of messengers.
It took a long time to reach the recipient since travel was by foot.
The messenger could forget the message they were to deliver.
The information could be distorted.
The messenger could be attacked on the way and killed by wild animals.
Distance covered by the messenger was limited.
d) Horn blowing
A variety of messages could be sent by means of long and short blast of a horn,
such as public announcements. Such sound could also be relayed.
Advantage
A wide range of message could be conveyed through tones.
Could be used at any time of the day or night under any weather conditions.
Disadvantages
The horn could be blown when no one was listening.
The messages were restricted to those who knew the tones.
Messages could not travel beyond hills and mountains.
The privacy of the message was not assured.
e) Screams and cries
This was done from hills or mountain tops for maximum effects due to echoing.
Different ways of screaming conveyed different message, wailing signified bad news
e.g. death or attack by raiders.
Ululations signified good news e.g. birth of a new child or feasting.
Advantages
A wide range of message was conveyed.
The message reached the recipient fast.
Messages were sent at no cost.
Disadvantages
The distance covered by the message was limited
It had no secrecy in the message delivered.
Written messages.
a) Scrolls. It’s a roll of paper used for writing, it was 1st used in ancient Egypt by
splitting, soaking in water and drying papyrus roads- pens were also made
from the reeds, while ink was derived from glue, gums, charcoal and other
substances.
b) Parchments. It was made from dried skins of goats and other animals. It
proved better than papyrus because it could be folded and cut easily into
pages.
c) Stone tables. In Mesopotamia, a system of writing called cuneiform was
developed from about 3500 years ago. Writing was done on a clay tablet
using a wedge-shaped niber stylus; this had to be done while clay was wet.
Advantages of written
The message was reliable as it could not be easily forgotten.
In most instances the message was accurate.
The message could be stored for future reference.
Disadvantages
The change in language used could affect the message as the meaning of
words would also change.
It is also effective in communication among the literate people.
There are many forms of writing which create a problem of interpretation.
Development in modern means of communication.
Telecommunication.
It’s sending and receiving of message quickly over very long distance.
a) The telephone and cell phone
The telephone is technological systems that send and receives voice message over
a long distance by means of wires connecting to a local exchange.
The cell phone is also known as a cellular or mobile phone. a cell phone is a two-
way radio system which connects the caller to the telephone network using radio
waves instead of wires.
b) Television.
It sends picture and sound messages by radio from a transmitting station to a distant
television set. The station changes light and sound waves from a scene into
electronic signal and sends them. These are received in a television set which
changes them back into pictures and sounds.
c) Radio
A radio set is a device which receives electro- magnetic radio waves and them
into sound waves.
d) The telegraph
The telegraph sends coded electronic messages by wire over long distances, for
example, from one continent to another. The message is called a telegram if it
travels over land; or a cable if it is sent or received from overseas.
e) Electronic mail.
Is the exchanged computer stored messages by telecommunication between
connected computers. The computers are linked by telephone. Local and
international computer networks enable e-mail to be sent. E-mail was among the 1st
and is still the most widely used application on the internet.
f) Computer
This refers to an electronic device that works under a command or programme to
reach a conclusion based on data supplied. A computer works in seconds, it is made
up of two basic parts, the body work (handwork) and the programme of instructions
(software)
g) Fax simile trans-receiver (fax)
The fax machine is also connected to a telephone line. It resembles a photo-copier; it
transmits exact copies of pictures, letters, drawing or any other documents to
another fax machine anywhere in the world.
h) Telex
It’s a modification of the telegraph. It sends and receives messages electronically
which are printed in ordinary language. Neither does it need the presence of an
operator to physically receive the message.
i) Pager
Is a small receiver that delivers short radio messages, the message is read on the
pagers screen? It’s a portable communication message service.

j) Internet
A computer may be linked with other computers within an organization in order to
easily exchange information. This linkage forms one network. The internet is a huge,
worldwide system of millions of inter-connected networks.
Advantages of telecommunication.
They are fast and efficient means of communication.
They store information for future reference.
They enable instant transmission of information.
Information can be transmitted all over the world.
They enable transmission of message to more than one recipient at the same
time.
Disadvantages
They can only be used where there is electricity.
They rely on experts to operate and be maintained.
They are expensive to buy and maintain, hence not accessible to all people.
Their use is limited to place where there is network and reception.
Impact
They have increased interactions between people in many parts of the world.
They have enabled people to manage information efficiently.
The disposal of telecommunication gadgets may result in environmental
pollution.
Some means of telecommunication erode moral values e.g. pornography
Use of some means of telecommunication may become addictive.
Continues use of some means of telecommunication may be a health hazard.
Provided government revenue through paying taxes and revenue.
Provided employment to many people all over the world.
They have promoted security by using radio and telephone to fight crime.
They have promoted entertainment through music, films and sports.
 They have promoted trade as business people are able to communicate
information about their products and services.
Print media
It’s refers to written and published document which provide information e.g. news
letters, newspaper, magazines, journals and books.
a) Newspaper
Is a document produced daily to disseminate information about significant local and
international news.
b) Magazines
Is a regular publication providing specialised information on a particular issue? It is
usually bound within covers and published weekly, fortnightly or monthly.
c) Periodical (journals)
It’s a regular publication issued at weekly, monthly or quarterly intervals. They
range from technical and scholarly journals to magazines for mass circulation.
Advantages of print media.
They provide a permanent record of information for future reference.
Provide material for reading and reference.
They can be distributed in many parts of the world.
They can be translated into many languages.
They provide detailed information.
Disadvantages
They can only be used by the literate people.
They are expensive to obtain, making it difficult for many people to access
them.
They can be used to spread malicious propaganda.
Impact of print media.
They have enabled transmission of information all over the world.
They have promoted literacy and education through provision of reading
and defence material.
They have created employment for many people.
They are a source of government revenue.
They have promoted moral decadence through publishing of obscene
information.
Impact of modern means of communication.
Positive.
It has enhanced educational and research.
It has created entertainment.
It has led to space exploration.
It has lead to improvement in air and water transportation.
It has led to improvement in trade.
Creation of employment to people.
It’s also a source of revenue.
It has opened up remote areas.
It has lead to weather forecasting.
Negative impacts.
It has led to rise in global crime.
It has led to erosion of moral values.
It has promoted addictive tendencies like , t.v programmes.
There is also exposure to radioactive rays.
It has lead to noise pollution.
Telecommunication services have been used greatly to improve weaponry
and conduct war.
There has been the issue of cultural imperialism.