ANIMAL NUTRITION

RATION:- A fixed amount of total feed is given to an animal for once a day or
24 hours is known as ration

BALANCED RATION:- A ration which has been balanced so that it contains

appropriate portion of nutritional component i.e carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, minerals for the specific class including age, lactation status of
livestock for which ration is formulated.

COMPLETE RATION:- All of the constituents of a ration fed to a confined

animal are mixed together & fed one time.

- It does’nt require supplementation other than drinking water.

NUTRITION:- It involves various chemical & physiological activities like

ingestion, digestion , absorption , excretion which transport food components
into body for the growth and replacement or elaboration of products.

NUTRIENTS:- It is a chemical agent that is required by the body to support and

maintainance. Nutrients are supplied through a mixture of feed stuffs i.e diet.

SUPPLEMENT:- Supplement is intended to provide nutrients as vitamins or

amino acids that may not be consumed in sufficient quantities.

ADDITIVES:- It is a substance added to feed to preserve a flavor or enhanced

its taste and appearance.

Most farm animals are kept for production purposes that means they either
produce consumable food or other products like feather, leather or fibres. To be
able to produce these commodities daily, they need to grow and produce fibres
& feathers . To be able to grow they require energy, protein, vitamins and
minerals.
FOOD:- It is the material that provides the body with nutrients. It is the
material which after being ingested is capable of being absorb, digested &
utilize. It is edible material.

Grass, hay and milk are described as food but not all their components are
digested. Certain animals than other can not digest some of components. Ex;
Mankind are not able to digest cellulose because of lack of enzyme that digest
cellulose. On the other hand, ruminants make use of microorganisms to digest
the cellulose for them. So that they can utilize cellulose as energy source that
enables them to make use of low quality feed such as grass and hay.

COMPOSITION OF FOOD:- Food supply two very critical macro- components

for the life maintainance, growth & production to animals mainly energy and
protein. Food for farm animals consist of plants e.g. grazing grasses, processed
and reserved plant products ( Hay , silage, concentrate etc). However some can
be obtained from animal sources such as carcass meat , fish meat , milk. Plants
are able to synthesise radiant energy from sun ( minerals from soil through
photosynthesis where by radiant energy is converted into chemical energy.
Chemical energy is used by animals for maintainance of life and synthesis of its
own body tissues. These two macronutrients form the bulk part of food supply
to all mammals. It can be fed with different qualities and may range from low
quality roughage to very concentrated feed such as grass and other. Some
animals like ruminants are utilizing poor quality roughage. Other animals like
monogastric animals ( horse, pigs and chickens) feed only more concentrated
feed.

Food is composed of water and dry matter.Dry matter consist of organic &
inorganic matter. Some foods can be classified as energy rich foods and other as
protein rich .

The protein rich food do not necessarily have a low supply of energy but we
classify them as protein rich because of their value as a feed to supplement
protein requirements of food.
 NUTRIENTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO 2 PARTS:- 1.) ORGANIC

2.) INORGANIC

 ORGANIC:- 1.) CARBOHYDRATES:- one monosaccharides,

disaccharides, starch, dextrin, glycogen, cellulose, hemicelluloses
2.)PROTEINS:- essential amino acids, non- protein nitrogenous
compounds
3.) LIPIDS:- Triglycerides, Glycolipids, phospholipids, essential
fatty acid
4.) VITAMINS:- Fat soluble ( A, D, E AND K)
Water soluble ( B complex and C)
 INORGANIC:- WATER
MINERALS
Now minerals are classified into :- MACRO AND MICRO MINERALS.
Macrominerals:- Calicum(Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium(Na),
Phosphorus (P), Chlorine(Cl), Suphur(S), Potassium(K)
Microminerals:- Iron(Fe), Nickel(Ni), Copper(Cu), Zinc(Zn)

WATER:- It is an essential component of animal body. Water content of cattle

is about 80% at the time of birth.65-70% at 5 months of age and 50-65% in
mature animals.

Role:-1.) Water is an essential constituents of all tissues and cells& it heals the
rigidity and shape the animal body.

2.) It helps in maintaining the body temperature.

3.) It helps in digestion, absorption and transportation of nutrients.

4.)It helps in chemical reaction because of its solvents and ionizing properties.

5.) It is required for excretion of waste products.

 6.)It acts as a lubricant in joints. Helps in respiration. It maintain the shape
and tension of eyeball and acts on the refraction medium in eye.

7.)The different sources of body water are- drinking water, water in feed and
metabolic water

Requirements of water:- There are several factors that affect the state water
requirements. Such as physiological state( pregnant, milch animal require more
water than dry animal) and nature of diet.

- Water intake is more when the animals are fat.

- Amount of dry matter consumed, fibrous feed , water content in
feed( feeding of succulent forages reduces water requirement),
environmental temperature, humidity ( water intake is more in summer
than in winter), intake of salt and loss of fluid( as in diarrheoa).

The requirement for water in dairy animals is calculated on the basis of dry
matter intake. Dairy cattle need water 6-8 litre per Kg dry feed during growing,
3-5 litre per Kg feed in adult stage and 4.5 – 6.5 litre during lactation.

On an average a dairy cattle or buffalo drink 40 -100 litre and sheep or goat 4-15
litre per day.

CARBOHYDRATES:-
These are characteristics of plant. A large proportion of the dry matter of plant
and feeding stuffs derived from plants consists of carbohydrates in one form or
another form. They are only present in small amounts in animal body because
they are source of energy which after digestion the animal uses immediately as
a source of heat and energy.

Carbohydrates consists of three element C, H, O.They are divided into two

groups- sugars and non- sugars.
They are a quick energy supplier and nutrient. Sugar is divided into three
groups.Sugar ranges from simple to more complex sugar.

Monosaccharides (simple sugar), Disaccharides( more complex).

These are 4 different types of monosaccharides. They are classed according to

the length of C-C. Classes includes Trioses (C3)- eg- Dihydroxyacetone

Tetraese(C4) eg- Erythrose

Pentoses(C5) eg- Xylose

Hexoses (C6) eg- Glucose, fructose,galactose

*In digestion much attention is given to hexoses.

Disaccharides (C12) :- ex. Maltose ( Glucose+Glucose)

Sucrose ( Glucose+ Fructose)

Lactose ( Glucose + Galactose)

Non- Sugars:- contain more than 10 glucose units. They are polysaccharide more
complex than any carbohydrates group. They are divided into 2 groups:-

1.) Homopolysaccharides:- Starch ( Maltose+ Maltose)

Glycogen ( Animal starch)
Cellulose ( Cellobios + Cellobios)
2.) Heteropolysaccharides:- Hemicelluloses

ROLE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN ANIMAL BODY

Carbohydrates constitute a major portion- 70-80% of dry matter of animal feed

and serves as source of energy. They provide bulk to the diet required for
feeling the stomach (hunger satisfaction) and normal movement of Gastro
intestinal tract.
Structural carbohydrates are hygroscopic :- facilitates easy passage of faeces.
This is called laxative effect.

Glucose and Glycogen supplies energy required for synthesis of tissue.

Galactose is required for synthesis of Galacto lipids and of Lactose in milk

Protein and fats burns in the presence of carbohydrates, if blood glucose level is
decreased, fat and protein are not burn leading to the Ketosis ( Metabolic
diseases).

Carbohydrates are used to form structural elements such as Chitin in animal and
cellulose in plants.

Carbohydrates are important for blood clotting and immune system function.

PROTEIN:-
Protein are the organic nutrients and essential constituents of living organisms.
Animal body contains 16-19% proteins. The concentration of protein is more in
muscles.

ROLE:-

-It is essential component of all tissues and cells of the body.

- Play important role in body structural functions eg, Collagen and Elastin are
the components of connective tissues and Glycoprotein and lipoprotein are the
components of cell membrane. Keratin is the constituent of skin and hooves.

- play important role in muscle contraction

-helps in transportation of nutrients and oxygen. Ex ; Haemoglobin and

myoglobin transport oxygen in blood and muscles respectively.

- All enzymes are protein in nature and these enzymes play important role as
catalyst in the chemical reactions.
-Enzymes are involved in metabolism of nutrients.

-Some hormones are proteins and act as chemical regulator of body activities.
Some important protein hormones are insulin ( regulates blood glucose level).

- Antibodies are proteins and they perform vital role in protecting animals from
specific diseases.

- Prothrombin is a protein required for blood clotting and Opsin is a protein

involved in dim light vision.

- These proteins are essential in the diet of animals. However in dairy animals
with functional rumen.

-Protein is also synthesized by the rumen microbes from non- protein nitrogen ,
their diet should contain adequate amount of available N2

Calves below 6 week of age, however require dietary source of protein.

AMINO ACIDS:-
They are the units or building blocks of proteins. They contain at least one
carboxyl group and at least one amino group.

These are 20 amino acids found in animal body which are classified as follow:-

1.) Aliphatic amino acids:- Glycine, Alanine, serine, threonine, valine, leucine
and isoleucine.
2.) Aromatic amino acids:- Phenyl alanine and tyrosine
3.) Suphur containing amino acids:- Cysteine and methionine
4.) Basic amino acids:- Lysine, Arginine and histidine
5.) Acidic amino acids:-aspartic acid and glutamic acid
6.) Heterocyclic amino acids:- Tryptophan, proline and hydroxyproline.
 ROLE:-
-Amino acids are required for synthesis of all body proteins.
- The amino acids not utilized in protein synthesis is deaminated and
utilized for energy purpose.
-Amino acids play significant role in maintaining blood glucose level of
dairy animals.
- The skin and hair pigment ( Melanin) is synthesized from tyrosine.
-Carnitine is synthesized from lysine required for transport of fatty acids.
-Creatine is synthesized from amino acid Methionine – required for
energy transfer in muscles.

All the 20 amino acids are required by the body however their area few.
Amino acid which are not synthesized in the body to meet the
requirement of body for normal growth and production.

Essential amino acids are those which are not synthesized in the body at a
rate required for normal growth and production. Hence must be supplied
through diet.
20 amino acids- essential:- Histidine, Isoleucine , Leucine, Lysine,
Methionine, phenylalanine, threonine , tyrosine, valine

LIPIDS:-
They are a group of organic compounds derived from glycerol and non- glycerol
compounds. The glycerol derived lipids are composed of C,H,O and occurs in
both plants and animals.

They form part of the nutrition of the animals as they are simple digested in the
gut. They are of divided into two groups:- simple lipids and compound lipids

They are further divided into two groups:- Fat and oils
They have same structure and differ in chemical properties. Fat content in body
depends upon the age and nutritional status of animal. New born calf contains
about 3% fats whereas steer may contains as high as 41% fat.

ROLE:-

1.)Fats are a rich source of energy it provide 2.25 times more energy than
proteins and carbohydrates thus they increase energy.

2.) The percentage of milk fat is increased when fats, oils or oil bearing seeds
are added in the diet of dairy animals.

3.) Fat increased the palatability and reduce the dustiness of feed and reduce
the wear of machineries

4) Fats are the carrier of fat soluble vitamins and their precursors.

Physiological functions of fats:-

1.) Fats improve the absorption of fat soluble vitamins.

2.) Fat tissues of animals are the storage stacks of energy and helps in storing
the fat soluble vitamins.
3.) Fats decrease the heat incremLent in the body and CH4 production in the
rumen.
4.) Glycolipids is a constituent of brain. Phospholipids are the constituents of
lipoprotein complexes.

LIPIDS:- Non- Glycerol based:- waxes, cholesterol , ergosterol

Glycerol based:- Simple:- Fat and oils

Compound :- Glycolipids- Glucolipids, Galactolipids

Phospholipids:- Lecithin and Cephalin

VITAMINS:-
They are organic compounds essential to maintain life present in feed are
required for animals in minute quantities they are not synthesized by animal
tissues. On deficiency produce diseases. They are classified in 2 groups
depending upon their solubility:-

Fat soluble:- A,D,E,K Fat insoluble:- B and C

Ascorbic acid is synthesized in the body of dairy animals.

VITAMIN A:-

It is present in 3 forms- Retinol , Retinal and Retinoic acid. Fish liver oil is a rich
source of vit.A. Feed ingredient from plant origin don’t contain vitamin A as
such. Carotene is the precursor of vitamin A and it is present in green forages,
maize grain, carrot and sweat potato in sufficient quantity.

Physiological function and deficiencies:-

*Vitamin A (Retinol):- combines with reotopsin in dark to form rhodospin (visual

purpose) responsible for dim light vision.

Deficiency of vitamin A leads to nightblindness.

*This vitamin helps in synthesis of mucopolysaccharide, essential for

maintaining normal epithelium that cover the body surface or cavities.
Deficiency leads to respiratory disease, diarrheoa, urinary stone, reproductive
failure( both in male and female), abortion and birth of weak calf.

It is involved in normal development of bone and its deficiency leads to

abnormal development of bone of spinal and skull bone.

Vitamin A helps in body growth through development of bones.

VITAMIN- D
There are several forms of vitamin D exists in the nature. The most important
forms are vitaminD-2 (Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D-3 ( Cholecalciferol).
The precursor of D2 is Ergosterol (plant sterole) and of D3 is 7-
Dehydrocholesterol (animal sterole). Fresh green forage contains as such no
vitamin D2 but on sun drying of forages ergosterole converts into vitaminD2.

Similarly when the animals are exposed to sunlight Vitamin D3 is form from 7-
Dehydrocholesterol in skin. The active form of this vitamin is 1,25-
Dehydrocholecalciferol.

Physiological functions and deficiencies:-

-Vitamin-D helps in synthesis of Ca binding protein required for absorption of Ca.

-It is involved in absorption of Ca and P.

-It helps in Calcification of bone and thus the skeleton develops. Deficiency of
vitamin D is leads to rickets and osteomalacia.

-It helps in preventing milk fever.

VITAMIN-E
There are several forms of vit.E:- alpha, bita and Tocopherol.

Tocopherol is the most important form. It is widely distributed in feed stuffs and
no supplementation ration is required. It acts as an antioxidants. Feeding of
Vit.E deficient diet to calves causes nutritional muscular dystrophy.

VITAMIN B1 ( THIAMINE):- It is an essential component of co-enzyme

Thiamine pyrophosphate[ TPP]. TPP is required for decarboxylation of Keto
acids like Pyruvic acids. The deficiency symptoms are reduced appetite, loss of
body weight, lack of coordination of legs, muscular weakness, diarrheoa ,
dehydration and death.

These deficiency signs are observed only in young calves. The requirement is 2-3
mg per calf per day.
VITAMIN B2 ( Riboflavin) :- It is component of Flavin coenzyme. Deficiency
symptoms are loss of appetite, loss of body weight, soreness in the corner of
mouth and edge of lips. Early feeding of greens to the calves along with milk
reduces the chances of deficiency. Requirement:- 10-20 mg per calf per day.

VITAMIN B12 ( Cyanocobalamine):- It is involved in the pathway of

conversion of Propionic acid to succinyl CoA along with Biotin. Deficiency
symptoms are decreased body weight gain and emaciation.

Requirement:- 0.01-0.03 mg/ calf/day

Adult ruminants should get the required of cobalt for synthesis of this vitamin.

MACROMINERALS:-
CALICUM:- In constitutes about 1-1.6% of body and it is present in large
quantities in the body. Out of total body Ca 99% is present in bones and teeth.
Remaining 1% is found in soft tissue and body fluids. In bone the ratio of Ca and
P is 2:1. In blood the concentration of Ca is 9-12 mg/deciliter.

Functions:- It is structural component of skeleton. Ca helps in conversion of

prothrombin to thrombin which is essential for coagulation of blood. Regulate
heart beat and muscle tone. Regulates excitability of nerve. It helps in
maintainance of acid-base balance. It helps in liberation of hormone Insulin. The
deficiency of Ca leads to rickets, Osteomalacia and milk fever.

Source:- Tree leaves and leguminous green fodder are a rich Ca source. Cereal
grains and there byproducts are Ca deficient.

PHOSPHORUS:- It is found next to Ca in quantity. Out of total body

phosphorus 80% is present in bone and teeth. 10% in combination with protein,
fats and carbohydrates. Optimum level of phosphorus in blood is 4-7
mg/deciliter. Phosphorus deficiency lead to rickets, osteomalacia, pica,
Anorexia, poor growth, reduced efficiency of feed utilization.
Sources:- The concentrates like Bran (rice/wheat) and oil cakes are a rich
phosphorus source.

MAGNESIUM:- It is an essential component of chlorophyll required for

photosynthesis in plants.

MICRONUTRIENTS:- 1.) IRON:- It is an essential part of Hb which helps in

transfer of O2 and CO2. Iron also place important role in enzyme systems
responsible for O2 transport and oxidative process.

Deficiency symptoms are anaemia, decreased body weight, loss of appetite,

painful respiration. Calves are more prone to Fe deficiency as milk is Iron
deficient. Fe deficiency due to dietary supply of seldom occurs in adult animals.
Ferrous sulphate is commonly used as Fe supplement.

2.)ZINC:- It is an essential part and activator of many enzymes responsible for

metabolism of carbohydrates, protein and duplication. It helps in synthesis of
Retinol binding protein, also required for absorption and transport of Vitamin K.

Deficiency symptoms are reduced feed intake, growth and feed utilization,
reduced testicular growth and development, hair loss and stiffness of joints.
Common supplement are sulphates, oxides and carbonate salts of Zn.

3.)MAGNESE:- Involved in several enzyme system repaired for metabolism of

amino acids. Deficiency symptoms are reduced growth and reproductive
performance, birth of abnormal calf, common roughages are rich whereas grains
have less amount/ deficient. Best source:- Rice polish

4.)COPPER:- Cu helps in formation of haemoglobin. It plays a key role in

enzyme systema responsible for hair pigmentation, formation of connective
tissue, bone formation and reproduction. Deficiency symptoms are:- Anaemia,
appetite loss.
*NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS:-
It includes all the disturbances caused by improper feeding management.
Deficiences of nutrients and abnormal metabolism or rapid turnover of fluids,
salts and organic (soluble) materials during early part of lactation.

In Dipotent diseases, due to improper nutritional /feeding management are

simple in- digestion, acute indigestion, tympany or bloat. The common
nutritional deficiency disorder of dairy animals are Ricketes, Osteomalacia,
Rheumatic syndrome, Pica, Night blindness and wasting disease associated with
anorexia. The common metabolic diseases of cow occurring after calving are
milk fever, ketosis and Grass tetany.

- Simple Indigestion is characterised by loss of appetite, lack of ruminal

movement and constipation, sudden changes in quality of feed, over
feeding, sudden change in concentrate roughage ration, moulding,
overheated feeds, changes of cereals and inadequate water supply.
This disease can be prevented by improving the feeding management of
animals.
Feeding Management- The quality and type of diet should not be change
suddenly. Overfeeding of material specially during dry season should be
avoided. The animal should have been assessed to drinking water.

- Acute Indigestion:- Sudden ingestion or feeding of high grain leads to

acute indigestion characterisied by dehydration, lack of ruminal
movement, redness of eye. Sometimes blindness and death. Sudden
 ingestion of grain or soluble sugar results in production of lactic acid in
rumen. It increases osmotic tension of rumen leading to withdrawl of
fluid from blood into the rumen. An animal should be fed fixed roughage
concentrate ration. i.e 70:30 or 60:40
- TYMPANY:- It is characterisied by distension of rumen with gases either
free or mixed with fluid. This is very common in diary animals grazing on
young succulent Pasteur during monsoon season. The cause of floating is
the presence of some proteins that produces foam in the rumen.
Prevention is difficult under practical conditions however feeding of straw
or stover in the morning before grazing reduces bloat chances.
Leguminous fodders should be mixed with straw feeding of mineral oil is
helpful in preventing bloat.

- PICA:- This disease is due to Phosphorus deficiency and Na characterized

by depress appetite i.e. licking/chewing of wood, cloths, bones, urine etc.
Animal should be provided with mineral mixture 25-50 gm daily and
common salt 25-50 gm. In this disease, reduced body weight and reduced
fertility. In scarcity of green roughages, this condition arrives. Animals on
pasture get sufficient Vit.A through its precursor carotene. Carotene
content of green leaves and roughages depends upon no. of leaves,
greenness and exposure to sunlight. A daily supply of 3-4 Kg green will
provide Vit. A requirements.

- NURTITIONAL WARTING:- This disease is caused by deficiency of

Cobalt in the diet of dairy animals is characterized by loss of appetite and
progressive loss in the body weight. A regular supply of 0.1 mg/Kg diet
will prevent the animal from this disease.

- KETOSIS:- It is a disease of milch animals caused by metabolism of

carbohydrates and volatile fatty acid. The demand of glucose is increase
 after calving and continous upto peak lactation for synthesis of lactose.
The volatile fatty acids produced in rumen required glucose for
metabolism. A reduction in blood glucose level in high yielding cows due
to nutritional deficiency or inadequate concentrate intake leads to
accumulation of volatile fatty acids and then there fatty acids ultimately
converted to Ketone bodies. This is characterized by acetone smell from
breath, milk and urine. The diet should be adequate in all mineral
specially in I, P and Co.

- MILK FEVER ( Parturient paresis):- It is a disease of high yielding

animal which just occur after calving, due to sudden decrease in blood Ca
level because a large amount of Ca is drained out through milk. The blood
Ca level falls to 4-5 mg/ 100 ml of blood. Normal value is 9-12 mg/100 ml
blood. Symptoms:- loss of appetite, Reluctance to move, Dry muzzle,
Constipation, Grinding of teeth, Inability to stand.

- GRASS TETANY ( Lactation tetany):- Hypomagnesiumic tetany occur due

to fall in blood Mg level. This occur commonly in milch animal grazing on
young Pasteur i.e rich in K. Uncomfortable behavior , high sensitivity,
staggering gait, muscular contraction. Should be fed grains, hay and
roughage before grazing on young Pasteur.

Roughages:- They are plant materials in a fresh dry or ensiled state which
are bulky and fibrous in nature and normally contain higher percentage of
crude fibre 18% and low percentage of TDN less>60%

GREEN ROUGHAGE:- Fodder, forages, grains grass, sugarcane top and tree
leaves are example of green roughages. They are high in moisture content and
are easily digestable. Pasteur species which are naturally growing are cultivated
are called fodders.

There are two type of fodder depending upon nutrient content, protein content
present in them 1. Leguminous 2. Non-Leguminous
-Leguminous are high in nitrogen and protein content because they have
capability to utilize the environmental nitrogen due to N2 fixing bacteria present
in their root. EX; Berseem, Cowpea, Leucern.

-Non- leguminous food has low protein content. They include cereals, fodders
such as Makka, jawar, Bajra etc.

Dry roughages:- It includes hay straw and hulls. Hulls are the outer covering of
grain which are obtained as byproduct during seed pressing cotton hulls are
commonly used for livestock feeding.

Nutritive value of Roughage

1.) GREEN

NAME D.M% C.P E.E C.F ASH NFE

MAIZE 23.7 9.8 1.8 27.8 9.8 51.6
JAWAR 33.4 6.3 1.5 31.8 6.8 53.1
BAJRA 25 4.4 1.5 32.6 11.5 50.1
BARLEY 19.8 13.3 3.6 21.9 13.5 47.7
BARSEEM 15.2 18.9 1.8 15.8 14.1 42.3
OAT 17.2 13.5 2.9 23 13.3 47.3
GAVAR 21.7 19.2 1.3 14 12.8 52.7

2.) DRY

Wheat straw 90.5 3 0.1 41.8 10.9 44.2

Rice 90.5 4.1 0.2 31.9 15.4 48.4
Maize stover 95.2 5.5 0.4 38 10 46.1
Sorghum 94.5 3.5 0.9 40.5 7.5 47.6

-CONCENTRATE:- They are high in energy and protein, less in fibre and high
digestibility. They are use in low quantities:-1.) Energy rich concentration

2.) Protein rich concentration

1.) Energy rich:- cereals grains ( wheat, maize, barley, oat, sorghum, rice, wheat
bran, rice polish, molasses.

2.)Protein rich:- Protein content of plant origin are mostly byproduct of oil
extraction industry. Oil cake are produced when oil is extracted. Eg; cotton seed
cake, milk cake, soyabean

Protein of animal origin:- fish meal , meat meal, feather, bonemeal , blood
meal.s

COMPOSITION:-

Concentrate C.P Ether extract C.F ASH NFE

Mustard cake 32.4 9.6 19.8 12 26.2
Cotton seed cake 23.4 8.8 27.4 6.8 33.6
Wheat Bran 8.2 7.7 13 17.2 53.9
Cotton seed meal 36.7 8.7 15.4 7.2 32.0
Soyabean meal 48.4 2.8 7.2 8.5 33.1
Fish meal 56.3 8.7 0.9 19.9 14.2
Blood meal 54.5 1.5 0.9 15.8 27.3

General principles of feeding:-

-The ration of the animal should be well balanced and feeding trough should
never be empty. The feed material should contain green roughages and
concentrates so that animal may get all the essential nutrients.

-Avoid sudden changes in diet because it upset the gastro intestinal tract
resulting in indigestion and reduction in milk field.

-The feed requirement of animal is calculated on dry matter wastage. On an

average dairy animal consume 3-4 Kg dry matter/100 Kg body weight of the
total dry matter requirement of animal 2/3rd should be net by roughage.

-To avoid mineral deficiency in body, the animal should be offered 50-100 gm of
mineral mix daily. A piece of common salt should be also there.
-Feeding trough should be clean regularly.

-The animal should get ad-libitum fresh water.

-For milk production, animal should be given atleast 1 Kg concentration

mixture/2 litre milk yield.

*Feeding of dairy calves, cows and buffaloes:-

The nutrient requirement of calves divided into two phases:- 1.) Pre ruminant
growth period( before rumen is automatically and physiologically develop) 2.)
Post ruminant

Colostrum feeding:- Colostrum is the first milk of mother secreted

immediately after the birth of newborn. It is richer in protein, fat, vit.A , some
minerals. It also contain antibodies which provide immune protection to the calf
from many disease. Colostrum also has laxative property which helps in
expelling Meconium. The calf should be feed colostrums as early as possible and
positively within ½ an hour of the birth. Colostrum feeding should be continue
upto 4 days of age upto 3-4 litre/day where dam is not available than 2 eggs and
30 ml castor oil should be fed.

Common feeding practices for different categories of livestock:-

Feeding schedule of calves upto 3 months of age:-

Age Whole milk colostrum Calf starter Good quality hay

1 to 3 days 1/10 of body weight - -
4-7 days 1/10 of body weight - -
8-14 days wholemilk@ 1/10 b.wt - -
15-21 days 1/10 of body weight A little A little
22-35 days 1/15 of body weight 100g Ad lib
2 months 1/20 of body weight 250g Ad lib
2-3 months Milk gradually reduced 500g Ad lib

-Composition of artificial colostrums:-

Warm water- 275 ml

Raw egg – 55 g

Castor oil – 30 ml

Vitamin A – 10,000 IU

Warm whole milk – 525 ml ( divide in 3 parts)

Mix well and feed 3 times

Milk replacer composition ( 1 quintal)

Wheat – 10 kg

Fish meal – 12 kg

Linseed meal – 40 kg

Dry milk – 13 kg

Coconut oil- 7 kg

Linseed oil – 3 kg

Citric acid – 1.4 kg

Mollases – 10 Kg

Butyric acid -0.3 kg

Mineral mixture – 1kg

Auorofac- 0.3kg

Calf starter:- It is a solid feed consisting of ground grains, oil cakes, animal
protein supplements and brans fortified with vitamins, minerals and antibiotic
feed supplements. It should contain 23-26% CP , DCP 18.8-19.5% and 75% TDN.
Use of antibiotics helps in checking the occurrence of scour. The daily allowance
of antibiotic preparation is generally 3 to 6g.

A calf needs a relatively large proportion of protein in its ration so as to furnish

the basic building blocks(amino acids) for the rapid growth of its tissues. The
proportion of protein in the ration should be less as the animal grows older. The
quality of protein given to the calf depends on the age of the calf. Since the
rumen is not developed, the protein in the calf ration should be of high body
volume. Milk replacers and calf starters should contain some animal proteins. If
calves receive sufficient milk up to the age of 2 months, the supply of good
quality protein is ensured. Once the rumen is developed, the microflora present
in the rumen can convert inferior type of protein into better quality microbial
protein, which can be utilized by the animal by digestion in the abomasums and
further.

*Desirable Characteristics of a Ration

1.) The ration should have highly digestible feed ingredients. For example,
feather meal contains 87% CP but its digestibility is as low as 15-20%. Therefore
it is not the amount which is present in the feed is important but how much is
digested by the animal, i.e, DCP and TDN. The ration should be balanced.

2.) The feed must be palatable. Evil smelling, musty, mouldy feed should not be
given. If unpalatable, improve the palatability by the addition of salt and
molasses.

3.) Variety of feeds in the ration makes it more palatable. A balanced

combination of proteins, vitamins and other nutrients are furnished by
incorporating many feeds in a ration.

4.) The ration should contain enough of mineral matter. This is especially
important in case of milch animals since each litre of milk had more than 0.7%
ash.
5.) The ration should be fairly laxative; otherwise the animal may suffer from
constipation. Hence succulent green fodders should be included in the ration.

6.) Green succulent fodders have cooling effect. They aid the appetite and keep
the animal in good condition. They are bulky, easily digestible, rich source of
carotene, other vitamins and minerals. Leguminous green fodders are rich in
proteins and calcium.

7.) The ration should be fairly bulky to satisfy the hunger. If it is too bulky the
animal will fail to get all its nutrient requiremnents.

8.) Avoid sudden change in the diet; it may cause tympanitis, impaction, etc. All
changes of food must be gradual and slow.

9.) Maintain regularity in feeding. The time of feeding should be evenly

distributed so that the animals are not kept too long without feed.

10.) Feed should be properly prepared to render it more digestible and

palatable. E.g. grinding of grains, chaffing of coarse fodders, moistening of dry
fodders, soaking of cotton seed and other cakes before feeding.

*Computation of Ration for Cattle and Buffaloes

Computation of rations involve translating the recommendations contained in
feeding standards into actual formulation of feed mixtures and feeding practices.
In computing rations for ruminants the dry matter, digestible protein (DCP),
energy (TDN), minerals and vitamin A are given consideration.

Dry matter:- The DM requirements of an animal depends on its body weight and
its status of productivity. Cattle generally eat daily 2.0 to 2.5 kg dry matter for
every 100 kg of body weight. Buffaloes and crossbred animals are slightly heavy
eaters and their DM consumption varies from 2.5 to 3.0 kg per 100 kg body
weight. In ruminants bulk is essential and the DM allowance is divided as
follows.
Total DM are divided into 2 parts:- 1.) 2/3 as roughage

2.)1/3 as concentrates
And 2/3 roughage is further divided in :- 1.)2/3 dry roughage
2.)1/3 green roughage

*If the green fodder is a legume, the proportion of green fodder may be reduced
to 1/4 DM of the total roughage component and the remaining 3/4 is dry
roughage.

Requirement of other nutrients for maintenance, growth, milk production,

gestation and work are given separately. Refer the ‘ Nutritional Requirements of
Indian cattle and buffaloes’.

Partitioning of DM between Roughages and Concentrates; An ex.

A 400 kg crossbreed cow require 10 kg dry matter per day.

10 kg DM

Concentrates Roughages

10*1/3= 3.3 kg DM 10*2/3= 6.7 kg DM

If green legume is available

DM as green roughage 6.7*1/4 = 1.7 kg

(e.g subabul green fodder ( 34% DM)= 1.7/0.34= 5kg)

DM as dry roughage 6.7*3/4 = 5 kg

If nonlegume green fodder is available

DM as green fodder 6.7*1/3 = 2.2 kg; [e.g. Hybrid]

Napier/Para grass (25% DM] = 2.2*0.25 =8.8= say 9.0 kg)

DM as dry roughage 6.7*2/3 = 4.5 kg

*Steps in Formulating a Ration

1.) Calculate the probable DM intake (DMI) of the animal in question.

2.) Calculate the nutrient requirements of the animal.

3.) Determine the amounts of available ingredients that must be fed to fulfill the
animal’s nutrient requirements within its expected DMI limits.

Feeding of milch animals:- The nutrient requirements of a lactating cow/ buffalo

can be conveniently divided into two parts, viz. maintenance requirements and
milk production requirements. If the lactating animal is in first and second
lactation, extra allowance, needed to take care of growth production, has also
to be added.

Similarly pregnant animals are to be offered extra nutrients during the last
two months of gestation. The aim is that by the end of gestation period the
cows should not only gain their initial body weight but also put on an extra 25
to 30 kg of body weight. This is necessary to enable the animal to withstand the
stress of parturition and to maintain the persistency of milk production during
the subsequent lactation period. The provision of extra nutrients should be
given in the form of concentrate mixture and not as forage because roughages
are not as efficient as concentrates in increasing the body weight. The rest of
the ration must contain sufficient green feeds so that the colostrums secreted
after parturition should be rich in vitamin A.

During the last 3 days prior to calving, the amount of concentrate mixture
should be reduced and a little warm bran is fed to keep the animal in laxative
condition before calving.
 After parturition, the cow/ buffalo should be given fresh warm water and a
mash consisting of 1 kg wheat bran, 1-15 kg ground/ cooked grain, 0.5 kg jiggery
and 25 g each of common salt and mineral mixture. This mash may be continued
for 3 to 4 days after calving; the regular feed is gradually introduced to the cow.

In feeding high milk yielder, quality feed i.e, nutrient dense feed need to be
given. Ration should contain a minimum 25% DM from forages. Forage should
be of superior quality and 30 to 50% of this should be from leguminous crops.
Ration may be in the form of complete feed. Frequency of feeding is four times
a day. To ensure proper nutrient intake, optimum roughage concentrate ratio
need to be maintained.

Extra Allowance during Pregnancy:-

During the last trimester of pregnancy, a further quantity of 1.25 and 1.75 kg
concentrate is recommended for Zebu and Crossbreed cow/buffalo, respectively.

Extra Allowance for Milk Production:-

Additional amount of 1kg concentrate mixture is required for every 2.5 kg of
milk over and above the maintenance requirement in case of Zebu cattle and
2.0 kg of milk in case of buffaloes. Cow milk is assumed to contain 4% BF while
buffalo milk 6%. The concentrate mixture contains 20% CP, 65% TDN, 0.5-0.7%
Ca and 0.3-0.4 P.

Computation of Ration for a Herd:-

When a large number of animals in a farm are to be fed a balanced ration, it is
impracticable to compute rations on individual animal basis. Usually, the herd is
divided into several groups like dry cows, dry and pregnant cows, cows in milk,
infant calves ( up to 6 months of age), young stock ( 6 months to one year of
age), young males ( 1 year to 2 years), young heifers (1 year to 2 years), bulls,
bullocks, etc. By doing so, the individuals present, in any particular group
( based further on live weight) may not vary widely from each other, so that
liberal feeding standard for each group will provide a sufficient margin of safety
in the provision of nutrients to meet the requirements of all the individuals in
that group.

Maintenance Rations:-
Three alternate rations are furnished here under.

Ration A. 25 kg green grass( hybrid napier/para/guinea grass)

Ration B. 10 kg green grass, 3.5 kg paddy straw and 350 g of groundnut cake

Ration C. 10 kg green grass, 6 kg leguminous green fodder and 3 kg paddy straw.

Feeding for Wool Production:-

Wool is a protein rich in sulphur containing amino acids, cysteine. Minerals play
a very important role in wool production. Small quantities of selenium are
essential; copper, cobalt, iodine, iron, etc. are all essential for the proper growth
of wool.

Diet and Egg Size:-

Egg size is largely dependent upon the level of dietary protein and level of
linoleic acid. Higher intake of balanced protein produce larger eggs. So feeding
higher levels of proteins at the onset of production will help to increase egg size
more rapidly. A level of 1% linoleic acid in the diet is considered adequate for
maximum egg size.

Phase Feeding During Laying Phase:-

Phase feeding refers to changes in the protein level of laying diet during the
normal production cycle. Such changes are designed to regulate the intake of
dietary protein to meet more closely the hen’s requirements at various stages of
egg production. Since protein supplements are costlier, phase feeding
programme is suggested to reduce feed cost and also to help maintain the egg
size. The level of protein in layer rations may be reduced to 17,16 and 15% on
90,75 to 90 and 65 to 75% of egg production, respectively, keeping the feed
intake at 100g level per day per bird.

SILAGE MAKING
Silage:- Silage is a fermented feed resulting from the storage of high moisture
crop, usually green forages under anaerobic conditions in a structure, called silo.

Ensiling:- It is also refered to as ensilage. There is a physical and chemical

changes that take place when forages or feed with sufficient moisture are
stored in a silo in the absence of air. The entire silage process required three
weeks for converting forages into silage.

Silo:- Silo is an air tight or semi-air tight structure designed for storage and
preservation at high moisture feed as silage.

*Kinds of crop used for silage:-

Any crop having sufficient soluble carbohydrates and moisture the produce
desire quantities of acids may be make silage maize and sorghum is the best
crop for the silage making leguminous crop Lucern, Cowpea, Berseem are not
suitable for silage.

*Preparation of forages for making silage:-

1. Harvest at proper stage of maturity. The crop should be harvest at flowering
stage.

2. Moisture Content:- 35-40% dry matter that is 60-65% is best moisture content
for crop to be ensiling. The high moisture content of silage can be lowered by:-
a.) Conditioning/ Wilting:- Conditioning for 3-4 hours on good dry day may
reduce 10-15% moisture content.

b.) Adding straw:- Upto 5-10% straw can be added. Add an additive or
preservative when needed like molasses, urea, limestone, organic acid etc, then
fill rapidly. One silo filling is started it should be rapid within two days or less,
for creating desire type anaerobic condition in silo forages. During filling should
be compressed. Never fill a silo in rainy season.

Siling at silo:-
For making an silo anaerobic it must to stop the entrance at atmospheric air.

*How silage is formed:-

When green chopped fodder forage is first stored in compact mass in a silo the
living plant cells continues to respire, thus rapidly using up oxygen in the traped
air and giving off Co2. In about 4-5 hrs free O2 is all used up but Co2 is increasing
rapidly for about 48 hrs. Subsequently due to production of other metabolites
including various gases like Co2 , methane, CO, No2 etc.

The amount of Co2 beginning decreasing, this condition will promote

optimum production of organic acid like lactic acid, acetic acid and formic acid
by bacteria to prevent decomposition eventually acid will kill bacteria and
preserve the silage.

Advantages of silage:-

1.) Green fodder can be kept in succulent condition for a long time. As there
is an acute shortage of green fodder during the summer months silage can
not empty/ deficiency.
2.) Grass silage preserve 85% or more at feed value of crop.
3.) It is the most economical form in which the whole stalk of maize or
sorghum can be processed and stored.
4.) It is very palatable feed and slightly laxative in nature.
5.) It is better source of protein and certain vitamin specially carotene.
6.) The produce form in a given area can be stored in a less space than dry
fodder at some quality.

DISADVANTAGE:-

1.) It require a silo this is likely to mean higher cost for a small farmer.
2.) It contain less vitamin-D due to absence of sunlight.
3.) Extra labour is needed at silo filling time.

HAY MAKING:-
Hay:- It is refers to the grasses or legumes that are harvested dried and
stored as 85-90% dry matter and is pale green to pale gold in colour. It is
leafy and easily peliable. It is also free from mustiness. It can be utilize as an
excellent feed for dairy cattle. It is rich in protein, vitamins and minerals.

It should be cut at mid bloom stage.( 50% flowering). It is low moisture

content( 10-15%).

*Kinds of hay:- 1. Leguminous hay

2.Non- leguminous hay

3. Mixed hay

1.) Legume hay:- It has higher percentage of digestable nutrients, higher

protein content of superior quality. It has higher vitamin content specially
rich in keratin, vitamin E. Legume hay are generally rich in calcium and are
peliable.

Crops:- Barseem, lucern, Cowpea

 2.) Non- legume hay:- It is less peletable and less amount of protein, vitamin
nutrients. It is rich in carbohydrates.
Crop:- oat, barley, bajra, sorghum and many grasses.
3.) Mixed hay:- The nutrientive value of mixed hay depends upon the type of
legume and non- legume crops used in mixed hay.

*Methods of Hay making:-

1.) Field curing:- The herbage is allowed to lie in field for few hours then it is put
on pack in small loose heaps known as windrows. In order to hasten curing the
windrows can be turned after few hours.

2.) By hanging on Tripot:- There are three pole are fixed on ground at different
height or which the crop is hanged.

Racks:- On the higher spot at the corner of field iron bars are posted across
each other and the crop is put on it.

3.)Cocks and Stacking:- Hey is tied into bundles in beginning when moisture
content is high. The bundles are kept erect supporting each other for easy
circulation of air and when moisture content is reduced then bundles are kept in
stacks.

4.)Modern method:- Hay is chopped in small pieces.

Electrical drying:- Hot air is passed through the small pieces until the moisture
content is less than 12%

Shade drying:- In this method, material is dried in thin layers for quick drying.

*Losses of nutrients in hay making:- protein

Storage of hay:- Usually stored in stacks in shady place where there is no danger
of fire. Stacks should be on elevated place.