EE331

Basic Electrical Engineering

Lecture 1 – Fundamental Concepts in Electrical Circuits

a. Introduction to electrical circuits

 Circuit theory is an important and perhaps the oldest branch of

electrical engineering.
 There are two aspects to circuit theory: analysis and design.
 Circuit analysis involves the determination of current and
voltage values.
 Circuit design focuses on the design of circuits that exhibit a
certain prespecified voltage or current characteristics.
 Both design and analysis would require an electric circuit as a
reference

An Electric Circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

An example simple circuit is shown below. It consists of three basic

elements: a battery, a lamp, and connecting wires.

It can be used as a flash-light, a search light and so forth.

Another example is a somewhat complicated circuit in which the

schematic diagram is shown below:
 Our focus for this course is the analysis part – if a circuit
receives some input, how does it respond? How do the circuit
components interact with each other?

b. Charge and Current

The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining

all electrical phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric
circuit is the electric charge.

Charge is an electrical property of atomic particles which matter

consists, measured in coulombs (𝐶)

The following points should be noted about electric charge:

1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 𝐶 of charge, there are

. ×
= 6.24 × 10 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠. Thus, realistic or laboratory
values of charges are on the order of 𝑝𝐶, 𝑛𝐶, or 𝜇𝐶.

2. The only charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the
electronic charge 𝑒 = −1.602 × 10 𝐶.

3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be

created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus, the algebraic sum of
the electric charges in a system does not change.

We now consider the flow of electric charges. A unique feature of

electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it can be
transferred from one place to another, where it can be converted to
another form of energy.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected
to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the charges are
compelled to move; positive charges move in one direction while
negative charges move in the opposite direction. This motion of
charges creates electric current.

Conventional current flow – convention that we use, the current is

the flow of positive charges.

Electron current flow – the actual physical flow of current, caused

by the movement of negative charged particles to a higher potential
(diagram is shown below)
 What is electric current? Electric current is the time rate of change
of charge, measured in amperes (𝐴)

Or mathematically

𝑑𝑞
𝑖≜
𝑞𝑡

Where current is measured in amperes (𝐴), and

𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Separating variables and integrating both sides of the first equation,

we get the transfer of charge between 𝑡 and 𝑡

𝑄≜ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡

This tells us that current need not to be a constant valued function.

Two types of current:

Direct current (dc) – the current flows only in one direction and
can be constant or time varying.
 Alternating current (ac) – The current that changes direction with
respect to time

By convention we use 𝐼 for constant current and the small letter 𝑖 for
time varying current (i.e. 𝑖(𝑡) = 160 sin(377𝑡) amps).

Once we define current as the movement of charge, we expect current

to have an associated direction of flow. As mentioned earlier, the
direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the direction of
positive charge movement. Based on this convention, a current of 5A
may be represented positively or negatively as shown

Example 1:

The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = (10 − 10𝑒 ) mC,

find the current at 𝑡 = 1.0 s.
 Example 2:

The current through an element is shown in the figure below.

Determine the total charge that passed through the element at:

(a) 𝑡 = 1 s
(b) 𝑡 = 3 s
(c) 𝑡 = 5 s

c. Voltage

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires

some work or energy transfer. This work is performed by an external
electromotive force (emf) typically represented by a battery. The emf is
known as voltage or potential difference.

The voltage 𝑣 between two points 𝑎 and 𝑏 in an electric circuit is the

energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from 𝑏 to 𝑎: mathematically

𝑑𝑤
𝑣 ≜
𝑑𝑞

where 𝑤 is energy in joules (J) and 𝑞 is charge in coulombs (C) and 𝑣 is the
voltage in volts. It is evident that

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Thus,

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit

charge from a reference point (-) to another point (+), measured in volt.

In the figure shown below, 𝑣 can be interpreted in two ways: (1) Point 𝑎 is at
a potential of 𝑣 volts higher than point 𝑏, or (2) the potential at point 𝑎 with
respect to point 𝑏 is 𝑣 .
 It follows that in general

𝑣 = −𝑣

For the figure shown below, we can say that

(a) Point 𝑎 is +9 V above point 𝑏
(b) Point 𝑏 is -9 V above point 𝑎

In the same figure above, we can say that

(a) There is a 9 V voltage drop from 𝑎 to 𝑏 or

(b) Equivalently, there is 9 V voltage rise from 𝑏 to 𝑎

Current and voltage are two basic variables in electric circuits. The common term for
these quantities is signal (voltage, current, or even sometimes electromagnetic
waves) when they convey information.

Like current, a constant voltage is called dc voltage represented by 𝑉, whereas a

sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called ac voltage and is represented by 𝑣.

d. Power and Energy

Although current and voltage are two basic variables in an

electric circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical
purposes, we also need to know how much power an electric device
can handle. i.e. We know that a 100 – watt bulb gives more light than a
60 – watt bulb. We also pay our utility companies by the electrical
energy that is consumed over a certain period of time – thus power and
energy calculations are important in circuit analysis!

Recall that

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in

watts (W)

Thus

𝑑𝑤
𝑝≜
𝑑𝑡

From the previous equations for 𝑣 and 𝑖, it follows that

𝑝= = ∙ = 𝑣𝑖

Therefore

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖

wherein 𝑝 is a time-varying quantity called the instantaneous power.

Power can be positive (the element is absorbing power) or it can be
negative (the element is supplying power) – this all depends on the
current direction and the voltage polarity:

(a) In this case, 𝑝 = +𝑣𝑖 or 𝑣𝑖 > 0 the current enters the positive
polarity of the voltage. This implies that the element is absorbing
power
(b) 𝑝 = −𝑣𝑖 or 𝑣𝑖 < 0 and the current enters through the negative
terminal of the element. This implies that the element is supplying or
releasing power.
The above rule is known as the passive sign convention and
throughout this course, we will assume this convention always unless
stated otherwise!

The below figure shows two cases of an element absorbing power of

12 W 𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 = 4 × 3 = 12 W:

While the figure below shows two cases of an element supplying power
of 12 W. 𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 = −4 × 3 = −12

In general,

+Power absorbed = -Power supplied

This tells us that the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in

any electric circuit. Thus, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit at any
instant of time, must be zero:

𝑝=0
This confirms that for any electric circuit, the total power supplied to the
circuit must balance the total power absorbed.

Also, we can compute the energy absorbed or supplied by an element

from time 𝑡 to time 𝑡 by integration

𝑤= 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡

Wherein Energy is defined as the capacity to do work, measured in

joules (J)

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours,

where

1 Wh = 3600 J

Example 3

The figure below shows the current through and the voltage across an
element.

(a) Sketch the power delivered to the element for 𝑡 > 0

(b) Find the total energy absorbed by the element for the period of 0 <
𝑡<4s

Example 4

The figure below shows the power consumption of a certain household

in 1 day:
 Calculate:

(a) The total energy consumed in kWh

(b) The average power over the total 24-hour period

e. Circuit Elements

An element is the basic building block a circuit. Essentially, an

electric circuit is just an interconnection of the elements and circuit
analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents
through) the elements of the circuit.

Two types of elements:

Active elements – capable of generating energy (i.e. generators,

batteries, and operational amplifiers)

Passive elements – not capable of generating energy, just absorbing

or storing energy (i.e. resistors, capacitors and inductors)

Among active elements, the most important ones are voltage or current
sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
There are two kinds: independent and dependent sources.

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit elements.

An ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever

current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage (i.e. batteries and
generators).
(a) Symbol used for constant or time-varying voltage sources
(b) Symbol used for constant voltage (dc)

An ideal independent current source delivers to the circuit whatever

voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol
for an independent current source is shown below, where the arrow
indicates the direction of current 𝑖

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element which

the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbol
same as the one shown below:

Dependent sources are useful in modelling elements such as

transistors, operational amplifiers, and integrated circuits. Since the
control of dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of
some other element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage or
current, it follows that there are four possible types:

1. Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

2. Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 3. Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. Current-controlled current source (CCCS)

Example 5

For the circuit shown below, compute the power absorbed or supplied
by each component.

f. Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage 𝑣 across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through the resistor

That is

𝑣∝𝑖

The constant of proportionality for a resistor is the resistance 𝑅, thus

𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅

The resistance 𝑹 of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of

electric current, it is measured in ohm (Ω)

Thus,
𝑣
𝑅=
𝑖

Where

1 Ω = 1 V/A

We now consider two extreme possible values of 𝑅. An element with

𝑅 = 0 is called a short circuit:
For a short circuit 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 0, thus the voltage is zero but the current
could be anything. In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting
wire assumed to be a perfect conductor. Thus

A short circuit is a circuit element with a resistance approaching to

zero.

Similarly, an element with 𝑅 = ∞ is known as an open circuit.

For an open circuit

𝑣
𝑖 = lim =0
→ 𝑅

Indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.
Thus

An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching

infinity.

Another useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance

𝑅 known as the conductance denoted by 𝐺:

1 𝑖
𝐺= =
𝑅 𝑣
 The SI unit of conductance

1 S = 1 ℧ = 1 A/V

Therefore,

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it

is measures in mhs (℧) or siemens (S)

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of 𝑅

𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑅 =
𝑅

It may also be expressed in terms of 𝐺

𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣 𝐺 =
𝐺

Two things should be noted from the above equations

1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of current

or voltage.
2. Since 𝑅 and 𝐺 are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a
resistor will always be positive. Thus, a resistor always absorb
power from the circuit. This confirms the idea that a resistor is a
passive element incapable of generating energy.

g. Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in

several ways, we need to understand some basic concepts of network
topology. In network topology, we study the properties relating to
element placement in the network and geometric configuration of the
network – such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a

resistor. For example, the circuit below has five branches:
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches – it is
usually indicated by a dot in the circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting
wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes, constitute a single node. For
instance, the above network can be simplified into the network shown
below:

The total number of nodes is exactly 3 in the above case.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop forms a closed path

formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and
returning to the starting node without passing through any node more
than once.

Two more important definitions to consider:

 Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a

single node and consequently carry the same current.

 Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to

the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage
across them.

Example 6

How many branches and nodes does the circuit below have? How
many elements are in series and in parallel.
h. Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, this implies that

𝑖 =0

Where 𝑁 is the number of branches connected to the node and 𝑖 is the

nth current entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a
node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be
taken as negative or vice versa.

Another way of restating KCL,

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node

For the circuit shown below:

𝐼 +𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼

Note: In doing KCL, you must have an assumed current direction for each
branch. If the current value is negative, it just means that the actual current
flowing through the branch is opposite to the assumed one you used.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically, we get

𝑣 =0

Where 𝑀 is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches
in the loop) and 𝑣 is the mth voltage

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit shown below

Suppose we start with the voltage source and go clockwise around the
loop as shown in the diagram. The sign of the voltages in the loop will take
the polarity that the current first encounters

−𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 − 𝑣 + 𝑣 = 0

Rearranging terms, gives

𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 =𝑣 +𝑣
The above can also be interpreted as

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rise

If we used the counterclockwise direction, we would still arrive in the same

set of equations from the above.

Note: In KVL, you would also need to assume a voltage polarity for
passive elements.

Example 8

Find 𝑣 and 𝑖 in the circuit shown below

Example 9

Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown below:

i. Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Given the circuit below:

If we apply Ohm’s law to each resistor, we obtain

𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 , 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅

Applying KVL to the loop, we have

−𝑣 + 𝑣 + 𝑣 = 0

Combining the two above equations, we get

𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 = 𝑖(𝑅 + 𝑅 )

or
𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅 +𝑅

From the above equation, we can actually rewrite this as

𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
Which implies that two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent
resistance 𝑅 , that is

𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅

And we can then replace the initial network to the one below

In general, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors

connected in series is the sum of the individual resistances.

For N resistors in series, we have

𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯+ 𝑅 = 𝑅

For the voltage across each resistor in the initial network, we substitute
𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑣 = 𝑖(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) to the equations 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 and 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 we
obtain

𝑣 = 𝑣, 𝑣 =

The source voltage in this case is divided among the resistors in direct
proportion to their resistance – the larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division and the
circuit is called a voltage divider. In general, for N resistors, the nth
resistor 𝑅 will have a voltage drop of

𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣
𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯𝑅
j. Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Consider the circuit given below:

From Ohm’s law,

𝑣=𝑖 𝑅 =𝑖 𝑅

Or

𝑖 = , 𝑖 =

If we apply KCL at node 𝑎 gives the total current 𝑖 as

𝑖 = 𝑖 +𝑖

Substituting the Ohm’s law equation into the KCL equation above, we
get

𝑣 𝑣 1 1 𝑣
𝑖= + =𝑣 + =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Where 𝑅 is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:

1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Or

𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 =
𝑅 +𝑅

Thus, the equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to

the product of their resistances divided by their sum.

We can also extend the above results to the general case of a circuit
with N resistors in parallel. Wherein
 1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Note that 𝑅 is always smaller than the resistance of the smallest

resistor in parallel combination.

For the same circuit, we know that the total current is equal to

𝑖𝑅 𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 =
𝑅 +𝑅

Combining the above equation with 𝑖 = and 𝑖 = , would

result to
𝑖 = , 𝑖 =

Which shows that the total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in

inverse proportion to their resistances. This is known as the principle of
current division, and the circuit is known as the current divider. Notice
that the larger current flows through the smaller resistance.

In general, it is often convenient and possible to simplify a resistive

network in series and parallel combinations and solve for the
equivalent resistance. The 𝑖 − 𝑣 characteristics of terminals of the
network will be similar to that of the equivalent resistance

Example 10

Find 𝑅 from the given circuit shown below