Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Energy
Where does geothermal energy come from ?
Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water
and/or steam carry the geothermal energy to the Earth’s surface.
Depending on its characteristics, geothermal energy can be used for heating and
cooling purposes or be harnessed to generate clean electricity. However, for
electricity, generation high or medium temperature resources are needed, which
are usually located close to tectonically active regions.
This key renewable source covers a significant share of electricity demand in
countries like Iceland, El Salvador, New Zealand, Kenya, and Philippines and
more than 90% of heating demand in Iceland.
The main advantages :
It is not depending on weather conditions and has very high capacity factors; for
these reasons, geothermal power plants are capable of supplying baseload
electricity, as well as providing ancillary services for short and long-term
flexibility in some cases.
Geothermal Energy Plant Interior
Cross section of the earth
The Physics of Geothermal Energy
Earth’s Atomic Engine
Detailed understanding of the
nature of heat below the Earth’s
surface occurred when scientists
began to understand the various
origins of subterranean heat.
Radiogenic heat was discovered
by nuclear physicists in the
1950’s.
Radiogenic heat is generated by
the decay of radioactive isotopes
Once radiogenic heat was of uranium, potassium, and
understood, along with other thorium, which are found deep
sources, the creation, dissipation, under the Earth’s surface, and
and movement of underground significantly contributes to the
heat was better understood. presence of subterranean heat.
Bringing the Earth’s Heat to the Surface
In some instances, passive heat extraction is used.
In places with “hot rocks” at the surface electricity is
created without the need for heat extraction.
Active heat extraction requires energy input but allows for
power production at many more locations
General simplified structure of
hydrothermal resource
The hydrothermal resources are located at shallow to moderate
depths (from approximately 100 m to 4,500 m). Temperatures
for hydrothermal reserves used for electricity generation range
from 90°C to 350°C but roughly two-thirds are estimated to
be in the moderate temperature range (150°C to 200°C).
For practical purposes, hydrothermal resources are further
subdivided into
(i) vapour dominated (dry steam fields),
(ii) liquid dominated (wet steam fields) and
(iii) hot water resource.
Vapour dominated fields deliver steam with little or no water
and liquid dominated fields produce mixture of steam and hot
water or hot water only. The system to utilize the energy
depends on the type of resource.
Heat is drawn from the
Process depths either actively or
passively through the
movement of hot water
The heat is then used to
boil water
The steam produced then
is fed to a turbine
The turbine converts the
geothermal heat energy
into mechanical energy
The turbine spins a
generator which converts
mechanical energy into
electrical energy
Saturated steam is found
Safeguard of the more commonly in
Turbine geothermal sites.
But can not be used
directly as small drop in
pressure can cause
flashing which forms
droplet of water. Those
droplets of water can cause
irreversible damage the
turbine/blades over a
progressive period of time.
Flash drum (also called
knockout drum is used to
remove suspended water
droplets from streams of
air)
Economics of Geothermal Power Plants
More than 75% of its primary energy needs are being
imported in the form of fossil fuels. India has increased
installed power from 1,362 MW to over 112,058 MW after
independence and electrified more than 500,000 villages.
This is a significant achievement but not impressive
because still today India is facing a deficiency in power
and many of the rural areas still need to be electrified.
As per preliminary investigations undertaken by the
Geological Survey of India, there are around 300
geothermal hot springs in India. Most of these geothermal
hot springs are in medium potential (100C to 200 C) and
low potential (<100 C) zones.
Total Geothermal Energy Production Worldwide and its
prognosis till 2050
The promising geothermal sites for electric power
generation are Puga Valley & Chummathang in Jammu &
Kashmir, Cambay in Gujarat, Tattapani in Chattisgarh,
Khammam in Telangana & Ratnagiri in Maharasthra.
The promising geothermal sites for direct heat use
applications are Rajgir in Bihar, Manikaran in Himachal
Pradesh, Surajkund in Jharkhand, , Tapoban in Uttarakhand
& Sohana region in Haryana
Industry led, applied R&D proposals to harness geothermal
energy under Research, Design, Development &
Demonstration (RDD&D) policy are necessary for this
renewable energy source to become operational.. Plans should
be made to develop Demonstration projects initially each for
geothermal electricity production & direct heat use
applications.
Risk and the investments are inversely proportional to each other. As the
investment goes into the project phase with high risk, the level of risk
comes down as the assumptions are then the reality. Risks defined in the
geothermal projects are as follows:
• Actual temperature and the predicted temperature of the underground
formation
• Permeability of the formation
• Price fluctuation in oil and gas industry
•Water chemistry is also important and plays a crucial role
•Underground heat exchanger, i.e. communication between injector and
producer well
Dry Steam Power Plants
Use hydrothermal fluids that are
primarily steam.
• Process:
The steam is sent directly to a turbine,
which drives the generator and produces
electricity.
This is the oldest type of geothermal
power plant.
It was first used at Lardarello, Italy in
1904, and is still very effective.
This technology is still used at The
Geysers in northern California.
• Emissions:
– Excess Steam
– Extremely minor amounts of gases.
Flash Steam Power Plants
• Hydrothermal fluids above 182oC
can be used in flash plants to
make electricity.
• Process:
– Fluid is sprayed into a tank
held at a much lower pressure
than the fluid.
– This causing some of the fluid
to rapidly vaporize, or "flash."
– The vapor then drives a
turbine, which drives a
generator.
– If any liquid remains in the
tank, it can be flashed again in
a second tank to extract even
more energy.
Binary-Cycle Power Plants
Most geothermal areas contain
moderate-temperature water
(below 400°F).
Energy is extracted from these
fluids in binary-cycle power
plants.
• Process:
– Hot geothermal fluid and a
secondary fluid with a much
lower boiling point than water
pass through a heat exchanger.
– Heat from the geothermal fluid
causes the secondary fluid to
flash to vapor, which then
drives the turbines.
• Since this is a closed-loop system,
virtually nothing is emitted to the
atmosphere.
Economics of Direct Use and Heat Pump
Systems
– High Initial Cost for trenching and installation
• Depends on the area (rocky soil vs. soft clay/dirt)
• Typical costs about $2,500 per ton of capacity,
• Typical residential building requires 3-ton unit = about $7,500.
• A horizontal ground system will generally cost less than a vertical system.
– Low Maintenance costs for repairs/electrical demand
• The underground piping often carries warranties of 25–50 years, and the
heat pumps often last 20 years or more.
• Use 25%–50% less electricity than conventional heating or cooling systems.
• Reduction in energy consumption :
– up to 44% compared to air-source heat pumps
– up to 72% compared to electric resistance heating with standard air-
conditioning equipment.
Geothermal Energy Other Uses
• Direct Uses:
– Greenhouses
• vegetables, flowers, houseplants, and tree
seedlings
– Aquaculture
• Fisheries industry.
It is estimated that geothermal greenhouses save
about 80% of fuel costs compared to typical
greenhouses
• Industrial applications:
– food dehydration
– laundries
– gold mining
– milk pasteurizing
– spas
Heat Pumps – Closed Loops
Horizontal Closed Loop
• Most cost-effective for residential installations
– Especially for new construction where sufficient land is
available.
• Layout:
– Trenches are dug at least four feet deep.
– Two pipes, one buried at six feet, and the other at four
feet.
– OR: two pipes placed side-by-side at five feet in the
ground in a two-foot wide trench.
Vertical Closed Loop
Usually a better bet when area of usable space is
limited If the soil is too shallow for trenching. Used
in more commercial and industrial applications.
Layout:
Holes, 4 inches in diameter, are drilled 20 feet apart to a depth
of 100-400 feet.
two pipes are inserted and are connected at the bottom with a
U-bend to form a loop.
The vertical loops are connected with horizontal pipe, the
manifold, placed in the trenches which is connected to the heat
pump in the building.
Pond/Lake Closed Loop
If the site has an adequate water body, this may be the lowest
cost option.
Layout:
A supply line pipe is run underground from the building to the
water and coiled into circles at least eight feet under the
surface to prevent freezing.
Open Loop System
• Uses well or surface water as the
heat exchange fluid.
• Once it has circulated through
the system, the fluid is returned
to a recharge well or is
discharged on the surface.
• Available where:
– a sufficient supply of clean water
is found
– All local codes and regulations
meeting groundwater discharge is
me.
ANALYSIS OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
Hot Dry Rock Resource
1. Energy Content
Let us consider a large mass of dry, uniform material (rock)
extending from near the earth’s surface to deep inside the
crust, as shown in Fig.
where Cr is the thermal capacity of the rock between depth h1
and h2 and may be written as:
Cr = ρrAcr (h2 – h1), in terms of specific heat capacity, cr,
density, ρr area ‘A’ of the rock.
Therefore, total useful energy of the rock:
Eo = ρr A cr G (h2 – h1)2/2 (7)
2. Energy Extraction
Now assume that heat is being extracted uniformly in proportion to the
temperature excess over T1 by circulating water. With heat extraction, the
average useful temperature, θ of the hot dry rock starts decreasing from
initial value θo. The volume flow rate of water is Q and the density and
specific heat capacity of water are ρw and cw respectively. The water will
be heated in the near perfect heat exchanger through average temperature
difference of θ. The rate of energy extraction is given by:
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
The useful heat (energy) content at average useful
temperature, θ of hot dry rock:
(12)
(13)
Hydrothermal Resource (Hot Aquifer)
1. Energy Content
In a hot aquifer resource, thermal energy is available in a layer of hot
water, deep beneath the ground level, as shown in Fig. Let us assume
that the thickness, w of aquifer is much less than the depth, h2 below
ground level and that consequently, the whole water is at temperature T2.
The porosity, p is the fraction of aquifer filled with water. The remaining
space is rock of density ρr. Assuming the overlying material to be
uniform, the temperature, T will increase linearly with depth, h. Thus:
Profile of hot aquifer system for calculating the heat content
(14)
(15)
Assuming T1 as minimum useful temperature, the thermal
energy content of aquifer is given as
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
2. Energy Extraction
Heat is removed by extracting water at a flow rate of Q at
temperature θ above T1 in the near perfect heat exchanger.
Therefore,
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
Example
Solution
(i) From Eq. (3),
T2 = To + Gh2
T2 = To + 39 × 10 = To + 390
From Eq. (2),
T1 = To + Gh1
T1 – To = Gh1, 120 = 39 × h1
h1 = 3.077 km,
Therefore,
h2 – h1 = 10 – 3.077 = 6.923 km
Now, from Eq. (7),
(ii) Initial average useful temperature, θo from Eq. (5):
θo = (T2 – T1)/2 = G(h2 – h1)/2
= 39 × 6.923/2 = 134.99 K
The time constant may be calculated from Eq. (10):
Average useful temperature, θ after 25 years may be calculated
from Eq. (11):
(iii) Heat extraction rate may be calculated from Eq. (13):
Environmental Impact
• Emission of pollutant gases into
atmosphere
• Emission of toxic compounds to
surface level
• Possible cause of land
instability
• Reliant on electricity power
sources
Atmospheric Pollution
• The practice of extracting fluid from deep earth can cause
dissolved (non-condensable) gases to escape into the
atmosphere
– Major: CO2, CH4, NH3, H2S
– Minor: Hg vapor, C6H6 benzene
• Implications:
– Climate change
– Acid rain
– Health risks
• A relatively minor source of greenhouse gases
Emission Comparison
Source: Geothermal Resources Council
Emission of Toxic Chemicals
• The heated water from geothermal sources may contain boron, arsenic,
mercury, antimony, and salt.
• Once the energy is extracted, the cooled water can cause these trace
toxins to come out of solution.
• High concentrations of toxins can cause environmental damage.
• Solution: extracted (cooled) geothermal fluid is commonly injected
back into the source
– This closed-loop recycling technique prevents toxin emission and
prolongs the viable life of the source.
Land Instability Issues
• Subsidence
– Downward motion of ground surface (due to a reduction in
subterranean volume/pressure)
– In Staufen im Breisgau, Germany, geothermal drilling is
blamed for causing surface deviations in the historical
district
• Increased seismic activity
– Hydraulic fracturing can occur when power facilities
introduce new bores into rock
– Viable geothermal heat sources may be located near
volcanically-active sites (predisposed to seismic activity)
Krafla Geothermal Station
(northeast Iceland)
Main advantages of geothermal energy are:
(i) it is a reliable and cheap source of energy,
(ii)it is available 24 hours per day,
(iii)its availability is independent of weather,
(iv)it has inherent storage feature so no extra storage
facility required,
(v) geothermal plants require little land area and
(vi) feasibility of modular approach represents lot of
opportunities for development of relatively quick,
cost-effective geothermal projects.
Major disadvantages are:
(i) it is site specific – there are not many places where
you can build a geothermal power station
(ii)generally, energy is available as low grade heat,
(iii)continuous extraction of heated ground water may
leads to subsidence (setting or slumping) of land,
(iv) geothermal fluid also brings with it the dissolved
gases and solute (as high as 25 kg/m3) which leads to
air and land pollution,
(v) drilling operation leads to noise pollution,
(vi) the available thermal energy can not be distributed
easily over long distances (longer than ~30 km) and
(vii) corrosive and abrasive geothermal fluid reduces
the life of the plant.
