Tools for Data Analysis
Usually, tables for data exposition and interpretation will be used to
analyze data.
The table below provides guidance on the selection of the correct
statistical tools.
Focus of Sample Problems Tools for Data Analysis
Profile Frequency counts, percentages, ranking,
summation, coding scheme
Level, extent, degree, etc. Weighted mean
Significant relationship T-ratio for r
Significant difference 1. Test-retest: PAIRED
2. Independent variables (gender &
performance): t-test independent for
means
3. Variables: ANOVA; post-ANOVA
Sample Presentation in the Research Paper
The profile of the respondents along highest educational
qualifications, salary and year of service was treated using a coding
scheme, frequency and percentages.
The level of performance of the faculty along instruction, research
and extension was determined using weighted mean.
The significant relationship existing between profile variables and
the degree of attainment of educational objectives was determining
using t-ratio for r.
The significant difference between the perception of teachers and
students as regards the school programs was determined using t-test
independent for means.
The following are the formulas:
I.Weighted Mean
(Σ f x)
I. WM =
N (to be used for determining extent, degree, level,etc)
Where:
WM = weighted mean
f = frequency
x =ratings
Σfx = summation of the product of f and x
N =number of respondents/cases
Sample Computation of Weighted Mean
Indicator 1 2 3 4 5 Weighted Interpretation
Mean
1 5 2 25 45 64 4.14
2 12 36 36 12 45
3 3 100 2 3 33
Note:
((1*5) + (2*2) + (3*25) + (4*45) + (5*64))
WM indicator 1 = = 4.41
141
=====================================================================
II. t-ratio of r
tr = r √ n-2 (to be used for determining significant relationship)
1-r2
Where:
tr - t-ratio for r
n - number of cases/ respondents
n-2 - degrees of freedom
r - correlation coefficient
Where:
Σ(x- x) (y-y)
r=
√ ( Σ (x－x) 2 (y－y) 2)
Where:
x - raw score for the first group
x - mean of the first group
y - raw score for the second group
y - mean of the second group
Sample Computation of t-ratio for Relationship
GPA Competence in NMAT
82 88
84 87
78 81
91 95
Calculation of r
Σ(x- x) (y-y)
r=
√ ( Σ (x－x) 2 (y－y) 2)
GPA (x- x) (x- x)2 Competence (y-y) (y-y)2 Σ(x- x)
in NMAT (y-y)
82 -1.75 3.0625 88 0.25 0.0625 -0.4375
84 0.25 0.0625 87 -0.75 0.5625 -0.1875
78 -5.75 33.0625 81 -6.75 45.5625 38.8125
91 7.25 52.5625 95 7.25 52.5625 52.5625
Σ(x-x)2= Σ(y-y)2=98.75 90.75
Mean 88.75 Mean (x)
(x) =87.75
=83.75
Σ(x- x) (y-y)
r=
√ ( Σ (x－x) 2 (y－y) 2)
90.75
r= = 0.97, very high correlation
√ 88.75*98.75
Calculation of t-ratio for r
tr = r √ n-2
1-r2
tr = 0.97 √ 4-2
1-(0.97)2
tr = 5.64
Referring to the t table where n-2 =2 at 0.05 level of significance, the t-critical
is 2.920
Thus, t-computed (5.64) > t-critical (2.920). So, reject Ho, there is a significant
relationship between GPA and competence in NMAT.
=====================================================================
II. t-test
x1－ x2
t = (to be used for independent groups)
√ (n-1-1)s2 1+(n-2-1)s2 2 n1+ n2
n1+n2-2 n1 n2
Where:
x1 - mean of the first group
(x2) - mean of the second group
n1 - no. of cases in group 1
n2 - no. Of cases in group 2
s1 - population variance of group 1
s2 - population variance of group 2
Sample Computation for t Independent
Group 1 Group 2
12 42
11 41
13 38
18 48
17 35
x1 = 14.2 x2 = 40.8
Group 1 (x1) (x1-x1)2 Group 2 (x2) (x2-x2)2
12 4.84 42 1.44
11 10.24 41 0.04
13 1.44 38 7.84
18 14.44 48 51.84
17 7.84 35 33.64
x1 = 14.2 S=7.76 x2 = 40.8 S=18.96
Computation of t
x1－ x2
t =
√ (n-1-1)s2 1+(n-2-1)s2 2 n1+ n2
n1+n2-2 n1 n2
14.2－40.8
t =
√ (5-1)* 7.76+ (5-1) * 18.96 5+5
5+5-2 5*5
t = -11.51 (disregard negativity)
Referring to the t table where n1 + n2-2 = 8 at 0.05 level of significance, the
t-critical is 1.860
Thus, t-computed (11.51) > t-critical (1.860). So, reject Ho, there is a significant
difference between groups 1 and 2. Group 2 is better than group 1.
=====================================================================
IV.One-way ANOVA
1. Compute the various sums of squares (SS)
1.1 Sum of Squares “Total” (SST):
n
n
Σ XT 2
SST = Σ X2T - i=1
i=1
NT
NT - total number of observations for all the columns
ΣXT - sum of the scores in all the columns
1.2 Sum of Squares “Between” (SSB):
n
2
n
Σ XT
1 2
SSB = － Σ X1 - i=1
n1 i=1
NT
NT - total number of observations for all the columns
ΣXT - sum of the scores in all the columns
ΣX1 - sum of the scores per column
n1 - number of observations per column
1.2 Sum of Squares “Within” (SSW):
2. Find the degrees of freedom for the various sum of squares:
1.1 df for “total” = N-1
1.2 df for “between”= k-1
1.3 df for “within” = df for “total”- df for “between”
3. Determine the various mean squares (MS):
SB
1.1 MSB =
df B
SSW
1.2 MSW=
df W
MSB
4. Compute the F-ratio. That is, Fc =
MSW
5. Locate the tabled value of F using a table of the F distribution,
6. Summarize the source of variations and the computed F-ration in a
table for the one-way ANOVA as shown below:
Fill in:
One-way ANOVA Table
Source of Variations SS df MS FC
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Compute the ANOVA of the given data below.
1 2 3
X1 X21 X2 X22 X3 X33
86 7396 90 8100 78 6084
82 6724 88 7744 70 4900
86 7396 87 7569 65 4225
96 9216 74 5476
94 8836 63 3969
77 5929
79 6241
SUMS 254 21,516 455 41,465 506 36,824
MEANS 84.67 91.00 72.29
N 3 5 7
ΣXT = 1,215 ΣX 2
T = 99,805 NT = 15
How to solve SUMS:
1.)
X1 = 86+82+86 = 254
X22 = 7396+6724+7396= 21,516
2. )
X2 = 90+88+87+96+94 = 455
X22 = 8100+7744+7569+9216+8836= 41,465
3. )
X3 = 78+70+65+74+63+77+79 = 506
X33 = 6084+4900+4225+5476+3969+5929+6241= 36,824
How to solve MEANS:
1.)
X1 = 86+82+86 = 254 ÷ 3 = 84.67
2.)
X2 = 90+88+87+96+94 = 455 ÷ 5 = 91.00
3.)
X3 = 78+70+65+74+63+77+79 = 506 ÷ 7 = 72.29
How to solve ΣXT , ΣX2T , and NT
1. ) ΣXT = 254 +455+ 506 = 1,215
2. ) ΣX T = 21,516+ 41,465+36,824 = 99,805
2
3. ) NT = 3+5+7 = 15
A. Sum of Squares (SS):
a.)
n
Σ XT 2
SST = Σ X2T - i=1
i=1
NT
(1215) 2
SST = 99805 - = 1390
15
b.)
n
Σ XT 2
1 2
SSB = － Σ X1 - i=1
n1 i=1
NT
(254)2 (455)2 (506)2 (1215)2
SSB = + + - = 1, 071.90
3 5 7 15
SSW = SST - SSB
SSW = 1,390.00 － 1,071.90 = 318.10
B. Degrees of Freedom
df for “total” = N-1
df for “total” = 15-1 = 14
df for “between” = k-1
df for “between” = 3-1 =2
df for “within” = df for “total” － df for “between”
df for “within” = 14 - 2 = 12
C. Mean Squares (MS):
SB
1.1 MSB =
df B
1,071.90
MSB = = 535.95
2
SSW
1.2 MSW=
df W
318.10
MSW= = 26.51
10
D. Compute the F-ratio:
MSW
Fc =
MSW
535.95
Fc = = 20.22
26.51
ANOVA’s Summary Table
ANSWERS:
Source of Variations SS df MS FC
Between Groups 1,071.90 2 535.95 20.22
Within Groups 318.10 12 26.51
Total 1390 14
Referring to the F table where dfb= 2 and dfw= 12 at 0.05 level of
significance, the t-critical is 3.74.
Thus, F-computed (20.22) > F-critical (3.74). So, reject Ho, there is a
significant difference between the scores among the three groups.
==========================================================
V.Tukey’s Post Hoc
M1-M2
Tukey’s Post Hoc =
√ MSW 1
n
Where:
M = means
MSW = MS within
Steps:
1. Calculate the analysis of variance (e.g., One-way between-subjects
ANOVA).
2. Select two means and note the relevant variables (Means, Mean
Square Within, and number per condition/group).
3. Calculate Tukey’s test for each mean comparison.
4. Check to see if Tukey’s score statistically significant with Tukey’s
probability/ critical value table taking into account appropriate
dfwithin and number of treatments.
Sample Computation: Post hoc Analysis
Groups 1 and 2 (comparison)
Statistics G1 G2
Mean 84.67 91.00
MSW 26.51
N 3 5
Df within 12
M1-M2
Tukey’s Post Hoc =
√ MSW 1
n
84.67－91.00
Tukey’s Post Hoc =
√ 26.51 1
5
Tukey’s Post Hoc = -2.76
Referring to the Q table where dfb = 2 and dfw = 12 at 0.05 level of
significance, the Q-critical is 3.77
Thus, Q-computed (2.76) < Q-critical (3.77). So, accept Ho, there is
no significant difference between the scores of groups 1 and 2.
Table of Significance
Values of t (ALPHA) of the t- Distribution
DF t(0.1) t(0.05) t(0.025) t(0.01) t(0.005) t(0.0025)
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 127.321
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 14.089
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 7.453
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 5.598
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 4.773
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 4.317
7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.029
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 3.833
9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 3.690
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 3.581
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 3.497
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.428
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.372
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.326
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.286
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 3.252
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.22
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.197
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.174
20 1.325 1.75 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.153
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.135
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.119
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.104
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 1.091
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.078
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.067
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 3.057
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.407
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 3.038
30 1.310 1.697 2.462 2.457 2.750 3.030
31 1.309 1.696 2.040 2.453 2.744 3.022
32 1.309 1.694 2.037 2.449 2.738 3.015
33 1.308 1.692 2.035 2.445 2.733 3.008
34 1.307 1.691 2.032 2.441 2.728 3.002
35 1.306 1.690 2.030 2.438 2.724 2.996
40 1.303 1.684 2.201 2.423 2.704 2.971
50 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.403 2.678 2.937
60 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 2.915
70 1.294 1.667 1.994 2.381 2.648 2.899
80 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.374 2.639 2.887
90 1.291 1.662 1.987 2.368 2.632 2.878
100 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.364 2.626 2.871
110 1.289 1.659 1.982 2.361 2.621 2.865
120 1.289 1.6858 1.980 2.358 2.617 2.860
Z 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 2.807
General Rule:
If t-computed is greater than the t-critical, reject null hypothesis;
otherwise, accept Ho.
Table of Significance
F-TABLE: VALUES OF F OF THE F-DISTRIBUTION (ALPHA = 0.05)
DEGREE OF Freedom (Dfb)
DFW 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 161.45 199.50 215.71 224.58 23.016 233.99 236.77 238.88 240.54 241.88
2 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30 19.33 19.35 19.37 19.38 19.40
3 10.13 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94 8.89 8.85 8.81 8.79
4 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 6.09 6.04 6.00 5.96
5 6.61 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95 4.88 4.82 4.77 4.74
6 5.99 5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.06
7 5.59 4.74 4.35 4.12 3.97 3.87 3.79 3.73 3.68 3.64
8 5.32 4.46 4.07 3.84 3.69 3.58 3.50 3.44 3.39 3.35
9 5.12 4.26 3.86 3.63 3.48 3.37 3.29 3.23 3.18 3.14
10 4.96 4.10 3.71 3.48 3.33 3.22 3.14 3.07 3.02 2.98
11 4.84 3.98 3.59 3.36 3.20 3.09 3.01 2.95 2.90 2.85
12 4.75 3.89 3.49 3.26 3.11 3.00 2.91 2.85 2.80 2.75
13 4.67 3.81 3.41 3.18 3.03 2.92 2.83 2.77 2.71 2.67
14 4.60 3.74 3.34 3.11 2.96 2.85 2.76 2.70 2.65 2.60
15 4.54 3.68 3.29 3.16 2.90 2.79 2.71 2.64 2.59 2.54
16 4.49 3.63 3.24 3.01 2.85 2.74 2.66 2.59 2.54 2.49
17 4.45 3.59 3.20 2.96 2.81 2.70 2.61 2.55 2.49 2.45
18 4.41 3.55 3.16 2.93 2.77 2.66 2.58 2.51 2.46 2.41
19 4.38 3.52 3.13 2.90 2.74 2.63 2.54 2.48 2.42 2.38
20 4.35 3.49 3.10 2.87 2.71 2.60 2.51 2.45 3.29 2.35
21 4.32 3.47 3.07 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.49 2.42 2.37 2.32
22 4.30 3.44 3.05 2.82 2.66 2.55 2.46 2.40 2.34 2.30
23 4.28 3.42 3.03 2.80 2.64 2.53 2.44 2.37 2.32 2.27
24 4.26 3.40 3.01 2.78 2.62 2.51 2.42 2.36 .320 2.25
25 4.24 3.39 2.99 2.76 2.60 2.49 2.40 2.34 2.28 2.24
26 4.23 3.37 2.98 2.74 2.59 2.47 2.39 2.32 2.27 2.22
27 4.21 3.35 2.96 2.73 2.57 2.46 2.37 2.31 2.25 2.20
28 4.20 3.34 2.95 2.71 2.56 2.45 2.36 2.29 2.24 2.19
29 4.18 3.33 2.93 2.70 2.55 2.43 2.35 2.28 2.22 2.18
30 4.118 3.32 2.92 2.69 2.53 2.42 2.33 2.27 2.21 2.16
General Rule:
If f-computed is greater than the f-critical, reject null hypothesis;
otherwise, accept Ho.
Table of Significance
VALUES OF Q-TABLE (POST HOC TEST, TUKEY’S TEST)
df a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 0.05 3.64 4.60 5.22 5.67 6.03 6.33 6.58 6.80 6.99
0.01 5.70 6.98 7.80 8.42 8.91 9.32 9.67 9.97 10.24
6 0.05 3.46 4.34 4.09 5.30 5.63 5.90 6.12 6.32 6.49
0.01 5.24 6.33 7.03 7.56 7.97 8.32 8.61 8.87 9.10
7 0.05 3.34 4.16 4.68 5.06 5.36 5.61 5.82 6.00 6.16
0.01 4.95 5.92 6.54 7.01 7.37 7.68 7.94 8.17 8.37
8 0.05 3.26 4.04 4.53 4.89 5.17 5.40 5.60 5.77 5.92
0.01 4.75 5.64 6.20 6.62 6.96 7.24 7.47 7.68 7.86
9 0.05 3.20 3.95 4.41 4.76 5.02 5.24 5.43 5.59 5.74
0.01 4.60 5.43 4.96 6.35 6.66 6.91 7.13 7.33 7.49
10 0.05 3.15 3.88 4.33 4.65 4.91 5.12 5.30 5.46 5.60
0.01 4.48 5.27 5.77 6.14 6.43 6.67 6.87 7.05 7.21
11 0.05 3.11 3.82 4.26 4.57 4.82 5.03 5.20 5.35 5.49
0.01 4.39 5.15 5.62 5.97 6.25 6.48 6.67 6.84 6.99
12 0.05 3.08 3.77 4.20 4.51 4.75 4.95 5.12 5.27 5.39
0.01 4.32 5.05 5.50 5.84 6.10 6.32 6.51 6.67 6.81
13 0.05 3.06 3.73 4.15 4.45 4.69 4.88 6.51 5.19 5.32
0.01 4.26 4.96 5.40 5.73 4.88 6.19 5.05 6.53 6.67
14 0.05 3.03 3.70 4.11 4.41 4.64 4.83 4.99 5.13 5.25
0.01 4.21 4.89 5.32 5.63 5.88 6.08 6.26 6.41 6.54
15 0.05 3.01 3.67 4.08 4.37 4.59 4.78 4.94 5.08 5.20
0.01 4.17 4.84 5.25 5.56 5.80 5.99 6.16 6.31 6.44
16 0.05 3.00 3.65 4.05 4.33 4.56 4.74 4.90 5.03 5.15
0.01 4.13 4.79 5.19 5.49 5.72 5.92 6.08 6.22 6.35
17 0.05 2.98 3.63 4.02 4.30 4.52 4.70 4.86 4.99 5.11
0.01 4.10 4.74 5.14 5.43 5.66 5.85 6.01 6.15 6.27
18 0.05 2.97 3.61 4.00 4.28 4.49 4.67 4.82 4.96 5.07
0.01 4.07 4.70 5.09 5.38 5.60 5.79 5.94 6.08 6.20
19 0.05 2.96 3.59 3.98 4.25 4.47 4.65 4.79 4.92 5.04
0.01 4.05 4.67 5.05 5.33 5.55 5.73 5.89 6.02 6.14
20 0.05 2.95 3.58 3.96 4.23 4.45 4.62 4.77 4.90 5.01
0.01 4.02 4.64 5.02 5.29 5.51 5.69 5.84 5.97 6.09
24 0.05 2.92 3.53 3.90 4.17 4.37 4.54 4.68 4.81 4.92
0.01 3.96 4.55 4.91 5.17 5.37 5.54 5.69 5.81 5.92
30 0.05 2.89 3.49 3.85 4.10 4.30 4.46 4.60 4.72 4.82
0.01 3.89 4.45 4.80 5.05 5.24 5.40 5.54 5.65 5.76
40 0.05 2.86 3.44 3.79 4.04 4.23 4.39 4.52 4.63 4.73
0.01 3.82 4.37 4.70 4.93 5.11 5.26 5.39 5.50 5.60
60 0.05 2.83 3.40 3.74 3.98 4.16 4.31 4.44 4.55 4.65
0.01 3.76 4.28 4.59 4.82 4.99 5.13 5.25 5.36 5.45
120 0.05 2.80 3.36 3.68 3.92 4.10 4.24 4.36 4.47 4.56
0.01 3.70 4.20 4.50 4.71 4.87 5.01 5.12 5.21 5.30
inf 0.05 2.77 3.31 3.63 3.86 4.03 4.17 4.29 4.39 4.47
0.01 3.64 4.12 4.40 4.60 4.76 4.18 4.99 5.08 5.16
General Rule:
Numbers in the far left column are degrees of freedom. Numbers in the
second column are significance levels (alpha).
