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 INDEX

● Basic Knowledge of LC Filters

・ Types of LC Filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 1

・ Types of Low-pass Filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 2
・ Component Selection for Low-pass Filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 3
・ Example of Component Selection using a Simulation Tool ・・・・・・・・・・・ 4

● High-performance inductors and capacitors incorporated in a filter circuit significantly

reduce the size of the circuit and also improve its performance and reliability

・ What advantages do high-performance inductors and capacitors offer? ・・・・・・・・・・ 7

・ What is a metal composite power inductor? ・・・・・・・・・・・ 8
・ What is a conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitor? ・・・・・・・・・・・ 9
・ High-performance power inductors and capacitors and their applications ・・・・・・・・ 10

● Power System Inductor: Excellent Characteristics for the Metal Composite Type

・ What Is an Inductor? ・・・・・・・・・・・ 12

・ What is a Metal Composite Inductor? ・・・・・・・・・・・ 15

● Fundamentals of Capacitors and Hybrid Capacitors

・ Fundamentals of Capacitors ・・・・・・・・・・・ 20

・ Conductive Polymer Hybrid Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors ・・・・・・・・・・・ 24

● Effects of Low ESR Capacitors on Low-pass Filters and Points to be Taken into Consideration

・ Characteristics of low-pass filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 31

・ ESR of Capacitors and Attenuation Characteristics of Low-pass Filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 32
・ Applications of Low ESR Capacitors for Smoothing Capacitors for Switching ・・・・・・ 33
Power Supply Output and Points to be Taken into Consideration
・ Effect of ESR on the Phase of LC filters ・・・・・・・・・・・ 34
・ Summery ・・・・・・・・・・・ 35
Basic Knowledge of LC Filters

LC filters refer to circuits consisting of a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) to cut or
pass specific frequency bands of an electric signal.
Capacitors block DC currents but pass AC more easily at higher frequencies. Conversely, inductors
pass DC currents as they are, but pass AC less easily at higher frequencies.
In other words, capacitors and inductors are passive components with completely opposite
properties. By combining these components with opposite properties, noise can be cut and specific
signals can be identified.

Types of LC Filters
LC filters are broadly classified into three types

① Low-pass Filters(LPF)
Low-pass filters are filter circuits that pass DC and low-frequency signals and cut
high-frequency signals.
They are the most widely used filter circuits and are mainly used to cut high-frequency noise.
In audio, they are also used to cut treble/mid-range sound components of bass speakers.

② High-pass Filters (HPF)

High-pass filters are filter circuits that cut DC and low-frequency signals and pass
high-frequency signals.
They are used to cut low-frequency noise in the audible range, cut mid-range/bass sound
components of treble speakers, etc.

1
③ Band-pass Filters (BPF
Band-pass filters are filter circuits that pass only signals at a specific frequency and cut signals
at other frequencies.
They are used for radio tuning (frequency adjustment) or for cutting the bass/treble sound
components of mid-range speakers, etc.

Types of Low-pass Filters

Although capacitors and inductors each have noise removal capabilities on their own, combining these
two components will achieve a significant level of noise removal. Inductors connected in series block
high-frequency noises, whereas capacitors connected in parallel work to bypass high-frequency noises.
However, noise removal effects change depending on the magnitude of the external impedance on the
input and output sides. For example, even if a low-impedance capacitor is used to bypass noise, the
noise will flow to the load side if the output impedance is lower. Conversely, even if a high-impedance
capacitor is used to block noise, the noise will flow to the load side if the output impedance is higher.
Therefore, when the external impedance is high, capacitors should be placed nearby, and when it's low,
inductors should be used.
The four types of low-pass filters shown below are used by taking external impedances into
consideration

① L-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ High

and the output impedance ⇒ Low

② L-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ Low

and the output impedance ⇒ High

③ π-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ High

and the output impedance ⇒ High

2
④ T-type Filter

When the input impedance ⇒ Low

and the output impedance ⇒ Low

It should be noted that π- and T-type filters have better noise removal effects than the L-type,
which should be taken into consideration when selecting circuits.

Component Selection for Low-pass Filters

To remove noise from a signal waveform in a signal circuit, it is necessary to select the constants
of components that enable significant attenuation at the noise frequency rather than at the signal
frequency. To remove noise from a DC voltage in a power supply circuit, it is necessary to consider
only the attenuation amount at the noise frequency because the DC attenuation is zero.

The attenuation characteristics (change in attenuation amount depending on the frequency) of a

filter can be calculated. However, because actual capacitors and inductors contain components
that affect performance, in addition to pure capacitance and inductance, there is no simple method
of calculating these characteristics.

Here is a circuit diagram of an L-type filter based on the actual

equivalent circuits of a capacitor and an inductor.
The capacitor includes an equivalent series resistance (ESR) and
an equivalent series inductance (ESL) in addition to a capacitance
(C), whereas the inductor includes a DC resistance (DCR) and a
stray capacitance (Cp) in addition to an inductance (L).

If a capacitor consists only of a C component, the impedance becomes lower and the noise
absorption effect increases with higher frequencies.
However, the lower limit of the impedance is determined by the ESR in actual capacitors.
Furthermore, the impedance increases in high-frequency ranges due to the ESL, making it difficult
to absorb noise.

Likewise, if an inductance consists only of the L component, the impedance increases and the
noise blocking effect becomes more significant at higher frequencies. However, in reality, the
impedance decreases in high-frequency ranges due to Cp included in the inductor, thereby
reducing the noise blocking effect.
Furthermore, because the value of each component changes depending on the frequency, it is
quite difficult to select components by taking all these factors into consideration.

3
Therefore, simulation tools are often used to select LC filter components.
Simulation tools can usually calculate the accurate attenuation amount for each frequency using the S
parameter and SPICE model provided by the component product number.

Example of Component Selection using a Simulation Tool

We will introduce an example of using the "Industrial & Automotive use LC filter simulator"
available on the Panasonic website to select components for an LC filter intended to prevent
the leakage of radio noise from an automotive ECU.

There is radio noise in the AM band (around 1 MHz) and FM band (around 80 MHz).
Components that satisfy the attenuation amount criteria of -60 dB or more in these two
frequency bands will be selected.
Please note that the prerequisite input/output impedance is 50 Ω.

•Target frequencies: 1 MHz, 80 MHz

•Target attenuation amount: -60 dB
•Input/output impedance: 50 Ω

1) Select the circuit

Select an L-type, π type, or T-type circuit

In this example, the π type is selected, and the input/output impedance is specified as 50 Ω.

4
 2) Select the component

Select a capacitor part number and an inductor part number out of the registered candidate
part numbers.
In this example, simulations were conducted with the following two conditions: (1) 100 μF
capacitors and a 10 μH inductor; and (2) 10 μF capacitors and a 1 μH inductor.

3) See the simulation results

The simulation results indicated that the combination of the Selection (2) met the target values.
In actual use, a variety of circuit and component combinations are simulated to select the
optimal components.

In this simulation, the combination of small C and L values, rather than that of large C and L values,
satisfied the target value. This is because the capacitors' ESL and inductors' Cp had a significant
impact in high-frequency ranges.

5
In low-frequency ranges (approx. 0.1 MHz or lower), because the ESL and Cp have little impact,
the attenuation amount is determined almost only by the C and L values. Therefore, the
attenuation amount of the Selection (1) with large C and L values was large. However, in
high-frequency ranges such as an FM band (80 MHz), the attenuation amount of the Selection (1)
with large ESL and Cp was small, thereby causing a reversal in attenuation amount.
(In components with identical specifications, if the C value is large, so is the ESL, and if the L value
is large, so is Cp.)

As described above, when designing LC filters, capacitors' ESL and inductors' Cp need to be taken
into consideration for component selection in order to avoid unexpected results.

Related product information

 Power Inductors for Automotive application

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/inductors/automotive-inductors/automotive-inductors

 Conductive Polymer Hybrid Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/hybrid-aluminum

6
High-performance inductors and capacitors incorporated
in a filter circuit significantly reduce the size of the circuit
and also improve its performance and reliability

There are various types of inductors and capacitors that vary according to their grade. The past
view of these elements was that they were standardized in terms of rating and component size,
and so were difficult to differentiate from each other. Today, however, inductors and capacitors
show considerably improved performance, thanks to advancements in technology and the
development of high-quality materials. High-performance inductors and capacitors are now key
items that meet worldwide requirements.

What advantages do high-performance inductors and capacitors offer?

The use of high-performance inductors and capacitors can deliver major advantages. Let's take a
look at some working examples before we discuss the specific performance and features of
inductors and capacitors.

Working example: an ECU power circuit

This is an example of a power circuit for an

in-vehicle ECU. The power circuit shown in this
Figure is a basic type that includes not only the
ECU but also a DC/DC converter. The power supply
line leading from the car battery to the internal
circuit of the ECU is provided with an LC circuit,
which eliminates noise and controls the operation
of the DC/DC converter.

Conventionally, a π-type input filter is composed of a ferrite power inductor and an aluminum
electrolytic capacitor. These standard components have been replaced with Panasonic components
- a metal composite (hereinafter "MC") power inductor and a conductive polymer hybrid aluminum
electrolytic capacitor (hereinafter "hybrid capacitor"). Here is an example of this type of
configuration.

7
Replacing the ferrite type with the MC type has reduced the footprint of the power inductor from
12×12 mm to 6×6 mm and therefore the area by 75%. Meanwhile, the φ10-mm aluminum
electrolytic capacitor has been replaced with a φ6.3-mm hybrid capacitor. As a result, the board
area occupied by the input filter has been reduced from 262 mm2 to 83 mm2, that is, cut by 68%.

The high capabilities of the MC power inductor and hybrid capacitor contribute to this dramatic
miniaturization of the input filter. The MC power inductor accumulates more energy per unit
volume than a ferrite power inductor and has a larger saturation (DC superposition) current. An
MC power inductor is smaller than a ferrite power inductor but offers the same performance. In
this example, the ferrite power inductor is replaced with an MC power inductor whose area is 1/4
of that of the ferrite power inductor. A hybrid capacitor has vastly lower ESR for its size and
capacitance than an electrolytic capacitor and allows a large ripple current flow. The hybrid
capacitor is thus smaller in capacitance as well as in size, which is why it has replaced the
electrolytic capacitor.

What is a metal composite power inductor?

A metal composite (MC) power inductor is different both material-wise and structurally from a
ferrite power inductor and has better characteristics than a ferrite power inductor.
The Panasonic MC power inductor has a metal composite core made of an in-house-developed
metal magnetic material and an integrally molded structure. This has made it possible to reduce its
size up to 50% of that of a ferrite power inductor of the same configuration and to carry a large
saturation (DC superposition) current. Due to its low AC resistance (ACR), an MC power inductor
is more efficient when operating at high frequencies. It also shows improved heat and vibration
resistance, offering high reliability that makes it ideal for use in in-vehicle equipment.

8
Due to these features, the MC power inductor is used in place of a surface-mounted ferrite power
inductor, and is used also as a surface-mounted inductor that replaces a through-hole
rod-core-type or toroidal-core-type. At the same time, it achieves a significant reduction in the size
and height of the inductor.

What is a conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitor?

An aluminum electrolytic capacitor is an ordinary capacitor with an electrolytic solution serving as
an electrolyte. The conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitor (hereinafter "hybrid
capacitor"), on the other hand, has an electrolyte composed of a mix of a conductive polymer and
an electrolytic solution.
The Panasonic hybrid capacitor combines the characteristics of a conductive polymer and those of
an electrolytic solution, contributing to miniaturization of in-vehicle equipment and industrial
equipment used in harsh environments.

(1) Increase in capacitance by up to 50%

(2) Larger allowable ripple current (up to 1.4-fold)
(3) High reliability

Shown below is a comparison between a hybrid capacitor and an aluminum electrolytic capacitor
with the same capacitance and ripple current rating. The sizes and volume indexes of both
capacitors indicate that significant miniaturization is possible.

9
 Aluminum electrolytic
Hybrid capacitor
capacitor

Same capacitance
Size: φ8×10.2mm Size: φ6.3×7.7mm
When the capacitance is 100 µF
Volume index: 100 Volume index: 47
(35 V):

Same ripple current Size: φ16×25mm Size: φ10×10.2mm

When the ripple current is Capacitance: 2200μF Capacitance: 470μF

2800 mA rms (25 V): Volume index: 100 Volume index: 16

Advantages of hybrid capacitors

(1) The high capacitance of the hybrid capacitor allows it to be smaller in size than an electrolytic
capacitor of the same capacitance
(2) The high ripple current of the hybrid capacitor allows it to be smaller in size than an electrolytic
capacitor of the same ripple current.

High-performance power inductors and capacitors and their applications

As described above, we have many examples of miniaturization and performance/reliability
improvement achieved by the Panasonic MC power inductor and hybrid capacitor. Their various
features mentioned above will now be reviewed and their advantages for use in equipment and
circuits and related applications will also be discussed below.

MC power inductor (MC-PCC) Hybrid capacitor

 Reduction in size (up to 50%)  Reduction in size (up to 50%)

 High saturation current  Large capacitance(up to 1.5-fold)
(large current-carrying capacity)  Large ripple current(up to 1.4-fold)
 High reliability  High reliability
(resistance to heat and vibration) (wet resistance, less leakage current)

※These are the results of a comparison of a MC power inductor with a ferrite inductor and of a hybrid capacitor

with an aluminum capacitor

As mentioned above, these improved inductors and capacitors are ideal for use in industrial fields
where smaller and more reliable equipment is needed that is fully operable in demanding
environments, such as the automobile, communication base, and industrial equipment fields.

10
 Examples of applications that require components that are smaller in size,
larger in current-carrying capacity, and higher in reliability

• In-vehicle ECU
(power pump system input filters, electric fan input filters, engine direct jet input filters, step-up
choke coils, brake system input filters, EGR input filters, electric compressor input filters, EPS
input filter, S & S step-up/step-down choke coils, I/O filters, body power system input filters,
etc.)
• Motor control circuit
• DC/DC converter
• Power circuit

Related product information

 Power Inductors for Automotive application

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/inductors/automotive-inductors/automotive-inductors

 Conductive Polymer Hybrid Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/hybrid-aluminum

11
Power System Inductor: Excellent Characteristics for the
Metal Composite Type

What Is an Inductor?
An inductor is an important passive component used in parallel with a resistor (R) and capacitor
(C). “L” is used as the inductor symbol. The symbol “L” is said to come from “Lenz Law” relating to
electro-magnetic induction (Other explanations also exist). The basic structure is a conductor
wound in a coil shape that converts electrical energy to magnetic energy, storing it inside the
inductor. The quantity of magnetic energy to be stored is determined by inductance, and the unit
henry (H).

Basic Characteristics of an Inductor

Inductors have the following basic characteristics.

① Current flows to generate a magnetic field, and a change of the magnetic field generates an
opposing current.
② Changes electrical energy to magnetic energy and stores it.
③ DC can pass through but AC cannot easily pass through at higher frequencies.

① and ② are related characteristics. Current that flows in an inductor generates a magnetic field,
but the magnetic flux remains after the current flow stops. This is due to the inductor being
magnetized. In other words, an inductor can store electrical energy as magnetic energy.

The characteristics of ③ work as a conductor when DC is applied, but with AC, the higher the
frequency, it becomes more difficult to flow through. This characteristic comes from the
impedance of the inductor.

Impedance (Z) of an inductor is expressed by the Z : Impedance [Ω]

following formula. R : DC resistance component [Ω]

Z = R + j (2πf L) J : Imaginary number

π : Circular constant (3.14)

In addition, the absolute value of impedance can f : Frequency [Hz]

be calculated by the following equation. L : Inductance [H]

|Z| =√R2+(2πf L)2

Judging from this equation, the higher the frequency, the larger the impedance and more difficult
it is for current to flow. Also, with larger inductance L, current becomes more difficult to flow.

12
 Basic Structure of an Inductor and Inductance

The most basic inductor is a conductor wound in a coil shape with both ends being external
terminals. In recent years, the majority of inductors utilize a core with a conductor wound around
it.

Inductance of an inductor can be obtained by sing the following formula.

L : Inductance [H]
k : Nagaoka coefficient
µ : Permeability of a core [H/m]
N : Number of coil turns
S : Cross-section of the coil [㎡]
l : Coil length [m]

From this formula, it is understood that inductance gets larger by 1) increasing the cross-section
S, 2) increasing the number of turns, and 3) increasing permeability by inserting a core.

Principal Function of an Inductor

How an inductor works in a real application? Specific example is shown by using the basic
characteristics ①、②、③ of the inductor described earlier.

① Current flow generates a magnetic field, and a change of the magnetic field generates
an opposing current ⇒Transformer principle

The structure with 2 windings of the primary and secondary sides

can be interpreted as a transformer. Supplying current in the
primary winding generates a magnetic field, and the magnetic
field generates current in the secondary winding. Voltage can be
converted by setting a winding ratio of the primary and secondary
windings.

13
② Changing electrical energy into magnetic energy for storing ⇒ Principle of a choke coil

Example of inductors used for DC/DC converter. By turning on the

switch and suppling current to the inductor, a magnetic field is
generated and the energy is stored in the inductor in the form of
magnetic energy.
By turning off the switch to stop current supply, the stored
magnetic energy is released (change of the magnetic field) and
current flows.

③ DC can pass through but AC cannot easily pass through at higher frequencies.
⇒ Filter function

By utilizing the ability to change the difficulty

of AC flow, based on the change of impedance
by frequency, a low-pass filter or high-pass
filter can be configured in conjunction with a
capacitor.

Principal Specification for an Inductor

Principal specifications and performance for an inductor is shown here. Because the specified
condition varies by manufacturer and product, the notes in the data sheet need to be checked.

Spec example (Panasonic Automotive Power Inductors)

Specification Items Specified condition

Inductance(L value)[μH] Based on the measured frequency (100 kHz)

Resistance component of the conductor (copper wire)

DC resistance(DCR)[Ω]
comprising the inductor

Rated current: Temperature Rated current value when the temperature rise reaches 40K
rise(ΔT)[A] by applying DC current

Rated current: DC Rated current value when the L value reduces by 30% from
superimposed(ΔL)[A] the initial value by applying DC current (DC superimposed)

Types of Inductor

A wide variety of inductor types are used. The method of grouping varies by the viewpoint. The
chart shown below is the classification made by application to the signal system and power system,
and by magnetic (core) material and process.

14
In this chart, power system inductors have been becoming one of the key items toward the market
demand for larger capacity, higher efficiency and compact sizing required for power supplies in
recent years. Although ferrite material is used widely for magnetic (core) material of power system
inductors, metal composite type power inductors utilizing metal magnetic material for the core are
getting market attention as a solution to the problems in power system applications in recent
years.

What is a Metal Composite Inductor?

Metal composite (hereinafter MC) type is
currently deployed to power system < Inductance vs allowable current >

applications, such as DC/DC conversion of

power supply circuits and input filters.
The chart shown below describes the
coverage of inductance and allowable
current (Idc) for power system MC type,
ferrite type, and signal
system/high-frequency system inductors.
This chart indicates that the MC type can
handle a larger current compared to the
ferrite type.

15
 Features of Metal Composite Type

Panasonic MC type power inductors achieve automotive-level high reliability, compact size, and
large current capacity compared with ferrite types by incorporating unique metal magnetic
material and unitized molded structure.

As shown by the comparison table with ferrite types below, metal composite types are superior in
the essential characteristics of inductors such as magnetic saturation characteristics, thermal
stability, heat resistance, vibration resistance, ACR (AC resistance), and vibration-based humming
sounds.

Magnetic saturation characteristics and thermal stability

Magnetic saturation characteristics (=DC superimposed characteristics) of MC type and ferrite

type plotted by temperature condition at 25°C, 100°C, 125°C, and 150°C are shown as an
example. Magnetic saturation characteristics refer to the tendency of generation of magnetic
saturation and rapid reduction of inductance at a certain current value when DC is applied to an
inductor. It is one of the important characteristics shown in the “Principal Specifications”.

In general, ferrite type is well known to have noticeable saturation characteristics and as shown
by the graph, when the DC bias is increased, inductance suddenly drops and the saturation
characteristics change with temperature. In contrast, Panasonic MC type does not generate rapid
inductance reduction typical of saturation, and the characteristics do not change much with
temperature. This is an important point in regards to fluctuations due to ambient temperature,
and particularly important for heat generating power system inductors.

16
 MC type vs Ferrite type Comparison of magnetic
saturation characteristics and thermal stability

Heat resistance, vibration resistance

Panasonic MC type inductors provide high reliability in automotive applications ensured through
strict reliability tests. Reliability is warranted for heat shock︓-40℃⇔150℃/2000 cycle, and heat
resistance of 150℃/2000 hours. Shown below are the standard automotive application test items
and condition.
Reliability test example (automotive standard)
Test
Test item Condition Judgment criteria
count/time

-40/+150℃
Heat shock test 2000 cycles  L value should be within
(Each 10Minutes)
±10℅ of the original value
10G(5Hz ~ 2kHz)  DCR is within ±5℅ of the
XYZ
Vibration test original value
30G(5Hz ~ 2kHz) (each 4 hours)
 Insulation resistance shall be
High-temperature life 10 kΩ or higher
150℃, DC Rated A 2000 hours
test  No abnormality can be
detected in the appearance
Temperature-controlled 85℃/85℅RH Rated and structure.
2000 hours
life test current  There shall be no wire
breakage or mechanical
Cold resistance test -40℃ 2000 hours damage.

*Preprocessing condition: 85±2℃, 85℅RH, 168 h, then reflow aging 3 times

17
AC resistance (ACR)

When the frequency of the current in the conductor is increased, current flow concentrates on the
conductor surface due to the skin effect and proximity effect, thereby making the center part low
density and surface part high density. This increases the resistance component with a higher
frequency, and in an inductor, this increased resistance component is called AC resistance (ACR).
The graph shown below is a comparison of AC resistance (ACR) between the MC type and ferrite
type. Increased frequency increases ACR and increased AC loss increases heat generation. As
shown in the graph, increase of ACR of the MC type is smaller than that of the ferrite type,
therefore, loss=heat generation is smaller at high frequency.

MC type vs Ferrite type ACR-Comparison of frequency characteristic

Vibration-based humming sound

Inductors sometimes generate mechanical Comparison of vibration-based humming

vibration-based humming sound through sounds when driven in an audible frequency
condition and structure. In order to ease the
rapid saturation of a core, an air gap is often
utilized in a ferrite core, and this air gap is one of
the causes of vibration-based humming sound.
Panasonic MC type is made with unitized molded
structure without an air gap (refer to the
structure diagram “Features of Metal Composite
Type”), thereby making the vibration-based
humming sound much smaller. In comparison
with the ferrite type, sound is approx. 20 dB or
1/10.

18
 Metal Composite Type Application and Future

As the MC type provides excellent characteristics and high reliability as described above, it is widely
used for automotive applications. In principle, it us used for DC/DC converter and input filter of
power supply circuit in a variety of ECU.

Panasonic intends to expand the variability of the MC type and deploy in other automotive
applications in the future.

MC type power inductor application examples

Related product information

 Power Inductors for Automotive application

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/inductors/automotive-inductors/automotive-inductors

 Power Inductors for Consumer

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/inductors/inductors-for-consumer/inductors-for-consumer

19
Fundamentals of Capacitors and Hybrid Capacitors

Fundamentals of Capacitors
Capacitors are one of the three major passive components, along with resistors and coils.
Capacitors are simple components, but almost no electric/electronic circuits are without capacitors.
There is no way that the circuits of advanced devices such as PCs and smartphones can work
without capacitors. Besides, capacitors are one of the most important components for CPUs and
communication chips, which are core parts of these devices.

What are capacitors?

Capacitors are electronic components that can store a charge on the surface of their internal
electrodes. They store a smaller charge than batteries and therefore can supply current for only a
short period of time. However, they can be used repeatedly and can provide a large current
instantaneously.

An insulator (Dielectric) sandwiched between metal plates (Electrodes) in parallel makes up a

capacitor. Applying DC voltage across the metal plates (Electrodes) enables it to store a charge.
This is the principle of capacitors. The amount of charge that can be stored is referred to as
capacitance, and capacitance ʻCʼ is determined by permittivity ʻεʼ of the insulator, surface area ʻSʼ
of the electrodes, and thickness ʻdʼ of the insulator.

Capacitors are electronic components that can store a charge on the surface of their internal
electrodes. They store a smaller charge than batteries and therefore can supply current for only a
short period of time. However, they can be used repeatedly and can provide a large current
instantaneously.

20
 Functions of capacitors

Capacitors have and provide the following properties in electric circuits: (1) Capable of
instantaneous charge and discharge; (2) Do not pass DC but pass AC; and (3) Pass AC more easily
at higher frequencies.

Here are circuit examples for typical use of capacitors.

Discharge circuits

Discharge circuits operate loads connected to

them by discharging charge stored in capacitors.
They are used in strobe lights for cameras,
emergency backup power supplies, etc., since
they can discharge large current instantaneously.

Smoothing circuits

Smoothing circuits convert AC to DC. They are

used to suppress fluctuation ranges of
waveforms that have undergone full-wave
rectification by bridge circuits of power supplies,
etc.

Decoupling circuits

Decoupling circuits, as their name suggests, are

used to prevent the propagation of fluctuation
(Noise) that occurred in the previous stage and
carried over to the subsequent stage. One
example of such use is removing the switching
noises of switching power supplies.

Coupling circuits

Coupling circuits, conversely, extract only

changed portions (AC components) from the
signal of the previous circuit and propagate it to
the latter circuit. They are used in audio signal
circuits, etc.

21
 Characteristics of capacitors

Ideal capacitors consist only of capacitance components. However, actual capacitors include
resistance and inductance components. These parasitic components significantly affect the
performance of capacitors. The diagram below shows the simplified equivalent circuits of
capacitors. As shown in the diagram, an equivalent circuit of an actual capacitor includes ESR
(equivalent series resistance) and ESL (equivalent series inductance). In addition, ideally, there
should be insulation between the electrodes of a capacitor. However, in fact some leakage current
exists.

These components are summarized below.

Characteristic items Explanation

• Most basic performance

Capacitance (C) • Varies somewhat due to manufacturing variations.
⇒ Capacitance tolerance (±5%, ±10%, etc.)

• Value determined depending on resistance components in

accordance with the types of dielectrics and resistance
components of the electrodes and terminals.
Equivalent series
• Large ESR (or tanδ) may cause failures due to heat generated by
resistance (ESR)
current.
Dielectric tangent (tanδ)
⇒ Current that can be passed is restricted (Allowable current
value)
• Large ESR (or tanδ) also reduces noise-absorbing effects.

• Reciprocal of leakage current is mainly determined by the types of

Insulation resistance dielectrics
(IR) • Losses due to leakage current are large when IR is low.
(Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, etc., specify leakage current.)

• Inductance component generated mainly in accordance by the

Equivalent series structures of capacitors
inductance (ESL) • When ESL is large, inductance components become dominant in
high-frequency ranges, hindering the performance of capacitors.

22
Another important characteristic is impedance.
In short, impedance is a voltage to current ratio in AC circuits and equivalent to a resistance in DC
currents. Its symbol is Z, and is expressed using Ω, as with resistance.

Impedance (Z) of capacitors is expressed by

the following equation.

Z = R + j 2πf L+ 1／(j 2πf C)

The absolute value of impedance is calculated

by the following equation.

|Z| =√R2+(2πf L - 1／(2πf C))

This equation indicates the following.

① Impedance is determined mostly by capacitance (C) in low-frequency ranges.

② Impedance is determined by ESR at self-resonant frequencies
(Frequencies with 2πf L = 1/(2πf C)).
③ Impedance is determined mostly by ESL in high-frequency ranges.

The graph below shows these.

The impedance Z of capacitors is capacitive (C) and decreases up to the self-resonant frequency.
However, at the self-resonant frequency, the effect of C and ESL become zero, and the impedance
consists only of ESR. After this point, the impedance becomes inductive (ESL) and increases with
the frequency.

23
When using capacitors for noise absorption (Decoupling), one of its major applications, the
following points need to be taken into consideration when selecting components since noise
absorbing effects are determined by impedance.
① Noise frequencies and the self-resonant frequency of the capacitor are close.
② Small ESR
③ Small ESL in the case of high-frequency noises

Types of capacitors and their features

There are a variety of capacitors depending on the materials used, structures, etc. In addition,
their features differ by type. Design selection is based on these features

※The laminated ceramic is a characteristic of a high dielectric constant laminated ceramic capacitor.

In addition, conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitors, which integrate

aluminum electrolytic capacitors and conductive polymer electrolytic capacitors, combines the
features of both, and have been attracting attention in recent years.

Conductive Polymer Hybrid Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

Conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitors, with the electrolyte fused with
conductive polymer and electrolyte liquid, are suitable for automotive equipment, communication
base stations, etc. which need compact and highly reliable components.

24
 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors

Conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitors are, as their name indicates, part of
the aluminum electrolytic capacitors. For a better understanding of conductive polymer hybrid
aluminum electrolytic capacitors, we'll first give a brief explanation of aluminum electrolytic
capacitors.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have a structure, in which an oxide film, which becomes an
insulator (Dielectric), is formed on the surface of the aluminum foil of the anode, and electrolyte
liquid (liquid consisting of a solvent in which electrolyte is dissolved) is used as electrolyte
(Cathode).

One feature of aluminum electrolytic capacitors is a large capacity, and this is achieved by
increasing electrode surface area (S) through the etching of the of aluminum foil surface to form
irregularities and by forming ultra-thin thickness (d) of oxide films at the Angstrom level.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are products with limited life. The electrolyte liquid vaporizes
depending on the temperature and gradually penetrates sealing rubber. Consequently, the
capacity decreases and ESR rises over time, and it will become an open state (Electrolyte liquid
having dried up) in the end.

When estimating the life of aluminum electrolytic capacitors, "10℃ 2-fold law" can usually be
applied.

25
 What are conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitors?

Conductive polymer hybrid aluminum electrolytic capacitors ("hybrid capacitors") adopt hybrid
electrolyte fused with conductive polymer and electrolyte liquid and show excellent performance
with the advantages of both conductive polymer electrolytic capacitors and aluminum electrolytic
capacitors. Compact yet achieving high breakdown voltage, large capacity, low ESR, large ripple
current, and long life. It should be noted that the final failure mode is open mode, the same as that
of aluminum electrolytic capacitors, and the "10º℃ 2-fold law" applies to its life estimation
equation.

The basic structures of common aluminum electrolytic capacitors and hybrid capacitors are
compared below. Both basically have the same structure, but are different in electrolyte, as
described earlier.

26
 Features of hybrid capacitors

The most significant feature of hybrid capacitors is their capability to pass large ripple current at
low ESR compared to conventional aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
Low ESR reduces energy losses due to ESR in addition to achieving large noise-absorbing effects,
and furthermore, self-temperature rise due to the energy losses will be smaller.
Smaller self-temperature rise will extend the life of capacitors, and assuming that they have the
same life, those with low ESR can be regarded as capable of passing larger current.

The graph on the right compares ESR frequency

characteristics of aluminum electrolytic capacitors
and hybrid capacitors.
Usually, the larger the capacity of aluminum
electrolytic capacitors, the larger their size and the
lower their ESR. However, compared with
aluminum electrolytic capacitors, hybrid
capacitors, which feature low ESR, can obtain
equivalent ESR values with smaller capacity and
smaller size.
Hybrid capacitors with 47 μF have lower ESR than
aluminum electrolytic capacitors with 330 μF.

As an example, we compare the use of a 330 μF aluminum electrolytic capacitor and of a 47 μF

hybrid capacitor for smoothing the output of switching power supplies. As shown below, using a 47
μF hybrid capacitor can lower the output ripple voltage.
In addition, the size can be significantly downsized from φ10 × 10.2 mm to φ6.3 × 5.8 mm.

27
 Application examples of hybrid capacitors

As described earlier, hybrid capacitors have improved the weak points of conventional aluminum
electrolytic capacitors such as low-temperature characteristics, ESR characteristics, and high
ripple through the adoption of a conductive polymer while keeping their advantages (safety, low
LC). Taking advantages of these features, more hybrid capacitors are adopted for applications that
require safety and reliability, such as automotive and industrial equipment.
Lastly, we introduce examples of reducing the number of components and downsizing through the
adoption of hybrid capacitors.

In the first example, output capacitors for general-purpose power supplies replaced the radial lead
type 220 μF aluminum electrolytic capacitor × 1 + MLCC × 5 with a single 47 μF hybrid capacitor.
The hybrid capacitor is a surface mount type. In addition to reducing the number of components
and mounting area and achieving full surface mounting, reliability is improved by not using MLCC
in short-circuit failure mode.

Next, we will introduce the examples of engine ECU and EPS motor control circuit power supplies.
In the example of engine ECU, aluminum electrolytic capacitors used for DC-DC converter input
were replaced by hybrid capacitors. The number of components was halved, and the mounting
area was also significantly reduced. In the example of EPS motor control, radial lead type
capacitors used for smoothing were replaced by surface mount type capacitors. The mounting
area and height were reduced, while reliability and ripple current rating improved.

28
These examples show the significant advantages of hybrid capacitors.

29
 Related product information

 Conductive Polymer Hybrid Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/hybrid-aluminum

30
Effects of Low ESR Capacitors on Low-pass Filters
and Points to be Taken into Consideration

In recent years, more electronic equipment use switching power supplies. Switching power
supplies significantly contribute to high efficiency and miniaturization. On the other hand, noise
from switching often becomes a major noise source. High-speed digital devices also propagate
noise on power supply lines. These noises can deteriorate the measurement accuracy and S/N
ratio particularly on equipment and devices that include analog circuits and therefore require
management.

Characteristics of low-pass filters

One way to reduce noise on power supply lines is to use
low-pass filters such as those shown in the diagram on
the right. The left-hand side is an LC filter consisting of
an inductor L and capacitor C; the right-hand side is an
RC filter consisting of resistance R and capacitor C. Both
are the most basic passive low-pass filters and have a function of not passing (Filtering, attenuating)
the high-frequency components of lines inserted.

The diagrams below show relationships between the frequency and attenuation rate of each filter.

The LC filter, which is a secondary filter, attenuates at -40 dB/dec from the cutoff frequency fc. The
ideal characteristic is to maintain this attenuation rate if the frequency increases. However,
because zero point fz occurs due to the capacitance and ESR of the capacitor, an attenuation of
+20 dB/dec is added after fz due to a primary advance, changing the attenuation rate to -20
dB/dec.

The RC filter, which is a primary filter, attenuates at -20 dB/dec from fc. Similarly, the ideal
characteristic is to maintain this attenuation rate. However, an attenuation of +20 dB/dec is added
after fz, offsetting the attenuation rate.

31
For both filters, the lower the ESR (equivalent series resistance) of the capacitor, the closer to the
ideal attenuation characteristic will be because fz is determined by 1/(2π × Cout × ESR). In other
words, fz shifts to a higher frequency, and the frequency range in which the ideal attenuation rate
can be maintained will stretch to a higher frequency.

When the capacitance of a capacitor is increased, both fc and fz will be lower. If the amount of
attenuation of noise is not within preferable levels, even when the capacitance is increased, the fz
effect may be a factor.

ESR of Capacitors and Attenuation Characteristics of Low-pass Filters

Low-pass filters using LC and RC maintain high attenuation rates in higher frequencies when the
capacitorʼs ESR is lower. Actual characteristics will be shown using common aluminum electrolytic
capacitors and electrolytic capacitors that feature low ESR.

Panasonic has a lineup of low-ESR electrolytic capacitors shown below that utilizes conductive
polymer materials as electrolyte. Although each has features in addition to low ESR, OS-CON will
be used here.

●Capacitor
・ OS-CON (Part number 20SEP33M)︓
20VDC、33μF、ESR＝37mΩ (Actual measurement value)
・ Aluminum electrolytic capacitor︓
10VDC、33μF、ESR＝1410mΩ (Actual measurement value)

●Comparing LC filters (L = 10 μH)

32
●Comparing RC filters (R = 5.6 Ω)

As you can see, OS-CON shows large attenuation rates in higher frequency ranges for both LC and
RC filters over common aluminum electrolytic capacitors. It should be noted that these are the
results of comparisons at normal temperature. At low temperatures (0ºC or lower), ESR of
common aluminum electrolytic capacitors increases drastically, causing the attenuation rate to fall
significantly. On the other hand, the ESR of OS-CON varies little even at low temperatures and can
maintain high attenuation rates close to rates at normal temperature.

Applications of Low ESR Capacitors for Smoothing Capacitors for

Switching Power Supply Output and Points to be Taken into
Consideration

As shown in the circuit example on the right, the

switching power supply output has a low-pass filter
consisting of inductor L and capacitor Cout for
smoothing the output voltage. For Cout to minimize
the output ripple voltage, low ESR is important.
Accordingly, the effectiveness of low ESR conductive
polymer electrolytic capacitors shown above is highly
evaluated.
However, because low ESR of Cout may cause the
switching power supply output to be unstable and
even oscillate in some cases, attention is required.

This circuit example is a schematic diagram of a voltage mode diode rectification step-down
switching power supply. It shows that the output voltage is fed back to the error amplifier of the
control circuit for stable control. It is well-known that the feedback loop tends to become unstable
when there is no adequate phase margin, and it is the same with switching power supply circuits.
It is the same idea for amplifier circuits that use operational amplifiers, etc. It is based on the
relationship between poles and zeros in gain and phase characteristics. Phase margins may also

33
need to be examined for those with feedback loops including linear regulators, irrespective of
whether or not the conversion method shown in the example applies.

In short, oscillation occurs if a phase lag in a feedback loop reaches 360°. Phase margins of approx.
40° or more are usually considered necessary for stable control. The feedback of the circuit
example is negative feedback and therefore has a phase lag of 180° to begin with. The phase lag
due to the output LC filter within the loop is added on top of that. Accordingly, the operation might
become unstable approx. after the phase lag of the LC filter exceeds 140° (Overall phase lag of
320°)

Effect of ESR on the Phase of LC filters

Although the relationship between the
attenuation rate (Gain) of an LC filter and
ESR of the capacitor is as described earlier,
ESR also affects phase lags. The diagram on
the right shows the gain (Attenuation rate)
and phase characteristics of an actual LC
filter in regards to frequencies. The ideal
gains and phases are shown by the fine
dotted lines.

For LC filters, which are secondary filters, a phase lag as an ideal characteristic is 180°.
While this will cause oscillation simply when an LC filter is added in the negative feedback
loop, it would not be ideal actually due to the zero point.

The phase lag starts from the cutoff frequency and continues until the zero point. It will
advance from the zero point, until it has a 90° lag due to a primary advance by the
capacitance and ESR of Cout (Blue solid line). Here, the key is the phase lag at the zero
point.
The loop becomes unstable if the phase lag at zero point exceeds 140°, which can secure a
phase margin of approx. 40°.

Zero point is determined by 1/(2π × Cout × ESR). If ESR becomes lower, the zero point
frequency becomes higher and closer to the ideal characteristic, the phase lags by as much
as, approximately 180°. In other words, if the phase margin becomes small, it can cause
oscillation. Furthermore, variations in the characteristics of components and temperature
changes require attention. When the phase margin is marginal, it might have a potential
problem such as oscillating at low temperatures even if there is no problem at normal
temperature.

34
This problem can be addressed by phase compensation of the feedback loop. The basic idea
and method are almost the same as the phase compensation of common amplifier circuits.
However, it may become more complex depending on the topology and control mode.

Most ICs in power supply circuits used for switching power supplies, are equipped with
terminals for phase compensation. Some types of ICs have phase compensation circuits
mounted and do not require external compensation. Basically, the datasheet or design
manual of the power supply IC to be used indicates its phase compensation method.
Necessary components consist of several resistances and capacitors.

Because it is difficult to simply measure the loop frequency characteristics of power supply
ICs, common phase compensation is carried out through the optimization of load transient
response characteristics. This only requires a load device and an oscilloscope. It is
pragmatic and relatively easy because start standard circuits and component constants are
also provided. If you have a frequency response analyzer (FRA), you can make adjustments
while measuring the actual frequency characteristics.

Summery
Because switching power supplies and high-speed logic devices can be noise sources, LC filters
and RC filters are used as one of the ways for noise management. For both of them, the ESR of the
capacitor to be used and filter performance are related, and the use of low ESR capacitors enables
the attenuation characteristics of the filter to be closer to ideal. Panasonic conductive polymer
electrolytic capacitors, with their low ESR, are effective options.

Meanwhile, for Cout, which is an output smoothing filter for switching power supplies, low ESR is
an essential requirement for ripple voltage reduction. Low ESR conductive polymer electrolytic
capacitors are an also effective solution to this. However, Cout with low ESR has the possibility of
making the output of switching power supplies unstable, which requires attention. This problem
can be addressed with phase compensation for the feedback loop of power supplies. Because
power supply circuits that use power supply ICs have phase compensation terminals at power
supply ICs in many cases, adjustments are relatively easy. With these points taken into
consideration, it is possible to design switching power supplies with small output ripple voltages.

Related product information

 Conductive Polymer Aluminum Solid Capacitors (OS-CON)

https://industrial.panasonic.com/ww/products/capacitors/polymer-capacitors/os-con

35
 Optimal solution for circuit design
＝Technical information＝

LC Filters

First edition : July 1, 2020

Issued by Industrial Solutions Company Panasonic Co., Ltd.

Device Solutions Business Division

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced

or utilized in any from or by any means, electronic or mechanical,

including photocopying and microfilm, without permission in

writing from the publisher.