PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CHEN 106

INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER IN PROCESS

Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other aspects of life, and one does
not need to go very far to see some application areas of heat transfer. Many ordinary household
applications are designed, in whole or part, by using the principles of heat transfer.

The engineering activity is directed to the controlled release of power from fossil fuels, and with
making that power available where it is needed. The laws of heat transfer are of the utmost importance
in these activities. The generation of power from the energy changes of chemical reactions involves
the transfer of vast quantities of thermal energy. Further, chemical processes of combustion yield
temperatures at which most constructional materials would melt; adequate protection by heat transfer
equipment is therefore vital. The distribution of energy as electricity is accompanied, at all stages, by
certain wastages manifested as rising temperature of the equipment. Heat transfer considerations
enable these temperatures to be controlled within safe limits.

The laws of heat transfer find application in many fields of engineering such as chemical and process
engineering, manufacturing and metallurgical industries.

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HEAT TRANSFER MECHANSIMS

Heat is defined as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference. The science that deals the determination of the rates such energy
transfers is the heat transfer. The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher temperature
mediums to the lower temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.

Heat can be transferred in three different mechanisms: conduction, convection and radiation. All
modes of heat transfer require the existence of temperature difference

Separate equations may be written to describe each mechanism, and when two or more
mechanisms occur simultaneously it is sometimes possible to add the separate effects; but
sometimes it is necessary to consider the equations of the participating mechanisms together. The
subject matter thus conveniently sub-divides itself into the separate basic mechanisms of heat
transfer and the combinations of them.

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CONDUCTION

Conduction is the heat transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take
place in solids, liquids or gases, as shown in Figure 1.1. In gases and liquids, conduction is due
to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to
the combination of vibration of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons. This energy is called internal energy

Figure 1.1 The mechanism of heat conduction in different phases of a substance.

The mechanism of thermal conduction in a gas is based on kinetic theory. The gas molecules are
in continuous random motion, colliding with one another and exchanging energy and
momentum. The molecules in a high-temperature region have higher velocities and hence higher

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PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CHEN 106

kinetic energy than the molecules in the low-temperature region. The molecules move from the
higher temperature zone to the lower-temperature zone and transport their kinetic energy to the
low-temperature zone through collisions. Since the kinetic energy of a gas molecule is
proportional to its absolute temperature, so the kinetic energy transfer to the molecules of lower
temperature zone ensures thermal energy transfer.

While, the mechanism of heat conduction in liquids is assumed to be qualitatively the same as in
gases. Since the molecules of a liquid are more closely spaced and the molecular fields exert
strong influence on thermal energy transfer in the collision process, so the expression for thermal
conductivity of a liquid based on simplified kinetic theory treatment does not exist.

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PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CHEN 106

CALCULATION OF THE HEAT TRANSFER RATE FOR ONE

DIMINTIONAL CONDUCTION THROUGH A FLAT WALL,
CYLINDER AND SPHERICAL LAYERS

It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms of appropriate rate equations. For
heat conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier's law

dT
Qx  kA
dx

1. Conduction for Flat Wall

A. Conduction Through a Single Layer

For single layer at the one-dimensional flat wall as shown in Figure 1.2 the rate
equation is expressed as

dT
Qx  kA (1.1)
dx

Figure 1. 2. Fourier's law for one-dimensional steady state conduction in a plane slab of
material.

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Q : rate of heat conduction through the wall, W.

k : thermal conductivity of the wall material, W/m-K.
A : the area of heat flow taken at right angles to the
direction of flow of heat, m².
dT
: temperature gradient, K/m.
dx

The rate of heat flow Qx is the heat transfer in the x-direction perpendicular to the direction of
dT
transfer area, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient, , in this direction. The
dx
proportionality constant k is a transport property known as the thermal conductivity and is a
characteristic of the wall material. The minus sign is a consequence of the fact that heat is
transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. Under the steady state conditional

Separating the variables in equation (1) and integrating

x2 T2
Q  dx  kA  dT
x1 T1
 Qx2  x1   kAT2  T1   kAT1  T2 

T1  T2   kA 
or Q  kA   T (1.2)
x2  x1   L 
Where,

T  T1  T2 = temperature driving force, K

L  x2  x1 = thickness of the wall, m.

Equation (2) may also be put in the form

T
Q = (1.3)
R

L
where R (1.4)
kA

R is thermal resistance of the wall, K/W

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PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CHEN 106

Example 1.1
o o
One face of a copper plate is maintained at 400 C, and the other face is maintained at 100 C.
How much heat is transferred through the plate? Thermal conductivity of copper = 370
o 2
W/m C, the surface area of the plate is 1 m and the plate is 3 cm thick.

Solution:

From equation (2)

kA( T )
Q
L

Q
370  1  400  100  3.7  10 6 W  3.7MW
0.03

Example 1.2

A layer of cork 150 mm thick is used as a layer of thermal insulation in a flat wall. The
o o
temperature of the cold side of the cork is 44 C, and that of the warm side is 80 C. The
o
thermal conductivity of the cork is 0.045 W/m C. The area of the wall is 2.32 m². What is the
rate of heat flow through the wall in watts?

Solution:

From equation (2)

kA( T )
Q
L

Q
0.045  2.32  80  44  25.1 W
0.150

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PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CHEN 106

B. Conduction Through Multi Flat layers

Conduction through a system of multi flat layers of different material has often to be
considered. A furnace wall consisting of a layer of firebrick and a layer of insulating brick is a
typical example. Such slabs are called composite walls (compound thermal resistances) and
they may be in series or in parallel.

In Figure 1.3 below, plane slabs (a, b, c) of thermal resistances R1, R2, R3 are arranged in
series.

Figure 1.3 Heat transfer through multi Flat layers

To get an expression for heat conducted through this system, the total temperature driving
force T is:

T = T1 + T2 + T3 (1.5)

Applying the integrated Fourier equation to each layer:

T1 = QaR1
T2 = QbR2 (1.6)
T3 = QcR3 _

Since, in steady heat flow, all the heat that passes through the first resistance must pass
through the second and in turn pass through the third, Qa, Qb, Qc are equal and all can be
denoted by Q. Using this fact and solving for Q gives

Qa = Qb = Qc = Q (1.7)

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Adding equations (6) and substituting from (5) and (7):

T1 + T2 + T3 = T = Q (R1 + R2 + R3)

T1  T2  T3  Ttotal

Q=  (1.8)
R1  R2  R3  R total

Where,

Rtotal = total thermal resistance of the composite wall.

From equations (8), (7) and (6):

T T1 T2 T3

Q=    (1.9)
R R1 R2 R3

From equation (9) it is possible to calculate the interface temperatures at the

junctions between any two adjacent layers.

Example 1.3

A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 114-mm layer of refractory brick, with a thermal
o
conductivity of 0.138 W/m C backed by a 229-mm layer of common brick, of
o o
conductivity 1.38 W/m C. The temperature of the inner face of the wall is 760 C, and
o
that of the outer face is 76.6 C. (a) What is the heat loss through the wall? (b) What is
the temperature of the interface between the refractory brick and the common brick?
2
Assume that the heat transfer area A = 0.093 m .

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Heat transfer conduction through two layer (Example1.3)

As shown in the above Illustration

L
Since thermal resistance is in general given by R =
kA

(a) The thermal resistance of the refractory layer is

0.114 o
R1 = = 8.88 C / W
0.138  0.093

and that of the common brick is

0.229 o
R2 = = 1.78 C / W
1.38  0.093

The total resistance is

o
Rtotal = R1 + R2 = 8.88 + 1.78 = 10.66 C/W

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The overall of temperature drop is

o
T = 760 – 76.6 = 683.4 C

The total heat loss is given by

T 683.4
Q= = = 64.1 W
Rtotal 10.66

(b) From equation (9):

TWall,1 683.4

8.88 10.66

Where,

o
TWall,1 = 569.3 C = 760 – T2

o
The temperature at the interface is T2 = 760 – 569.3 = 190.7 C

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2. Conduction for Cylindrical Layer

A. Single layer of cylinder

Conduction through thick walled pipes is a common heat transfer problem, and may be
treated one-dimensionally if surface temperatures are uniform. The heat flow is then in the
radial direction only as in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Crosse-section of long cylindrical pipe (L)

Consider a long cylindrical layer of inner radius r1 , outer radius r2 , length L and thermal
conductivity k. The two surfaces of the cylindrical layer are maintained at constant
temperatures T1 and T2 . For one-dimensional heat transfer through the cylindrical layer, we
have Tr  . Then Fourier's law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the cylindrical
layer can be expressed as

dT
Qcond,cyl  kA (1.10)
dr

Where,

A  2rL (1.11)

A is the heat transfer surface area at location r.

Separating the variables in the equation (10) and integrating from r  r1 , where T r1   T1 , to
r  r2 , where T r2   T2 , gives

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Qcond,cyl .dr  k (2Lr )dT

r2 2 T

  2kL dT
dr
Qcond,cyl 
r1
r T1

 r 
Qcond,cyl  ln  2    2kLT2  T1 

  r1 

 
 
 Qcond,cyl   2kL 
T  T2 
  r  1
 ln   
2

  r1  
Where
r 
ln  2 
  1
r
Rcyl
2kL

Rcyl is the thermal resistance of the cylinder layer.

T
 Qcond,cyl 
Rcyl

Example 1.4

A copper pipe [k= 122W/m. ˚C] with 4cm inner diameter (ID) and 6cm outer diameter (OD)
and 2m long. If the inside wall temperature is 75˚C and the outside wall temperature is 25˚C,
calculate:

a. The heat transfer through the wall.

b. The thermal resistance of the pipe.

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Solution:

a.
2kL(T1  T2 )
Qcond,cyl 
r 
ln  2 
 r1 
2 x(3.14) x(122) x(2) x(75  25)
Qcond,cyl  Qcond,cyl = 1.9x105= 186868.29W
 0.03 
ln  
 0.02 

b.
r 
ln  2 
  1
r
Rcyl
2kL
 0.03 
ln  
Rcyl   0.02 
=2.6x10-4 ˚C/W
2 x(3.14) x(122) x(2)

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B. Multilayered of Cylindrical

Steady heat transfer through multilayered cylindrical can be handled just like multilayered
flat wells discussed earlier by simply adding an additional resistance in series for each
additional layer, as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Thermal resistances of three-layered of composite cylinder

Where

T
Qcond,cyl 
Rcyl ,total

Rcyl ,total  Rcyl ,1  Rcyl , 2  Rcyl ,3

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r  r  r 
ln  2  ln  3  ln  4 
  1  2  3
r r r
Rcyl ,total (1.12)
2k1 L 2k 4 L 2k 3 L

Example 1.5
o
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel [k = 19 W/m C] with 2-cm inner diameter (ID) and 4-
cm outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3-cm layer of asbestos insulation
o o
[k = 0.2 W/m C] If the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600 C, and the
o
outside wall temperature is 100 C, calculate the heat loss per meter of length.

Solution:

T
Qcond,cyl 
Rtotal,cyl

Rtotal,cyl  Rcyl ,1  Rcyl , 2

r  r 
ln  2  ln  3 
  1  2
r r
Rtotal,cyl
2k1 L 2k 2 L

D1 = 2 cm r1 = 1 cm = 0.01m
D2 = 4 cm  r2 = 2 cm = 0.02m
D3 = 4 cm + 3 cm + 3 cm = 10 cm = 0.1m  r3 = 5 cm =0.05m

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 0.02   0.05 
ln   ln  
Rtotal,cyl   0.01 
  0.02 

0.693

0.916
2  3.14  19  L 2  3.14  0.2  L 119.32 L 1.256 L

5.81  10 3 0.729 0.735

Rtotal,cyl   
L L L

Qcond,cyl 
600  100
 0.735 
 
 L 

Qcond,cyl 500
  680W
L 0.735 m

3. Conduction for Spherical Layer

A. Single layer of Spherical layer

Conduction will be in the radial direction if the temperatures of the inner and outer spherical

surfaces are uniform as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 long spherical with inner and outer surface temperature.

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Fourier's law gives for a spherical shell at r and thickness dr:

dT
Qcond, sph = –kA dr (1.13)

We can repeat the analysis above for a spherical layer by taking

A = 4r2 (1.14)

Where,

A is the surface area of the spherical shell at r .

Substituting this into equation (13) and integrating:

r2 T2
dr
Qcond, sph . 2 = –4k
r1 r

T1
dT

4kr1 r2 ( T1  T2 ) T
... Qcond, sph = = (1.15)
r2  r1 Rsph

Where,

r2  r1
Rsph  (1.16)
4kr1 r2

Where r1 , r2 are the inner and outer radii of the hollow sphere; T1 and T2 are the temperatures
of

the inner and outer surfaces, respectively.

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Example 1.6

Gas is contained in a spherical concrete pressure vessel of internal diameter 3 m and external
diameter 4 m. Calculate the rate of heat loss from the vessel when the inner surface of the
o o
spherical vessel is at 400 C and the outer surface is at 20 C. Thermal conductivity of concrete
o
is 1 W/m C.

Solution:

The rate of heat conduction is given by:

4kr2 r1 t 
Qcond, sph 
r2  r1
r2 = 2 m
r1 = 1.5 m

... Qcond, sph 

4 121.5400  20
2  1.5

= 28.65 kW

B. Multilayered of Spherical

By using equation (15) and (16), we can calculate the heat transfer for multilayer of
spherical as shown in Figure 1.7.

T
Qcond, sph =
Rtotal, sph

Rtotal, sph  RSph.,1  RSph, 2

 r r   r r 
RSph,1   2 1    3 2 
 2k1 r2 r1   2k 2 r2 r1 

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Figure 1.7 Heat transfer through two layer of spherical

Example 1.7

A spherical stainless steel with internal diameter 3cm and the external diameter is 4cm
[k1=120W/m.˚C). It covers with 2cm layer concrete material [k2 = 1W/m.˚C]. Calculate the
heat loss if the inside temperature is 120˚C and the outside temperature is 35˚C.

Solution:
Rtotal, Sph  R1  R2
r2  r1
R1 
4k1 r1 r2
r3  r2
R2 
4k 2 r3 r2
T
Q
Rtotal, Sph
D1  3cm
r1  0.015m
D2  4cm
r2  0.02m
D3  8cm
r3  0.04m

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0.02  0.015
 RSph,1   0.022 o C
2  3.14  120  0.015  .02 W

0.04  0.02
 RSph, 2   3.98o C
2  3.14  1  0.04  .02 W

 Rtotal,Sph  0.022  3.98  4.002 o C

W

 QSph 
120  35  21.24W
4.002

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Thermal Conductivity (k) and Thermal Insulation and Thermal

Resistance (R)

1. Thermal Conductivity k
Thermal conductivity k is a measure of material’s ability to conduct heat. At room
temperature k for water is 0.608 W/m.˚C and for iron is 80.2 W/m.˚C which indicate that iron
conducts heat more than 100 times faster water. Thus we say that water is a poor heat
conductor relative to iron, although water is an excellent medium to store heat. From equation
(1.2), the thermal conductivity of material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a
unit thickness of material per unit area per unit temperature difference.

The thermal conductivity of material is a measure of how fast heat will flow in that material.
A large value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is good heat conductor, and
the low value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is poor heat conductor which
is called insulator materials. Figure 1.8 shows the thermal conductivity at vary value for
different material.

Figure 1.8 The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature

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According to the thermal conductivity value, solid materials may be divided into two groups,
metallic and non-metallic. Table 1.1 lists conductivity values for some of the more useful
materials. The high values of conductivity of metals are attributable to the well ordered
crystalline structure of the material. The close arrangement of molecules permits a rapid
transfer of energy and, in addition, free electrons play a considerable part. Metals such as
copper which are good electrical conductors also conduct heat well.

In contrast, non-metals do not have a well ordered crystalline structure and, in addition, are
often porous in nature. Thus energy transfer between molecules is seriously impeded, and the
values of conductivity are much lower. The small pores within the material, being full of air,
further restrict the flow of heat since gases are poor conductors.

o
Table 1.1 Thermal Conductivity of Various Materials at 0 C

Thermal conductivity
k
o o
Materials W/m . C Btu/h . ft. F
—————————————————————————————————
Metals:
Silver (pure) 410 237
Copper (pure) 385 223
Aluminum (pure) 202 117
Nickel (pure) 93 54
Iron (pure) 73 42
Carbon steel, 1%C 43 25
Lead (pure) 35 20.3
Chrome-nickel steel 16.3 9.4
(18% Cr, 8% Ni)

Non-metallic solids:
Quartz, parallel to axis 41.6 24
Magnesite 4.15 2.4
Marble 2.08-2.94 1.2–1.7
Sandstone 1.83 1.06
Glass, window 0.78 0.45
Maple or oak 0.17 0.096
Sawdust 0.059 0.034
Glass wool 0.038 0.022

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2. Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulations are materials or combinations of materials that are used primarily to
provide resistance to heat flow as shown in Figure 1.9. Most of insulations are heterogeneous
materials made of low thermal conductivity materials, and they involve air pockets.

Figure 1.9 Thermal insulation retards heat transfer by acting as a barrier in the path of heat
flow.

3. Thermal Resistance (R)

Thermal resistance is a measure of a material's ability to resist heat transfer and its unit is
˚C/W. The more a material is able to block heat transfer through its surface, the greater its
thermal resistance. This concept is often applied to the building industry as a measure of
insulation effectiveness and energy efficiency. As insulation is added to the building to
improve efficiency levels, the thermal resistance of the structure increases. Note that the
thermal resistance of a medium depends on the geometry and the thermal properties of the
medium.

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Review Question:

1. A copper plate with 1.5cm thick is maintained at 150˚C and the other face is
maintained at 75˚C. Calculate the heat transfer where the thermal
conductivity of copper is 150 W/m.˚C and the surface area is 2m².

2. One face of Copper plate is maintained at 400˚C with thermal conductivity is

370W/m.˚C. The heat transfer through the plate is 3.7x106 W. Calculate the
temperature for the other face if the plate has 1m² for the surface area and
3cm thickness.

3. One plate of copper is maintained at 300˚C with 12cm thick and 120W/m.˚C
thermal conductivity is jointed with Aluminum plat which has 200W/m.˚C
and 6cm for thermal conductivity and thickness, respectively. If the outside
temperature is 75˚C and assumes that the heat transfer area is 0.01m².
Calculate:

a. The heat loss through the wall.

b. The temperature interface between both plates.

4. The thermal resistance for Aluminum plate is 17˚C/W and the heat transfer through
the plate is 20W. Find the outside temperature if the inner temperature is 400˚C?

5. The thermal resistance of Glass pipe is 0.75˚C/W. Calculate the length of the
pipe if the inner diameter is 4cm and the outer diameter is 6cm. [k=
0.122W/m. ˚C].

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6. A copper pipe [k= 122W/m. ˚C] with 4cm inner diameter (ID) and 6cm outer
diameter (OD) and 2m long. If the inside wall temperature is 75˚C and the
outside wall temperature is 25˚C, calculate:

a. The heat transfer through the wall.

b. The thermal resistance of the pipe.

7. A large plate with 2m² is exposed to a source heat. The heat transfer through
the plat is 500W and the thermal conductivity is 1.2W/m.˚C. Calculate the
plate’s thickness if the difference temperature between both faces is 20˚C.

8. A spherical ball has 3cm internal diameter and its inner surface temperature
is 250˚C and the outer surface temperature is 30˚C. Calculate the outer
diameter of the ball if the heat loss from the ball is 1600W and has
2.75W/m.˚C thermal conductivity.

9. A copper pipe with thermal conductivity is 35 W/m.˚C and 3cm inner diameter and
5cm outer diameter is covered with 3cm layer of insulation material of thermal
conductivity 0.6W/m.˚C. If the inside pipe temperature is maintained at 300˚C and
the outside wall temperature is 75˚C.
Calculate;

a. The heat loss per unit length.

b. The heat loss if the pipe length is 2m.

10. A spherical stainless steel with internal diameter 3cm and the external diameter is 4 cm
K 1  120W / m.o C  . It covers with 2cm layer concrete material K 2  1W / m.o C . Calculate
the heat loss if the inside temperature is 120˚C and the outside temperature is 35˚C.

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Convection
Convection is then mode of energy transfer between solid surface and the adjacent liquid or
gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heats transfer. As shown in Figure 1.9,
Energy is transferred by convection between the solid’s surfaces and the flowing fluid by
convection. The temperature of the film layer of fluid increases. The rate of conviction heat
transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law

Qconv  hAT  hATsurface  T fluid  (1.17)

1
Rconv 
hA

Flowing fluid

Fluid film
adjacent to
surface

Stationary Q
Solid Surfac e

Figure 1. 9 Heat transfer by convection

Where; h: film coefficient of convective heat transfer, W/m2K;

A: area of heat transfer parallel to the direction of fluid

flow, m2
o
Ts: solid surface temperature, C or K

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o
Tfluid: flowing fluid temperature, C or K

T: temperature difference, K

Rconv thermal resistance for convection, ˚C/W

The convection coefficient (h) is not property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all variables influencing convection such as the surface
geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid and the bulk fluid velocity.

Before the above equation is used to evaluate the convective heat transfer, the fluid flow
regime has to be identified; whether it is laminar, transitional or turbulent. Laminar flow of
the fluid is encountered at Re <2100. Turbulent flow is normally at Re >4000. Sometimes
when Re >2100 the fluid flow regime is considered to be turbulent.

If we have a round tube with a liquid flowing in it at a steady state, and if we injected a dye
trace with a needle parallel to the axis of the tube, one of two things can happen:

a) The dye trace may be smoothly down the tube as a well-defined line, only very slowly
becoming thicker which called laminar flow, as shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10 Laminar Flow

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b) The dye trace may flow irregularly down the tube moving back and forth across the
diameter of the tube and eventually becoming completely dispersed which called turbulent
flow as shown in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11 Turbulent flow

Heat transfer by convection may take the form of either natural or forced convection as shown
in Figure 1.12.

1. Natural convection:

Natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces due to density differences caused by

temperature variations in the fluid. At heating the density change in the boundary layer
will cause the fluid to rise and replaced by cooler fluid that also will heat and rise.

2. Forced convection:

Forced convection occurs when a fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump,
fan or a mixer.

Figure 1.12 Forced and Free (Natural) Convection

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In practice, film heat transfer coefficients (h) are generally calculated from empirical
equations obtained by correlating experimental data with the aid of dimensional analysis.

Example 1.8

A fluid flows through a long pipe 2m and 0.5m diameter. The surface and fluid temperature is
55˚C and 25˚C, respectively. Calculate the convection heat transfer if the coefficient
convection is 33W/m².K.

Solution:

From Newton’s law

Qconv  hAT  hATsurface  T fluid 

Qconv  h  (DL)h  Tsurface  T fluid 

Qconv  33  (3.14)  (0.5)  (2)  (55  25)  6217W  6.22kW

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Bulk and Film Temperature

The rate of convective heat transfer, q, from a solid surface to a surrounding fluid as shown in
Figure 1.13 has given by:

Qconv  hAT  hATsurface  T fluid 

Figure1.13 Convective heat transfer from a solid surface ( Ts ) to surrounding fluid T f

Where, h = average convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2.K)

A = surface area for convective heat transfer, m2
Ts = surface temperature of the solid surface, K
T f = fluid temperature, K

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However, in the case of flow thru ducts or pipes (Figure 1.14), it is more convenient to use the
bulk temp., Ts instead of free-stream temperature, T f . Thus, for the tube flow depicted in Fig.
2, the total energy added can be expressed in terms of bulk temperature difference:

q = m C  TS  T fluid 

(1.18)
or in terms of the heat transfer coefficient :

q  2rh  dx  (Ts  T fluid )

Figure 1.14 Total heat transfer expressed in terms of bulk-temperature difference

The bulk temperature (Tb) is the mean temperature of the fluid at a given cross-section of the
tube.

In engineering practice, the bulk temperature is equated to the simple approximate average
value:

Tinlet, f  Toutlet, f
Tb  (1.19)
2

Which is used to calculate the average heat transfer coefficients.

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Film temperature for fluids flowing thru tubes of ducts is the temperature of the fluid film
adjacent to the heating surface. It is the average of the temperature of the heating surface and
the free-stream temperature of the fluid (Figure 1.15):

Ts  T f
T film  (1.20)
2

Figure 1.15 Film and bulk temperature

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DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS
Many of the generalized relationships used in convective heat-transfer calculations have been
determined by means of dimensional analysis and empirical considerations. It has been found
that certain standard dimensionless groups appear repeatedly in the final equations. Some of
the most common dimensionless groups are given below with their names:

DV
Reynolds number = Re =


cpµ
Prandtl number = Pr =
k

hD
Nusselt number = Nu = k

DV c p
Peclet number = Pe = = (Re . Pr)
k

D 3  2 gt D 3 gt
Grashof number = Gr = =
2 2

Where in the SI system:

D: pipe diameter, m

V: fluid velocity, m/s

: fluid density, kg/m3

2
µ: fluid dynamic vicosity, N.s/m or kg/m.s

2
: fluid kinematic viscosity, m /s

k: fluid thermal conductivity, W/mK

2
h: convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m .K

cp: fluid specific heat capacity, J/kg.K

2
g: acceleration of gravity, m/s

1 –1
ß: cubical coefficient of expansion of the fluid = T . , K
av

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where;
Tav is the average absolute temperature of the fluid

t: temperature difference between surface & fluid, K

The magnitudes of the above dimensionless groups are the same provided consistent units are
used.

The characteristic dimension L, D in Reynolds, Nusselt or Grashof number is defined

depending on the situation. For a fluid flowing in a tube, its diameter D is used. For a plate, L
is used.

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Calculate the Convection Coefficient Heat Transfer for

Natural Convection by using empirical relationships

Natural or free convection heat transfer occurs whenever a body is placed in a fluid at a higher
or lower temperature than that of the body. As a result of the temperature difference, heat
flows between the fluid and the body and causes a change in the density of the fluid layers in
the vicinity of the surface. The difference in density leads to downward flow of the heavier
fluid and upward flow of the lighter. If the motion of the fluid is caused solely by differences
in density resulting from temperature gradients, without the aid of a pump or a blower for
example, the associated heat transfer mechanism is called natural or free convection.

Many processing equipment and devices are cooled by free convection. Free convection is the
dominant heat flow mechanism from steam radiators, walls of buildings and steam pipes.

The fluid velocities in free convection currents are generally low. Fluid motion generated by
natural convection may be laminar or turbulent.

Many experiments have been performed to establish the functional relationships for different
geometric configurations convecting to various fluids. Generally, it is found that

b
Nu = a (GrPr) (1.21)

Where a and b are constants. Laminar and turbulent flow regimes have been observed in
natural convection, and transition generally occurs in the range
7 9
10 < GrPr < 10 depending on the geometry.

Some of the more important formulae obtained for natural convection to or from various
geometries as shown in Figure 1.16.

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Figure 1.16 Different geometries and the direction of convective flow for natural convection

a. Horizontal Cylinders.
Detailed measurements indicate that the convection coefficient varies with angular position
round a horizontal cylinder, but for design purposes values given by the following equations
are constant over the whole surface area, for cylinders of diameter, d.

For laminar flow

0.25
Nud = 0.525(GrdPr) (1.22)

4 9
when 10 < GrdPr < 10

For turbulent flow

0.33
Nud = 0.129(GrdPr) (1.23)

9 12
when 10 < GrdPr < 10

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Example 1.9
o
A 2.0 cm-diameter horizontal heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 38 C and
o
submerged in water at 27 C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss per unit length of the
heater.

The properties of water of at the film temperature interest are:

o
k = 0.623 W/m C,

–6
v = 0.7 x 10 m2/s,

Pr = 5.12

Solution

The film temperature is

38 + 27 o
Tƒ = = 32.5 C = 305.5 K
2
1 –3 –1
ß = 305.5 = 3.27 x 10 K
0.02 9.83.27  10 3 38  27 5.12
3
and GrdPr =
0.7  10 
6 2

6
GrdPr = 29.47 x 10

So, it is laminar flow and by using equation (1.22):

6 0.25
Nud = 0.525 (29.47 x 10 )

= 38.68

So,
hD
Nu = k

(38.68)(0.623)
h = 0.02
2o
= 1204.9 W/m . C

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The heat transfer is thus

Q
L = h d (Ts – Tf)

= (1204.9) (3.14) (0.02) (38 – 27) = 832.8 W/m

b. Vertical Surfaces.
In this case, both vertical flat surfaces and vertical cylinders may be considered using the
same correlations of experimental data. The characteristic linear dimension is the length, or
height, of the surface, l. With physical properties at the mean film temperature the numerical
constants as recommended by McAdams are

For laminar,

0.25
Nul = 0.59(GrlPr) (1.24)

4 9
when 10 < GrlPr < 10

For turbulent
0.33
Nul = 0.129(GrlPr) (1.25)

9 12
when 10 < GrlPr < 10

Example 1.10
o
A large vertical plate 4.0 m high is maintained at 60 C and exposed to atmospheric air at
o
10 C. Calculate the heat transfer if the plate is 10 m wide.

The air properties of interest are thus

k = 0.02685 W/mC,

–6 2
v = 16.5 x 10 m /s,

Pr = 0.7

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Solution

First the film temperature is determined as

60 + 10 o
Tƒ = = 35 C = 308 K
2

1 –3 –1
ß = 308 = 3.25 x 10 K

and

4 9.83.25  10 3 60  100.7 

3
Gr Pr =
16.5  10 
l
6 2

11
GrdPr = 2.618 x 10

The flow is turbulent so, used equation (1.25) to obtain

11 0.33
Nul = 0.129 (2.618 X 10 )

= 756

hD
From, Nu = k

The heat-transfer coefficient is then

h=
7560.02685 = 5.07 W/m2.oC
4.0

The heat transfer is

Q = h A (Ts – Tf)

= (5.07)(4)(10)(60 – 10) = 10149 W

= 10.149kW

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c. Horizontal Flat Surfaces:

Fluid flow is most restricted in the case of horizontal surfaces, and the size of the surface has
some bearing on the experimental data. The heat transfer coefficient is likely to be more
variable over a smaller flat surface than a large one, when flow effects at the edges become
less significant. Further, there will be a difference depending on whether the horizontal
surface is above or below the fluid. Similar, though reversed, processes take place for hot
surfaces facing upwards (i.e., cold fluid above a hot surface), and cold surfaces facing
downwards (i.e., hot fluid below a cold surface). In either case, the fluid is relatively free to
move due to buoyancy effects and be replaced by fresh fluid entering at the edges. The
following relationships are generally recommended for square or rectangular horizontal
surfaces with a mean length of side l:

For laminar;

0.25
Nul = 0.54(GrlPr) (1.26)

5 8
When 10 < GrlPr < 10

For turbulent;
0.33
Nul = 0.14(GrlPr) (1.27)

8
When GrlPr > 10

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Calculate the Convection Coefficient Heat Transfer for

Forces Convection by using empirical relationships
Correlations for a large number of geometrical configurations and conditions are presented in
the engineering literature. Equations for some of the more important cases are presented
below. It should be kept in mind that each of these equations does not represent a new
theoretical principle that must be understood and memorized. It is simply a question of
selecting the appropriate equation for the particular case.

a. Laminar flow in tubes.

An average Nusselt number between entry and distance x from entry is given by
1 0.14
d  3   
Nud = 1.86 (Re d ) 3 Pr  3  
1 1
  (1.28)
x 
 w

All physical properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature between
entry and x, with the exception of µw which is at the wall temperature, and the equation is
valid for heating and cooling in the range
Pr  3 d x  3
1 1 1
3
100 < (Red ) < 10,000.

b. Turbulent flow in tubes.

For fluids with a Prandtl number near unity, and only moderate temperature differences
o o
between the fluid and the wall, (5 C for liquids, 55 C for gases), Dittus and Boelter
recommend:

0.8 n
Nud = 0.023(Red) (Pr) (1.29)

where n = 0.4 for heating, and 0.3 for cooling, and Red > 10,000. This is for fully
developed flow, i.e., (x/d) > 60, and all fluid properties are at the arithmetic mean bulk
temperature.

c. Turbulent flow along flat plates.

For this type of flow, Chapman recommends:

1
Nux = 0.036 Pr 3 (Re x  18,700 )
0.8
(1.30)

This is based on a consideration of laminar flow (for which

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1
Nux = 0.664 (Re x ) 2 Pr  3 and turbulent flow after transition at Rex = 400,000, for 10
1

> Pr > 0.6. Fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature.

Example 1.11
o
Air at 200 C is heated as it flows through a tube with a diameter of 2.54 cm at a velocity
of 10 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer per unit length of tube if a constant-heat-flux
o
condition is maintained at the wall and the wall temperature is 20 C above the air
temperature, all along the length of the tube.
o
The properties of air at a bulk temperature of 200 C are:

3
 = 1.493 kg/m

Pr = 0.681

–5
µ = 2.57 x 10 kg/m . s

o
k = 0.0386 W/m . C

o
cp = 1.025 kJ/kg . C

Solution

First calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent,
and then select the appropriate empirical correlation to calculate the heat transfer.

V . d (1.493)(10)(0.0254)
Red = = = 14,756
 –5
2.57 x 10

so that the flow is turbulent. Thus Eq. (2) is used to calculate the heat-transfer coefficient
(note that n = 0.4 for heating).

hd 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.4

Nud = k = 0.023 Re d Pr = (0.023)(14,756) (0.681) = 42.67

k (0.0386)(42.67) 2o
h = d Nud = ) = 64.85 W/m . C
0.0254

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The heat flow per unit length is then

Q
L = h d (Tw – Tb) = (64.85)  (0.0254)(20) = 103.5 W/m

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THERMAL RESISTANCE NETWORK

One of the common process heat transfer applications consists of heat flow from a hot fluid,
through a solid wall, to a cooler fluid on the other side. The solid wall may be a flat surface,
but more commonly will be a cylindrical pipe. There may be a scale or dirt deposit that
creates a heat transfer resistance on either the inside or outside surface of the pipe. The heat
flowing from one fluid to the other must therefore pass through several resistances in series.

a. Plane Wall

Consider steady one-dimensional heat flow through a plane wall of thickness L and thermal
conductivity k that is exposed to convection on both side to fluids at temperatures Ti and To
with heat transfer coefficient hi and ho ,respectively, as shown in Figure 1.16.

Under steady conditions;

Figure 1.16 Thwermal network for convection – conduction plane wall system

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T
Q
Rtotal

Rtotal  Rconve  Rconduction  Rconve

(1.31)
Ti  To 
Q
 1   L  1 
       
 i 
h A  kA   o 
h A

Q  UAT  UA(Ti  To ) (1.32)


Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient W
m2 K
. The overall heat transfer coefficient
is equal to the inverse of the total thermal resistance.

1
UA  (1.33)
Rtotal

Example 1.12

o
A flat wall 15 cm thick of thermal conductivity 0.87 W/mK is exposed to air at 30 C on one
2 o
side where the heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m K, and air at 15 C on the opposite side
2
where the convection coefficient is 60 W/m K. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient
and the heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall.

Solution

2
The wall area A = 1 m , for a flat wall, from equation (1.33), the overall heat transfer
coefficient is given by:

1 1 x 1
= + +
U hi k ho

1 0.15 1
= 15 + 0.87 + 60

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2
= 0.256 m K/W
2
 U = 3.9 W/m K

and the rate of heat transfer

Q
A = UT = (3.9) (30 – 15)
2
= 58.5 W/m

b. Cylinder and Sphere

The thermal resistance for cylinder or spherical shape as shown in Figure 1.17 can be
calculated as the following equations.

Figure 1.17 thermal resistances for cylinder or sphere

For Cylinder:

T
Q
Rtotal

Rtotal  Rconve,1  Rconduction,cyl  Rconve, 2

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  r2  
   r1   
ln
 1 1 
Rtotal     
  2Lk   2r 2 Lh 
 2r1 Lhi
2
    2 o 
 

Ti  To 
Q
  r2  
   r1   
ln
 1 1 
   
 2r 2 Lh   2Lk   2r 2 Lh  (1.34)
 1 i     2 o 
 

Q  UA(Ti  To )

1 1
Rtotal   (1.35)
AoU o AiU i

1 1
Roverall = A U = A U
o o i i

1  1 Ai ln r2 r1  Ai 1 
    (1.36)
U i  hi 2k a L Ao h0 

1  A 1 A ln r2 r1  1 
  0  0   (1.37)
U o  Ai hi 2k a L h0 

For Sphere:

Rtotal  Rconve,1  Rconduction,Sph  Rconve, 2

 1   r2  r1   1 
Rtotal         
 4r1 hi   4r1 r2 k   4r2 ho
2 2


Ti  To 
Q
 1   r2  r1   1 
        (1.35)
 4r 2 h   
  4r2 ho
2
 1 i   4 r1 r2 k 

Q  UA(Ti  To )

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Review Question

1. A horizontal large plate with 2m² is maintained at 85˚C and exposed to atmospheric air at

15˚C. Calculate the free-heat transfer if plat is 2m high and the air properties are:

k = 0.03 W/m. ˚C

v= 12.3 x10-6 m²/s

Pr = 1.2

2. Air at 100˚C is heated as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 3cm at velocity of

15m/s. Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 120˚C and the pipe length is 1m.

The properties of air are:

ρ = 0.8741kg/m³

Pr = 2.377

μ = 2.233x10-5kg/m.s

k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.

3. A stainless steel pipe is maintained at vertical position with 5cm diameter and 130˚C. It exposed
to atmospheric air at 25˚C. Calculate the heat transfer if the pipe is 10cm length. The air properties
are:
k  3.003  10 5 kW / m.K
v  2.056  10 5 m 2 / s
Pr  0.697

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4. A square cupper plate with 10cm width is exposed to water. The plate surface temperature
is 75˚C and its thermal conductivity is 3.77 W/m.˚C. if the water temperature is 20˚C and the
convection coefficient from one side is 25 W/m².˚C and 85 W/m².˚C from the opposite side.
Calculate the heat transfer if the plate thickness is 2 cm.

5. Air at 100˚C is cooling as it flows through a pipe with a diameter of 3cm at velocity of
15m/s. Calculate the heat transfer if the wall temperature is 120˚C and the pipe length is 1m.
The properties of air are:

ρ = 0.8741kg/m³
Pr = 2.377
μ = 2.233x10-5kg/m.s
k = 3.221x10-5 W/m.˚C.

6. A 2.0 cm diameter vertical heater is maintained at a surface temperature of 38˚C and

submerged in water at 27˚C. Calculate the free-convection heat loss if the pipe long is 2m.
The water properties are:
k = 0.623 W/m. ˚C
v= 0.7x10-6 m²/s
Pr = 5.12

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THERMAL RADIATION
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons)
as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike
conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence
of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is faster (at the speed of the
light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. In heat transfer studies we are interested in
thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma
rays, microwaves, radio waves and television waves that are not related to temperature.

In general, radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solid, liquid and gases emit, absorb,
or transmit radiation to varying degrees. Transmission of radiation, which can occur in solids
as well as fluids, is an interesting phenomenon because it can occur through a cold non-
absorbing medium between two other hotter bodies. Thus the surface of the earth receives
energy direct by radiation from the sun, even though the atmosphere at high altitude is
extremely cold. Similarly, the glass of a green house is colder than the contents and radiant
energy does not stop there, it is transmitted to the warmer absorbing surfaces inside. Radiation
is also significantly different from conduction and convection in that the temperature level is a
controlling factor. In furnaces and combustion chambers, radiation is the predominating
mechanism of heat transfer.

Since radiation energy exchange depends on the rates at which energy is emitted by one body
and absorbed by another, it is necessary to establish definitions relating to these
characteristics of surfaces. Further, not all of the energy emitted by one body may necessarily
fall on the surface of another due to their geometric arrangement.

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THERMAL RADIATION PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

When radiant energy strikes a material surface, part of the radiation is reflected, part is
absorbed, and part is transmitted, as shown in Figure 1.18. We define the reflectivity (ρ) as
the fraction reflected, the absorptivity () as the fraction absorbed, and the transmissivity ()
as the fraction transmitted.

Figure 1.18 Sketch showing effects of incident radiation

Thus

++=1 (1.36)

Most solid bodies do not transmit thermal radiation, so that for many applied problems the
transmissivity () may be taken as zero. They are termed as thermally opaque. Then,

+=1 (1.37)

Two types of reflection phenomena may be observed when radiation strikes a surface. If the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, the reflection is called Specular. On the
other hand, when an incident beam is distributed uniformly in all directions after reflection,
the reflection is called diffuse. These two types of reflection are depicted in Figure. 1.19. Note

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that a specular reflection presents a mirror image of the source to the observer. No real surface
is either Specular or diffuses. An ordinary mirror is quite Specular for visible light, but would
not necessarily be Specular over the entire wave-length range of thermal radiation. Ordinarily,
a rough surface exhibits diffuse behavior better than a highly polished surface. Similarly, a
polished surface is more Specular than a rough surface.

Figure 1.19 (a) Specular (1 = 2) and (b) diffuse reflection

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BLACK BODIES

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified

temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy that the blackbody. A
blackbody absorbs all incident radiation for which  = 1 and  = 0, regardless of wavelength
and direction. Also, a blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all direction. That is, a
blackbody is a diffuse emitter. For real materials the highest values of  are around 0.97.
Artificial surfaces may be arranged in practice which is virtually black. Consider Figure. 1.20.
The hollow enclosure has an inside surface of high absorptivity. Incident energy passes

Figure 1.20. Artificial black-body surface

through the small opening and is absorbed on the inside surface. However, some is reflected,
but most of this is absorbed on a second incidence. Again, a small fraction is reflected. After a
number of such reflections the amount unabsorbed is exceedingly small and very little of the
original incident energy is reflected back out of the opening. The area of the opening may thus
be regarded as black.

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The work of Stefan and Boltzmann led to the law named after them which gives the emission
of radiant energy from a black body. Thus

Qb  AT 4

is the Stefan-Boltzmann law for black-body radiation. T is the absolute temperature and  is

the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and has the value 5.67  10 8 W . Qb is the blackbody
m2 K 4
emissive power, in W. Note that, emission of thermal radiation is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature. So that, the blackbody having the following properties:

1. A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.

2. For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody.

3. Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody is a function of wavelength and temperature,

it is independent of direction. That is, the blackbody is a diffuse emitter.

AN EMISSIVITY OF A MATERIAL

The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a
given temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The
emissivity of a surface is denoted by ɛ, and it varies between 0    1 . Emissivity is a
measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which ɛ=1. At thermal
equilibrium, the emissivity and the absorptivity of a body are equal. A true black body would
have an while any real object would have . Emissivity is a dimensionless
quantity, so it does not have units. The more reflective a material is, the lower its emissivity.
Highly polished sliver has an emissivity of about 0.02.

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GREY BODY

A grey body is defined as a body with constant emissivity over all wavelengths and
temperatures. Kirchhoff’s law states that the absorptivity and emissivity of a grey body are
equal at any given temperature    , where is  the total absorptivity and  , total
emissivity over all wavelengths.

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NET THERMAL RADIATION FROM A GREY BODY

Consider the situation shown in Fig. 1.24, where heat flows from the body at absolute
temperature T1 to the surroundings at temperature T2. Due to the fact that the surroundings
are black, and the enclosed body is grey with emissivity (1), the net thermal radiation from
the grey body will be:

Q   1 A1 T14  T24  (1.38)

Figure 1.21 Grey body in black surroundings.

2
The net heat transfer (Q) from a unit surface of a grey body in (W/m ) at temperature T1 to a
black enclosure at T2 can be written as:

q = hr (T1 – T2) (1.39)

Thus

 q 
hr = T – T  (1.40)
 1 2

and (hr) may be looked upon as a radiation transfer coefficient. The above equation for (hr) is
also applicable if the surroundings are not black, provided that the body is small and none of
its radiation is reflected back to it.

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Example 1.13

Investigate the possibility of reducing the heat loss from a domestic hot water cylindrical tank
by coating it with aluminum paint. The tank is 0.5 m diameter and 1 m high and is situated in
a large space effectively forming black surroundings. (Distant non-black surroundings are
effectively black because a negligible amount of energy is reradiated to the tank.) The
o o
estimation is based on a tank surface temperature of 80 C and an ambient temperature of 25 C
and the tank surface is oxidized copper with an emissivity of 0.8. Calculate the amount of heat
flow.

Solution:

The radiation heat flow is:

Q   1 A1 T14  T24 

 
A1 = the surface area for the cylinder + the top and bottom area of cylinder = DL + 2 r 2

A1 = 3.140.51  23.140.5  1.57  0.3925  1.9625m 2


 Q  56.7  10 12  0.8  1.9625  80  273  25  273
4 4

Q  0.68kW

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Review Question

1. A circular disk with 10cm diameter coating with aluminum paint and situated in a
large space effectively forming black surrounding. The disk surface temperature is
88˚C and an ambient temperature is 20˚C. if the emissivity is 0.55 and the Stefen-
boltzmann constant is 56.7  10 12 kW / m 2 .K 4 . Calculate the thermal radiation loss
from the disk.

2. What happen when radiant energy strikes a material surface?

3. What is the specular reflection? Give an example.

4. What is the diffuse reflection? Give an example.

5. Water –cooled, spherical object of diameter 10mm and emissivity 0.9 is maintained at
80˚C when placed in a large vacuum oven whose walls are maintained at 400˚C.
Calculate the heat transfer from the oven walls.

6. Define the properties emissivity and absorptivity. When are these two properties equal
to each other?

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EXTENDED SURFACES (FINS)

If heat exchange is occurring between two fluids where one fluid has a very high resistance to
heat transfer in comparison to the other, the higher resistance fluid ―controls‖ the rate of heat
transfer. Such cases occur, for example in the heating of air by steam or in the heating of a
very viscous oil, flowing in laminar flow, by a molten salt mix. The relative magnitude of the
heat-transfer coefficient is about 10 for the oil or air, compared with 2000 for the steam or
salt. This poor, heat-transfer situation will require much transfer surface for a reasonable flow
rate of air or oil.

In order to compensate for the high resistance of the oil or air, the heat transfer surface
exposed to these fluids may be increased by extension of the surface, as in the addition of fins
to the outside of the tube, as illustrated in Figure 1.22. The fins are referred to as an extended
surface; they increase the transfer area substantially in a given amount of space. Some
automobile radiators are good illustrations of extended-surface heat exchangers.

Figure 1.22. Different types of finned surfaces:

(a) longitudinal fin of rectangular profile; (b) cylindrical tube equipped with fins of
rectangular profile; (c) longitudinal fin of trapezoidal profile; (d) longitudinal fin of
parabolic profile; (e) cylindrical tube equipped with radial fin of rectangular profile; (f)
cylindrical tube equipped with radial fin of truncated conical profile;
(g) cylindrical spine; (h) truncated conical spine; (i) parabolic spine.

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Classification of Extended Surfaces.

Figure 1.23. Fin attachment

Fins of a number of industrial types are shown in Figure 1.22. Pipes and tubes with
longitudinal fins are marketed by several manufacturers and consist of long metal strips or
channels attached to the outside of the pipe. The strips are attached either by grooving and
peeneding the tube as in Figure (1.23a), or by welding continuously along the base. When
channels are attached, they are integrally welded to the tube as in Figure 1.23 b. Longitudinal
fins of this type are commonly used in double pipe exchangers when the flow proceeds along
the axis of the tube. Longitudinal fins are most commonly employed in problems involving
gases and viscous liquids or when the smallness of one of a pair of heat-transfer streams
causes streamline flow.

Transverse fins are made in a variety of types and are employed primarily for the cooling and
heating of gases in cross flow. The helical fins in Figure (1.24a) are classified as transverse
fins and are attached in a variety of ways such as by grooving and peeneding, expanding the
tube metal itself to form the fin, or welding ribbon to the tube continuously.

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Figure 1.24 Transverse fins

Disc-type fins are also transverse fins and are usually welded to the tube or shrunken to it as
shown in Figure (24, b and c). In order to shrink a fin onto a tube a disc, with inside diameter
slightly less than the outside diameter of the tube, is heated until its inside diameter exceeds
the outside diameter of the tube. It is slipped onto the tube, and upon cooling, the disk shrinks
to the tube and forms a bond with it. Another variation of the shrunk-on fin in Figure 1.23c
employs a hollow ring in its hub into which a hot metal ring is driven. Other types of
transverse fins are known as discontinuous fins, and several shapes such as the star fin are
shown in Figure 1.25.

Figure 1.25. Discontinuous fins

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CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER

Condensation occurs when a saturated vapor comes in contact with a surface at a lower
temperature. The liquid collects on the surface, from which it drains under the influence of
gravity or is carried off by the drag of the moving vapor.

Two distinct modes of condensation may occur, or they may occur together. The more
common mode, film condensation, is characterized by a thin liquid film forming over the
entire surface. This occurs on clean wet table surfaces in contact with non-contaminated
vapors. Drop condensation occurs on non wet table surfaces, such as Teflon in the presence of
water vapor. In this case small drops of condensate form, growing in size until they are
carried away by gravity or vapor motion. In dropwise condensation, a portion of the
condenser surface is exposed to the vapor, making heat transfer rates much larger than those
in film condensation. In fact, heat-transfer rates in dropwise condensation may be as much as
10 times higher than in film condensation.

Because of the higher heat-transfer rates, dropwise condensation would be preferred to film
condensation, but it is extremely difficult to maintain since most surfaces become wetted after
exposure to a condensing vapor over an extended period of time. Various surface coatings and
vapor additives have been used in attempts to maintain dropwise condensation, but these
methods have not met with general success to date.

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DESCRIPTION OF FILMWISE CONDENSATION

Unless specially treated, most materials used in the construction of heat exchangers are "wet
table" and during condensation a film of condensate spreads over the surface. More vapors
condense onto the outside of this film, increasing its thickness and causing it to flow
downward and drip from the lowest points.

The heat given up by the vapor during condensation is conducted through the film to the
metal beneath and from this, to the coolant. The liquid is a comparatively poor conductor of
heat, and although the film may be relatively thin, its thermal resistance is appreciable. It is
this resistance which accounts for the large difference between the effectiveness of filmwise
and dropwise condensation.

Depending upon the height of the condensing surface, the rate of condensation and the local
vapor velocity, flow in this layer, which is flowing in a generally downward direction, may be
laminar, or mildly turbulent with a 'rippled surface'.

When flow is laminar, the rate of heat transfer can be determined from theoretical
considerations provided a number of assumptions are made.

These include,

(i) Flow in the condensate film is entirely laminar.

(ii) Heat is transmitted through the layer by conduction only.

(iii) The temperature in the layer falls uniformly from the saturation temperature of the
vapor on the outside to the temperature of the cooling surface on the inside.

(iv) The condensate flows under the action of gravity only.

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Using these assumptions Nusselt derived the following equation for vertical surfaces with
filmwise condensation,

1
 k f 3  f 2 g  4

h= 0.943   (1.41)
 T0 L f 
 

where

h: mean condensation heat transfer coefficient

kƒ : thermal conductivity of condensate film

ƒ : density of condensate film

g: gravitational acceleration

 enthalpy of vaporization

To : temperature drop across condensate film

L: height of vertical surface

µƒ : absolute viscosity of condensate film

For single horizontal tubes the following equation is used to obtain the average condensation
heat transfer coefficient (h):

1
 k f 3  f 2 g  4

h= 0.725   (1.42)
 T0 D0  f 
 

The symbols in equation (2) are the same as those in equation (1) and Do is the tube outer
diameter.

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ADVANTAGES OF DROPWISE CONDENSATION

By specially treating the condensing surface the surface becomes "non-wet table" and as the
steam condenses, a large number of generally spherical beads form on its surface. These
beads become larger, coalesce, and then trickle downwards. The moving bead gathers all the
static beads along its downward path, becomes larger, accelerates and leaves a virtually bare
surface in its trail. The "bare" surface offers little resistance to the transfer of heat and very
high heat fluxes are therefore possible.

Unfortunately, as stated earlier, due to the nature of the materials normally used in the
construction of condensing heat exchangers, filmwise condensation is normal, but the
desirability of dropwise condensation has led to many investigations into methods which will
promote and maintain it in practical plants.

Dropwise condensation does not provide the same opportunity for theoretical analysis as does
filmwise, but a considerable amount of experimental data has been accumulated. This has
related to both heat transfer coefficients and to methods of promoting dropwise condensation
in practical plants.

Unfortunately common dropwise condensation promoters are effective for a relatively short
time and at present suitable permanent surface treatments are either too expensive or
impractical.

If dropwise condensation can be reliably achieved in practical plants, the heat transfer surface
area required in steam to water heat exchangers can be reduced to about 60% of the present
size.

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ADVANTAGES OF DROPWISE OVER FILMWISE CONDENSATION

The considerable practical advantages of dropwise over filmwise condensation are,

(i) A smaller heat transfer surface for a given temperature difference and heat transfer
rate.

(ii) A smaller temperature difference for a given area and heat transfer rate.

(iii) A larger heat transfer rate for a given area and temperature difference.

It is important that technologists should be aware of the above and should understand the
features of filmwise and dropwise condensation.

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EFFECT OF AIR (OR OTHER GASES) IN CONDENSERS

It is well known that a very small air leak into the condensing system of steam power plant
will have a far more detrimental effect on its efficiency than that caused by the partial
pressure of the air alone. In fact, all condensing vapor heat exchangers perform much better
when all "non-condensable gases" are eliminated and the reason for this is as follows:

In a stationary atmosphere with no condensation the air and steam will diffuse into each other
to form a homogeneous mixture.

However, in a condenser, the steam/air mixture flows at a high velocity towards the cool
surfaces where condensation of the steam occurs. The air remaining after condensation tends
to diffuse into the surrounding space, but more air is moving towards the cool surface with
fresh steam.

The result is that an envelope of air surrounds the cool surface and the steam must diffuse
through this before it can condense. The obstacle presented by the air causes a considerable
reduction in the heat transfer coefficient, e.g., 1% by mass of air in steam will reduce the
dropwise surface heat transfer coefficient by approximately 50%.

The highly undesirable effect of air in condensing heat exchangers requires the employment
of some method of air extraction or air venting.

Steam power plant condensers which work below atmospheric pressure are fitted with air
pumps or air ejectors which operate continuously while other heat exchangers working above
atmospheric pressure have either automatic or manual air venting fittings.

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DESCRIPTION OF THE BOILING PROCESS

Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process just like evaporation, but there are
significant differences between the two. Evaporation occurs at the liquid-vapor interface when
the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature.
Boiling, on the other hand, occurs at the solid-liquid interface when a liquid is brought into
contact with a surface maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the saturation

temperature Tsat of the liquid as shown in Figure 1.26.

Figure 1.26 Boiling process.

As a form of convection heat transfer, the boiling heat transfer from a solid surface to the
fluid is expressed as

Qboiling  hATs  Tsat 

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There are two types of boiling depending on the presence of bulk fluid motion, as shown in
Figure 1.27, which are:

1. Pool Boiling.

2. Flow Boiling.

Figure 1.27 Classification of boiling on the basis of the presence of bulk fluid motion.

Pool boiling:

Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of bulk fluid flow. In pool boiling, the fluid is not
forced to flow by a mover such as a pump and an motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.

Flow boiling:

In flow boiling or forced convection boiling, the fluid is forced to move by external source
such as a pump as it undergoes a phase-change process. The boiling in this case exhibits the
combined effects of convection and pool boiling.

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Several regimes of boiling have been identified through heating of a pool of water by a
submerged wire heated electrically, as shown in figure 1.28. These are depicted by a plot of
heat flux vs. temperature difference between heating surface and saturated liquid.

Figure 1.28 Heat-flux data from an electrically heated platinum wire

Regime-I :

Slow heating through natural convection currents. The wire surface temperature exceeds the
temperature of the surrounding saturated liquid by a mere few degree. Superheated liquid
reaches the free liquid surface and evaporation follows.

Regime-II :

At somewhat higher temperature of the wire, vapor bubbles form on it, break off but
condenses within the pool before reaching the free liquid surface. This phenomenon is called
nucleate boiling.

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Regime-III:

At still higher temperature of the wire larger and more numerous bubbles form on the wire,
break away, rise and reach the free surface. This also belongs to the regime at nucleate
boiling. This zone characterized by extremely high heat fluxes.

Regime –IV:

The regime III:

Ends at the peak of the curve right from there begin the regime of transition boiling.

Regime IV:

In this regime, a thin vapor film encloses the heating wire. Periodically, portion of this vapor
film brake off and rise briefly exposing the portion of this vapor film brake off and rise briefly
exposing the portions of the wire to surrounding liquid whereupon vapor film is again formed
on the wire surface. This film collapse and reformation characterize this region as unstable
film boiling.

Regime V:

This is stable film boiling region. The vapor film around the heating wire becomes stable.
The surface temperature of the wire is about 480 K above the temperature of the saturated
liquid.

Regime VI:

If the temperature difference between the heating surface and the saturated liquid is raised to
as much as 810K, radiant energy transfer comes to play and the heat flux curve rises once
again

Figure 1.29 is a photograph illustrating several boiling regimes. The horizontal 0.25 in-
diameter copper rod is heated from the right side and immersed in isopropanol. As a result of
the temperature gradient along the rod, it was possible to observe the different regimes
simultaneously. At the left end of the rod, the surface temperature is only slightly greater than

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the bulk fluid temperature, so that free-convection boiling is observed. Farther to the right,
higher surface temperatures are experienced, and nucleate boiling is observed. Still farther to
the right, transition boiling takes place; finally, film boiling is observed at the wall. Note the
blanketing action of the vapor film on the right-hand portion of the rod.

Figure 1.29 Photograph of 0.25 in-diameter copper rod heated on the right side and immersed
in isopropanol.

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