Chapter 13

Analog electronic instrumentation

An “analog” electronic signal is a voltage or current whose magnitude represents some physical
measurement or control quantity. An instrument is often classified as being “analog” simply by virtue
of using an analog signal standard to communicate information, even if the internal construction and
design of the instrument may be mostly digital in nature. This is to distinguish such instruments
from those making use of no analog electronic signals at all (e.g. wireless or Fieldbus instruments).

13.1 4 to 20 mA analog current signals

The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern industrial instrumentation systems
(as of this writing) is the 4 to 20 milliamp DC standard. This is an analog signal standard, meaning
that the electric current is used to proportionately represent measurements or command signals.
Typically, a 4 milliamp current value represents 0% of scale, a 20 milliamp current value represents
100% of scale, and any current value in between 4 and 20 milliamps represents a commensurate
percentage in between 0% and 100%. The following table shows the corresponding current and
percentage values for each 25% increment between 0% and 100%. Every instrument technician
tasked with maintaining 4-20 mA instruments commits these values to memory, because they are
referenced so often:

Current value % of scale

4 mA 0%
8 mA 25%
12 mA 50%
16 mA 75%
20 mA 100%

827
828 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

For example, if we were to calibrate a 4-20 mA temperature transmitter for a measurement range
of 50 to 250 degrees C, we could relate the current and measured temperature values on a graph like
this:

250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170

Measured 160
temperature 150
(oC)
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
DC current signal (mA)

This is not unlike 3-15 pounds per square inch (PSI) pneumatic signal standard, where a varying
air pressure signal proportionately represents some process variable. Both 3-15 PSI and 4-20 mA
signal standards are referred to as live zero because their ranges begin with a non-zero value. This
“live” zero provides a simple means of discriminating between a legitimate 0% signal value and a
failed signal (e.g. leaking tube or severed cable)1 .
1 Not all industrial measurement and control signals are “live zero” like the 3-15 PSI and 4-20 mA standards. 0 to
13.1. 4 TO 20 MA ANALOG CURRENT SIGNALS 829

An important concept to grasp with all analog instrumentation is that instruments sending
and receiving analog signals must be compatibly ranged in order to properly represent the
desired variable. To illustrate, let us consider a temperature measurement system consisting of
a thermocouple2 , a temperature transmitter, a 250 ohm resistor (to convert the 4-20 mA analog
signal into a 1-5 volt analog signal), and a special voltmeter functioning as a temperature indicator:

Temperature
Thermocouple transmitter (TT)
Input range = 2.585 to 13.555 mV
Output range = 4 to 20 mA
Iron

Constantan
+ 24 VDC
Input range = 50 to 250 oC −
Output range = 2.585 to 13.555 mV
Input range = 4 to 20 mA
250 Ω
Output range = 1 to 5 V

100 150 200

50 250

Deg C

Input range = 1 to 5 V
Device Input range Output range Output range = 50 to 250 oC

Thermocouple 50 to 250 oC 2.585 to 13.555 mV Temperature indicator (TI)

Transmitter 2.585 to 13.555 mV 4 to 20 mA
Resistor 4 to 20 mA 1 to 5 V
Indicator 1 to 5 V 50 to 250 oC

Note how the output range of each sending device matches the input range of its corresponding
receiving device. If we view this system as a path for information to flow from the thermocouple’s
tip to the transmitter to the resistor and finally to the voltmeter/indicator, we see that the analog
output range of each device must correspond to the analog input range of the next device, or else
the real-world meaning of the analog signal will be lost.
This correspondence does not happen automatically, but must be established by the instrument
technician building the system. In this case, it would be the technician’s responsibility to properly
adjust the range of the temperature transmitter, and also to ensure the indicator’s display scale
was properly labeled. Both the thermocouple and the resistor are non-adjustable devices, their
input/output characteristics being fixed by physical laws.

10 volts DC is a common “dead zero” signal standard, although far more common in environmental (building heating
and cooling) control systems than industrial control systems. I once encountered an old analog control system using
−10 volts to +10 volts as its analog signal range, which meant 0 volts represented a 50% signal! A failed signal path
in such a system could have been very misleading indeed, as a 50% signal value is not suspicious in the least.
2 This is a temperature sensing element consisting of two different metal wires joined together, which generate a

small voltage proportional to temperature. The correspondence between junction temperature and DC millivoltage
is very well established by scientific testing, and so we may use this principle to sense process temperature.
830 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

DC current signals are also used in control systems to command the positioning of a final control
element, such as a control valve or a variable-speed motor drive (VSD). In these cases, the milliamp
value does not directly represent a process measurement, but rather how the degree to which the
final control element influences the process. Typically (but not always!), 4 milliamps commands a
closed (shut) control valve or a stopped motor, while 20 milliamps commands a wide-open valve or
a motor running at full speed. Final control elements often are equipped with adjustable ranges so
that an accurate correspondence between the analog signal and the desired control action may be
ensured.

Thus, most industrial control systems use at least two different 4-20 mA signals: one to represent
the process variable (PV) and one to represent the command signal to the final control element (the
“manipulated variable” or MV):

Decides
4-20 mA 4-20 mA
PV signal PV
Controller MV MV signal
input output

Senses Influences

Measuring Final control

device device
Reacts

The Process

The relationship between these two signals depends entirely on the response of the controller.
There is no reason to ever expect the PV and MV current signals to be equal to each other, for
they represent entirely different variables. In fact, if the controller is reverse-acting, it is entirely
normal for the two current signals to be inversely related: as the PV signal increases going to a
reverse-acting controller, the output signal will decrease. If the controller is placed into “manual”
mode by a human operator, the output signal will have no automatic relation to the PV signal at
all, instead being entirely determined by the operator’s whim.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 831

13.2 Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables

A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents some signal along a 0 to 100 percent scale. Usually, this
scale is linear, as such:

24

20

16

Current 12
(mA)

0
-25 0 25 50 75 100 125
Signal (%)

Being a linear function, we may use the standard slope-intercept linear equation to relate signal
percentage to current values:

y = mx + b
Where,
y = Output from instrument
x = Input to instrument
m = Slope
b = y-intercept point (i.e. the live zero of the instrument’s range)

Once we determine suitable values for m and b, we may then use this linear equation to predict
any value for y given x, and vice-versa. This is very useful for predicting the 4-20 mA signal output
of a process transmitter, or the expected stem position of a 4-20 mA controlled valve, or any other
correspondence between a 4-20 mA signal and some physical variable.
Before we may use this equation for any practical purpose, we must determine the slope (m) and
intercept (b) values appropriate for the instrument we wish to apply the equation to. Next, we will
see some examples of how to do this.
832 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

For the linear function shown, we may determine the slope value (m) by dividing the line’s rise
by its run. Two sets of convenient points we may use in calculating rise over run are 4 and 20
milliamps (for the rise), and 0 and 100 percent (for the run):

run
24

20

16

Current 12 rise
(mA)

y intercept 4

0
-25 0 25 50 75 100 125
Signal (%)

Rise (20 − 4) 16
m= = =
Run (100 − 0) 100
 
16
y= x+b
100
To calculate the y-intercept (b), all we need to do is solve for b at some known coordinate pair
of x and y. Again, we find convenient points for this task at 0 percent and 4 milliamps:
 
16
4= 0+b
100

4=0+b

b=4
Now we have a complete formula for converting a percentage value into a milliamp value:
 
16
y= x+4
100
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 833

We may now use this formula to calculate how many milliamps represent any given percentage
of signal. For example, suppose we needed to convert a percentage of 34.7% into a corresponding
4-20 mA current. We would do so like this:
 
16
y= 34.7 + 4
100

y = 5.552 + 4

y = 9.552
Thus, 34.7% is equivalent to 9.552 milliamps in a 4-20 mA signal range.

The slope-intercept formula for linear functions may be applied to any linear instrument, as
illustrated in the following examples.
834 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.2.1 Example calculation: controller output to valve

Control valve

Controller

8.55 mA SP PV

Valve position = ???

8.55 mA

An electronic loop controller outputs a signal of 8.55 mA to a direct-responding control valve (where
4 mA is shut and 20 mA is wide open). How far open should the control valve be at this MV signal
level?

To solve for percentage of stem travel (x) at 8.55 milliamps of signal current (y), we may use the
linear equation developed previously to predict current in milliamps (y) from signal value in percent
(x):
 
16
y= x+4
100
 
16
8.55 = x+4
100
 
16
4.55 = x
100
 
100
4.55 = x
16

x = 28.4
Therefore, we should expect the valve to be 28.4% open at an applied MV signal of 8.55 milliamps.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 835

13.2.2 Example calculation: flow transmitter

Flowmeter
(0 to 350 GPM range)

current = ???
204 GPM

A flow transmitter is ranged 0 to 350 gallons per minute, 4-20 mA output, direct-responding.
Calculate the current signal value at a flow rate of 204 GPM.

One way we could solve for the amount of signal current is to convert the flow value of 204
GPM into a ratio of the flowmeter’s full-flow value, then apply the same formula we used in the
previous example relating percentage to milliamps. Converting the flow rate into a “per unit” ratio
is a matter of simple division, since the flow measurement range is zero-based:
204 GPM
= 0.583 per unit
350 GPM
Converting a “per unit” ratio into percent merely requires multiplication by 100, since “percent”
literally means “per 100”:

0.583 per unit × 100% = 58.3%

Next, we plug this percentage value into the formula:
 
16
y= 58.3 + 4
100

y = 9.33 + 4

y = 13.33
Therefore, the transmitter should output a PV signal of 13.3 mA at a flow rate of 204 GPM.
836 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

An alternative approach is to set up a linear equation specifically for this flowmeter given its
measurement range (0 to 350 GPM) and output signal range (4 to 20 mA). We will begin this process
by sketching a simple graph relating flow rate to current:

24

20
y = mx + b
16

Current 12
(mA)

0
-87.5 0 175 350 437.5
Flow (GPM)
The slope (m) for this equation is rise over run, in this case 16 milliamps of rise for 350 GPM of
run:
   
20 − 4 16
y= x+b= x+b
350 − 0 350
The y-intercept for this equation is 4, since the current output will be 4 milliamps at zero flow:
 
16
y= x+4
350
Now that the linear equation is set up for this particular flowmeter, we may plug in the 204 GPM
value for x and solve for current:
 
16
y= 204 + 4
350

y = 9.33 + 4

y = 13.33
Just as before, we arrive at a current of 13.33 milliamps representing a flow rate of 204 GPM.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 837

13.2.3 Example calculation: temperature transmitter

Temperatureo transmitter
(50 to 140 F range)

current = ???
Sensing bulb

An electronic temperature transmitter is ranged 50 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit and has a 4-20 mA
output signal. Calculate the current output by this transmitter if the measured temperature is 79
degrees Fahrenheit.

First, we will set up a linear equation describing this temperature transmitter’s function:

24

20
y = mx + b
16

Current 12
(mA)

-4

-40 0 50 140 200

o
Temperature ( F)

Calculating and substituting the slope (m) value for this equation, using the full rise-over-run of
the linear function:
   
20 − 4 16
y= x+b= x+b
140 − 50 90
838 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

The y-intercept value will be different for this example than it was for previous examples, since
the measurement range is not zero-based. However, the procedure for finding this value is the same
– plug any corresponding x and y values into the equation and solve for b. In this case, I will use
the values of 4 mA for y and 50 o F for x:
 
16
4= 50 + b
90

4 = 8.89 + b

b = −4.89
So, our customized linear equation for this temperature transmitter is as follows:
 
16
y= x − 4.89
90
At a sensed temperature of 79 o F, the transmitter’s output current will be 9.16 mA:
 
16
y= 79 − 4.89
90

y = 14.04 − 4.89

y = 9.16
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 839

We may apply the same alternative method of solution to this problem as we did for the flowmeter
example: first converting the process variable into a simple “per unit” ratio or percentage of
measurement range, then using that percentage to calculate current in milliamps. The “tricky”
aspect of this example is the fact the temperature measurement range does not begin at zero.
Converting 79 o F into a percentage of a 50-140 o F range requires that we first subtract the
live-zero value, then divide by the span:
79 − 50
Per unit ratio = = 0.3222
140 − 50

Percentage = 0.3222 per unit × 100% = 32.22%

Next, plugging this percentage value into our standard linear equation for 4-20 mA signals:
 
16
y= 32.22 + 4
100

y = 5.16 + 4

y = 9.16
Again, we arrive at the exact same figure for transmitter output current: 9.16 milliamps at a
measured temperature of 79 o F.

The choice to calculate transmitter current by first setting up a “customized” linear equation
for the transmitter in question or by converting the measured value into a percentage and using
a “standard” linear equation for current is arbitrary. Either method will produce accurate results,
although it could be argued that the “customized equation” approach may save time if many different
current values must be calculated.
840 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.2.4 Example calculation: pH transmitter

pH transmitter
(4 to 10 pH range)
Sensing electrode 11.3 mA

Liquid solution
pH = ???

A pH transmitter has a calibrated range of 4 pH to 10 pH, with a 4-20 mA output signal. Calculate
the pH sensed by the transmitter if its output signal is 11.3 mA.

First, we will set up a linear equation describing this temperature transmitter’s function:

10
y = mx + b

pH

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Current (mA)

Note how we are free to set up 4-20 mA as the independent variable (x axis) and the pH as the
dependent variable (y axis). We could arrange current on the y axis and the process measurement
on the x axis as before, but this would force us to manipulate the linear equation to solve for x.
Calculating and substituting the slope (m) value for this equation, using the full rise-over-run of
the linear function:
   
10 − 4 6
y= x+b= x+b
20 − 4 16
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 841

Solving for the y-intercept value using the coordinate values of 4 pH and 4 mA:
 
6
4= 4+b
16

4 = 1.5 + b

b = 2.5
So, our customized linear equation for this pH transmitter is as follows:
 
6
y= x + 2.5
16
Calculating the corresponding pH value for an output current signal of 11.3 mA now becomes a
very simple matter:
 
6
y= 11.3 + 2.5
16

y = 4.24 + 2.5

y = 6.74
Therefore, the transmitter’s 11.3 mA output signal reflects a measured pH value of 6.74 pH.
842 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.2.5 Example calculation: reverse-acting I/P transducer signal

Controller

I/P transducer SP PV

(15 to 3 PSI reverse action)

Current = ???
12.7 PSI

Air supply

A current-to-pressure transducer is used to convert a 4-20 mA electronic signal into a 3-15 PSI
pneumatic signal. This particular transducer is configured for reverse action instead of direct,
meaning that its pressure output at 4 mA should be 15 PSI and its pressure output at 20 mA should
be 3 PSI. Calculate the necessary current signal value to produce an output pressure of 12.7 PSI.

Reverse-acting instruments are still linear, and therefore still follow the slope-intercept line
formula y = mx + b, albeit with a negative slope:

24

20
y = mx + b
16

Current 12
(mA)

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Pressure (PSI)
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 843

Calculating and substituting the slope (m) value for this equation, using the full rise-over-run of
the linear function. Note how the “rise” is actually a “fall” from 20 milliamps down to 4 milliamps,
yielding a negative value for m:
     
4 − 20 −16 16
y= x+b= x+b= − x+b
15 − 3 12 12
Solving for the y-intercept value using the coordinate values of 3 PSI and 20 mA:
 
16
20 = − 3+b
12

20 = −4 + b

b = 24
So, our customized linear equation for this I/P transducer is as follows:
 
16
y= − x + 24
12
Calculating the corresponding current signal for an output pressure of 12.7 PSI:
 
16
y= − 12.7 + 24
12

y = −16.93 + 24

y = 7.07
Therefore, a current signal of 7.07 mA is necessary to drive the output of this reverse-acting I/P
transducer to a pressure of 12.7 PSI.
844 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.2.6 Example calculation: PLC analog input scaling

Allen-Bradley SLC 500 controller
Processor Input Input Input
Power
supply
Analog Analog Analog

IN 0+ IN 0+ IN 0+
IN 0- IN 0- IN 0-
ANL COM ANL COM ANL COM
IN 1+ IN 1+ IN 1+
IN 1- IN 1- IN 1-
ANL COM ANL COM ANL COM
IN 2+ IN 2+ IN 2+
IN 2- IN 2- IN 2-
L1 ANL COM ANL COM ANL COM
IN 3+ IN 3+ IN 3+
L2/N IN 3- IN 3- IN 3-
ANL COM ANL COM ANL COM
Gnd

Flowmeter
(0 to 700 GPM range)
4-20 mA

An Allen-Bradley SLC500 programmable logic controller (PLC) uses a 16-bit analog-to-digital

converter in its model 1746-NI4 analog input card to convert 4-20 mA signals into digital number
values ranging from 3277 (at 4 mA) to 16384 (at 20 mA). However, these raw numbers from the
PLC’s analog card must be mathematically scaled inside the PLC to represent real-world units of
measurement, in this case 0 to 700 GPM of flow. Formulate a scaling equation to program into the
PLC so that 4 mA of current registers as 0 GPM, and 20 mA of current registers as 700 GPM.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 845

We are already given the raw number values from the analog card’s analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) circuit for 4 mA and 20 mA: 3277 and 16384, respectively. These values define the domain
of our linear graph:

700
y = mx + b
525

Flow 350
(GPM)

175

-175
0 3277 8000 12000 16384 24000
ADC value ("counts")

Calculating and substituting the slope (m) value for this equation, using the full rise-over-run of
the linear function:
   
700 − 0 700
y= x+b= x+b
16384 − 3277 13107
846 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Solving for the y-intercept value using the coordinate values of 0 GPM and 3277 ADC counts:
 
700
0= 3277 + b
13107

0 = 175 + b

b = −175
So, our PLC scaling equation for this particular flowmeter is as follows:
 
700
y= x − 175
13107
This type of scaling calculation is so common in PLC applications that Allen-Bradley has
provided a special SCL (“scale”) instruction just for this purpose. Instead of “slope” (m) and
“intercept” (b), the instruction prompts the human programmer to enter “rate” and “offset” values,
respectively. Furthermore, the rate in Allen-Bradley’s SCL instruction is expressed as the numerator
of a fraction where the denominator is fixed at 10000, allowing fractional (less than one) slope values
to be specified using integer numbers. Aside from these details, the concept is exactly the same.
700
Expressing our slope of 13107 as a fraction with 10000 as the denominator is a simple matter of
solving for the numerator using cross-multiplication and division:
700 r
=
13107 10000

r = 534
Thus, the SCL instruction would be configured as follows3

3 The “Source” and “Dest” parameters shown in this instruction box refer to special addresses in the PLC’s memory

where the input (ADC count) and output (scaled flowrate) values will be found. You need not concern yourself with
the meanings of I:4.2 and N7:15, because these addresses are unimportant to the task of deriving a scaling formula.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 847

13.2.7 Graphical interpretation of signal ranges

An illustration some students find helpful in understanding analog signal ranges is to consider the
signal range as a length expressed on a number line. For example, the common 4-20 mA analog
current signal range would appear as such:

4 mA 8 mA 12 mA 16 mA 20 mA

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

If one were to ask the percentage corresponding to a 14.4 mA signal on a 4-20 mA range, it
would be as simple as determining the length of a line segment stretching from the 4 mA mark to
the 14.4 mA mark:

14.4 mA

4 mA 8 mA 12 mA 16 mA 20 mA

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

10.4 mA length

16 mA span

As a percentage, this thick line is 10.4 mA long (the distance between 14.4 mA and 4 mA) over
a total (possible) length of 16 mA (the total span between 20 mA and 4 mA). Thus:
 
14.4 mA − 4 mA
Percentage = 100%
20 mA − 4 mA

Percentage = 65%
848 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

This same “number line” approach may be used to visualize any conversion from one analog scale
to another. Consider the case of an electronic pressure transmitter calibrated to a pressure range of
−5 to +25 PSI, having an (obsolete) current signal output range of 10 to 50 mA. The appropriate
current signal value for an applied pressure of +12 PSI would be represented on the number line as
such:

+12 PSI

-5 PSI +2.5 PSI +10 PSI +17.5 PSI +25 PSI

10 mA 20 mA 30 mA 40 mA 50 mA
Proportion:
17 PSI length 17 PSI ? mA
=
? mA length 30 PSI 40 mA

30 PSI span
40 mA span

Finding the “length” of this line segment in units of milliamps is as simple as setting up a
proportion between the length of the line in units of PSI over the total (span) in PSI, to the length
of the line in units of mA over the total (span) in mA:
17 PSI ? mA
=
30 PSI 40 mA
Solving for the unknown (?) current by cross-multiplication and division yields a value of 22.67
mA. Of course, this value of 22.67 mA only tells us the length of the line segment on the number
line; it does not directly tell us the current signal value. To find that, we must add the “live zero”
offset of 10 mA, for a final result of 32.67 mA.

+12 PSI

-5 PSI +2.5 PSI +10 PSI +17.5 PSI +25 PSI

10 mA 20 mA 30 mA 40 mA 50 mA

32.67 mA
Thus, an applied pressure of +12 PSI to this transmitter should result in a 32.67 mA output
signal.
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 849

13.2.8 Thinking in terms of per unit quantities

Although it is possible to generate a “custom” linear equation in the form of y = mx + b for any
linear-responding instrument relating input directly to output, a more general approach may be used
to relate input to output values by translating all values into (and out of) per unit quantities. A
“per unit” quantity is simply a ratio between a given quantity and its maximum value. A half-full
glass of water could thus be described as having a fullness of 0.5 per unit. The concept of percent
(“per one hundred”) is very similar, the only difference between per unit and percent being the base
value of comparison: half-full glass of water has a fullness of 0.5 per unit (i.e. 21 of the glass’s full
capacity), which is the same thing as 50 percent (i.e. 50 on a scale of 100, with 100 representing
complete fullness).
Let’s now apply this concept to a realistic 4-20 mA signal application. Suppose you were given
a liquid level transmitter with an input measurement range of 15 to 85 inches and an output range
of 4 to 20 milliamps, respectively, and you desired to know how many milliamps this transmitter
should output at a measured liquid level of 32 inches. Both the measured level and the milliamp
signal may be expressed in terms of per unit ratios, as shown by the following graphs:

Input range = 15 to 85 inches liquid level Output range = 4 to 20 milliamps

24

URVin 85 URVout 20
y = mx + b y = mx + b
16

Level Current 12
(inches) (mA)

LRVin 15 LRVout 4

0
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
x= (0.0) (0.25) (0.5) (0.75) (1.0) x= (0.0) (0.25) (0.5) (0.75) (1.0)

Signal (x) expressed as a per unit ratio Signal (x) expressed as a per unit ratio
y = (85 - 15) x + 15 y = (20 - 4) x + 4
y = 70x + 15 y = 16x + 4
Input = (URVin-LRVin)(per unit) + LRVin Output = (URVout-LRVout)(per unit) + LRVout

So long as we choose to express process variable and analog signal values as a per unit ratios
ranging from 0 to 1, we see how m (the slope of the line) is simply equal to the span of the process
variable or analog signal range, and b is simply equal to the lower-range value (LRV) of the process
variable or analog signal range. The advantage of thinking in terms of “per unit” is the ability to
quickly and easily write linear equations for any given range. In fact, this is so easy that we don’t
even have to use a calculator to compute m in most cases, and we never have to calculate b because
the LRV is explicitly given to us. The instrument’s input equation is y = 70x + 15 because the span
of the 15-to-85 inch range is 70, and the LRV is 15. The instrument’s output equation is y = 16x + 4
because the span of the 4-to-20 milliamp range is 16, and the LRV is 4.
850 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

If we manipulate each of the y = mx + b equations to solve for x (per unit of span), we may
express the relationship between the input and output of any linear instrument as a pair of fractions
with the per unit value serving as the proportional link between input and output:

URVin URVout
LRVin Instrument LRVout
Input Input Output Output

Input - LRVin Per unit of span

Output - LRVout
= (from 0 to 1 inclusive)
=
URVin - LRVin URVout - LRVout

The question remains, how do we apply these equations to our example problem: calculating
the milliamp value corresponding to a liquid level of 32 inches for this instrument? The answer to
this question is that we must perform a two-step calculation: first, convert 32 inches into a per unit
ratio, then convert that per unit ratio into a milliamp value.

First, the conversion of inches into a per unit ratio, knowing that 32 is the value of y and we
need to solve for x:

32 = 70x + 15

32 − 15 = 70x

32 − 15
=x
70

x = 0.2429 per unit (i.e. 24.29%)

Next, converting this per unit ratio into a corresponding milliamp value, knowing that y will
now be the current signal value using m and b constants appropriate for the 4-20 milliamp range:

y = 16x + 4

y = 16(0.2429) + 4

y = 3.886 + 4

y = 7.886 mA
13.2. RELATING 4 TO 20 MA SIGNALS TO INSTRUMENT VARIABLES 851

Instead of deriving a single custom y = mx + b equation directly relating input (inches) to output
(milliamps) for every instrument we encounter, we may use two simple and generic linear equations
to do the calculation in two steps with “per unit” being the intermediate result. Expressed in general
form, our linear equation is:

y = mx + b

Value = (Span)(Per unit) + LRV

Value = (URV − LRV)(Per unit) + LRV

Thus, to find the per unit ratio we simply take the value given to us, subtract the LRV of its
range, and divide by the span of its range. To find the corresponding value we take this per unit
ratio, multiply by the span of the other range, and then add the LRV of the other range.

Example: Given a pressure transmitter with a measurement range of 150 to 400 PSI and a
signal range of 4 to 20 milliamps, calculate the applied pressure corresponding to a signal of 10.6
milliamps.
Solution: Take 10.6 milliamps and subtract the LRV (4 milliamps), then divide by the span (16
milliamps) to arrive at 41.25% (0.4125 per unit). Take this number and multiply by the span of the
pressure range (400 PSI − 150 PSI, or 250 PSI) and lastly add the LRV of the pressure range (150
PSI) to arrive at a final answer of 253.125 PSI.

Example: Given a temperature transmitter with a measurement range of −88 degrees to +145
degrees and a signal range of 4 to 20 milliamps, calculate the proper signal output at an applied
temperature of +41 degrees.
Solution: Take 41 degrees and subtract the LRV (-88 degrees) which is the same as adding 88 to
41, then divide by the span (145 degrees − (−88) degrees, or 233 degrees) to arrive at 55.36% (0.5536
per unit). Take this number and multiply by the span of the current signal range (16 milliamps)
and lastly add the LRV of the current signal range (4 milliamps) to arrive at a final answer of 12.86
milliamps.

Example: Given a pH transmitter with a measurement range of 3 pH to 11 pH and a signal

range of 4 to 20 milliamps, calculate the proper signal output at 9.32 pH.
Solution: Take 9.32 pH and subtract the LRV (3 pH), then divide by the span (11 pH − 3
pH, or 8 pH) to arrive at 79% (0.79 per unit). Take this number and multiply by the span of the
current signal range (16 milliamps) and lastly add the LRV of the current signal range (4 milliamps)
to arrive at a final answer of 16.64 milliamps.
852 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.3 Controller output current loops

The simplest form of 4-20 mA current loop is the type used to represent the output of a process
controller, sending a command signal to a final control element. Here, the controller supplies both
the electrical power and signal information to the final control element, which acts as an electrical
load. To illustrate, consider the example of a controller sending a 4-20 mA signal to an I/P (current-
to-pressure) signal converter, which then pneumatically drives a control valve:

Controller

PV
Control valve
SP
20 PSI
Out instrument
air supply
A air tubing
/M air tubing
I
/P

Dependent
current Output 2-wire cable
source

Acts as an electrical load

Acts as an electrical source
Transducer
(Current-to-Pressure converter)

This particular controller has two digital displays, one for process variable (PV) and one for
setpoint (SP), with a bargraph for displaying the output value (Out). One pushbutton provides
the operator with a way to switch between Automatic and Manual modes (A/M), while two other
pushbuttons provide means to decrement and increment either the setpoint value (in Automatic
mode) or the Output value (in Manual mode).
Inside the controller, a dependent current source provides the 4-20 mA DC current signal to
the I/P transducer. Like all current sources, its purpose is to maintain current in the “loop”
circuit regardless of circuit resistance or any external voltage sources. Unlike a constant current
source, a “dependent” current source (represented by a diamond shape instead of a circle shape)
varies its current value according to the dictates of some external stimulus. In this case, either the
mathematical function of the controller (Automatic mode) or the arbitrary setting of the human
operator (Manual mode) tells the current source how much DC current it should maintain in the
circuit.
For example, if the operator happened to switch the controller into Manual mode and set the
output value at 50%, the proper amount of DC current for this signal percentage would be 12 mA
(exactly half-way between 4 mA and 20 mA). If everything is working properly, the current in the
“loop” circuit to the I/P transducer should remain exactly at 12 mA regardless of slight changes
in wire resistance, I/P coil resistance, or anything else: the current source inside the controller will
13.3. CONTROLLER OUTPUT CURRENT LOOPS 853

“fight” as hard as it has to in order to maintain this set amount of current. This current, as it flows
through the wire coil of the I/P transducer mechanism, creates a magnetic field inside the I/P to
actuate the pneumatic mechanism and produce a 9 PSI pressure signal output to the control valve
(9 PSI being exactly half-way between 3 PSI and 15 PSI in the 3-15 PSI signal standard range).
This should move the control valve to the half-way position.
The details of the controller’s internal current source are not terribly important. Usually, it takes
the form of an operational amplifier circuit driven by the voltage output of a DAC (Digital-to-Analog
Converter). The DAC converts a binary number (either from the controller’s automatic calculations,
or from the human operator’s manual setting) into a small DC voltage, which then commands the
opamp circuit to regulate output current at a proportional value.

The scenario is much the same if we replace the I/P and control valve with a variable-speed
motor drive. From the controller’s perspective, the only difference it sees is a resistive load instead
of an inductive load. The input resistance of the motor drive circuit converts the 4-20 mA signal
into an analog voltage signal (typically 1-5 V, but not always). This voltage signal then commands
the motor drive circuitry, telling it to modulate the power going to the electric motor in order to
drive it at the desired speed:

Controller

PV
To source of
SP 3-phase AC power
Out

A
/M
DC motor
Input Output
Dependent
current Output 2-wire cable Motor
source drive

Acts as an electrical source Acts as an electrical load

Here, the variable-speed motor drive is a high-power electronic circuit that takes 3-phase AC
power in and converts it to DC power at a variable voltage (that voltage level controlled by the
4-20 mA signal from the controller output). Another style of motor “drive” is one that takes in AC
power and outputs 3-phase AC power at variable voltage and frequency to power an AC induction
motor. This latter style is usually called a variable frequency drive or VFD.
854 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.4 4-wire (“self-powered”) transmitter current loops

DC electric current signals may also be used to communicate process measurement information
from transmitters to controllers, indicators, recorders, alarms, and other input devices. Recall that
the purpose of a transmitter is to sense some physical variable (e.g. pressure, temperature, flow)
and then report that quantity in the form of a signal, in this case a 4 to 20 milliamp DC current
proportional to that measured quantity. The simplest form of 4-20 mA measurement loop is one
where the transmitter has two terminals for the 4-20 mA signal wires to connect, and two more
terminals where a power source connects. These transmitters are called “4-wire” or self-powered.
The current signal from the transmitter connects to the process variable input terminals of the
controller to complete the loop:

Controller

PV

SP
Out

4-wire transmitter A
/M
Power
source
Voltage-sensing
2-wire cable PV input analog-to-digital
converter

Acts as an electrical load

Acts as an electrical source

Some process controllers are not equipped to directly accept milliamp input signals, but rather
can only interpret DC voltage signals. In such cases we must connect a precision resistor across the
controller’s input terminals to convert the 4-20 mA transmitter signal into a standardized analog
voltage signal the controller can understand. A voltage signal range of 1 to 5 volts is standard,
although some models of controller use different voltage ranges and therefore require different
precision resistor values. If the voltage range is 1-5 volts and the current range is 4-20 mA, the
precision resistor value must be 250 ohms according to Ohm’s Law.
Since this is a digital controller, the input voltage at the controller terminals is interpreted by
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) circuit, which converts the measured voltage into a digital
number the controller’s microprocessor can interpret.
13.4. 4-WIRE (“SELF-POWERED”) TRANSMITTER CURRENT LOOPS 855

In some installations, transmitter power is supplied through additional wires in the cable from a
power source located near the controller:

Controller

PV

SP
Power
source Out
4-wire transmitter A
/M

Voltage-sensing
4-wire cable PV input analog-to-digital
converter

The obvious disadvantage of this scheme is the requirement of two more conductors in the cable.
More conductors means the cable will be larger-diameter and more expensive for a given length.
Cables with more conductors will require larger electrical conduit to fit in to, and all field wiring
panels will have to contain more terminal blocks to marshal the additional conductors. If no suitable
electrical power source exists at the transmitter location, though, a 4-wire cable is necessary to service
a 4-wire transmitter.
856 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.5 2-wire (“loop-powered”) transmitter current loops

It is possible to convey electrical power and communicate analog information over the same two
wires using 4 to 20 milliamps DC, if we design the transmitter to be loop-powered. A loop-powered
transmitter connects to a process controller in the following manner:

Controller

PV
Power
source
Acts as an electrical source SP
2-wire transmitter
Out

A
/M
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
PV input analog-to-digital
Acts as an electrical load converter

Acts as an electrical load

Here, the transmitter is not really a current source in the sense that a 4-wire transmitter is.
Instead, a 2-wire transmitter’s circuitry is designed to act as a current regulator, limiting current in
the series loop to a value representing the process measurement, while relying on a remote source of
power to motivate the electric current. Please note the direction of the arrow in the transmitter’s
dependent current source symbol, and how it relates to the voltage polarity marks. Refer back to
the illustration of a 4-wire transmitter circuit for comparison. The current “source” in this loop-
powered transmitter actually behaves as an electrical load 4 , while the current source in the 4-wire
transmitter functioned as a true electrical source.
A loop-powered transmitter gets its operating power from the minimum terminal voltage and
current available at its two terminals. With the typical source voltage being 24 volts DC, and the
maximum voltage dropped across the controller’s 250 ohm resistor being 5 volts DC, the transmitter
should always have at least 19 volts available at its terminals. Given the lower end of the 4-20 mA
signal range, the transmitter should always have at least 4 mA of current to function on. Thus, the
transmitter will always have a certain minimum amount of electrical power available on which to
operate, while regulating current to signal the process measurement to the receiving instrument.

4 Some of my students have referred to such a circuit as a smart load, since it functions as a load but nevertheless

exerts control over the circuit current.

13.5. 2-WIRE (“LOOP-POWERED”) TRANSMITTER CURRENT LOOPS 857

Internally, the electronic hardware of a 2-wire transmitter circuitry resembles the following
(simplified) diagram. Note that everything shown within the shaded rectangle is represented by
the “2-wire transmitter” circle in the previous diagram:

2-wire transmitter
< 4 mA
Out Voltage In
regulator
+V
Gnd Rlimit
Sensor Rbias
Sensing
and scaling Out + Qshunt
+V
circuitry Additional
Op-amp current
Gnd
Rfeedback − (as needed)
Gnd
(ground)

Rsense

All sensing, scaling, and output conditioning circuitry inside the transmitter must be designed to
operate on less than 4 mA of DC current, and at a modest terminal voltage. In order to create loop
currents exceeding 4 mA – as the transmitter must do in order to span the entire 4 to 20 milliamp
signal range – the transmitter circuitry uses a transistor to shunt (bypass) extra current from one
terminal to the other as needed to make the total current indicative of the process measurement.
For example, if the transmitter’s internal operating current is only 3.8 mA, and it must regulate
loop current at a value of 16 mA to represent a condition of 75% process measurement, the shunt
transistor will be driven by the opamp to bypass 12.2 mA of current.
The very low amount of electrical power available at a 2-wire transmitter’s terminals limits its
functionality. If the transmitter requires more electrical power than can be delivered with 4 milliamps
and 19 volts (minimum each), the only solution is to go with a 4-wire transmitter where the power
conductors are separate from the signal conductors. An example of a process transmitter that must
be 4-wire is a chemical analyzer such as a chromatograph, requiring enough power to operate an
electrical heater, solenoid valves, and an on-board computer to process the sensor data. There is
simply no way to operate a machine as complex and power-draining as a 2010-era chromatograph
on 4 milliamps and 19 volts!
Early current-based industrial transmitters were not capable of operating on such low levels
of electrical power, and so used a different current signal standard: 10 to 50 milliamps DC.
Loop power supplies for these transmitters ranged upwards of 90 volts to provide enough power
for the transmitter. Safety concerns made the 10-50 mA standard unsuitable for some industrial
installations, and modern microelectronic circuitry with its reduced power consumption made the
4-20 mA standard practical for nearly all types of process transmitters.
858 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.6 4-wire “passive” versus “active” output transmitters

Some self-powered (4-wire) analog electronic transmitters are designed to behave as electrical loads
rather than as electrical sources. Such transmitters are commonly referred to as having passive
or sinking 4-20 mA outputs, as opposed to the active or sourcing 4-wire transmitters previously
described:

Controller

PV
Power
source
Acts as an electrical source SP
4-wire "passive" transmitter
Power Out
source A
/M
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
PV input analog-to-digital
converter
Acts as an electrical load
Acts as an electrical load

At first this seems needlessly confusing. Why build a self-powered transmitter requiring a second
power supply in the circuit to drive the 4-20 mA signal? The reason for this type of transmitter’s
existence is the sheer popularity of loop-powered 2-wire 4-20 mA transmitters. Loop-powered field
instruments have become so popular in industry that many control systems, PLCs, indicators, and
other receiving devices have their own loop power supply built in so that these systems can only
connect to loads and are therefore incompatible with current-sourcing 4-wire transmitters. Thus,
“passive” or “sinking” 4-wire transmitters were developed to accommodate control systems designed
to work (only) with loop-powered instruments.
Some 4-wire transmitters are configurable for either passive or active (i.e. sinking versus sourcing)
operation, requiring the installing technician to pay close attention in order for the circuit to properly
function.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 859

13.7 Troubleshooting current loops

A fundamental principle in instrumentation system troubleshooting is that every instrument has at

least one input and at least one output, and that the output(s) should accurately correspond to
the input(s). If an instrument’s output is not properly corresponding to its input according to the
instrument’s design function, there must be something wrong with that instrument.
Consider the inputs and outputs of several common instruments: transmitters, controllers,
indicators, and control valves. Each of these instruments takes in (input) data in some form, and
generates (output) data in some form. In any instrument “loop,” the output of one instrument
feeds into the input of the next, such that information passes from one instrument to another. By
intercepting the data communicated between components of an instrument system, we are able to
locate and isolate faults. In order to properly understand the intercepted data, we must understand
the inputs and outputs of the respective instruments and the basic functions of those instruments.
The following illustrations highlight inputs and outputs for instruments commonly found in
control systems:

Differential pressure transmitter

Output = 3 to 15 PSI (pneumatic signal)
Output = 4 to 20 mA (analog electronic signal)
Output = digital data (Fieldbus signal)

H L

Inputs = "high" and "low" side pressures

Temperature Temperature transmitter

sensing element
Output = 3 to 15 PSI (pneumatic signal)
Output = 4 to 20 mA (analog electronic signal)
Output = digital data (Fieldbus signal)

Input = variable resistance (RTD)

Input = millivoltage (thermocouple)

Output = variable resistance (RTD)

Output = millivoltage (thermocouple)

Input = process temperature

860 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Controller
(PV)
Input = 3 to 15 PSI (pneumatic signal) PV
Input = 4 to 20 mA (analog electronic signal)
Input = digital data (Fieldbus signal)
(SP)
SP
Input = human operator setting
Input = 3 to 15 PSI (pneumatic signal) Out
Input = 4 to 20 mA (analog electronic signal)
Input = digital data (Fieldbus signal) A
/M

Output = 3 to 15 PSI (pneumatic signal)

Output = 4 to 20 mA (analog electronic signal)
Output = digital data (Fieldbus signal)

In order to check for proper correspondence between instrument inputs and outputs, we must
be able to use appropriate test equipment to intercept the signals going into and out of those
instruments. For 4-20 mA analog signal-based instruments, this means we must be able to use
electrical meters capable of accurately measuring current and voltage.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 861

13.7.1 Using a standard milliammeter to measure loop current

Since the signal of interest is represented by an electric current in an instrumentation current “loop”
circuit, the obvious tool to use for troubleshooting is a multimeter capable of accurately measuring
DC milliamperes. Unfortunately, though, there is a major disadvantage to the use of a milliammeter:
the circuit must be “broken” at some point to connect the meter in series with the current, and
this means the current will fall to 0 mA until the meter is connected (then fall to 0 mA when
the meter is removed from the circuit). Interrupting the current means interrupting the flow of
information conveyed by that current, be it a process measurement or a command signal to a final
control element. This will have adverse effects on a control system unless certain preparatory steps
are taken.
Before “breaking the loop” to connect your meter, one must first warn all appropriate personnel
that the signal will be interrupted at least twice, falling to a value of −25% each time. If the signal to
be interrupted is coming from a process transmitter to a controller, the controller should be placed
in Manual mode so it will not cause an upset in the process (by moving the final control element in
response to the sudden loss of PV signal). Also, process alarms should be temporarily disabled so
they do not cause panic. If this current signal also drives process shutdown alarms, these should be
temporarily disabled so that nothing shuts down upon interruption of the signal.
If the current signal to be interrupted is a command signal from a controller to a final control
element, the final control element either needs to be manually overridden so as to hold a fixed setting
while the signal varies, or it needs to be bypasses completely by some other device(s). If the final
control element is a control valve, this typically takes the form of opening a bypass valve and closing
at least one block valve:

Control valve

I/P converter
two-wire cable
air tube

air tube
Block valve Block valve Air supply

Bypass valve
862 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Since the manually-operated bypass valve now performs the job the automatic control valve used
to do, a human operator must remain posted at the bypass valve to carefully throttle it and maintain
control of the process.
Block and bypass valves for a large gas flow control valve may be seen in the following photograph:

In consideration of the labor necessary to safely interrupt the current signal to a control valve in
a live process, we see that the seemingly simple task of connecting a milliammeter in series with a
4-20 mA current signal is not as easy as it may first appear. Better ways must exist, no?
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 863

13.7.2 Using a clamp-on milliammeter to measure loop current

One better way to measure a 4-20 mA signal without interrupting it is to do so magnetically, using
a clamp-on milliammeter. Modern Hall-effect sensors are sensitive and accurate enough to monitor
the weak magnetic fields created by the passage of small DC currents in wires. Ammeters using
Hall-effect sensors have are completely non-intrusive because they merely clamp around the wire,
with no need to “break” the circuit. An example of a such a clamp-on current meter is the Fluke
model 771, shown in this photograph:

Note how this milliammeter not only registers loop current (3.98 mA as shown in the photograph),
but it also converts the milliamp value into a percentage of range, following the 4 to 20 mA signal
standard. One disadvantage to be aware of for clamp-on milliammeters is the susceptibility to
error from strong external magnetic fields. Steady magnetic fields (from permanent magnets or
DC-powered electromagnets) may be compensated for by performing a “zero” adjustment with the
instrument held in a similar orientation prior to measuring loop current through a wire.
864 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.7.3 Using “test” diodes to measure loop current

Another way to measure a 4-20 mA signal without interrupting it involves the use of a rectifying
diode, originally installed in the loop circuit when it was commissioned. A “test” diode may be
placed anywhere in series within the loop in such a way that it will be forward-biased. During
normal operation, the diode will drop approximately 0.7 volts, as is typical for any silicon rectifying
diode when forward biased. The following schematic diagram shows such a diode installed in a
2-wire transmitter loop circuit:

≈ 0.7 V Power
Transmitter supply

If someone connects a milliammeter in parallel with this diode, however, the very low input
resistance of the ammeters “shorts past” the diode and prevents any substantial voltage drop from
forming across it. Without the necessary forward voltage drop, the diode effectively turns off and
conducts 0 mA, leaving the entire loop current to pass through the ammeter:

All current goes through

the milliammeter!
mA

≈ 0.0 V Power
Transmitter supply

When the milliammeter is disconnected, the requisite 0.7 volt drop appears to turn on the diode,
and all loop current flows through the diode again. At no time is the loop current ever interrupted,
which means a technician may take current measurements this way and never have to worry about
generating false process variable indications, setting off alarms, or upsetting the process.
Such a diode may be installed at the nearest junction box, between terminals on a terminal strip,
or even incorporated into the transmitter itself. Some process transmitters have an extra pair of
terminals labeled “Test” for this exact purpose. A diode is already installed in the transmitter, and
these “test” terminals serve as points to connect the milliammeter across.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 865

The following photograph shows an example of this on a Rosemount model 3051 differential
pressure transmitter:

Note the two test points labeled “TEST” below and to the right of the main screw terminals
where the loop wiring attaches. Connecting an ammeter to these two test points allows for direct
measurement of the 4-20 mA current signal without having to un-do any wire connections in the
circuit.
Transmitters equipped with analog meter movements for direct visual indication of the 4-20 mA
signal usually connect the analog milliammeter in parallel with just such a diode. The reason for
doing this is to maintain loop continuity in the event the fine-wire coil inside the milliammeter
movement were to accidently break open.
866 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.7.4 Using shunt resistors to measure loop current

A similar method for non-invasively measuring current in a 4-20 mA instrumentation circuit is to
install a precision resistor in series. If the resistance value is precisely known, the technician merely
needs to measure voltage across it with a voltmeter and use Ohm’s Law to calculate current:

V = IR Power
Transmitter supply

In electronics, such a precision resistor used for measuring current is often referred to as a shunt
resistor. Shunt resistor values are commonly very small, for their purpose is to assist in current
measurement without imposing undue voltage drop within a circuit. It is rare to find a 250 ohm
resistor used strictly as a diagnostic shunt resistor, because the extra voltage drop (1 to 5 volts,
depending on the current signal level) may “starve” loop-powered instruments of voltage necessary
to operate. Shunt resistor values as low as 1 ohm may be found installed in 4-20 mA current loops
at strategic locations where technicians may need to measure loop current5 .

5 Of course, a 1 ohm resistor would drop 4 mV at 4 mA loop current, and drop 20 mV at 20 mA loop current.

These small voltage values necessitate a highly accurate DC voltmeter for field measurement!
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 867

13.7.5 Troubleshooting current loops with voltage measurements

If neither component (diode nor shunt resistor) is pre-installed in the circuit, and if a Hall-
effect (clamp-on) precision milliammeter is unavailable, a technician may still perform useful
troubleshooting measurements using nothing but a DC voltmeter. Here, however, one must be
careful of how to interpret these voltage measurements, for they may not directly correspond to the
loop current as was the case with measurements taken in parallel with the precision resistor.
Take for example this 4-20 mA loop where a controller sends a command signal to an I/P
transducer:

Controller

PV
Control valve
SP
20 PSI
Out instrument
air supply
A air tubing
/M air tubing
I
/P
Dependent
current Output 2-wire cable
source

Acts as an electrical load

Acts as an electrical source
Transducer
(Current-to-Pressure converter)

There is no standardized resistance value for I/P transducer coils, and so the amount of voltage
dropped across the I/P terminals for any given amount of loop current will be unique for every
different model of I/P. The Fisher model 567 I/P transducer built for 4-20 mA signals has a normal
coil resistance of 176 ohms. Thus, we would expect to see a voltage drop of approximately 0.7
volts at 4 mA and a drop of approximately 3.5 volts at 20 mA across the I/P terminals. Since the
controller output terminals are directly in parallel with the I/P terminals, we would expect to see
approximately the same voltage there as well (slightly greater due to wire resistance). The lack of
known precision in the I/P coil resistance makes it difficult to tell exactly how much current is in
the loop for any given voltage measurement we take with a voltmeter. However, if we do know the
approximate coil resistance of the I/P, we can at least obtain an estimate of loop current, which is
usually good enough for diagnostic purposes.
If the I/P coil resistance is completely unknown, voltage measurements become useless for
quantitative determination of loop current. Voltage measurements would be useful only for
qualitatively determining loop continuity (i.e. whether there is a break in the wiring between the
controller and I/P).
868 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Another example for consideration is this loop-powered 4-20 mA transmitter and controller
circuit, where the controller supplies DC power for the loop:

Controller

PV

SP
Out

2-wire transmitter A
/M
Acts as an electrical source
26 VDC
+V
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
250 Ω PV input analog-to-digital
Acts as an electrical load converter

Acts as an electrical load

It is very common to find controllers with their own built-in loop power supplies, due to the
popularity of loop-powered (2-wire) 4-20 mA transmitters. If we know the transmitter requires a
DC voltage source somewhere in the circuit to power it up, it makes sense to include one in the
controller, right?
The only voltage measurement that directly and accurately corresponds to loop current is the
voltage directly across the 250 ohm precision resistor. A loop current of 4 mA will yield a voltage
drop of 1 volt, 12 mA will drop 3 volts, 20 mA will drop 5 volts, etc.
A voltage measurement across the transmitter terminals will show us the difference in voltage
between the 26 volt power supply and the voltage dropped across the 250 ohm resistor. In other
words, the transmitter’s terminal voltage is simply what is left over from the source voltage of 26
volts after subtracting the resistor’s voltage drop. This makes the transmitter terminal voltage
inversely proportional to loop current: the transmitter sees approximately 25 volts at 4 mA loop
current (0% signal) and approximately 21 volts at 20 mA loop current (100% signal).
The use of the word “approximate” is very intentional here, for loop power supplies are usually
non-regulated. In other words, the “26 volt” rating is approximate and subject to change! One of
the advantages of the loop-powered transmitter circuit is that the source voltage is largely irrelevant,
so long as it exceeds the minimum value necessary to ensure adequate power to the transmitter. If
the source voltage drifts for any reason, it will have no impact on the measurement signal at all,
because the transmitter is built as a current regulator, regulating current in the loop to whatever
value represents the process measurement, regardless of slight changes in loop source voltage, wire
resistance, etc. This rejection of power supply voltage changes means the loop power supply need
not be regulated, and so in practice it rarely is.
This brings us to a common problem in loop-powered 4-20 mA transmitter circuits: maintaining
sufficient operating voltage at the transmitter terminals. Recall that a loop-powered transmitter
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 869

relies on the voltage dropped across its terminals (combined with a current of less than 4 mA) to
power its internal workings. This means the terminal voltage must not be allowed to dip below a
certain minimum value, or else the transmitter will not have enough electrical power to continue its
normal operation. This makes it possible to “starve” the transmitter of voltage if the loop power
supply voltage is insufficient, and/or if the loop resistance is excessive.
To illustrate how this can be a problem, consider the following 4-20 mA measurement loop, where
the controller supplies only 20 volts DC to power the loop, and an indicator is included in the circuit
to provide operators with a field-mounted indication of the transmitter’s measurement:

Controller

PV
Indicator

SP
Acts as an electrical load Out
250 Ω

A
2-wire transmitter /M
Acts as an electrical source
20 VDC
+V
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
250 Ω PV input analog-to-digital
Acts as an electrical load converter

Acts as an electrical load

The indicator contains its own 250 ohm resistor to provide a 1-5 volt signal for the meter
mechanism to sense. This means the total loop resistance has now risen from 250 ohms to 500
ohms (plus any wire resistance). At full current (20 mA), this total circuit resistance will drop
(at least) 10 volts, leaving 10 volts or less at the transmitter terminals to power the transmitter’s
internal workings. 10 volts may not be enough for the transmitter to successfully operate, though.
The Rosemount model 3051 pressure transmitter, for example, requires a minimum of 10.5 volts at
the terminals to operate.
However, the transmitter will operate just fine at lower loop current levels. When the loop current
is only 4 mA, for example, the combined voltage drop across the two 250 ohm resistors will be only
2 volts, leaving about 18 volts at the transmitter terminals: more than enough for practically any
model of 4-20 mA loop-powered transmitter to successfully operate. Thus, the problem of insufficient
supply voltage only manifests itself when the process measurement nears 100% of range. This could
be a difficult problem to diagnose, since it appears only during certain process conditions and not
others. A technician looking only for wiring faults (loose connections, corroded terminals, etc.)
would never find the problem.
When a loop-powered transmitter is starved of voltage, its behavior becomes erratic. This is
especially true of “smart” transmitters with built-in microprocessor circuitry. If the terminal voltage
870 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

dips below the required minimum, the microprocessor circuit shuts down. When the circuit shuts
down, the current draw decreases accordingly. This causes the terminal voltage to rise again, at
which point the microprocessor has enough voltage to start up. As the microprocessor “boots” back
up again, it increases loop current to reflect the near-100% process measurement. This causes the
terminal voltage to sag, which subsequently causes the microprocessor to shut down again. The
result is a slow on/off cycling of the transmitter’s current, which makes the process controller think
the process variable is surging wildly. The problem disappears, though, as soon as the process
measurement decreases enough that the transmitter is allowed enough terminal voltage to operate
normally.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 871

13.7.6 Using loop calibrators

Special-purpose electronic test instruments called loop calibrators exist for the express purpose of
4-20 mA current loop circuit troubleshooting. These versatile instruments are generally capable
of not only measuring current, but also sourcing current to unpowered devices in a loop, and also
simulating loop-powered 4-20 mA transmitters.
A very popular loop calibrator unit is the Altek model 334A, a battery-powered, hand-held unit
with a rotary knob for current adjustment and toggle switches for mode setting. The following
illustration shows how this calibrator would be used to measure current in a functioning input signal
loop6 :

Controller

PV

SP
Out
2-wire, loop-powered
pressure transmitter A
/M

24 VDC
+V
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
250 Ω PV input analog-to-digital
converter

Applied pressure =
392.3 inches W.C.
mA
READ

mA OFF
READ VDC % 4 to 20 mA

LOOP CALIBRATOR
Loop calibrator
POWER 2-WIRE
TRANSMITTERS
100% acting as an
Toggle switch SOURCE 20 mA

READ ADJUST
electrical load
set to "READ" 2-WIRE 4 mA
TRANSMITTER
0%
SIMULATOR

Here, the loop wiring is broken at the negative terminal of the loop-powered transmitter, and
the calibrator connected in series to measure current. If this loop had a test diode installed, the
calibrator could be connected in parallel with the diode to achieve the same function. Note the
polarity of the calibrator’s test leads in relation to the circuit being tested: the calibrator is acting
6 In the following illustrated examples, the transmitter is assumed to be a pressure transmitter with a calibrated

range of 0 to 750 inches of water column, 4-20 mA. The controller’s PV (process variable) display is appropriately
ranged to display 0 to 750 as well.
872 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

as an unpowered device (a load rather than a source), with the more positive loop terminal connected
to the calibrator’s red test lead and the more negative terminal connected to the black test lead.

The same loop calibrator may be used to source (or drive) a 4-20 mA signal into an indicating
instrument to test the function of that instrument independently. Here, we see the Altek calibrator
used as a current source to send a 16.00 mA signal to the PV (process variable) input of the controller,
in order to check that the controller properly senses and displays the analog current signal:

Controller

PV

SP
Out
mA
READ

A
mA
READ VDC
OFF
% 4 to 20 mA /M
LOOP CALIBRATOR
POWER 2-WIRE
TRANSMITTERS
100%
24 VDC
Toggle switch SOURCE 20 mA

READ ADJUST
+V
set to "SOURCE" 2-WIRE 4 mA
TRANSMITTER
0%
SIMULATOR

Voltage-sensing
250 Ω PV input analog-to-digital
Loop calibrator converter
acting as an
electrical source

No transmitter need be included in this illustration, because the calibrator takes its place. Note
how the calibrator functions here as an active source of current rather than a passive load as it
was in the last example. Not only does it supply the information (i.e. regulate the current), but it
also provides the energy in the circuit. The DC power source inside the controller is not used for
loop power, because the calibrator in “source” mode provides the necessary power to drive current
through the 250 ohm resistor.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 873

A very common use of a loop calibrator in “source” mode is to test a control valve for proper
calibration, quick response, and to measure friction. Here, the loop calibrator takes place of the loop
controller output, serving as the sole source of current to the I/P transducer:

mA
READ
Air supply
mA OFF
READ VDC % 4 to 20 mA

tube
LOOP CALIBRATOR
POWER 2-WIRE
TRANSMITTERS
100%

Toggle switch SOURCE 20 mA

I
/P
READ ADJUST

set to "SOURCE" 2-WIRE 4 mA

TRANSMITTER
0%
SIMULATOR

tube

Loop calibrator
acting as an
electrical source
Current-to-Pressure (I/P)
signal transducer
Control valve
(50% open)

This circuit configuration is extremely useful to any instrument technician testing the response
of a control valve, because it allows the signal to be finely adjusted while in the direct presence of
the valve to monitor its motion. If a control valve is suspected of having excessive friction in its
moving parts, for instance, a technician may test the valve by incrementing and decrementing the
loop calibrator’s source current in progressively smaller steps. Large step-changes in current should
cause the valve to overcome friction and move, but small step-changes will fail to move the valve
mechanism when frictional forces exceed the incremental forces produced by the changing pressure.
874 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

A photograph showing this very use of a loop calibrator in a valve rebuild shop appears here:

In this particular example, the loop calibrator connects to a device on the control valve called a
positioner, which is a more sophisticated device than an I/P transducer. In addition to converting a
4-20 mA signal into an air pressure, the positioner also actively monitors the valve stem’s position to
ensure it goes to the correct position for any given 4-20 mA command signal. Here, the technician
is using the loop calibrator to verify the control valve faithfully obeys the command signal through
the entire 4 to 20 milliamp signal range.
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 875

An alternative method of sourcing a known current signal into an indicating instrument providing
loop power is to set the loop calibrator to a mode where it mimics (or simulates) the electrical
behavior of a loop-powered 2-wire transmitter. In this mode, the calibrator serves to regulate
loop current at a user-determined value, but it provides no motivating voltage to drive this current.
Instead, it passively relies on some external voltage source in the loop circuit to provide the necessary
electromotive force, just like a 2-wire transmitter relies on an external source of voltage to operate:

Controller

PV

SP
2-wire, loop-powered Out
pressure transmitter
(disconnected from loop) A
/M

24 VDC
+V
2-wire cable
Voltage-sensing
250 Ω PV input analog-to-digital
converter

mA
READ

mA OFF
READ VDC % 4 to 20 mA

LOOP CALIBRATOR
Loop calibrator
POWER 2-WIRE
TRANSMITTERS
100% acting as an
Toggle switch
SOURCE 20 mA

READ ADJUST
electrical load
set to "2-WIRE 2-WIRE 4 mA
0%

SIMULATE"
TRANSMITTER
SIMULATOR

Note the polarity of the calibrator’s test leads in relation to the controller: the red test lead
connects to the positive loop power terminal while the black lead connects to the positive input
terminal. Here, the calibrator acts as a load, just as a loop-powered transmitter acts as an electrical
load. The only source of electrical power in this test circuit is the 24 VDC source inside the controller:
the same one normally providing energy to the circuit when a loop-powered transmitter is connected.
This simulate transmitter mode is especially useful for testing a 4-20 mA loop at the end of
the cable where the transmitter is physically located. After disconnecting the cable wires from the
transmitter and re-connecting them to the loop calibrator (set to “simulate” mode), the calibrator
may be used to simulate a transmitter measuring any value within its calibrated range.
876 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

A legacy loop calibrator still familiar to many instrument technicians at the time of this writing
is the classic Transmation model 1040:

Other examples of vintage loop calibrator technology include the Nassau model 8060 (left) and
the Biddle Versa-Cal (right):
13.7. TROUBLESHOOTING CURRENT LOOPS 877

A modern loop calibrator manufactured by Fluke is the model 705:

With this calibrator, the measure, source, and simulate modes are accessed by repeatedly pushing
a button, with the current mode displayed on the screen:

Note the dual-numeric display, showing both loop current and percentage (assuming a 4-20 mA
range).
878 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

13.7.7 NAMUR signal levels

One of the intrinsic benefits of a “live zero” analog signal standard such as 4-20 mA is that a wire
break (open fault) can immediately be detected by the absence of current in the circuit. If the signal
scale started at zero (e.g. 0-20 mA), there would be no way to electrically distinguish between a
broken wire and a legitimate 0% signal value. In other words, the “live” LRV point of a 4-20 mA
signal provides us with a way to indicate a certain type of circuit fault in addition to indicating an
analog measurement during normal operation.
The NAMUR signal standard takes this philosophy one step further by defining specific diagnostic
meaning to values of current lying outside the 4-20 mA range:

Signal level Fault condition

Output ≤ 3.6 mA Sensing transducer failed low
3.6 mA < Output < 3.8 mA Sensing transducer failed (detected) low
3.8 mA ≤ Output < 4.0 mA Measurement under-range
21.0 > Output ≥ 20.5 mA Measurement over-range
Output ≥ 21.0 mA Sensing transducer failed high

NAMUR-compliant transmitters are designed to limit their output signals between 3.8 mA and
less than 21 mA when functioning properly. Signals lying outside this range indicate some form of
failure has occurred within the transmitter or the circuit wiring.
NAMUR-compliant control systems will recognize these errant milliamp values as fault states,
and may be programmed to take specific action upon receiving these signal values. Such actions
include forcing controllers into manual mode, initiating automatic shutdown procedures, or taking
some other form of safe action appropriate to the knowledge of a failed process transmitter.
13.8. REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 879

13.8 Review of fundamental principles

Shown here is a partial listing of principles applied in the subject matter of this chapter, given for
the purpose of expanding the reader’s view of this chapter’s concepts and of their general inter-
relationships with concepts elsewhere in the book. Your abilities as a problem-solver and as a
life-long learner will be greatly enhanced by mastering the applications of these principles to a wide
variety of topics, the more varied the better.

• Linear equations: any function represented by a straight line on a graph may be represented
symbolically by the slope-intercept formula y = mx + b. Relevant to instrument input/output
scaling.

• Electrical sources versus loads: electrical power sources output current (conventional flow)
on their positive terminals and input current on their negative terminals (e.g. batteries and
generators). Electrical loads do the opposite (e.g. resistors). Relevant to determining voltage
drops and current directions in analog current loop circuits, as well as matching polarities
between field instruments and controllers.

• Voltage versus current sources: voltage sources try to maintain constant voltage with
variable current, while current sources try to maintain constant current with variable voltage.
Relevant to the operation of 4-20 mA signaling circuits: loop transmitter act as current sources
(or in some cases as current regulators), dropping as much or as little voltage as needed to
maintain the desired amount of current in the circuit.

• Self-balancing opamp circuits: all self-balancing operational amplifier circuits work on

the principle of negative feedback maintaining a nearly zero differential input voltage to the
opamp. Making the “simplifying assumption” that the opamp’s differential input voltage is
exactly zero assists in circuit analysis, as does the assumption that the input terminals draw
negligible current.

References
“Designing a 4-20mA Current Loop Using the MAX1459 Sensor Signal Conditioner” application
note 1064, Maxim Integrated Products, 2005.

Lipták, Béla G. et al., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook – Process Software and Digital Networks,
Third Edition, CRC Press, New York, NY, 2002.

“NAMUR” whitepaper, Emerson Process Management, 2007.

880 CHAPTER 13. ANALOG ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION