Unit -1 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

Arrived from the Latin word “manus factus”, meaning “made by hand”.
Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into useful products.

Three Phases of the Manufacturing Process, which Includes

i) Design of the product
ii) Selection of raw materials and
iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured. i.e. Casting.

Any Product in the engineering industry will be manufactured in the below methods
1. By totally deforming the metal to the required shape. (Casting /Forming)
2. By joining two metals. (Welding)
3. By removing the excess material from the raw stock.(Machining)

WHY STUDY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES?

The designer and the drafter must have a working knowledge of the various processes that could produce a
part in order to: lower cost, reduce production time and produce an efficient product.

Classification of Manufacturing Processes:

• Primary Manufacturing Processes
• Secondary Manufacturing Processes

Primary manufacturing processes:

Convert the material available in pig iron or ingot form into useful standard shape such as bars, plates, angles
etc.
Casting, Forming, such as Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, etc.
Secondary manufacturing processes :
Gives an accurate final shape, desired surface finish and tolerance to the same component which has been
already passed through the primary process.
Joining ,Surface working such as Heat Treatment, Machining, Coating, Shaping, Driling, Grinding.

Advanced manufacturing processes

• Powder Metallurgy (PM)
• Rapid Prototyping (RP) or 3-D Printing
• CNC machines, Dye Casting, etc.
Casting:
Casting is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the mould cavity of the required
shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal piece is called as "casting".

Sand Casting /Sand Moulding.

Sand Casting is simply melting the metal and pouring it into a preformed cavity, called mold, allowing (the
metal to solidify and then breaking up the mold to remove casting.
In sand casting expandable molds are used. So for each casting operation you have to form a new mold.

Forming:
In these processes metals are deformed to get desired shape and size. Final product is achieved by
application of large amount of mechanical force only or by heating the metal and apply less force. A set of tools
called dies are used.
The secondary manufacturing processes involves joining and machining processes. The joining may be
permanent or temporarily. Permanent joining is achieved by welding , riveting etc. Temporary joining maybe
achieved by nut and bolts, screw etc.

Material removing processes or metal cutting processes or Machining processes:

These are the secondary manufacturing processes where the desired shape and size and surface finish of
material is achieved by removal of excess material in form of chips. E.g. Turning, Drilling, Milling, Boring,
Shaping, Planing, Grinding etc.
 Properties of Engineering Materials
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
The properties of material that determine its behavior under applied forces (Loads) are known as mechanical
properties. They are usually related to the elastic and plastic behaviour of the material. These are of great
industrial importance in the design of tools, machines and structures.
These Properties includes:
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Ductility
 Brittleness
 Malleability
 Resilience
 Stiffness
 Strength
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Creep

Ductility: ability of a material to withdrawn into wires without ruptures. E.g. Mild Steel, copper, aluminum,
nickel, zinc and tin Gold, silver are some ductile materials.

Brittleness: opposite to ductility, it is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. E.g.
Cast iron, Glass, ceramics

Malleability: is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets, under applications of heavy
compressive forces without cracking. Ductility is tensile quality, while malleability is compressive quality. Eg.
Soft steel, copper, wrought iron, Lead, copper, silver etc are malleable materials
A malleable material may be plastic but it is not necessary to be ductile.
For an example, the lead can easily be rolled and hammered into thin sheets, but can not be drawn into wire,
thus lead is malleable not ductile.
Hardness:: It is the ability of a material to resist penetration, indentation, scratching, etc.
Hardness test - Brinnel Hardness No, Hardness Rockwell test, Vicker’s Hardness No.

apply known force measure size

e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

Stress: Stress is the resisting force per unit area.

Strain: The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.

Strength: Ability of materials to resist the externally applied forces.

Stiffness: it is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The resistance of the
material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or rigidity. E.g. Steel beam is more stiffer or more
rigid than aluminium beam.
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy within the elastic limit.

Toughness: it is the property of a metal to withstand bending or torsion without fracture. It is measured in
terms of amount of energy that a material can absorb before actual fracture takes place.
For example, under the impact load the mild steel absorbs much more energy before undergoing any fracture
while a glass piece immediately undergoes the fracture. Thus mild steel is tougher than glass.
Toughness test- Impact Testing Machine (Pendulum Type)

Creep: when a metal part is subjected to a high constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time,
it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.

Plasticity: property of a material due to which it can undergo permanent deformation without failure.
Elasticity: property of a material to regain its original shape when external forces are removed.

Elastic limit: The maximum stress that a material can endure without taking up some permanent set is called
elastic limit. Beyond this limit, the metal does not regain its original form and permanent set will occurs.
Proportional limit: it is defined as the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a perfectly
uniform rate of strain to stress.
Yield point: at a specific stress ductile metals particularly ceases, offering resistance to tensile forces. This
means, the metals flows and a relatively large permanent set take takes place without a noticeable increase in
load. This point is called yield yield point.

Fracture is the mechanical failures of hard materials, eg brittle and rupture is the failure of soft materials eg
ductile.
 CASTING PROCESS
 In this process, the metal is first liquefied by heating -using furnace.
 liquid metal is poured into -a mould cavity - allowed to solidify.
 the product is taken out of the mould cavity.

PARTS PRODUCED BY CASTING PROCESS/Applications

• Most of the IC Engine Parts, Machine Tool Parts
• Very Large Components for Hydraulic Turbines
• Frying Pans, Fly wheels, Cast iron pipes, alloy wheels.

Advantages and Limitations of Casting Process

– Most complex shapes can be cast easily which were difficult to
produce by Forging, welding, machining.
– Cast any material ferrous and non ferrous.
– Tools require for casting are simple and inexpensive.
– Suitable for small as well as mass production.
Limitations
– Dimensional accuracy and surface finish issue.
– With some materials difficult to remove defects.
 Features of a Sand Mold

Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

CASTING TERMS
Moulding Flask the box like frame, without top and bottom
base into which the sand is rammed is called flask.
 CASTING TERMS
PARTING LINE OR PARTING SURFACE
It the surface or line that separates the coop and drag halves of the mould.
PATTERN
CORE
core is placed in mould cavity to make hole or hollow cavities through the
castings. core is made up of core sand.
CORE BOX
Core boxes are used for imparting that desired shape to the core sand.
CORE PRINT
core print are provided to locate and support the core within the moulds, and
hold them in proper position while filling the mould.
CHAPLETS
chaplets are the metallic support kept inside the mould cavity to support the
core. These should be of same composition as that of pouring metal. They
melt and fuse with the molten metal during solidification.
CHILLS
chills are metallic objects of high heat capacity and are placed in mould to
provide the uniform rate of cooling, or to achieve a desired rate of cooling.
CASTING TERMS
• POURING CUP
pouring cup, or pouring basin is the portion of gating system into
which initially molten metal is poured from Ladle. It is a small funnel
shaped cavity at the top of the mould.
SPRUE
• Sprue helps in feeding metal to the runner, which in turn reaches the
cavity through gates.
RUNNER
• It is used to take molten metal from the spure base and distribute it to
the several gate passageways around the cavity.
RISER
• A riser is a passage in the sand in cope to permit molten metal to rise
above the highest point in casting after mould cavity is filled up.
GATE
• The gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity
and through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
 SAND CASTING PROCESS
Steps involved in Casting Process
 Pattern making.
 Mould making.
 Core making.
 Gating and Riser making
 Melting of metal and pouring.
 Cooling and solidification.
 Cleaning of castings and
inspection.
Introduction of Pattern
• Pattern is a mirror image or replica of the component that has to be
manufactured by casting process.
• A pattern is required even if only one object has to be cast.
Uses of pattern
• To form a cavity of proper shape and size in the moulding material so that
required casting is obtained by molten metal.
• Providing seating surface for the core that are used for making cavity i.e.
core prints.
• Indirectly checks the dimensions and measurements of the casting.
• The materials generally used for pattern are wood, metal or plastics.
PROPERTIES OF PATTERN MATERIAL
• Easily shaped, worked, machined and joined.
• Resistant to wear and corrosion.
• Resistant to chemical action.
• Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and
humidity.
• Availability and Economical.

PATTERN MATERIAL
Patterns can be made from- wood, metals, alloys, plaster, rubber, wax.
The selection of a pattern material depends on
the size and shape of the casting
dimensional accuracy,
the quantity of casting required and the molding process.
WOOD
 Easily available.
 Low weight.
 Low cost.
 It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions will change.
 Lower life.
 Suitable for small quantity production and very large size castings.
METAL
 Used for mass production
 For maintaining closer dimensional tolerances on casting.
 More life as compared to wooden patterns
 Few of the material used include Al, Fe, Brass etc. Aluminum is widely used.
PLASTIC
• Low weight
• Easier formability
• Do not absorb moisture
• Good corrosion resistance
POLYSTYRENE
• Easy to make pattern as it is soft.
• Polystyrene changes gaseous state on heating.
• Used for prototype (single piece) castings.
• Also known as Disposable patterns.
 Types of pattern
 Solid or single piece pattern
 Split pattern or two piece pattern
 Multi piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Gated pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Pattern with lose pieces
 Cope and drag pattern
 Follow board pattern
 Segmental pattern
SOLID PATTERN
 A pattern that is made without joints, parting or any loose
pieces - called a single piece or solid pattern.
 It is not recommended except for limited production like large
and small size castings of simple shapes.

SPLIT PATTERN
Most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings.
Used When The depth of the casting is too high.
The pattern is split into two parts.
The two halves of the pattern should be aligned by making use of
the dowel pins.
 Types of Pattern
• Single Piece Pattern Split piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
• Patterns are made in two pieces one piece mounted on one side and the other on
other side of plate called match plate.
• Plate may carry one or group of patterns mounted on match plate.
• Along with pattern gates and runners are also attached.
• Produces accurate castings at faster rates.
• When removed after moulding, a complete mould with gating system is obtained.
• The match plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminum.
• Generally used for rapid production of small castings such as piston rings of I.C.
engines and rotor hub.
Cope and drag pattern
• In this pattern is made into two halves and both are molded in different boxes.
• After completion of mold two boxes are assembled to make a cavity.
• It is also known as two piece or split pattern.
• Used for Flange pipes, Water Jacket of JCB head and Hose pipe coupling head.
Gated pattern
• In this the pattern are usually made of metals.
• In this multi-cavity moulds are produced & the sections connecting
different pattern serves as gate and runner. This facilitates filling the
mold in better manner.
• Can produce many castings at one time and hence saves time as well
as cost.
•It is used for producing small sized cavities in one mould.
•The gating and runner system are integral part of the gated pattern.
•A single runner is used for feeding so considerable amount of the
moulding time is saved.
• Used for small castings such as corner bracket.
Multi-piece pattern
 Pattern is split into more than two parts.
 Facilitates an easy moulding and withdrawal of pattern.
 Pattern may consists 3,4 or more numbers depending on designs.
 Used in Lap joints, Dowel joints.
 Match Plate Pattern

Runner

Match plate
Pattern
Gate

Pattern
(a) Gated pattern for 8 (b) Match plate pattern
castings
 Types of Pattern
Match Plate Pattern Cope and Drag
pattern
 Types of Pattern
Gated Pattern
LOOSE PIECE PATTERN
Used when
Withdrawal of pattern from mould is not possible.
Castings is having projections, undercuts and etc.
The obstructing part of the contour is held as loose piece by a wire.
After the molding -the main part is removed - loose pieces are recovered
through the gap.
• Patterns consists of loose pieces for easy withdrawal, These loose pieces form
integral part of pattern during molding, After mold is complete pattern is
withdrawn leaving this loose pieces.
APPLICATIONS: Pattern having projections or hanging parts, Rotor hub, Axel pin.
 Types of Pattern
Loose Piece Pattern
Sweep pattern
 It is generally used for preparing large symmetrical castings.
 It is made on wooden board and its sweeps the sand in casting shape all
around the circumference.
 Hence it saves lot of labour and time.
 It is used for production of large circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
APPLICATIONS: Symmetrical shapes such as wheels, rims, large kettles of
cast irons & bell shapes.
Sweep Pattern
Skeleton pattern
 Pattern is the Skeleton of desired shape, generally mounted on the metal
base.
 Skeleton is made from wooden strips and is filled with loam sand and
rammed. Extra sand is removed by stickle.
 Cores are required if necessary.
 Applicable for large castings and is very economical as less material
costs.
APPLICATION:
Large castings such as turbines, water pipes, L-bends etc.
Segmental pattern
• It is used for preparing circular castings.
• In this type it does not revolve continuously like sweep pattern, instead
prepares the mould by parts.
• It completes one portion of the mold and then moves to next position to
make the next part of the mold and so on till the mold is completed.
APPLICATIONS:
Used for circular work like rings, gears, wheels, rims, pulleys etc.
 Types of Pattern
Skeleton Pattern Segmental Pattern
 Follow board pattern
• It is a wooden board used to support during moulding.
• Acts like a base seat for pattern.
• Follow board are used for those patterns which has odd shapes.
• It supports weak pattern and also acts like natural parting line.
APPLICATION:
It is used for casting master patterns for many appliacations.
REMOVABLE AND DISPOSABLE PATTERN
A removable pattern can be used for producing multiple identical
moulds.
For disposable patterns, the pattern is left in the mould instead of
being removed from sand.
The pattern material vaporizes when the molten metal is poured
cavity thus created is filled with molten metal. The method is also
known as full mould process or cavity less method.
Sand Polystyrene Pattern Hot metal
Sand

(a) Disposable pattern (b) Hot metal replacing

in sand mould disposable pattern
PATTERN ALLOWANCES
 Patterns are not made the exact same size as the desired
casting because it carries certain allowances due to
metallurgical and mechanical reasons.
 Allowance are the extra dimensional compensation give to
the pattern in order to attain the correct shape and size of the
final solidified metal casting.
Types of Allowances
• Shrinkage Allowance
• Machining Allowance
• Draft or Taper Allowance
• Distortion Allowance
• Rapping or Shake Allowance
 SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
 Provided to compensate for shrinkage of metal during solid contraction.
 Pattern is made slightly bigger.
 Amount of allowance depends upon type of the material used, its
composition, pouring temperature etc.
Note: The contraction of the metals is always volumetric, but the shrinkage
allowances are always expressed as linear measures.

SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE FOR DIFFERENT METALS

Metal Allowance mm/m
Cast Iron (Grey) 10.5
Steel 21.0
Brass 16.0
Aluminum 16.0
Zinc 24.0
Lead 24.0
Tin 7.00
Silver 10.0
Machining Allowance
 Provided to compensate for machining on casting.
 Pattern is made slightly bigger in size.
 Amount of allowance depends on -
 size and shape of casting,
 type of material,
 machining process to be used
 degree of accuracy and surface finish required.

Draft or Taper Allowance

– It is given on all the vertical surfaces to facilitate easy withdrawal
of the pattern.
– The factors influencing this allowance are the design of the pattern,
its vertical height and the method of molding.
– It can be expressed either in degrees or in terms of linear measures.
– Typically it ranges from 1 degree to 3 degree for wooden patterns.
 Pattern Allowances
• Machining Allowances
 Draft or Taper Allowance

(a) Pattern with zero (no) draft (b) Pattern with draft

(Not to scale)
Draft allowances
Distortion Allowance
• Casting which has an irregular shape and some such design that the
contraction is not uniform throughout will distort during cooling.
• To eliminate this defect an opposite distortion is provided in the
pattern so that the effect is neutralized and the correct casting is
obtained.
• This can be done in trial and error basis to get the distortion
amount.

Rapping or Shake Allowance

• When a pattern is to be withdrawn from the mould, it is first rapped
or shaken, by striking over it from side to side, so that its surface
may be free of the adjoining sand wall of the mould.
• As a result of this the size of the mould cavity increases a little and a
negative allowance is to be provided in the pattern to compensate it.
• It is negligible in small and medium sized castings.
 Distortion Allowance

(a) (b) (c)

Required shape of Casting produced when no Pattern with distortion
casting distortion allowance is provided allowance
 Pattern Allowances
• Distortion Allowances
 GATING SYSTEM
• It refers to all the passages through which the molten metal passes to
enter mould cavity. i.e. It includes, Pouring basin, Sprue, Riser, Runner

Pouring Cup
Riser

Sprue
Casting

Sprue base
Runner Gate
Requirements of a gating system
An ideal gating system is expected to meet the following requirements:
1. The velocity of molten metal entering into the mould cavity should be as
low as possible, so that there is no erosion of mould.
2. Gating system should ensure the complete filling of the mould cavity.
3. Gating system should prevent the molten metal from absorbing air or the
other gases while flowing through it.
4. Gating system should assist in directional solidification of the casting.
5. Gating system design should be practicable and economical.

Elements of a gating system

The various elements of a gating system are:
(i)pouring basin
(ii)sprue
(iii)sprue base
(iv) Runner
(v)Runner extension
(vi) Riser
 SPRUE

Metal pouring cup

Liquid metal

Metal pulling
down
Low pressure Sprue
Corners zone
Gate Gate

(a) Straight sprue (b) Tapered sprue

POURING CUP OR POURING BASIN
 The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity because it
may cause mould erosion.
 So, Pouring basin acts as a reservoir from which liquid metal moves
smoothly into the sprue.

SPRUE
• Sprue helps in feeding metal to the runner, which in turn reaches the
cavity through gates.
• The sprue may have either straight or taper shape.
• In straight sprue, metal contracts inwards and is pulled away from sprue
walls. This causes aspiration of gases and air from mould.
• In a tapered sprue, the liquid metal flows down firmly in contact with walls
and this reduces turbulence and eliminates aspiration.
• Sprues are conical in shape because the molten metal when moving
from top of the cope to the parting plane gains in velocity, so require a
smaller area of cross section for the same amount of metal to flow at the
bottom.

SPRUE BASE
• This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce
momentum of the molten metal.
RUNNER
• It is used to take molten metal from the sprue base and distribute it to the
several gate passageways around the cavity. It is located in horizontal
direction.
• In case of a single gate, the runner may not be required.

RISER
• A riser is a passage of the sand in the cope to permit molten metal to rise
above the highest point in casting after mould cavity is filled up.
• It provides many advantages as follows:
1. At start it allows the air, steam and gases to go out of the mould.
2. It ensures that the mould cavity is completely filled.
3. Acts as a reservoir to feed the molten metal to the casting to compensate
during solidification.
Two types of Riser: Open riser, Blind Riser.
GATES
• The gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould
cavity and through which molten metal flows to fill the mould
cavity.
• Depending on the casting size and gating design, various
types of gates are used in the moulds.
• They are classified as Top gate, Bottom gate and Parting
gate.
TOP GATE
• In this case, the molten metal flows down directly into the
mould cavity.
• The hottest metal comes to rest at the top of the casting. As a
result, directional solidification occurs.
• The disadvantage of the top gating system is the erosion of
the mould by the falling metal.
• Requires less time to fill cavity.
 GATES
Pouring cup Strainer core

Cope
Mould Cope
Cavity Mould
Drag Drag Cavity
Mould Cope
cavity
Drag
(a) Top gate (b) Bottom gate (c) Parting gate
BOTTOM GATE
• In this case, the molten metal flows down to the bottom of the
mould cavity in the drag.
• The main advantage is that the turbulence of the metal is kept at a
minimum while pouring and mould erosion is prevented.
• It is used for heavy castings.
• The metal loose its heat as it rises in the mould cavity. So the
directional solidification is difficult to achieve.
• Takes more time to fill cavity.

PARTING GATE/ Side gate:

• In this type of gate, the metal enters the mould cavity at the
parting plane.
• It is very simple to construct and very fast to make.
• It produces very satisfactory result when the drag is not deep.
• This is most widely used gate in sand casting.
Step gate
Ring Gate
 Directional Solidification
Stages of Contraction:
The contraction of metal or volumetric shrinkage takes place in three
stages: liquid, solidification and solid contraction.
Liquid Contraction:
It occurs when the molten metal cools down from the pouring
temperature to the temperature at which solidification starts.
Solidification Contraction:
It is that shrinkage which occurs when the change of state of metal
takes place from liquid to solid.
Solid Contraction:
It is that shrinkage which occurs when the temperature falls from the
end of the solidification to the room temperature.
MOULD : A mould is a void or cavity created in a compact sand mass with the
help of pattern which (mould), when filled with molten metal will produce a
casting. It may be permanent mould and temporary mould.
The process of making this cavity or mould in the compact centre is called
moulding.
MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF MOULDING SAND
The principal constituent of moulding sand are
Silica sand (80-90%)
Binder (5 to20%)
Additive (<2%)
Water (3 to 8 %)
(i) Silica sand: Silica sand is the major portion of moulding sand. Silica sand
contains from 80 to 90% silicon dioxide and characterized by a high
softening temperature and thermal stability. The silica sand is found in
nature on the bottoms and bank of rivers, lakes and large bodies of water.
Silica sand grains imparts refractoriness chemical resistivity and
permeability to the sand.
 (ii) Binders : The purpose of adding a binder to the moulding sand is to give
the sufficient strength and cohesiveness. The common binders used in
foundry can be grouped as organic binders, and inorganic binders.
Organic binders are Dextrin, Linseed oil, Molasses, Pitch, Cereal binders and
resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde.
Inorganic binders are clay, sodium silicate and Portland cement. Clay binders
are commonly used. Clay: Clay is defined as those particles of sand under
(20 micron in diameter) which failed to settle at a rate of 25 mm per minute
when suspended in water.
Types of clay commonly used are Bentonite, Kaolinite or fire clay, Limonite.
Too much clay unnecessary fill the gap between grains and this decrease
permeability.
(iii) Water : The clay content added to foundry sand will not give the required
strength and bond until a suitable quantity of water is added to it, quantity
of water varies from 2 to 8%. The amount of water should we properly
controlled.
 (Iv) ADDITIVES : Additives are those metals which are added to the moulding
sand to improve its existing properties, commonly used additives are-
 Silica flour: It is pulverised silica. It improves hold strength, surface finish,
resists metal penetration, minimise sand expansion defects, it may be
added up to 35%.
 Graphite. It may be natural or synthetic graphite. It improves surface finish
and moldability of foundry sand mixtures. It may be added from 0.2 to 2%.
 Wood Flour : They minimise sand expansion defect, improve flowability
and collapsibility. it may be added from 0.5 to 2%.
 Corn flour: it improves collapsibility, increased green and dry strength of
the moulding sand and minimise the sand explanation defect. It lowers the
flowability and permeability. It may be added from 0.25 to 2%.
 Dextrin and Molasses: It increase the dry strength of sand and resist the
mould tendency to dry out.
 Sea coal: (1% to 10%): It is added to moulding sand for casting of cast
iron to improve the stripping and surface appearance of cast iron. It is
finelly powered bituminous coal.
CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDING SAND: The moulding sand may be
classified generally into the three types, Natural sand, synthetic sand and
special sand.
Natural sand or green sand: The sands are taken from river beds and are dug
from pits and purely natural. They possess an appreciable amount of clay,
which act as a binder and moisture. Natural moulding sand are also
obtained by crushing and milling soft yellow sand stones. Due to the low
cost and easy availability these are used for most of the ferrous and non
ferrous castings.
Synthetics sand: it is an artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively clay free
sand, binder and other materials as required. It is better moulding sand
because its properties can be easily controlled by varying the mixture
content.
Special sand: It contains the mixture of inorganic compounds, cost of these
sands are more, but they offer high temperature stability, better cast
surface etc. The moulding sand according to their use are classified as :
Green sand: the sand in its natural or more state is called Green sand. it is a
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30% clay and the amount of water from 6
to 8% . it is used for simple small and medium sized casting.
 Dry sand: the greens sand mould which when baked or dried before pouring the
molten metal are called a dry sand mould. The sand in this condition is called dry
sand. It has more strength, rigidity and thermal stability as compared to green sand
mould and used for large and heavy castings.
Loam sand : loam sand contains more than 50 % clay as compared to other moulding
sand. Sweep or skeleton pattern may be used for loam sand and used for large
grey iron castings.
Facing sand: facing sand is used directly next to the surface of the pattern and comes
in contact with the molten metal when the mould is poured. It is fresh sand and
without the addition of used sand.
Backing sand : It is the sand which backs up the facing sand. It is the floor sand which
is repeatedly used. Backing sand has black colour due to the addition of cold dust
and burning on coming in contact with molten metal.
System sand: system sand is one which is used in mechanical sand preparation and
handling system.
In mechanised foundation no facing sand is used, rather the complete used sand is
clean and reactivated by the additional water, binder and special additives.
Parting sand: the sand is clay free sand and consists of dried silica sand, sea sand or
burned sand. It is used to keep the green sand mould from sticking to the pattern
also to separate cope and drag.
Core sand: the sand which is used for preparation of the cores. It is a silica sand
mixed with linseed oil or any other oil binder.
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
• Cohesiveness or Strength
• Chemical resistivity
• Permeability (gas holes and pores)
• Flowability
• Adhesiveness (should cling or stick to sides of box)
• Refractoriness (withstand high temp.)
• Collapsibility

Flowability
• Flowablity of moulding sand refers to its ability to behave like fluid to
flow to different corners and intricate details on pattern without much
special efforts when it is rammed.
• It is more significant in the machine moulding.
Adhesiveness
• The sand particles adhere to the mould box surfaces by the property
called adhesiveness.
• This property helps the sand to retain the mould cavity and stay in
the box.
 COHESIVENESS OR STRENGTH
• It is the property of sand particles to stick together firmly so that the
pattern is withdrawn from the mould without damaging the mould
surfaces and edges.
• Moisture and clay content determine the strength of the moulding sand.

CHEMICAL RESISTIVITY
• The sand used for moulding should be inert and should not react
chemically with the metal/alloy being poured into it.
• Special care has to be taken for removing reactive metals like
magnesium and titanium alloy while preparing moulding sand for
casting.

COLLAPSIBILITY
• Property due to which the sand mould easily collapses after solidification
of the casting to allow a free contraction of the metal.
• Absence of this property, the contraction of the metal will be hindered by
the mould and results in tears and cracks in the casting.
REFRACTORINESS
• Property of the moulding sand which enables it to withstand high
temperature of the molten metal without fusing,
• Depends upon the metal which is to be cast.
• If the sand lacks this property, it will fuse on while coming into contact
with the molten metal,

PERMEABILITY/ POROSITY
• Property of the sand which allows gases and steam to escape through
the sand mould.
• Large amount gases and steam is formed due to heating of moisture,
additives and other materials.
• Gases must escape out, otherwise this will result unsound casting or
blast the mould.
• It largely depends on the sand grain size, shape, moisture content
and clay content.
• A soft ramming will increase permeability
and hard ramming will decrease permeability
Tools used in Moulding Process

 Shovel: It is used for mixing moulding sand and filling moulding sand.
 Riddle: It is used for removing foreign materials from the moulding
sand.
 Rammer: This is used for packing or ramming the sand into the mould.
 Trowel: It is used for smoothening the surfaces of the mould.
• Sprue Pin: conical wooden pin used for making an opening to pour
molten material into the cavity.
• Vent Rod: Used for making small holes to permit gases to escape
when the molten material is poured.
• Draw Spike: Used for drawing pattern from the sand.
• Moulding Boxes (Flasks): Rigid frames made of iron or wood to hold
sand.They are usually made of two parts. The top flask is called cope
and bottom flask is called drag.
 Tools used in Moulding Process

( b ) R id d le (d ) T ro w e l
( e ) S p r u e p in

(a) S h o v el

( g ) D ra w s p ik e s
(c) H an d ram m ers ( f ) V e n t ro d
CORE
A core may be defined as a body of sand which is used to form the
hollow interior of the casting or a hole through the casting.

An obstruction placed and positioned in the mould.

Placed in the mould in specially created cavities called core print.

Made from sand, metal or ceramics.

Get holes or internal cavities.

C ore
C avity
R equired casting
G ating
system

P attern

S and

C ore box Sand m ould in tw o-piece flask

CORE PROPERTIES
• Strong to retain the shape while handling.
• Resist erosion by molten metal.
• Permeable to gases.
• High refractoriness.
• Good surface finish to replicate it on to the casting.

STEPS IN CORE MAKING

• Cores are made of clay free silica sand which is thoroughly mixed with
suitable binders, water and other ingredients to produce a core mix.
• The core mix is packed into a core box that contains a cavity of desired
shape.
• Core making has following operations:
Core sand preparation.
Core making
Core baking.
 CORE SAND PREPARATION
The core sand with additives is mixed homogenously to obtain uniform
strength.
Sand and Binder
Silica, zircon, olivine, carbon.
Not have more than 5% of clay.
CORE MAKING
The core sand is filled in the core box and rammed. Then it is removed
from the core box. Cores can be made manually or using machines. Core
box is essential for production of cores.
CORE BAKING
Carried out to remove moisture and to impart strength to the core.
Under-baked cores release gases and may cause many defects.
Over-baked cores may collapse too early and may break before
solidification of the metal.
TYPES OF CORES
• Horizontal Core: It is placed horizontally at the parting line of the
mould such that one half remains in the cope and other half in the
drag.
• Vertical Core: This is placed in vertical position both in cope and drag
halves. It rests on the seat made at the bottom of the mould by the
core print and similarly in the cope.
• Balanced Core: is supported and balanced from its one end only. It is
used when casting does not need a through hole or cavity.
• Hanging Core: core hangs from the cope and does not have any
support at the bottom of the drag.
• Wing Core or Drop core or stop off core : used when a hole or
cavity required in a casting is not in line with the parting surfaces, it is
above or below the parting line in the casting.
ADVANTAGES OF CASTING
• No restriction on type of metal or alloy.
• No restriction on size of the component that can be casted.
• Economically suitable for batch and mass production.
DISADVANTAGES OF CASTING
• High energy consuming process, Highly labor intensive.
• Raw material requirement is quite high.
– For producing 1 ton of steel casting about 2.2 tons of metal, 0.3 tons
of facing sand and 4 tons of baking sand are needed apart from many
other materials.
• More time is involved, High environmental pollution.
SELECTION OF CASTING PROCESS
• Quantity to be produced.
• Requirement of the product in terms of surface finish, accuracy,
complexity etc.
• Physical properties of the material.
• Process capability to meet the requirement of point 2 and 3.
• Initial investment required and operational costs.
• Other factors such as environmental pollution, availability of skilled
operator (if required), possibility of automation.
 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS
1. Investment Casting
2. Permanent mold casting
3. Die casting
4. Centrifugal casting

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

• First used 4000 – 3000 BC
• It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of high accuracy and intricate
details.
• A pattern made of wax or a plastic such as polystyrene, is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten
metal
• The pattern is made by injecting molten wax into a metal die in the shape of the
object.
• Term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is invested with the refractory
material
• Need careful handling because they are not strong enough to withstand the forces
involved in mold making
• Wax can be recovered and reused
Steps
1. wax patterns are produced
2. several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
Steps :
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to
make it rigid
Steps:
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to
drip out of the cavity
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that all contaminants are
eliminated from the mold; it also permits the liquid metal to flow more easily into the
detailed cavity; the molten metal is poured; it solidifies.
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting - parts are separated from the sprue.
• Advantages of Investment casting process:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape
process
– No parting line
• Disadvantages:
– Many processing steps are required
– Costly process – Equipment, Patterns, Process components very
important, Additional quality checks required
– Casting size is limited, use for less than 0.5 kg
– Slow process
Applications
– Milling machine cutters and tools
– Jet aircraft nozzles
– Jewellary
 Permanent Mold / Gravity die casting

• Uses a mould which is permanent i.e. mould can be reused many times
before it is rebuilt.
• Mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and
closing. Two halves of a mold are made from materials such as iron, steel,
bronze, or other alloys
• Molten metal poured under gravity action.
• Mould made up of dense, fine grained and heat resistant metals.
• Also called hard-mold casting

• The mold cavity and gating system are machined in to the mold
• Mold cavity surfaces are coated with refractory slurry to increase the life of
the mold every few castings
• Mechanical ejectors are used to remove complex parts
• Can produce high production rates
• Good surface finish
(1) mold is preheated and coated
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold
• Advantages of Permanent Mold Casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– High production rate, so use in mass production.
– mold results in a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced
– Consistent quality, Metal fill can be controlled, Suitable for fairly complex
castings
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Complicated shapes can’t be produced.
– High cost of mold
– Not suitable for all metals.
– High cost of tooling, Limited casting size

Applications :
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and
can be automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for
aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast
iron
 Die Casting / Pressure die casting

• Molten metal is forced into a permanent metal mold or die under certain
pressure, ranging from 0.7MPa – 700MPa
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is
removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting
STEPS
• Closing of two halves of die.
• Forcing the molten metal under pressure into die.
• Holding the two halves together during pouring and solidification.
• Opening the two halves and ejecting the casting.
Die Casting Machines
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die
• Machine is operated by a hydraulic plunger.
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Steps: (i) die is closed, gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal
• (ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck into cavity
• (iii) metal is held under pressure until it solidifies
• (iv) die opens, cores retracted; plunger returns
• (v) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die

Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine:

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container, and a piston injects
metal under high pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantageous for high melting-point alloys
Steps: (i) die closed, molten metal is ladled into cylinder
• (ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity
• (iii) metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies
• (iv) die opens, plunger pushes solidified slug from the cylinder
• (v) cores retracted, ejector pins push casting off ejector die
Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
(2) (2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification
Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling & solidification
• Advantages of Die Casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
– Every metal and alloy can not be cast.
– Equipments are costly
Applications:
Cookers, stoves, fans, washing, motors, toys, hand-tools, car wheels.
• Other Parts made from here are:
– Hand tools
– Toys
– Appliance components
 Centrifugal Casting

A group of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed so centrifugal
force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die cavity.
Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process.

Three types:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuging casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part, mold is
rotated about its axis at 300 ~ 3000 rpm
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Rotational axes can be either horizontal or vertical
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but
inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric
forces

• Casting is spun on its own axis

• No risers are required
• No center core is needed

Surface finish: better along outer diameter than inner,

- Impurities, inclusions, closer to the inner diameter (why ?)
Setup for true centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts.
• Process is used for symmetrically shaped objects and the axis of rotation of
the mold is always vertical.
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of
rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys, gear blanks , Wheels with spokes can be
cast by this process.
Semicentrifuging
Casting
Centrifuge Casting
 Use centrifugal acceleration to force metal from a central
pouring sprue into separate mold cavities that are offset
from the axis of rotation.
 The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine,
and the molten metal is forced into the molds by
centrifugal force.
 Axis of rotation of mold and casting are different
 Relatively low rotational speed
 Produce casting with thin walls and intricate shapes
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods
 Mold impressions are grouped around a central down-gate.
Centrifuging Casting
 CASTING DEFECTS
Misrun : A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity, unfilled
region exists.
Causes: when the dimensions of a casting is very less or the metal temperature is
too cold, so that the entire section is not filled before the metal solidifies.
– insufficient fluidity of melt
– low pouring temperature
– slow pouring
– cross-section too thin
Cold Shut :
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to premature
freezing at fusion point. Similar reason as misrun.
Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped in casting.
• Redesign of pouring procedure or gating system is needed.
Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts
amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze.
• Solved by proper riser design.
Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring
Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of
casting
Penetration - penetration of molten metal into the sand.
• When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold or sand core, causing
casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal
• Harder packing of sand is needed.
Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
Blow Holes:
• Appears as small round voids opened to the casting surface.
• Caused by hard ramming and low permeability sands.
.
INCLUSIONS : Foreign material present within the metal of a casting. An inclusion may
be oxides, slag, etc
 SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage cavity is a void on the surface of the casting
caused mainly by uncontrolled and haphazard solidification
of the metal.

Causes:
-inadequate and improper gating
-poor design of casting involving abrupt changes in
thickness
-too high pouring temperature
Remedies:
-Use the suitable composition that is adjusted silicon and
(1.80 to 2.10) or carbon equivalent (3.9 to 4.1) .Carry out
proper ramming and maintain optimum pouring temperature
and time
 Cold Shut
When two streams of molten metal approach each other in
the mould cavity from opposite directions but fail to fuse
properly, with the result of discontinuity between them, it is
called a cold shut.
Causes:
-low temperature of molten metal
-improper gating system
-too thin casting sections
-slow and intermitted pouring
-improper alloy composition
-use of damaged pattern

Remedies:
- Smooth pouring with the help of monorail.
- Properly transport mould during pouring.
- Arrange proper clamping arrangement.
-providing appropriate pouring temperature.
 Mismatch
It is a shift /misalignment between two mating surfaces or
the top and bottom parts of the casting at the mould joint.

Causes:
-worn dowel in patterns made in halves.
-improper alignment of mould boxes due to worn out/ill
fitting mould boxes.
Remedies:
- Properly arrange box warpage.
- Properly move boxes with pins.
- Properly clamp the boxes.
 Blow Holes
Balloon-shaped gas cavities caused by release of mould
gases during pouring are known as blow holes.

Causes:
-ramming is too hard.
-permeability is insufficient.
-venting is insufficient.
Remedies:
-moisture content of moulding sand should be controlled
-sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
-ramming should not be too hard.
-moulds should be adequately vented.
 Pin Holes
Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just
below the casting surface.

Causes:
-sand with high moisture content.
-absorption of hydrogen/carbon monoxide gas in the metal.
-alloy not being properly degassed.
-steel is poured from wet ladles.
-sand containing gas producing ingredients.
Remedies:
-reducing the moisture content of moulding sand.
-increasing its permeability.
-employing good melting and fluxing practices.
-improving a rapid rate of solidification
 Fin
Fins are excessive amounts of metal created by
solidification into the parting line of the mold

Causes:
-inadequately weighted sand as well as incorrectly
assembled moulds and cores.
-over flexible bottom boards.
-loose plates and improper clamping of flasks.
Remedies:
-correct assembly of the mouldand cores used for casting.
 Drop
Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cop surface
caused by dropping of sand.

Causes:
-low green strength of the moulding sand.
-low mould hardness.
-insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.
Remedies:
-moulding sand should have sufficient green strength.
-ramming should not be too soft.
 Swell
Swells are excessive amounts of metal in the vicinity of
gates or beneath the sprue

Causes:
-insufficient or soft ramming.
-low mould strength.
-mould not being adequately supported.
Remedies:
-sand should be rammed evenly and properly.
 Metal Penetration
Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows
between the sand particles in the mould. These defects are
due to inadequate strength of the mold and high
temperature of the molten metal adds on it.

Causes:
-low strength of moulding sand.
-large size of moulding sand.
-high permeability of sand.
-soft ramming.

Remedies:
-use of fine grain with low permeability.
-appropriate ramming.
 Hot Tears
A hot tear is a fracture formed during solidification because
of hindered contraction.

Causes:
-too much shrinkage of molten metal.
-incorrect pouring temperature.
-high sulphur content in molten metal.
Remedies:
-ramming should not be too hard.
-modification in pattern to take care of residual stresses.
 Porosity
Porosity is pockets of gas inside the metal caused by micro-
shrinkage during solidification.

Causes:
-dissolved hydrogen and sulphur dioxide in molten metal.
-excessive poring temperature.
-slow rate of solidification.
-high moisture content of the mould.
Remedies:
-maintenance of proper melting temperature.
-casting should be made to solidify quickly by using proper
gating and risering.
-permeability of the mould should be increased.
-moisture content of mould should be kept low.
 Scabs
Scabs are surface slivers caused by splashing and rapid
solidification of the metal when it is first poured and strikes
the mold wall

Causes:
-insufficient strength of mould and core.
-uneven mould ramming.
-lack of binding material in facing as well as core sand.
-Faulty gating.
-intense local heating due to slow running of molten metal
over sand surface.
Remedies:
-appropriate ramming.
-improved gating system.
-addition of sufficient binders in facing and core sands.
 Hard Spots
These spots are formed due to the local chilling by
moulding sand which leads to the formation of white cast
iron at those places, rendering them hard.

Causes:
--faulty metal composition.
-faulty casting design resulting in relatively more rapid
cooling of certain spots.
Remedies:
-modification of casting design.
-modification of casting composition.
Buckles/Rat Tails
Rat tail or a buckle is a long, shallow, angular
depression caused by expansion of the sand.

Causes:
-excessive mould hardness.
-lack of combustible additives in the moulding sand.
-continuous large surfaces on the casting.

Remedies:
-suitable addition of combustible additives to moulding
sand.
-reduction in mould hardness.
-modifications in casting design.
 Misrun
When the molten metal fails to fill the entire mould cavity
before the metal starts solidifying , resulting in an
incomplete casting, the defect is known as misrun.

Causes:
-low temperature of molten metal
-improper gating system
-slow and intermitted pouring
-improper alloy composition
Remedies:
_ Smooth pouring with the help of monorail.
_ Properly transport mould during pouring.
_ Arrange proper clamping arrangement.
-providing appropriate pouring temperature.
 CUPOLA FURNACE
 For many years, the cupola was the primary method of melting used in iron foundries.
The cupola furnace has several unique characteristics which are responsible for its
widespread use as a melting unit for cast iron.

 Cupola furnace is employed for melting scrap metal or pig iron for production of
various cast irons. It is also used for production of nodular and malleable cast iron. It
is available in good varying sizes. The main considerations in selection of cupolas are
melting capacity, diameter of shell without lining or with lining, spark arrester.

Shape
A typical cupola melting furnace consists of a water-cooled vertical cylinder which is lined
with refractory material.

Construction
 The construction of a conventional cupola consists of a vertical steel shell which is
lined with a refractory brick.
 The charge is introduced into the furnace body by means of an opening approximately
half way up the vertical shaft.
 The charge consists of alternate layers of the metal to be melted, coke fuel and
limestone flux.
 The fuel is burnt in air which is introduced through tuyeres positioned above the
hearth. The hot gases generated in the lower part of the shaft ascend and preheat the
descending charge.
 Various Zones of Cupola Furnace
Various numbers of chemical reactions take place in different zones of cupola. The
construction and different zones of cupola are :

1. Well
The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed inside the cylindrical shell of
the cupola is called as well of the cupola. As the melting occurs, the molten metal is get
collected in this portion before tapping out.

2. Combustion zone
The combustion zone of Cupola is also called as oxidizing zone. It is located between the
upper of the tuyeres and a theoretical level above it. The total height of this zone is normally
from 15 cm. to 30 cm. The combustion actually takes place in this zone by consuming the
free oxygen completely from the air blast and generating tremendous heat. The heat
generated in this zone is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other zones of cupola.
The heat is further evolved also due to oxidation of silicon and manganese. A temperature of
about 1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this zone. Few exothermic reactions takes place in
this zone these are represented as:
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 → SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO + Heat

3. Reducing zone
Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective zone which is located between the
upper level of the combustion zone and the upper level of the coke bed. In this zone, CO2 is
changed to CO through an endothermic reaction, as a result of which the temperature falls
from combustion zone temperature to about 1200°C at the top of this zone. The important
chemical reaction takes place in this zone which is given as under.

CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO + Heat

Nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction occurring in his zone as it is also the
other main constituent of the upward moving hot gases. Because of the reducing atmosphere
in this zone, the charge is protected against oxidation.

4. Melting zone
The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of coke bed is termed as melting zone
of Cupola. The metal charge starts melting in this zone and trickles down through coke bed
and gets collected in the well. Sufficient carbon content picked by the molten metal in this
zone is represented by the chemical reaction given as under.
3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2

5. Preheating zone
Preheating zone starts from the upper end of the melting zone and continues up to the bottom
level of the charging door. This zone contains a number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux
and metal charge. The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room
temperature to about 1090°C before entering the metal charge to the melting zone. The
preheating takes place in this zone due to the upward movement of hot gases. During the
preheating process, the metal charge in solid form picks up some sulphur content in this
zone.

6. Stack
The empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone is called as stack. It provides the
passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the cupola furnace.

Charging of Cupola Furnace

 Before the blower is started, the furnace is uniformly pre-heated and the metal and
coke charges, lying in alternate layers, are sufficiently heated up.
 The cover plates are positioned suitably and the blower is started.
 The height of coke charge in the cupola in each layer varies generally from 10 to 15
cms. The requirement of flux to the metal charge depends upon the quality of the
charged metal and scarp, the composition of the coke and the amount of ash content
present in the coke.

Working of Cupola Furnace

 The charge, consisting of metal, alloying

ingredients, limestone, and coal coke for fuel
and carbonization (8-16% of the metal
charge), is fed in alternating layers through an
opening in the cylinder.

 Air enters the bottom through tuyeres

extending a short distance into the interior of
the cylinder. The air inflow often contains
enhanced oxygen levels.

 Coke is consumed. The hot exhaust gases rise

up through the charge, preheating it. This
increases the energy efficiency of the furnace.
The charge drops and is melted.

 Although air is fed into the furnace, the

environment is a reducing one. Burning of
coke under reducing conditions raises the
carbon content of the metal charge to the
casting specifications.

 As the material is consumed, additional charges can be added to the furnace.

 A continuous flow of iron emerges from the bottom of the furnace.

  Depending on the size of the furnace, the flow rate can be as high as 100 tones per
hour. At the metal melts it is refined to some extent, which removes contaminants.
This makes this process more suitable than electric furnaces for dirty charges.

 A hole higher than the tap allows slag to be drawn off.

 The exhaust gases emerge from the top of the cupola. Emission control technology is
used to treat the emissions to meet environmental standards.

 Hinged doors at the bottom allow the furnace to be emptied when not in use.

Type of Molten Metal

 Cupola is employed for melting scrap metals or (over 90 %) of the pig iron used in the
production of iron castings.
 Gray Cast iron, nodular cast iron, some malleable iron castings and some copper base
alloys can be produced by Cupola Furnace.

Heat Energy Source

 The cupola is a tubular furnace which produces cast iron by melting scrap and alloys
using the energy generated from the oxidation (combustion) of coke, a coal derivative.

Advantages
 It is simple and economical to operate.
 A cupola is capable of accepting a wide range of materials without reducing melt
quality. Dirty, oily scrap can be melted as well as a wide range of steel and iron. They
therefore play an important role in the metal recycling industry
 Cupolas can refine the metal charge, removing impurities out of the slag.
 From a life-cycle perspective, cupolas are more efficient and less harmful to the
environment than electric furnaces. This is because they derive energy directly from
coke rather than from electricity that first has to be generated.
 The continuous rather than batch process suits the demands of a repetition foundry.
 Cupolas can be used to reuse foundry by-products and to destroy other pollutants such
as VOC from the core-making area.
 High melt rates
 Ease of operation
 Adequate temperature control
 Chemical composition control
 Efficiency of cupola varies from 30 to 50%.
 Less floor space requirements comparing with those furnaces with same capacity.

Limitations
 Since molten iron and coke are in contact with each other, certain elements like si, Mn
are lost and others like sulphur are picked up. This changes the final analysis of
molten metal.
 Close temperature control is difficult to maintain
Cupola furnace