Topic 10- Electricity - Electrons Page | 1

Electrons
Charge & Electrons

• Electrons are negatively charged particles.

• Usually the number of electrons around an atom is equal to the number of (positive) protons in
the nucleus of the atom, and hence the atom is neutral.

The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive protons

• If, however, an object gains extra electrons, it will gain an overall negative charge.
• If it loses some of its electrons it will be left with a positive charge.
o Negative charges are the result of gaining electrons.
o Positive charges are the result of losing electrons.

Conductors & Insulators

• A conductor is a material that allows charge to flow through it

• An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of charge through it.
• The table below lists some common conductors and insulators:

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Topic 10- Electricity - Electric Fields Page | 2

Electrons & Conduction

• The properties of conductors and insulators come from electrons within a material:
o In conductors the electrons are free to move around, allowing a flow of charge.
o In insulators the electrons are bonded to atoms and cannot move around.

Diagram showing the structure of metals. The delocalised electrons are free to move around the metal
allowing it to conduct electricity

Electric Fields
Simple Field Patterns
• Electric charges create electric fields in the regions surrounding them
(Similar to the way in which magnets create magnetic fields).
• The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force.
• Fields lines always go away from positive charges and towards negative charges.
They have the same direction as the direction of the force on a positively charged particle at a
point in that field.
Some simple field patterns that you ought to know:

Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges

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Topic 10- Electricity - Electric Charge Page | 3

The electric field between two parallel plates

The electric field between two opposite
charges

Electric Charge
Positive & Negative Charges

• Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:

o Positive
o Negative
• When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those
objects.

Like charges repel; opposite charges attract

Measuring Charge
• Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C).
Demonstrating Electric Charge

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Topic 10- Electricity - Charging by Induction Page | 4

Charging by Induction
• When a charged object is held close to a conductor, electrons in the conductor are able to move
towards (or away from) the charged object:

Negative electrons in the aluminium are attracted to the positive rod

• In the diagram above, electrons in the aluminium foil are attracted to the positively charged rod.
• This causes the top of the foil to become negatively charged, whilst the bottom edge of it will be
left with a positive charge.
• The attraction between the positive rod and the negative charges on the top surface of the foil
will cause the foil to be attracted to the rod.

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Topic 10- Electricity - Page | 5

Uses of static charge

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Topic 10- Electricity - Current Page | 6

Current
Electric Current

• When two oppositely charged conductors are connected together (by a length of wire), charge
will flow between the two conductors.

Charge can flow between two conductors

• This flow of charge is called an electric current.

o The greater the flow of charge, the greater the electric current.

Charge, Current & Time

• The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every second.

(It is helpful to think of current as the charge per second).
• Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:

Charge = Current × time

Q = I × t
Where Q stands for charge (measured in coulombs, C) and I stands for current (measured in amps, A)

• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

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Topic 10- Electricity - Current Page | 7

Measuring Current

• Current is measured using an ammeter.

• Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure
the current through.

An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit

Current & Electrons

• In a metal, current is caused by a flow of electrons.

In metals, the current is caused by a flow of free (delocalised) electrons

Electrons & Conventional Current

• Electrons are negatively charged.
• This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive.
• Conventional current, however, is still defined as going from positive to negative.

By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even though electrons go the
other way)

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Topic 10- Electricity - Electromotive Force Page | 8

Electromotive Force
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is the name given to the Potential Difference (Voltage) of the
power source in a circuit.
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is measured in Volts (V).

The EMF is the voltage supplied by a power supply: 12 V in the above case

EMF & Energy

• The EMF of a power supply (measured in volts, V) is the amount of energy (measured in joules, J)
supplied to each coulomb of charge passing through that power supply.

Potential Difference
What is Electromotive Force?

• As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or from the charge.

• The potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is related to the amount of
energy transferred between those points in the circuit.
• Potential different is measured in volts (V).

The potential difference is the voltage across each component: 5 volts for the bulb (on the left) and 7
volts for the resistor (on the right)

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Topic 10- Electricity - Potential Difference & Energy Page | 9

Potential Difference & Energy

• The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy transferred by
each unit of charge passing between those two points.
• The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C).

1 V = 1 J/C

• So, for example:

o If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3
J of energy.

Measuring Potential Difference

• Potential difference can be measured using a voltmeter.

• The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the part of the circuits you want to measure
the potential difference of.

Potential difference can be measured by connecting a voltmeter between two points in a circuit

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Topic 10- Electricity - Resistance Page | 10

Resistance
What is Resistance?

• Resistance is the opposition to current.

o For a given potential difference:
The higher the resistance, the lower the current.
• Potential difference, current and resistance are related by the following equation:

potential difference = current × resistance

V = I × R

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

• The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Determining Resistance

• To find the resistance of a component, set up a circuit like the one shown below.

A circuit to determine the resistance of a component

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Topic 10- Electricity - The Resistance of a Wire Page | 11

• The power supply should be set to a low EMF (voltage) to avoid heating the component – 1 or 2
volts is typically enough.
• Measurements of the potential difference and current should then be taken from the voltmeter
and ammeter respectively.
• Finally, these readings should be substituted into the following equation:

The Resistance of a Wire

• As electrons pass through a wire, they collide with the metal ions in the wire.

Electrons collide with ions, which resist their flow

• The ions get in the way of the electrons, resisting their flow.
• If the wire is longer, each electron will collide with more ions and so there will be more resistance:
The longer a wire, the greater its resistance.
• If the wire is thicker (greater diameter), there is more space for the electrons and so more
electrons can flow:
The thicker a wire, the smaller its resistance.

Resistance of a Wire

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Topic 10- Electricity - Page | 12

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Topic 10- Electricity - I-V Graphs Page | 13

I-V Graphs
Current & Potential Difference

• As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is increased, the current in the
component also increases.
• The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different for different types of
components, which is shown by an IV graph:

IV graphs for a resistor and a filament lamp

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Topic 10- Electricity - Page | 14

• The IV graph for a resistor is very simple:

The current is proportional to the potential difference.
• This is because the resistor has a constant resistance.
• For a lamp the relationship is more complicated:
The current increases at a proportionally slower rate than the potential difference.
• This is because:
o The current causes the filament in the lamp to heat up
o As the filament gets hot its resistance increases.
o This opposes the current, causing it to increase at a slower rate.

Electrical Power
• Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second).
• The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:

Power = Current × potential difference

P = I×V

• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

• The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
• Note that the above equation is related to the equation for energy – after all, power is just energy
per second, and so:

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Topic 10- Electricity - Electrical Energy Page | 15

Electrical Energy
• As electricity passes around a circuit, energy is transferred from the power source to the various
components (which may then transfer energy to the surroundings).
o As charge passes through the power supply, it is given energy.
o As it passes through each component, it loses some energy (in transferring that energy to
the component).

The current transfers electrical energy from the power source and to the components

Calculating Electrical Energy

• The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends upon three things:
o The current
o The potential difference
o The amount of time the device is used for.
• The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:

energy transferred = current × potential difference × time

E = I×V×t
Where the unit of energy is the joule (J)

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Topic 10- Electricity - Circuit Diagrams Page | 16

Circuit Diagrams
Standard Symbols

• The diagram below shows the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams. You
will be expected to know what each one is.

You are expected to be able to recognise and draw the above symbols

Diodes

• In addition to the above, you should be able to recognise and draw the circuit symbol for a diode:

A diode is a component that only allows a current in one direction

(Note: Diodes are occasionally drawn without the horizontal line running through the middle of them)

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Topic 10- Electricity - Series & Parallel Circuits Page | 17

Series & Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits

• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in series

• In a series circuit the current is the same at all points.

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit

Potential Difference in Series

• When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of
their individual EMFs.

The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs

• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total
EMF of the power supply.

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Topic 10- Electricity - Series & Parallel Circuits Page | 18

In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply

Parallel Circuits

• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the
circuit.

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel

• The advantages of this kind of circuit are:

o The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches.
o If one component stops working the others will continue to function.
• In a parallel circuit the current splits up – some of it going one way and the rest going the other.
• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power
supply.

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Topic 10- Electricity - Page | 19

Determining Current in Parallel

• Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the current from the
power supply.

In a parallel circuit the current splits up, dividing between the various branches of the circuit

• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current in some
branches than in others.
• The current in each branch will only be identical if the components along each branch are
identical (or at least have the same resistance).

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Topic 10- Electricity - Resistors in Series & Parallel Page | 20

Resistors in Series & Parallel

Resistors in Series

• When two or more components are connected in series:

o The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual
resistances.

When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to the sum of
their individual resistances

Resistors in Parallel

• When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and are less than the
resistance of any of the individual components.
• If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will
halve.

Determining Resistance in Parallel

• More generally, to determine the combined resistance of any combination of two resistors, you
must use the equation:

Note: The above equation is not the same as R = R 1 + R 2 – a common (but incorrect) simplification that
people make

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Topic 10- Electricity - Use of Circuit Components Page | 21

Use of Circuit Components

Potentiometers

• When two resistors are connected in series, the potential difference across the power source is
shared between them.

A potential divider splits the potential difference of a power source between two components

• The potential difference across each resistor depends upon its resistance:
o The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the
other one.
o If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the
potential difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share.
• A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form) consists of a coil of wire with a
sliding contact, midway along it.

A potentiometer is a kind of variable resistor

Moving the slider (the arrow in the diagram)

changes the resistances (and hence potential differences) of
the upper and lower parts of the potentiometer

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Topic 10- Electricity - Use of Circuit Components Page | 22

• Relay

• A relay consists of two parts:

o A coil (an electromagnet)
o A magnetic switch

When there is a current in the coil, it attracts the switch which completed the right-hand part of the
circuit

• When there is a current in the coil, it creates a magnetic field which attracts the switch, closing it.
• This can be used to control a switch in a separate circuit, as shown in the above diagram.

Thermistors & LDRs

• A thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes its resistance when it is
heated up:
o As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases.
o As it gets colder, its resistance increases.

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

• An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which changes its resistance when light is
shone on it:
o When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance decreases.
o If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its resistance increases.
• Note: The symbol for an LDR is often drawn with a circle going around it.

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Topic 10- Electricity - Use of Circuit Components Page | 23

Sensing Circuits

• Thermistors (or LDRs) may be used to create heat (or light) sensitive circuits, which perform
certain actions when temperature (or light) reaches a certain level.

The above circuit can be used to turn on a light when it gets dark

• In the above circuit an LDR is used, along with a relay, to control a bulb.
o When it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR increases.
o This causes the potential difference across the LDR to increase.
o When this potential difference increases the current in the coil (part of the relay) will
increase.
o When the current gets large enough the coil will attract the switch, closing it and allowing
a current to pass through the right-hand side of the circuit.

• Temperature controlled circuits may be created by replacing the LDR with a thermistor, and
replacing the LDR with a suitable component such as a buzzer or heater.

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Topic 10- Electricity - Use of Circuit Components Page | 24

Diodes

A diode is a component which only allows a current when the potential difference is in the direction of
the arrow

• A diode is a component which only allows charge to flow in one direction through it.
• If a power source is connected back to front then there will be no current.

In order to have a current, the diode must point around the circuit from positive to negative

• If a diode is connected to an a.c. (alternating current) power supply, it will only allow a current
half of the time.
(This is called rectification).

A diode can be used to rectify an alternating current

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Topic 10- Electricity - Living with Electricity Page | 25

Living with Electricity

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Topic 10- Electricity - Living with Electricity Page | 26

Three-Pin Plug

• Power plugs provide a relatively safe method for attaching appliances to power source.
• The plugs are designed to complete the circuit for the desired appliance, sending power into and
taking unused power out from appliances.
• Some plugs are also designed to insulate the appliance user against accidental shock through a
ground terminal.

• The features of a plug are:

• The case is made from tough plastic or rubber, because these materials are good electrical
insulators.
• The three pins are made from brass, which is a good conductor of electricity.
• There is a fuse between the live terminal and the live pin. It breaks the circuit if too much
current flows.
• The cable is secured in the plug by a cable grip. This should grip the cable itself, and not
the individual wires inside it.

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