Pre-History

Introduction

 History is the study of the past which throws light on various
past events of significance
 Events occurring before the invention of writing are
considered the domain of Pre-History
 The study of the past after the invention of writing and the
study of literate societies based on the written and
archaeological sources constitutes History.
 The credit for doing an early study of Indian pre-history go to
Robert Bruce Foote (Father of Indian pre-history), who
discovered what was probably the first palaeolithic tool
discovered in India — the Pallavaram handaxe,
Attirampakkam.

 Indian Stone Age

 On the basis of geological age, the type and technology
of stone tools, and subsistence base, the Indian Stone
Age is classified primarily into three types:
1. Old stone Age, Palaeolithic Age (5,00,000−10,000 BCE)
2. Late Stone Age, Mesolithic Age (10,000−6000 BCE)
3. New Stone Age, Neolithic Age (6,000−1000 BCE)
 Palaeolithic Age

 Geographic Area - It was spread in practically all parts of India
except the alluvial plains of Ganga.
 They had no knowledge of agriculture, house building,
pottery, or any metal. It was only in later stages that they
attained the knowledge of fire.
 The Palaeolithic man of India are said to have lived in caves
and rock shelters. They were food gathering people who lived
on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.
 Man, during this period, used tools of unpolished, undressed
rough stones — mainly hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades,
burin, and scrapers. Since the stone tools were made of a hard
rock called ‗quartzite‘, they were also called ‗Quartzite men‘
 Palaeolithic Age

 The Palaeolithic Age is divided into three phases
according to the nature of stone tools used. They are:
1. Early or lower Palaeolithic (5,00,000 BCE−50,000 BCE)
2. Middle Palaeolithic (50,000 BCE −40,000 BCE )
3. Late or Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 BCE−10,000 BCE)
Early or Lower Palaeolithic

 Timeline - 5,00,000 BCE−50,000 BCE
 Use of hand axes, choppers, and cleavers, mainly for
chopping, digging, and skinning.
 Found in Soan and Sohan river valley (now in
Pakistan), Kashmir, Thar Desert (Didwana,
Rajasthan), Hiran Valley (Gujarat), rockshelters of
Bhimbetka (MP), and Belan Valley Mirzapur (UP)
Chopper

Hand Axe

Cleaver


 Middle Palaeolithic

 Timeline - 50,000 BCE −40,000 BCE
 Use of stone tools made of flakes, mainly scrapers,
borers, points, and bladelike tools.
 Found in Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra river
valleys, Potwar plateau (between Indus and
Jhelum), Sanghao Cave (near peshawar, Pakistan).
 Established only in 1960 by H.D. Sankalia and was
named Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa
(Maharastra).
Blades

Scrappers


Late or Upper Palaeolithic

 Timeline - 40,000 BCE−10,000 BCE
 Parallel-sided blades, burins, and some instances of
bone tools.
 Found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Central MP, Southern UP and Chhotanagpur
Plateau.
 Bone tools found only at cave sites of Kurnool and
Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi (Belum Caves) in
Andhra Pradesh
 Homo sapiens first appeared at the end of this phase
Burins

Bone Tools

 Mesolithic Age

 The Mesolithic Age represents the intermediate stage in
Stone Age Culture - (10,000−6000 BCE)
 Mesolithic man lived on hunting, fishing, food gathering,
and in later stages, also domesticated animals.
 One of the key aspects of the Mesolithic Age was the
reduction in size of well-established tool types.
 The characteristic tools of this age were microliths
(miniature stone tools usually made of crystalline silica,
chalcedony, or chert)
 They were not only used as tools in themselves but also to
make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles
after hafting them on wooden or bone handles.
Microliths


 Main Features of
Mesolithic Era

 Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, but it is present
at Langhnaj in Gujarat and in the Kaimur region of
Mirzapur (UP).
 The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plant
cultivation.
 The Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-history. In
1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered at
Sohagighat (Kaimur Hills, UP). By Archibald Carlleyle
 Now, over 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have been
discovered across India, with rich concentration in
Central India such as the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar,
Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarh and Sambalpur
(Orissa), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
 Animals dominate the scenes (Deer, Rhino, Buffalo) at most
Mesolithic rock art sites. However, no snakes are depicted in
Mesolithic Paintings.
 Burials and rock paintings (Dancing Scenes, Family scenes)

give us ideas about the development of religious practices and
also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.

 Important Mesolithic sites are:

 Bagor, Rajasthan is one of the largest and best documented
Mesolithic sites in India. Chhotanagpur Region, Central
India.
 Both Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor provide the earliest evidence
for the domestication of animals
 Mahadaha, U.P., where bone artefacts are found, including
arrowheads and bone ornaments
 South of River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu, Birbhanpur
in West Bengal

 

Bhimbetka Painting is also called as ‗Zoo Shelter Paintings‘ –

Discovered by V.S Wakanar

 Neolithic Age
(Food-Producing Stage)

 In northern India, the Neolithic age emerged around
c.8000−6000 BCE. At some places in south and eastern
India, it is as late as 1000 BCE.
 Advent of food production: The Neolithic man cultivated
land and grew fruits & corn like ragi and horse gram. He
domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
 Innovations in technology: The Neolithic man innovated
in the production of stone tools, producing implements
such as polished, pecked, and ground stone tools.

Polished Tools

 Invention of pottery: The Neolithic era communities first
made pottery by hand and then with the help of the potter‟s
wheel. Their pottery included black burnished ware, grey
ware, and mat-impressed ware. It can therefore be said that
pottery on a large-scale appeared in this phase. Material –

clay mixed with mica and sand. Pottery is devoid of any
painting
 Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: In the later
phases of the Neolithic era, people led a more settled life.
They lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud
and reed. They also knew how to make boats and could spin
cotton and wool and weave cloth.
 Some of the important excavated Neolithic Site:
 Burzahom (unique rectangular chopper axe, domestic dogs
buried with their masters in graves) and Gufkraal in Jammu
and Kashmir (famous for pit dwelling and graveyards located
within households)
 Chirand in Bihar (considerable use of bone implements,
especially those made of antlers)
 Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Hallur (proof of cattle herding
and Millet Cultivation), Budihal (community food
preparation and feasting), and Tekkalakota in Karnataka
 Mehrgarh (the earliest Neolithic site known as the

Breadbasket of Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan)
 Koldihwa, in Belan valley (unique in terms of the presence
of a three-fold Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age
settlements)
 Koldihwa, south of Allahabad ( earliest evidence of rice
cultivation in the world)
 Chopani – Mando, Belan valley (earliest evidence of use of
pottery)
 Belan Valley (evidence of all the three phases of Paleolithic
settlement, followed by Mesolithic and Neolithic
settlements)




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
 Chalcolithic Age /
Copper-Stone Age

 Timeline – 3000 BCE −500 BCE
 The Chalcolithic age marked the emergence of the use of
metal along with stone tools.
 The first metal to be used was copper, though they also
occasionally used bronze, Gold & Silver (But no Iron).
 Chalcolithic cultures are contemporary of Harappan culture
and some of pre-Harappan cultures, though it is possible to
say that most Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan.
 Some prominent sites of Pre- Harappan Chalcolithic culture
are Ganeshwar, near the Khetri Mines of Rajasthan,
Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali in Haryana, Kot Diji in
Sindh (Pakistan).
 Chalcolithic people domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs
and buffaloes, and hunted deer.
 It is rather interesting to note that the domesticated animals
were slaughtered for food and not milked for dairy

products (this practice still continues among the (Gond
people of Bastar).
 They ate beef but did not like pork and were also not
acquainted with horses
 The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and
rice as their staple, bajra, several pulses such as lentil, black
gram, green gram, and grass pea, while those living in
eastern regions lived on fish and rice.
 They practiced more slash-burn or jhum cultivation.
However, neither the plough nor the hoe has been found at
any site of this period.
 They used different types of pottery, of which black and red
pottery was the most popular. This was made using the
potter‟s wheel and was painted with white line design.
 They were not acquainted with burnt brick, and generally

lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. There
economy was a village-based economy.
 Chalcolithic-era people did not know the use of writing
 Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from
Chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated
the Mother Goddess.
 Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration.
The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried
finely worked combs in their hair.
 The bull was probably the symbol of their religious cult
(based on stylised bull terracottas of Malwa and Rajasthan).
 They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as
carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.
 They knew spinning and weaving
 Chalcolithic settlements have been found in south-eastern

Rajasthan, western M.P. western Maharashtra, as well as
other parts of southern and eastern India
 There are definite regional differences in terms of cereals
produced and consumed, pottery made, and so on. For
instance, eastern India produced rice, whereas western
India cultivated barley and wheat.
 In Maharashtra, the dead were buried in the north-south
direction, whereas in southern India they were buried in
the east-west direction
 One can note the beginnings of social inequalities in
Chalcolithic societies, as chiefs who lived in rectangular
houses dominated others who lived in round huts.
 Some of the important excavated Chalcolithic Sites:
 Ahar (smelting and metallurgy, stone houses) and Gilund
(occasional use of burnt bricks) in Banas Valley, Rajasthan
 Nevasa, Jorwe (Evidence of Cotton),

 Navdatoli (on Narmada) - (cultivated almost all
foodgrains) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic
settlements in the country.
 Daimabad (Godavari valley, largest number of bronze
goods)
 Songaon, Inamgaon (large mud houses with ovens and
circular pit houses; images of earth goddesses ) and Nasik,
Maharashtra
 Kayatha (mud-plastered floors, Copper Bangles and
Necklace), Malwa (richest Chalcolithic ceramics, spindle
whorls, non-Harappan culture), Eran, M.P. (non- Harappan
culture)





 Harappan Civilisation

 The Harappan civilisation was the first urban
civilisation in South Asia, contemporaneous with the
civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
 Harappa, as the first archaeological site to be
discovered, therefore gives its name to the entire
civilisation
 In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI,
announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the
Indus valley to the world.
 Earlier historians had called this civilisation the Indus
Valley Civilisation and belongs to the Bronze Age.
 Phases of IVC

 Three phases of IVC are:
1. Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,
2. Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE,
3. Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
 The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra
Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
 The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000
BC.

 This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and
an increasingly urban quality of life.
 Trade networks had been established and there are also
evidences of the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds,
dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time.
 By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had entered into
a Mature stage.
 Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature
Harappan Phase.
 The early Harappan communities were turning into large
urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan
and Lothal in India.
 Late Harrapan Culture

 The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River
Valley Civilization are believed to have started
around 1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most of the cities
were abandoned.
 However, one can see the various elements of the
Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures.
 Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the
Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.
Mature Harappan Phase

 Harrapan Civilisation owes its origin to the
Mesopotamian Civilisation.
 The area occupied by the Harappan civilisation was
triangular in shape and was largest among the three
ancient urban civilisations, the other two being
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamaia (present day Iraq).
 It roughly covers modern day Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan.

 Town Planning

 Harappan civilisation is known for its urban outlook and
sophisticated sense of civic planning and organisation.
 Harappan city was divided into two parts:
1. Citadel/Raised Part – This part occupied a smaller area,
and was frequently situated to the west of the city.
Rulers of the city lived here. It also contained public
buildings, granaries, and important workshops.
2. Lower Part – The common citizenry lived and carried on
their professional lives in this part of the city.

 Town Planning

 City planning roughly followed a grid pattern and streets ran
from north to south and cut at right angles.
 They used burnt bricks of good quality and the unique
feature of this brick was its identical ratio of 1:2:4 in terms of
thickness:width:length across all Harappan structures.
 They had an excellent drainage system — drains were made
of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick
slabs for easy cleaning.
 Houses were often of two or more storeys, though varied in
size but quite monotonous. No window faced the streets and
the houses had tiled bathrooms. Some houses had their own
wells.


 Society

 The Harappans were great experts in the use of the
potter‟s wheel but were poor in artistic works of stone.
Primarily red black pottery (red ware pottery painted
with black designs, usually that of trees and circles) was
popular
 Some of these pots were used for storing grain or water,
while some perforated pots were probably used for
brewing fermented alcoholic beverages.
 A lot of terracotta has been found at many sites, including
figurines of animals such as bulls, buffaloes, dogs,
monkeys, toy carts, and humans.
 Terracotta bangles have also been found. It is important to
note that more female figurines have been uncovered in
comparison to male figurines.
 The Harappans refined the art of bead-making, and jewellery

excavated includes gold and silver jewellery, including
necklaces, bracelets, pendants, earrings.
 They were also good at metallurgy and producing alloys.
 Copper, bronze, silver, and gold were metals known and
used by Harappans, but iron was not.
 Harappan people generally wore garments of cotton / wool.
 The Harappans relished non-vegetarian food. Fish-eating was
common. Milk and curd was also consumed.
 The Harappan script was pictographic and logo-syllabic
(each symbol stood for a word/syllable). Harappan writing
was boustrophedon, that is to say, right to left and left to
right in alternate lines. The Harappan script has not been
deciphered so far.
Harappa Pottery

Terracotta Toys

Terracotta Toys

Jewellery

Harrapan Script


 Harappan Economy

 The Mesopotamians called the Indus Region ‗Meluhha‘.
 They had Flourishing trade relations with its contemporary
Mesopotamian and Persian civilisations.
 Seals hold a special significance in the Harappan context.
Every merchant probably had a seal bearing an emblem.
 The standard Harappa seal was a square / oblong plaque
made of steatite stone.
 Seals were used as Amulets (Identity cards), Unicorn/Rhino
and Hump backed Bull was the most carved image on
Seals.
 They carried out internal and external trade. There was no
metallic money in circulation and trade was conducted by
means of barter. Inland transport primarily employed
bullock carts.

 Exports Crops = wheat, barley, peas, oilseeds
 Exported finished products = cotton goods, pottery, beads,
terracotta figure, ivory products and so on
 There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and
Lothal.
 A dockyard has been excavated in Lothal
 Weights followed a binary system in the lower
denominations — 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 to 64, and then in decimal
multiples of 160 like 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on.
 Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and
were generally cubical in shape.



Weights and Measures

 Religion

 Harappan civilisation is considered as a secular society
as not a single structure qualifying as temple has been
found.
 Sacred ritual spots included the Great Bath at
Mohenjo-Daro, where they undertook ritual activity
that included ceremonial bathing
 Idolatry was practiced. The Harappan people generally
worshipped: Mother goddess, Pashupati Mahadeva
or proto-Shiva, Lingam (phallus) and yoni worship
(cult of fertility), Peepal tree, Humped Bull, Birds
(dove and pigeon), One-horned unicorn

Mother Goddess


Phallus

 Fire altars have been found in Kalibangan and Lothal.
 The seal of Pashupati Mahadeva is surrounded by an
elephant, a tiger, a rhino, a buffalo, and a deer, and it is
likely that these animals were also worshipped

 Dead bodies were placed in a north-south direction and
were generally accompanied by objects including food,
pottery, ornaments, and tools.
 Used three methods of burial:
1. Complete burial
2. Fractional burials (where the bones were gathered and
buried after exposure of the body to birds and beasts)
3. Cremation followed by burial of the ashes
 In Harappa, coffins containing bodies have been found.
 In Kalibangan, small circular pits containing large urns and
pottery have been found.

 Agriculture

 The Harappan civilisation was the earliest known
civilisation to produce cotton.
 The Harappans grew wheat (especially in Mehrgarh),
barley, horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame,
dates, millets, grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard, rice
(Lothal)
 The Harappans domesticated animals on a large scale.
Besides cattle (oxen, buffaloes, goats, humped bulls, sheep,
pigs, asses, camels), cats and dogs were also domesticated.
 Horse wasn‟t regular used but the Harappans were well
acquainted with the elephant and the rhinoceros
 Agriculture

 Terracotta models of plough have been found at
Banawali.
 Remains of horses at Surkotda and dogs with men in
graves at Ropar have been discovered.
 On different pottery paintings one can easily find
rabbits, peacocks, ducks, pigeons, wild fowl and
monkeys
 The lion was not known in Harappan culture.
 Ploughed fields, possibly with the help of wooden
ploughs, have been discovered at Kalibangan.
 Sculpture in IVC

 Stone Sculpture
 In stone, the two most discussed male figures are male
torso and the bearded priest.
1. The Male torso is a red sandstone figure, which has
socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the attachment
of head and arms.
2. Bearded Priest - This steatite figure of the bearded man
interpreted as a priest or priest king is draped in a shawl
coming under the right arm and covering the left
shoulder. An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes
around the neck indicate a necklace.

 Dancing Girl

 It‘s a four-inch-high bronze figure, found in
Mohenjodaro.
 The Dancing Girl is the world‟s oldest bronze sculpture.
 It depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun. Bangles
cover her left arm, a bracelet and an amulet or bangle
adorn her right arm, and a cowry shell necklace is seen
around her neck.
 Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped.
She is resting her weight on one leg in a very natural
fashion, called Tribhanga posture.

 Decline of Harrappa

 The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the
actual reasons behind its demise are still debated.
 One theory claims that Indo-European tribe
i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the IVC
 On the other hand, many scholars believe natural
factors are behind the decline of the IVC. The natural
factors could be geological and climatic.
 There could be also dramatic shifts in the river
courses, which might have brought floods to the food
producing areas.
 Late Harappan Phase
(c.1900 BCE–1300 BCE)

 Marked by the decline of urban life and the diversification
of agriculture.
 Elements of urbanism like seals, specialised crafts, cities,
long distance trade, and so on, declined but did not
completely disappear.
 A key development in this phase was the beginning of
Double Cropping —wheat and barley were grown as
winter crops and rice, millets, and sorghum were grown as
summer crops.
 The post-urban Harappans lived in villages, subsisting on
agriculture, stock-raising, hunting, and fishing.
 In this period, painted Harappan pottery is replaced with
less intricate designs and painted grey ware (PGW)
 Important Sites of IVC
Site Excavated by Important Findings
Harappa Daya Ram Sahini in • 6 Small Granaries
1921 • Bullock carts
(River Ravi)
 • Mother goddess figurines
• Male torso
Mohenjodaro R.D Banerjee in 1922 •Great bath
(Mound of Dead) •Single large Granary
•Bronze dancing girl
(River Indus) •Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
•Steatite statue of beard man
•A piece of woven cotton
Sutka-gendor Stein in 1929 •A trade point between
Harappa and Babylon
Chanhu-daro N.G Majumdar •Bead makers shop
•Footprint of a dog chasing a
cat
•The city without a citadel
 Important Sites of IVC
Site Excavated by Important Findings
Amri N.G Majumdar •Antelope evidence

Kalibangan Ghose
•Fire altar
•Rhinoceros‘ evidence

•Camel bones
•Wooden plough marks
Lothal R.Rao •First manmade port
•Dockyard
•Rice husk
•Fire altars
•Chess playing
Surkotada J.P Joshi •Bones of horses
 Important Sites of IVC
Site Excavated by Important Findings
Banawali R.S Bisht in •Toy plough
1974  •The largest number of barley
grains
•It is the only city with oval
shaped settlements, radial streets
and lack of systematic drainage
pattern.
Dhola-vira R.S Bisht in •Water harnessing system
1985 •Water reservoir
•Only City divided into 3 parts.
•Stadium

Centre is planning to develop Rakhigarhi as a tourist hub

and set up a museum.
 Few Facts

 Mohenjodaro is the largest city as it is spread over an area of
200 hectares.
 Rakhigarhi - largest site of Indus Valley Civilisation. It was
provincial capital of Harappan Civilisation
 Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), where the entire settlement
was fortified
 Ropar (River Sutlej) - First Harappan site of independent
India.
 Granary: The largest building in Mohenjo-Daro is Granary. In
contrast, in the citadel of Harappa, there are six granaries of
smaller size.
 No clear evidence for the practice of Sati or Cow.
 Lothal - Manchester of Indus Valley Civilisation
 Chanhudaro - Lancashire of IVC
 Dholavira - latest IVC city discovered
 Alamgirpur, UP (Yamuna River) - Eastern most site of IVC.

 Suktagandor - Western most site of IVC
 Daimabad (Maharashtra) - Southern most site of IVC
 Mand (Jammu & Kashmir) - Northern most site of IVC

 The bronze statues were made using ―lost wax technique‖ or

―Cire Perdue‖
 Terracotta refers to the use of fire baked clay for making
sculptures. They were made using pinching method
 Compared to the bronze figures, the terracotta sculptures
found are less in number and crude in shape
 Megalith

 Historians correlate iron age with megaliths of south
India. Megalith means Large Stone. These large
stones covered burials.
 We can find such graves extensively in south India.
 Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and,
Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra
Pradesh.
 Excavators found black and red pottery + iron
artefacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons
in the burial pits.

 The Vedic Era
(c.1500–500 BCE)

Ancient Indian History
 Introduction

 Harappan culture was followed by another great
civilisation and culture known as Vedic culture.
 It is called Vedic Age as its reconstruction is primarily
based on using Vedic texts as sources.
 Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composers of Vedic
texts.
 The Indo-Aryans lived in the land of the (Sapta
Sindhu) and probably because of their use of horse
chariots and superior military technology, they could
establish their political dominance in the region
 The Vedic Era

 The region was drained by the seven rivers, viz., the
Indus (Sindhu), and its five tributaries, namely, the
Jhelum (Vatista), Beas (Vipasa), Chenab (Askini),
Ravi (Purushni), Sutlej (Satudri), and the Saraswati
(modern Ghaggar Hakra).
 The rare mention of the river Yamuna (twice) and
Ganga (only once) is pointer to the fact that Rig
Vedic Aryans had not inhabited that region as yet.

 Vedic Literature

 The Vedic literature is divided into two parts: the
Shrutis and the Smriti.
 The Shrutis are the four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and
the Atharva Veda, The Upanishads
 Smriti Literature is the entire body of the post-Vedic
Classical Sanskrit literature and consists of Vedanga,
Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa (Mahabharatha &
Ramayana) , Dharmashastras, Tantras/Agamas,
Upavedas.
 Vedas

 The word Veda has been derived from the root ‗vid‘,
which means to know/knowledge.
 They hold the status of Shruti (which has been heard)
and have been transmitted orally for many centuries.
Later, they were written down, and the earliest
surviving manuscript belongs to the 11th century.
 There are four Vedas (Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur
Veda & Atharva Veda) and every Veda generally has
four parts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and
Upanishad.
 Parts of Vedas

 Samhita - The basic material or mantra text of each of
the Vedas is called ―Samhita‖.
 Brahamanas:
 The Brahmanas describe the rules for the performance
of sacrificial ceremonies.
 They, however, explain the hymns of the Vedas in an
orthodox manner.
 Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The
most important Brahmana is the Satpatha Brahmana,
which is attached to the Yajur Veda mentions about
Agriculture.
 Aranyakas

 They are called the ‗forest books‘ as they were
written mainly by hermits living in the jungles for
their pupils.
 They deal with mysticism and philosophy and
oppose sacrifice.
 They emphasise meditation and are considered to
be the concluding portion of the Brahmanas, and
interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
 Upanishads

 The literal meaning of ‗Upanishad‘ is ‗to sit near someone‘.
 Upanishads is also called as Vedanta, literally signifies the
‗end of the Vedas‘
 There are 108 Upanishads, of which 13 are the most
prominent.
 The Upanishads dwell on the „Atman‟ and „Brahman‘, and
focus a lot on the philosophy about life, universe, self,
body, etc
 They condemn sacrifices and ceremonies
 The Manduka upanishad which mentions ―Satyamev
jayate ‖ is the largest of all Upanishads.
 The Chhandogya Upanishad – Clearly refers to the first
three ashrams and discusses the types of marriage (mainly
two), 1st mention about Krishna.
1. Anuloma marriage – The marriage of a man in his own

varna or below his varna. It is the most accepted and
common form of marriage in the society.
2. Pratiloma marriage – The marriage of a girl/woman in a
varna lower than her own, deemed rare and not sanctioned
by the Vedas.

 Maha Upanishads – Mentions “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam”

 The mantras from the Taittiriya Upanishad says: Matrudevo
bhava, Pitrudevo bhava, Acharyadevo bhava, Atithidevo
bhava.
 Katha Upanishad – Dialogue between Nachiketha & Yama
 The Vedic Era Divison

 Early Vedic Literature/Rig Vedic Culture (c. 1500–1000
BCE): Includes the Rig Veda Samhita (2-7 Mandalas).
They are called ‗family books‘ as their composition is
attributed to the families of certain seer poets, such as
Vishvamitra, Atri, Vasishtha, and Bharadvaja
 Later Vedic Literature/Later Vedic Culture (c. 1000–500
BCE): Includes Manadala 1, 8, 9, and 10 of the Rig Veda
Samhita, the Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur and
the Atharva Vedas and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and
Upanishads attached to all the four Vedas.
 Rig Veda

 The Rig Veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns, divided into
10 Mandals (books).
 It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were
composed between 1500-1200 BC.
 Earliest Mandals, i.e., II to VII are called family books as
they are ascribed to particular families of seers/rishis.
 The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the
longest books
 The 9th Rigvedic book/mandala is solely dedicated to
Soma (master of plants)
 The Upaveda of Rig Veda is Ayurveda
 Indra is the chief deity cited in the Rig Veda.
 The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya
were some of the other chief deities who were important in
the Rig Veda beside older Aryan deities (Adithi and Usha).

 The God of storms Rudra, as cited in the Rig Veda is the
origin for Lord Shiva, the Hindu God.
 Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Gods was
also a minor deity, as mentioned in the Rig Veda.
 The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also
mentioned in third Mandala of the Rig-Veda.
 The first mention of Varna System, Shudras is found in the
Purusha Suktam verse, the tenth mandala of the Rigveda .
Brahmins originated from Brahma‘s mouth, Kshatriyas from
arms, Vaishyas from thighs, and Shudras from feet.
 It contains Hymns for Praja (Son), Pashu (Cattle), wealth
 No Mention of child Marriage; widow remarriage allowed
 Sama Veda

 Samaveda dates back to 1200-800 BCE. This Veda is related
to public worship.
 The Sama Veda is the collection of verses mostly taken
from the Rig Veda, but arranged in a poetic form to
facilitate singing. ―Book of Chants‖
 It is a collection of 1,810 melodies, and also contains the
famous Dhrupada raga, later sung by Tansen.
 The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian
classical music and dance
 The Upveda of the Sama Veda is the (Gandharva Veda). It
is a technical treatise on Music, Dance and Drama.
Bharat‟s Natyashashtra is based upon Gandharvaveda.
 Yajur Veda

 The Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the
performance of sacrifices. The texts are further divided
into:
1. Shukla Yajur Veda/White Yajur Veda/Vaja-saneya
(contains only the Mantras)
2. Krishna Yajur Veda/Black Yajur Veda (contains both
mantras and prose explanations).
 Rajsuya & Vajpeya Yajna mentioned for the 1st time
 The Upveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda
 Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery
 Atharva Veda

 The Atharva Veda is a collection of magic spells and
charms to ward off the evil spirits and diseases.
 It is the last Veda and is considered a non-Aryan work
divided into 20 kandas (books), with 711 hymns
 The Upveda of the Atharva Veda is the Shastra-
shastra Veda.
 Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and
associated with the Atharvaveda.
 Few of historians consider Artha-Shastra (Economics)
as Upaveda of Atharva Veda.
 Vedanga

 The word ‗Vedanga‘ means the ‗limbs of the Vedas‘.
 They are the supplementary texts that aid in the proper
recitation and understanding of the Vedas while
performing rituals
 They are written in the form of Sutras. Sutras are very short
condensed statements that are used to express varied ideas
 There are six Sutras. They are:
 Shiksha (Phonetics/Pronunciation), Kalpa (Ritualistic
science), Jyotisha (Astronomy,) Vyakaran (Grammar),
Nirukta (Etymology/Meaning) Chhanda (Metrics/Musical
reading of Hymns)
 Puranas
(600 B.C-400 B.C)

 Traditionally, the Puranas are considered to be
composed by Vyasa
 They are late descriptions of ancient legends and
consist of history of the universe from creation to
destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and
descriptions of philosophy, and geography.
 There are 18 Mahapuranas (such as Brahma, Vishnu,
Narada, Bhagavata, Garuda, etc)

 Oldest Purana – MATSYA Purana

 Dharamshastra

 They are the Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with
individuals Dharma (code of conduct)
 Dharmashastras are further subdivided into
Dharmasutras (composed during c.600-300 BCE) and
Smritis (composed during c.200 BCE- 900 CE).
 Dharmasutras specifies every persons duty based on
gender, marital status, varna, and ashram.
 Every one should aim for fulfilment of Purusharthas (life
goals) such as Dharma (righteous conduct), Artha
(material well-being), Kama (sensual pleasure), and
Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
 Out of the four varnas, three varnas, i.e., Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered Dvija (twice
born, as they had the right to the sacred thread ceremony
considered akin to second birth), while the Shudras were

burdened with many civil disabilities.

 The four ashrams dividing the life of a dvija male were:

1. Brahmacharya (Celibate studenthood)
2. Grihastha (Household caretaker)
3. Vanaprastha (Partial renunciation)
4. Sanyasa (Complete renunciation)

 Sulva sutras – It had mentioned about different dimension

Altars for different Yajnas. It had information regarding
Pythagoras theorem, Algebra & Vedic Mathematics
 Smrithi Literature

 Manusmrithi
 Manusmriti is one of the earliest and most authoritative law
texts followed by the Hindus.
 It deals with the procedures of performing ceremonies
(Birth, Marriage, Death), The duty of women and men
 It upholds the division based on Varnas
 The famous shloka ―Yatra naryastu pujyante ramante tatra
Devata‖ finds a mention in Manusmrithi
 ―Na stree svaatantryam arhati―, which has been translated
as ―woman does not deserve independence‖.
 It was translated in 1794 by Sir William Jones.
 Smrithi Literature

 Yajnavalkya Smriti (200 A.D): It deals with matters such
as women's right of inheritance and right to hold
property
 Mitakshara (11th century) By Vigneshwara gives a
commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smrithi. It talks of
equal ownership of land between Son, Daughter and
Parents.
 Dhayabhaga By Jimutavahana - It is observed in Bengal
and Assam.

 Parashara Smriti – Oldest Smrithi Literature

 Epics

 The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, are part of both oral and written traditional
history
 Ramayana - Roughly composed between c. 400
BCE−300CE by Valmiki and it consists of seven
Kandas (books) having around 24,000 verses. It is
considered that Rama lived in the Treta yuga, i.e.,
earlier than the Mahabharata
 Mahabharata - Roughly composed between c. 400
BCE−400CE by Veda Vyasa and consists of 18 Parvas
(books) and has around 1 lakh verses.
 Social life of
Rig Vedic Aryans

 Rig Vedic society was a tribal society and its people
lived a semi-nomadic life.
 Aryan tribes were called Janas.
 Their chief (rajan) was known as the Gopati or Gopa
(protector of cows)
 The society‘s political structure was somewhat similar to
the monarchial form, but the Gopati‘s office was not
hereditary and he was selected among the clan‟s men
 The society was not divided on caste lines, Occupation
was not based on birth.
 However, certain differences did exist based on Varna or
colour.
 The Vedic people (Dasyus) were fair whereas the non-Vedic
indigenous people (Dasas) were dark in complexion and
spoke a different language.

 The Varna system was introduced at the end of the Rig Vedic
age. However, the Rig Vedic people were familiar with
slavery.
 Largely, there were joint families in the Rig Vedic age. The
family was part of a larger grouping, called vis or clan. One or
more than one clans made jana or tribe.
 The society was patriarchal in nature, though the women had
important positions in the society since they were educated
and had access to the assembly. They composed hymns and
received Upanayana. Girls were free to choose their life
partners. There are no instances of child marriage, sati, or
purdah in the Rig Veda. Re-marriage was allowed in few case
 Military technique was much advanced as they possessed
chariots driven by horses, coat of mail

 Some of the important functionaries of Rig Vedic Societies:

1. Purohit (priest) 
2. Senani (leader of an army)
3. Gramini (leader of a village)
4. Vrajapati – the officer who enjoyed authority over a large
land.
5. Kulapathi – Head of Families
6. Bhaga-dugha – Tax Collector
7. Sutta - Charioteer
 Tribal Assembly
 Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans,
performing all kinds of functions- economic, military
religious and social. Vidatha also provided common ground

to clans and tribes for the worship of their gods.
 Sabha – It was a smaller assembly of elites, which
discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and
administrative functions
 Samiti - It discussed philosophical issues and was
concerned with religious ceremonies and prayers. Rajan
was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.
 The Gana or the Republic - A Gana was a assembly or
troop. The leader of the gana is generally called Ganapati .

 Women were allowed to attend Vidatha and Sabha in Rig

Vedic Period
 Rig Vedic Economy

 Since the Rig Vedic society was a pastoral society,
cattle rearing was their dominant activity.
 Evidence of trade and commerce is meagre, and
there was no concept of private property.
 Barter was the model of exchange.
 There was no regular revenue system and the
kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute
(bali) of subjects and bounty won in a battle.
 Rig Vedic Economy

 They had better knowledge of Agriculture which was used
mainly to produce fodder. Ploughshare made of wood was
mentioned in Rig Veda.
 They did not use iron technology, but were familiar with
copper
 A lot of other crafts such as cart-making, carpentry, tanning,
sewing, and weaving, find mention, though the chariot-
maker enjoyed a special status in Rig Vedic society
 They also introduced the Spoked Wheel.
 Rig Vedic Religion

 There was neither temple nor idol worship in the
Early Vedic age.
 Nature worship was found, like Gods attributed to
wind, rain, water, thunder, etc.
 They generally worshipped in the open air through
yajnas.
 Vedic texts refer to meat eating and also the
sacrificial killing of animals except the cow, which
was considered aghnya (not to be killed).
 Some of the deities worshipped by the Rig Vedic People
were as follows:
 Indra - Greatest god of the Aryans. Also Called Purandhar
(Breaker of forts), and Vritrahan (Slayer of Vritra, chaos)

 Agni - Second most important god; the god of fire
 Varuna - the god of water
 Soma - God of plants
 Yama - Lord of death
 Rudra – God of Destruction
 Pushan - The god of jungle paths, herdsmen, and cattle
 Surya - who drives away darkness and spreads light
 Savitri – Deity to whom the famous Gayatri Mantra is
attributed to in the third mandal
 Aditi – Goddess of eternity and the mother of the gods
 Prithvi – Earth goddess
 Vishnu – Benevolent god, but mentioned very infrequently
in the Rig Veda
 Vayu – God of wind
 Ashvinis – The twin Gods of war and fertility

 Usha – Goddess of dawn, and is mentioned around 300
times in the Rig Veda hymns
 Sinivali – Bestows children
 Maruts – the personification of storms

 Demi-gods:
 Gandharvas (Divine musicians)
 Apasaras (Mistress of Gods)
 Vishwadevas (Intermediate deities)
 Aryaman (Guardian of compacts and marriages)
 Later Vedic period
(1000 BC - 500 BC)

 The Later Vedic Age is characterised by more
complexities in social, political, and economic life.
 In terms of the political context, the tiny tribal
settlements of the Vedic period were replaced by
comparatively stronger kingdoms, where royal
power increased
 The core geographical area of the Rig Vedic texts
corresponds to Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab, and
western U.P., whereas the core geographical area of
Later Vedic texts corresponds to Indo-Gangetic Plain
 The predominantly pastoral society of Early Vedic times had
become agricultural.
 The term ‗Rashtra‘ first appeared in this period. The wars
were fought for both cows & territories.

 The king was usually a kshatriya and the office of the
monarch was made almost hereditary.
 King did not possess a standing army and tribal units were
mustered in times of war
 The king‘s influence was further strengthened by ritual
enactments such as the Rajasuya (which was royal
consecration and conferred supreme power on the king),
Vajapeya (it had a chariot race in which royal chariot was
made to win against all kinsmen) and Aswamedha
(unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse
ran uninterrupted).
 Later Vedic Society

 Rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of
the varna system.
 The Later Vedic society was clearly divided into four
varnas: Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras
 Another important institution that began to take shape
was Ashrama (Bhramacharya, Grhihastha, Vanaprastha
& Sanyasa) or the different stages of life
 Thus, Later Vedic society came to be known as Varna-
ashrama-dharma society
 The upper three classes known as Dvija (twice born)
discriminated against Shudras.
 Education was largely confined to dvija castes and began
with the ceremony (Upanayana)

 Rigid social hierarchy developed, which restricted the social
mobility of the earlier period.
 Assemblies were then dominated by nobles and affluent
men and women were no longer permitted to attend
assemblies.
 As compared to the Rig Vedic age, women lost importance
in the society and there have been references to rare
instances of sati and child marriage.
 The institution of Gotra appeared in the Later Vedic culture.
It meant descent from a common ancestor
Later Vedic Age Economy

 The Later Vedic culture is also called as Painted Grey
Ware–Iron Phase culture
 Later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of
iron, which was introduced around 1000 BCE and is
mentioned as Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas in Atharva
Veda.
 Agriculture emerged as the chief means of livelihood
of the Later Vedic people
 Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the staple
diet of the people and lentils, Sugar cane (Ikshu),
Barley (Yava) were also grown.
Later Vedic Age Economy

 Unlike the Rig Vedic age where only voluntary
offerings were taken and per se no revenue collection
was done, in the Later Vedic age, collection of taxes
and tributes was made mandatory and were done
by Sangrihitri.
 The growth of Towns or Nagaras were seldom
found.
 Later Vedic Age Religion

 The Later Vedic culture was focused on the centrality of
the cult of sacrifice/Yajnas.
 The two most important Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and
Agni, lost their importance and instead of them,
Prajapati (the creator) became supreme
 Some of the other minor gods became prominent, such as
Vishnu (conceived as the preserver and protector of
people) and Rudra
 Idolatry appears in late Vedic phase
 However, towards the end of Later Vedic age, a strong
reaction began to emerge against priestly domination,
against cults and sacrifices
 Later Vedic(1000BC –
Vedic (1500BC – 1000BC) 600BC)

 All the other vedas.


Sources Rig Veda
 Upanishads compiled
Northern and western Extended to whole of
part of Subcontinent. western UP, Ganga-
Location Saptha-Sindhu Region. Yamuna doab and also
They didn‘t know land penetrated to the Deccan,
beyond Yamuna. Vindhyas & South India.
 Predominantly
pastoral. Cattle based
Settled life. Agriculture and
Economy herding economy.
crafts.
 Agriculture was
known.
Barley continued but rice
Agriculture Mostly barley. and wheat became chief
crops.
 Vedic (1500BC – Later Vedic(1000BC – 600BC)
1000BC)
 No concept of  Concept of territory and territorial
territory. Only administration appear.
Tribes (Jana)
 Kings(Rajan) were 
 Janapada-State. Rashtra – Territory.
 Rituals and sacrifices were
advised by performed to strengthen the king‘s
assemblies position – Rajasuya(consecration
like Sabha & Samiti ceremony), Vajpeya(chariot race)
. and Asvamedha(horse sacrifice).
Polity  Had no standing  Sabha & Samiti - The were
armies. dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
 Wars known Women were no longer permitted.
as Gavati are fought  Even in the Later Vedic times, king
for cattle and not didn‘t possess a standing army.
for territory.  Wars were fought not only for cattle
 Chiefs received but territory.
voluntary offerings  Bali which was a voluntary gift
called Bali became mandatory tax.
 Later Vedic(1000BC –
Vedic (1500BC – 1000BC) 600BC)

 Family – Kula.  Position of the father


Household – Griha.
Family was joint
increased and women
were given lower
Patriarchal society. position.
 Women could attend  Position of women
assemblies, they could became deplorable. They
offer sacrifices along couldn‘t attend
Family and
with their husbands. assemblies. Child
women
 Widow remarriage marriages also came into
was allowed. vogue.
 No instances of child  Institution of gotra
marriage and appears later vedic
marriageable age in the period. Marriage within
Rig Veda seems to be the gotra was not
16-17. permitted.
 Later Vedic(1000BC –
Vedic (1500BC – 1000BC) 600BC)

 Society divided into 4

egalitarian. 
 Society was largely varnas.
 The growing cult of
Social  Varna was the term sacrifices added to the
Divisions for colour. power of the Brahmanas.
 Differentiation based  4 Ashramas –
on occupation existed. Brahmachari, grihast,
vanprastha, Sanyasi.
 Nature gods are replaced
 Nature gods. Indra –
by Prajapati, Rudra &
mentioned in most
Vishnu,
number of passages.
 Idolatry appears.
Religion  Soma – sacred drink.
 Pushan was regarded as
 Sacrifices less
the god of shudras
important. Mostly
 Sacrifices became more
Prayers.
important than prayers.
Key Concepts Source
Gotra Atharva Veda
Purusashukta Hymn (Four-fold division of Rig Veda (Tenth
society) & Origin of Universe  Mandala)

First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Chhandogya Upanishad

Garhasthya, Vanaprastha)

Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Jabala Upanishad

Vanaprastha, Sannyas)

Satyamev Jayate Mandukya Upanishad

Doctrine of ‗Trimurti‘ Maitra-yani
Upanishad
Mention of Agriculture, Functions of 4 Satpatha Brahmana
varnas
 Mahajanapadas
(c. 600– 300 BCE)

Ancient Indian History
 Introduction

 The sixth century BCE is known as an era of ‗Second
Urbanisation‘ in the Indian Subcontinent
 After the decline of the Harappan towns urban centres
emerged again in Eastern UP and Bihar (Ganga Basin).
 This region was not only fertile on account of better
rainfall and river systems, but was also closer to the
iron production centres.
 The new iron agricultural tools and implements (such
as the ploughshare) enabled the people to clear thick
forest cover and cultivate the hard soil of this area
 Mahajanapadas

 Also, iron weapons made the warrior class more
important & this led to the foundation of the
Janapadas or territorial states, under the control of
the king
 The use of better iron tools and weapons enabled
some territorial states to become very large, and they
came to be called Mahajanapadas
 According to Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya, the
land between Himalayas and Narmada was divided
into 16 independent states (Mahajanapadas)

 Magadha (Patna, Gaya and Nalanda districts) – The first
capital was Rajagriha and the later capital was Pataliputra.
 Anga (Munger and Bhagalpur) – The capital was Champa.
It was a prosperous business centre.

 Malla (Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur region) – The capital was
Kushinagar. Buddha went to his Mahaparinirvana (Death)
at Kusinagar.
 Vatsa (Allahabad and Mirzapur) – The capital was
Kaushambi (at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna).
King Udayana was the hero of three Sanskrit dramas, viz.,
Svapna-vasavadatta of Bhasa, Priyadarshika, and Ratnavali
of Harsha
 Kosala (Ayodhya) – Though its capital was Shravasti but
Ayodhya was an important town in Kosala. The tribal
republic of the Shakyas of Kapilavastu included Lumbini,
which is the birthplace of Gautama Buddha
 Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut and present-day Delhi) – The
capital city was Hastinapura & later Indraprastha.
 Panchala (Western Uttar Pradesh) – Its capital was at
Kampila. Earlier a monarch state, it later became an

independent republic. Kannauj was an important town in
this kingdom.
 Matsya kingdom (Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur) – Its capital
was Viratanagar.
 Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi) – Its capital Taxila
was important as a trade and education centre (Ancient
Taxila university) during the later Vedic age.
 Assaka (Between Narmada and Godavari) – Its capital was
at Potali. It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the
south of the Vindhya Range
 Kamboj (Hazara dist of Pakistan, North-east Kashmir) – Its
capital was Raipur.
 Vajji (Muzaffarpur and Vaishali) – Vajji was the seat of a
united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which
Lichchavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. The
Vajjis were defeated and assimilated in the Magadha empire

by Ajatshatru. Capital at Vaishali
 Chedi (Bundelkhand) – Shuktimati was the capital of
Chedi. King: Shishupala was killed by Krishna
 Avanti (Malwa) – Avanti was divided into two parts north
and south. The northern part had its capital at Ujjain and the
southern part had its capital at Mahismati.
 Shurasena (Brajmandal) – Its capital was at Mathura
 Kashi (Benaras) – The capital was Varanasi. Kashi was
merged with the Kosala kingdom.

 Gana-Sanghas

 The Gana-Sanghas (literally meaning an assembly of
Gana, those who claim to be of equal status) were an
alternative polity to the kingdoms.
 Unlike kingdoms where they had a single hereditary
monarch, the Gana-Sanghas had a government by
assembly, the king was elected by the assembly
 Vajji & Malla were Gana-Sanghas
Gana-Sanghas Kingdoms
The chief office was not hereditary Kingdoms registered a
and was known as Ganapati or centralised government with
Ganaraja. The power was vested king as Sovereign and all the
in an aristocratic council  power was vested in him

They were based in smaller Political power was concentrated

geographical areas and had more in the king who was advised and
representative government. The assisted by ministers
council discussed and debated the
issues and they were put to vote, if
a unanimous decision could not be
reached

Most of the ganas were located in Major Kingdoms generally

or near the Himalayan foothills in occupied the fertile alluvial
eastern India tracts of the Ganga valley
 Magadha Empire

 The political conflict among the Mahajanapadas
ultimately led to the emergence of Magadha as the
most powerful Empire
 Magadha‘s rise to political supremacy began with
Bimbisara, who belonged to the Har-yanka dynasty,
and ruled for 52 years, from 544 to 492 BCE.
 He pursued a three-pronged policy, namely,
matrimonial alliances, friendship with strong rulers,
and conquest of weak neighbours to expand the
empire.

 Haryanka Dynasty

 Founder: Grandfather of Bimbisara (566 BCE)
 Actual foundation by Bimbisara (544–492 BCE)
 Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.
 Capital at Rajgriha (Girivraja), which was surrounded by
five hills.
 Earlier, had rivalry with Avanti‟s king Pradyota, but later
became friends and Bimbisara even sent his royal
physician Jivaka to Ujjain
 He was also called Seniya who was the first Indian to
have a regular and standing army
 Conquered Anga (East Bihar) by defeating its ruler
Brahmadatta.
 Ajatashatru (492 BCE – 460 BCE)
 Son of Bimbisara, being impatient to rule Magadha, is believed
to have killed his father and seized the throne.
 Followed expansionist policy through military conquest -

Annexed Kosala (ruled by Prasenjit). Similarly, he fought with
his maternal grandfather, Chetak, the chief of Vaishali and
added Vaishali to Magadha
 Used two innovative military weapons: War engine, which was
used to those stones like catapults (Mahashila-kantaka).
Chariot with mace for mass-killing (Rathamusala).
 Began the fortification of Rajgriha to meet the danger of
invasion
 The Buddha died during his reign.
 Arranged the first Buddhist council at Rajgriha.

 Udayabhadra (Udayin) (460 BCE – 444 BCE) – Shifted capital

from Rajghira to Pataliputra.
Mahashilakantaka

Rathamusala

 Shishunaga Dynasty
(413 BCE – 345 BCE)

 Shishunaga
 Shishunaga was earlier a Amatya (high ranking official),
was later elected as king by the people
 Temporarily shifted capital to Vaishali.
 The most important achievement of Shishunaga was to
defeat Avanti (Pradyota Dynasty) and make it a part of
Magadha.

 Shishunga was succeeded by Kalashoka who convened

the 2nd Buddhist council at Vaishali
 Nanda Dynasty
(345 BCE – 321 BCE)

 Mahapadma Nanda
 Also called Ugrasena (because of his large army) was
the founder of Nanda Dynasty. This was the first
Non-Kshatriya Dynasty in India.
 The first empire builder of India, and claimed to be
the „Ekarata‟, the sole sovereign who destroyed all
other ruling princes, and ‗Sarva-Kshatriya-Antaka‟,
uprooter of the Kshatriyas.
 Added Kalinga to Magadha and brought an image of
Jina as a victory trophy. Also acquired Kosala

 Dhanananda

 Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of Nanda Dynasty.
 During his rule, Alexander invaded North-West India by
326 BC.
 Credited with the invention of Nando-pakra-mani (a
particular measuring standard)
 Chandragupta Maurya under the able guidance of
Kautilya uprooted the Nanda rule and set up the Maurya
empire.
 Causes of
Magadha‘s Success

 Due to its proximity and control over richest iron deposits
(found around south Bihar), Magadhan weapons were far
superior and effective
 Also, both of its capitals, Rajgriha and Patliputra, were
situated at strategic points. Rajgir (Surrounded by 5 hills) +
Patliputra (Surrounded by Ganga, Gandhak, Son & Ghagra
river → True Jaladurga)
 These fertile river plains provided a vast amount of
agricultural surplus, which was essential for raising a vast
standing army.
 Magadha was the first state to use elephants on a large
scale against its neighbours.
 Foreign Invasion-Persia

 In North-West, the Mahajanapads of Kamboja, Madra,
and Gandhara were continuously fighting with each
other
 Taking advantage of this political disunity, the Persian
(Iranian) empire in the 6th century BCE penetrated into
north-western India.
 The Achaemenid king Cyrus (558–529 BCE) was the first
ruler to invade the sub-continent.
 Later, Persian king Darius, in 516 BCE, annexed Punjab,
the west of Indus, and Sindh
 They introduced Kha-roshthi script (written right to left
like Arabic) in north-western India

 Alexander‘s Invasion
(327−326 BCE)

 Alexander (356–326 BCE) was the son of Philip of
Macedonia (Greece), who invaded India in 326 BCE.
 Alexander entered India through the Khyber Pass in 326
BCE.
 Except Porus, who fought the famous Battle of Hydaspas
(on Jhelum), all other kings submitted meekly. King Ambhi
of Taxila was the first to surrender.
 When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers, being war-
weary, homesick and diseased, refused to go further. To
mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge
stone altars on northern bank of Beas.


 Effect of
Alexander‘s Invasion

 Invasion led to the establishment of direct contact
between India and Greece
 It paved the way for Greek merchants and craftsmen
to establish trade between India and Greeks.
 Another significant cultural development was the
establishment of a Cosmopolitan school of arts at
Gandhara
 An indirect effect of Alexander‘s invasion was that it
paved the way for unification of north India under
Chandragupta Maurya
 Mahajanapadas Society

 Archaeologically, 6th century BCE is marked by the
beginning of Northern Black Polished Ware Pottery phase
and the second urbanisation in India (after the Harappan
Civilisation).
 Northern Black Polished Ware, which was a glossy, shining
type of pottery. The NBPW is usually unpainted, but there
are some instances of designs like wavy lines, concentric
and intersecting circles, bands, dots, etc
 The NBPW phase also marks the beginning of the use of
money in the subcontinent, as early series of punch-marked
coins
 Along with metal money, burnt bricks and ring wells too
appeared in the middle of the NBPW Phase.


 During c.600 -300 BCE, there was significant expansion in
the number and size of village settlements, towns in the
Ganga Valley.
 Pura or nagara meant a fortified town or city

 Rajdhani referred to capital city
 Nigama referred to a market town which was at an
intermediate level between grama and nagara
 Towns served as major hubs of trade and commerce - many
artisans and merchants who were organised into their
respective Guilds/Shrenis
 Both artisans and merchants lived in fixed localities in towns
known as vessas (merchant streets).
 The Setthi was a high level businessman & head of Guilds,
associated with trade and money lending.
 For export and imports, two major trans-regional routes of
the time were used - Uttarapatha (Rajaghira to Taxalia) and
Dakshinapatha (Pataliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on
the Godavari, and connected to ports on the western coast).

 The major items of import included precious stones such as
gold, lapis lazuli, jade, silver, etc., while finished crafts, textile
goods, sandalwood, and pearls were major items of export.
 Custom officials (Kammikas) and Toll officials
(Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha) levied taxes on merchandise,
and special royal officials called Rajabhatas were deputed to
safeguard the lives and property of travellers.
 Trade was facilitated by use of money termed Nishka and
Satamana
 The earliest coins are punch-marked (called so as pieces of
metals were punched with certain marks such as hill, tree,
bull, fish, crescent, elephant, etc.) and made of silver, though
a few copper coins are also found.



 The Concept of Private Property evolved during this Phase.
 The village lands were divided into cultivable plots and
were allotted family-wise.


 The plots were cultivated by the family on its own or with
hired agricultural labourers (Dasa-Kammakara).
 Bhaga Tax - One-sixth (1/6) of the produce was paid by
peasants as tax, which was collected by royal agents
 Some villages were granted to Brahmanas (Brahmadeyas) –
Brahmins cultivated the land using Labourers, used the
revenue for their living.
 Use of Iron Plough aided the Agricultural expansion.
 Rice was the staple cereal and paddy transplantation was
widely practiced. Along with rice, barley, pulses, millets,
cotton, and sugarcane were also produced.
 Administrative System

 The king enjoyed the highest official status and
ruled with the help of officials.
 There were civil servants called Amatyas to look
after the day-to-day administration.
 Popular assemblies like the sabha and the samiti
almost disappeared, and instead, a small body called
the parishad, consisting exclusively of the
Brahmanas, served as an advisory council to the
king.
 Legal and Social System

 The society was clearly divided into four varnas –
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
 The functions of each varna were clearly laid down.
According to this system, rulers and warriors were called
Kshatriyas, priests and teachers formed the Brahmanical
order, peasants and taxpayers were called Vaishyas, and
those who served all classes were called Shudras.
 The civil and criminal law was based on the varna
division. Crimes committed by Shudras against
Brahmanas and others were punished severely, while
crimes committed against Shudras were punished lightly
 Queries or doubts - r.gagan4@gmail.com
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