GR 10 PHYSICAL SCIENCE

CHEMISTRY PAPER 2

Compiled by: Miss C. Wilson (HS Birchleigh) and

Miss S. Wilson (Edenglen HS)

1
Index Page

HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT 6

Table of Physical Quantities 7

Data sheet for Paper 2 7

MODULE 1: MATTER AND MATERIALS

Unit 1: Matter and classification

1.1. Exam guidelines 9
1.2. Notes 11
1.2.1. Properties of matter
1.2.2. Mixtures
1.2.3. Element
1.2.4. Compound
1.2.5. Pure substance
1.2.6. Writing of chemical formulae
1.2.7. Metals, non-metals and metalloids
1.2.8. Electrical conductors, semiconductors and insulators
1.2.9. Thermal conductors and insulators
1.2.10. Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
1.3. Exercise 1
1.4. Exam questions
1.4.1. Multiple choice questions
1.4.2. Contextual questions

Unit 2: States of matter and the Kinetic Molecular

Theory
2.1. Exam guidelines
2.2. Notes
2.2.1. States of matter
2.2.2. Phase change
2.2.3. Heating and cooling curve
[Link]. Explanation of heating curve
2.2.4. Kinetic Molecular Theory
2.3. Exercise 2
2.4. Exam questions
2.4.1. Multiple choice questions
2.4.2. Contextual questions

2
Unit 3: Atomic structure
3.1. Exam guidelines
3.2. Notes
3.2.1. Atomic number (Z)
3.2.2. Atomic mass (A)
3.2.3. Atom
3.2.4. Ions
3.2.5. Isotopes
[Link]. Relative atomic mass
3.2.6. Electron configuration
[Link]. Orbitals
[Link]. Aufbau
[Link]. sp-notation
[Link]. Abbreviated electron configuration
3.3. Exercise 3
3.4. Exam questions
3.4.1. Multiple choice questions
3.4.2. Contextual questions

Unit 4: The Periodic Table

4.1. Exam guidelines
4.2. Notes
4.2.1. Periodic Table as on gr 10 -12 data sheets
4.2.2. Electron configuration and the periodic table
4.2.3. Periodicity
[Link]. Atomic radius
[Link]. Ionisation energy
[Link]. Electron affinity
[Link]. Electron negativity
4.3. Exercise 4
4.4. Exam questions
4.4.1. Multiple choice questions
4.4.2. Contextual questions

Unit 5: Chemical Bonds

5.1. Exam guidelines
5.2. Notes
5.2.1. Chemical bonding
5.2.2. Lewis dot diagram
5.2.3. Covalent bond
[Link]. Polar and Non-polar
[Link]. Properties of covalent bonds
5.2.4. Ionic bonds
3
[Link]. Crystal lattice
[Link]. Properties of ionic compounds
5.2.5. Metallic bond
[Link]. Properties of metals
5.2.6. Calculate relative molecular masses for covalent molecules
5.2.7. Calculate relative formula masses for ionic compounds
5.3. Exercise 5
5.4. Exam questions
5.4.1. Multiple choice questions
5.4.2. Contextual questions

4
 This document contains the questions from the
available Provincial Papers and Internal Papers (2014 to
2022).
Organised to fit with the Exam Guidelines for Physical
Sciences.

5
HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT

1. This document was compiled as an extra resource to help you perform

in Physical Science.
2. Firstly, you must make sure that you study the TERMS and
DEFINITIONS provided for each Topic.
THEORY always forms part of any test or examination, and you should
ensure that you obtain FULL MARKS for ALL THEORY questions.
REVISE terms and definitions of topics already completed frequently so
that you know by the time you are sitting for a test or an examination.
3. Read through the Exam Guidelines for each topic so that you know
what can be expected from you in tests and exams.
4. Use these NOTES to study the THEORY for each topic.
5. Your teacher will be using some of the questions to round of the work
for a specific topic. The answers for each topic will be supplied after the
topic has been completed.
6. Use the questions on a certain topic to prepare for test and
examinations. DO NOT look at the answers before attempting the
questions.
First try it yourself. Compare your answers with the answers. Mark your
work with a pencil and do corrections for your incorrect answers.
If you do not know how to answer a question, the answers are there to
guide you. Use questions that you answered incorrectly to ask your
teacher for help.
Acquaint yourself with the way in which a particular type of question
should be answered. Answers supplied are from memoranda used to
mark the questions in previous years.

6
 Table with Physical Quantities
Preferred Alternative Unit
Quantity Unit name
symbol symbol symbol
Mass m Gram g
Mole n Mole mol
Molecular mass Mr Grams per mole g∙mol-1
Mole per cubic
Concentration c mol∙dm-3
decimetre
Volume V Decimetre cube dm-3

DATA FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES GR 10

PAPER 2 (CHEMISTRY)

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME SYMBOL VALUE

Standard pressure p 1,013 x 105 Pa
Molar gas volume at STP Vm 22,4 dm3∙mol-1
Standard temperature T 273 K
Charge on electron e -1,6 × 10-19 C
Avogadro’s constant NA 6,02 × 1023 mol-1

TABLE 2: FORMULAE

m N
n n=
M NA
n m V
c or c  n=
V MV Vm

7
z

8
 MODULE 1

MATTER AND MATERIAL

UNIT 1: MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION

1.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

The material(s) of which an object is composed.

 Describe matter as being made up of particles whose properties determine
the observable characteristics of matter and its reactivity.
 Define properties of materials:
o Strength
o Brittle: Hard but likely to break easy.
Malleable: Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without
breaking or cracking.
Ductile: Ability to be stretched into a wire.
o Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance.
o Melting points and boiling points
Boiling point: The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour
pressure equals the external (atmospheric) pressure.
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient
heat, becomes a liquid.

Mixtures: heterogeneous and homogeneous

 Define a homogeneous mixture as a mixture of uniform composition and
in which all components are in the same phase, e.g., a solution of salt and
water.
 Define a heterogeneous mixture as a mixture of non-uniform composition
and of which the components can be easily identified, e.g., sand and
water.
 Give examples of heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures.
 Classify given mixtures as homogenous and heterogeneous.

Pure substances: elements and compounds

 Use symbols to represent elements and compounds.
 Define an element as a pure substance consisting of one type of atom.
 Define a compound as a pure substance consisting of two or more
different elements.
 Define a pure substance as a substance that cannot be separated into
simpler components by physical methods.
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 Classify given substances as pure or impure and as compounds or
elements.

Names and formulae of substances

 Write names of compounds from given formulae or write down formulae
of compounds from given names.
 Write names of ions from given formulae or formulae from given names.
 Write names of substances or ions ending on -ide, -ite and –ate.
 Write names of substances using the prefixes di-, tri-, etc.

Metals, metalloids and non-metals

 Classify substances as metals, metalloids and non-metals using their
properties.
 Identify the metals, their positions on the periodic table and their numbers
in comparison with the number of non-metals.
 Identify the non-metals and their positions on the periodic table.
 Describe metalloids as having properties of metals and non-metals.
 Describe the characteristic property of metalloids that show increasing
conductivity with increasing temperature (the reverse of metals), e.g.,
silicon and graphite.
 Identify the metalloids and their position on the periodic table.

Electrical conductors, semiconductors, and insulators

 Define the terms electrical conductor, semiconductor, and electrical
insulator:
o Electrical conductor: A material that allows the flow of charge.
o Semiconductor: A substance that can conduct electricity under
some conditions, but not others, making it a good medium for the
control of electrical current.
o Electrical insulator: A material that prevents the flow of charge.
 Classify materials as electrical conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators.
 Give examples of electrical conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

Thermal conductors and insulators

 Define the terms thermal conductor and thermal insulator. A thermal
conductor is a material that allows heat to pass through easily, whilst a
thermal insulator does not allow heat to pass through it.
 Describe a test to classify materials as thermal conductors and insulators.
 Give examples of materials that are thermal conductors and insulators.

Magnetic and nonmagnetic materials

 Describe how to test and classify materials as magnetic and non-
magnetic.
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 Give examples of materials that are magnetic and non-magnetic.
 Give examples of how we use magnets in daily life (in speakers,
telephones, electric motors and as compasses).

1.2. NOTES

Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Matter is made up of particles whose properties determine the

observable characteristics of matter and its reactivity.

Matter can be seen as anything that occupies space and possesses mass.
There is many different types of matter, it can be hard but brittle, soft but
strong, etc.

Air, water, soil, people, and Earth itself are all made up of matter.

1.2.1. Properties of matter.

Strength

 Strong - when it can support a heavy load without breaking, tearing,

or changing form. E.g., cement and steel.
 Weak - break or bend easily. E.g., paper and fabric.

Brittle

Hard but likely to break easily.

How easily it breaks (shatters) e.g., pottery.

Malleable

Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without breaking or

cracking.

e.g., Aluminium foil used mostly in the food industry.

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Ductile

Ability to be stretched into a wire.

e.g., Copper to make electric wire.

Density

The mass per unit volume of a substance.

An example of a dense material is concrete, and a less dense material is

polystyrene.
Lead is much denser than Aluminium.

Melting point

The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient heat, becomes a

liquid.

The melting point of water (ice) is 0ºC, that’s why water a liquid at room
temperature (25ºC), 25ºC > 0ºC (already melted).

Boiling point

The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure equals the

external (atmospheric) pressure.

The boiling point of water is 100ºC, that’s why water is a liquid at room
temperature (25ºC), 25ºC < 100ºC (not boiling yet).

Melting and boiling points of materials is specific to each material, which

helps in the classification of materials as gases, liquids, or solids at specific
temperatures.

E.g., Iron melts at 1538 ºC and boils at 2750 ºC, which makes it a solid at
room temperature (25 ºC).

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1.2.2. Mixtures

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances retain their own

properties.

A mixture’s composition can vary.

Mixtures can be separated by physical means.

E.g., air, fizzy drinks, alloys.

Homogeneous mixtures.

HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE: Is a mixture of uniform composition and

which all components are in the same phase.

 The different components cannot be distinguished from each other.

 The components are all in the same phase (state).
E.g. Fruit juice (different fruit juices),
Air (Nitrogen, Oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour),
Cool drink concentrates in water (consist of two liquids that are mixed),
Alloys (brass – Cu and Zn, Steel – Fe and C, Bronze – Cu and Sn,
Stainless steel – Fe, Ni and Cr.)

Methods to separate homogeneous mixtures

o Evaporation, liquid evaporate and solid stays behind e.g. sugar and
water.
o Distillation, evaporate the liquid and then let the liquid condense e.g.
water from a solution
o Fractional distillation, the same as distillation but at specific
temperatures so it is possible to separate two liquids with different
boiling points, e.g. alcohol and water
o Chromatography, paper or gas chromatography, smallest particles
move through the furthest and fastest where biggest particles shorter
distance and the slowest e.g. mixture of gasses, liquids or dissolved
substances, inks are mixed to get a specific colour.

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Heterogeneous mixtures.

HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE: Is a mixture of non-uniform composition

and of which the components can easily be identified.

 Particles are not in the same phase (state)

 Can see the different particles clearly.
E.g. Mud (a mixture of different soil particles and water).
Stew (the meat, vegetables and gravy is clearly distinguishable)
Salad dressing (a mixture of vinegar, oil and herbs)
Blood (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, plasma, etc.)

Methods to separate heterogeneous mixtures.

o Filtration, use filter paper with specific density that allows specific size
particles through only, e.g. sand and water.
o Separating funnel, a funnel with a small tap where the substances
have different densities when you open the tap the bottom part can be
funnelled off and tap closed again to stop top substances e.g. oil and
water.
o Decantation, throwing off the liquid at the top and leaving the solid
parts behind e.g., sand and water.
o Centrifuge, spinning fast different size particles forms layers e.g. blood,
spinning water out of washing.

1.2.3. Element

An element is a pure substance consisting of one type of atom.

It cannot be broken down into simpler substances, with either chemical or

physical means.

The smallest unit of an element is the atom or a diatomic element or a

molecule consisting out of the same element.

e.g., H, H2, He, Li, Cl2, O2, O3, S8.

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1.2.4. Compound

A compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more different

elements.

When two or more different elements combine in a fixed ratio.

The particles can be broken down by chemical means.

The smallest particle is a molecule in a covalent bond and an ion in an

ionic bond.

e.g., H2O, FeS, NaCl.

Each compound has its own formula that tells us:

 The type of elements in the compound.

 The number of atoms of each element in the compound.

SiH4 (Siliane) 1 Si-atom and 4 H-atoms.

Cl2 (Chlorine) 2 Cl-atoms.

HCl (Hydrogen chloride) 1 H-atom and 1 Cl-atom.

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NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) 1 N-atom and 2 O-atoms.

1.2.5. Pure Substance

A pure substance is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler

components by physical methods.

Pure substance can be elements or compounds.

They are substances with one type of constituent particle (same ingredient).
∴ not a mixture.

Distilled water consist only out of H2O which makes it a pure substance.

Whereas still mineral water (Valprѐ, Bon aqua, Nestlé, etc) have minerals like
calcium, magnesium, etc which makes it not pure.

Name and formulae of substances.

Each element on the periodic table has a specific name. When elements
combine compounds are formed.

 The compound’s chemical name will always include the names of the
elements that combined to form it.

o A compound of hydrogen (H) and chlorine (Cl) is hydrogen

chloride (HCl).
o A compound of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) is hydrogen oxide
(H2O), commonly known as water.
 In a compound the element on the left of the periodic table is usually
used first in naming.

16
 e.g., KCl, potassium (K) is in group 1 (left) and chlorine (Cl) in group
7 (right). Potassium therefore comes first in the compound name,
potassium chloride.

 A compound may contain ions (an atom that have either lost an
electron, positive ion, or gained an electron, negative ion). The ions
can be single (containing one element) or compound (containing two
or more different elements).

Table 1: Cations (positive ions)

Hydrogen ion 𝐻+ Lead (II) ion 𝑃𝑏2+

Lithium ion 𝐿𝑖 + Chromium (II) ion 𝐶𝑟 2+

Sodium ion 𝑁𝑎+ Manganese (II) ion 𝑀𝑛2+

Potassium ion 𝐾+ Iron (II) ion 𝐹𝑒 2+

Silver ion 𝐴𝑔+ Cobalt (II) ion 𝐶𝑜 2+

Mercury(I) ion 𝐻𝑔+ Nickel (II) ion 𝑁𝑖 2+

Copper(I) ion 𝐶𝑢+ Copper (II) ion 𝐶𝑢2+

Ammonium ion 𝑁𝐻4 + Zinc ion 𝑍𝑛2+

Oxonium ion H3O+ Aluminium ion 𝐴𝑙 3+

Beryllium ion 𝐵𝑒 2+ Chromium (III) ion 𝐶𝑟 3+

Magnesium ion 𝑀𝑔2+ Iron (III) ion 𝐹𝑒 3+

Calcium ion 𝐶𝑎2+ Cobalt (III) ion 𝐶𝑜 3+

Barium ion 𝐵𝑎2+ Chromium (VI) ion 𝐶𝑟 6+

Tin(II) ion 𝑆𝑛2+ Manganese (VII) ion 𝑀𝑛7+

17
Table 2: Anions (negative ions)

Fluoride ion 𝑭− Oxide ion 𝑶𝟐−

Chloride ion 𝑪𝒍− Peroxide ion 𝑶𝟐 𝟐−

Bromide ion 𝑩𝒓− Carbonate ion 𝑪𝑶𝟑 𝟐−

Iodide ion 𝑰− Sulphide ion 𝑺𝟐−

Hydroxide ion 𝑶𝑯− Sulphite ion 𝑺𝑶𝟑 𝟐−

Nitrite ion 𝑵𝑶𝟐 − Sulphate ion 𝑺𝑶𝟒 𝟐−

Nitrate ion 𝑵𝑶𝟑 − Thiosulphate ion 𝑺𝟐 𝑶𝟑 𝟐−

Hydrogen carbonate ion 𝑯𝑪𝑶𝟑 − Chromate ion 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟒 𝟐−

Hydrogen sulphite ion 𝑯𝑺𝑶𝟑 − Dichromate ion 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 𝟐−

Hydrogen sulphate ion 𝑯𝑺𝑶𝟒 − Manganate ion 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 𝟐−

Dihydrogen phosphate ion 𝑯𝟐 𝑷𝑶𝟒 − Oxalate ion 𝑪𝟐 𝑶𝟒 𝟐−

Hydrogen
Hypochlorite ion 𝑪𝒍𝑶− 𝑯𝑷𝑶𝟒 𝟐−
phosphate ion

Chlorate ion 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑 − Nitride ion 𝑵𝟑−

Permangate ion 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 − Phosphate ion 𝑷𝑶𝟒 𝟑−

Acetate/ethanoate ion 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶− Phosphide ion 𝑷𝟑−

 Pay special attention to the ending of the names -ide (no O-atom), -
ite (contain at least 1 O-atom) and -ate (containing the most O-atoms
of similar compound ions).

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 Prefixes, mono- (one), di- (two) and tri- (three) are also used for the
same element. e.g., SO2 – sulphur dioxide – 2 O-atoms
SO3 – sulphur trioxide – 3 O-atoms.

Table 3: Formulae, Chemical name and Common (household) name.

Formula Chemical name Common name

H2O Hydrogen oxide Water
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
HNO3 Hydrogen nitrate Nitric acid
HNO2 Hydrogen nitrite Nitrous acid
H2SO4 Hydrogen sulphate Sulphuric acid
H2SO3 Hydrogen sulphite Sulphurous acid
H2CO3 Hydrogen carbonate Carbonic acid
(COOH)2 Hydrogen oxalate Oxalic acid
NaOH Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda
NH3 Hydrogen nitride Ammonia
NaCl Sodium chloride Table salt
CaO Calcium oxide Quicklime
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime
Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia
Fe3O4 Magnetic iron oxide Magnetite
K2CO3 Potassium carbonate Potash
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Marble, limestone, chalk
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate Washing soda, soda ash
Sodium hydrogen
Baking soda, bicarbonate
NaHCO3 carbonate (Sodium
of soda
bicarbonate)
KNO3 Potassium nitrate Saltpetre
NaNO3 Sodium nitrate Chile saltpetre
MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate Epsom salt
CaSO4 Calcium sulphate Gypsum, plaster
CuSO4 Copper sulphate Blue vitriol
H2S Hydrogen sulphide Sulphureted hydrogen

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1.2.6. Writing of chemical formulae.

1. Sodium oxide

𝑁𝑎 𝑂
𝑁𝑎+ 𝑂2−

d
Two sodium’s needed to balance the -2 charge of oxygen.

Na2O

2. Iron(III) chloride

𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑙
𝐹𝑒 3+ 𝐶𝑙 −

Three chlorides needed to balance the +3 charge of iron.

FeCl3

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1.2.7. Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids.

The periodic table can be divided into 3 major groups. On the left side the
metals except for hydrogen (H) and the right side the non-metals, the division
between the two, forms a basic zig-zag line which makes out the metalloids.

NON-METALS
H
B
METALS
Si
Ge As
Sb Te
Po At

METALLOIDS
Figure 1: Diagram showing part of the periodic table.

Metals

 Solids, except for mercury (Hg).

 High melting and boiling points.
 Usually, shiny.
 Malleable and ductile.
 Good conductors of electricity (ability decrease as it becomes hot).
 Good conductor of heat.
 Usually strong and can hold large weights.
 Grey (silver) in colour, except for gold and copper.

21
Non-metals

 Solids or gases at room temperature, except bromine (Br) which is a

liquid.
 Low melting and boiling points.
 Are softer than metals except diamonds which is very hard and have
a very high melting point (consist out of C-atoms).
 Density is often low.
 Poor conductors of electricity, except graphite (consists out of C-
atoms).
 Tend to be insulators.
 Poor thermal (heat) conductors.
 Brittle, with a dull surface when it’s a solid.
 Varies in colour (have different colours).

Metalloids

 Have metal as well as non-metal properties.

 They often look like metals, but they are brittle like non-metals.
 They are neither conductors nor insulators but make excellent
semiconductors. The more it is heated the better its electrical
conductivity becomes.
 Boron (B); Silicon (Si); Germanium (Ge); Arsenic (As); Antimony (Sb);
Tellurium (Te); Polonium (Po); and Astatine (At).

22
1.2.8. Electrical conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

Electrical conductors.

A material that allows the flow of charge.

Conductors let electricity pass through them easily.

Metals are generally good conductors of electric current.
Metal’s ability to conduct electricity decrease with an increase in temperature.

Semiconductor.

A substance that can conduct electricity under some conditions, but not
others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical current.

Metalloids are weak conductors and are called semiconductors.

Metalloid’s ability to conduct electricity increase with the increase in
temperature.

Electrical insulator.

A material that prevents the flow of charge.

Non-metals are poor conductors of electricity and are called insulators (except
graphite).

e.g.,
Electrical conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Gold Silicon Sulphur
Graphite Antimony Oxygen

23
1.2.9. Thermal conductors and insulators.

Thermal conductor.

Is a material that allows heat to pass through easily.

Metals are generally good conductors of heat.

The way in which metals are arranged is the reason why they are good
conductors.

Thermal insulator.

Does not allow heat to pass through it.

Non-metals are poor conductors of heat.

 A test to classify materials as thermal conductors and insulators.

o Place a piece of substance in a beaker that is filled with boiled
water and note how fast it heats up. Be careful not to burn.
o Experiment 2 pg. 30 Docscientia Chemistry Gr 10.
 Drip a little candle wax on one end of each material being
investigated.
 Heat the other end of each material over a flame or dip it
into boiling water.
 Observe how quickly the candle wax melts, and which
candle wax melts first.

24
1.2.10. Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials.

Magnetism is a force that magnetic objects, can exert on each other

without physically touching. A magnetic object is surrounded by a
magnetic field that gets weaker as one moves further away from the
object.

 Earth behaves like a giant magnet.

 Earth’s core consists of molten iron (Fe) or nickel (Ni).
 The elements exhibit strong magnetic properties, namely Fe, Ni,
and Co (cobalt), which are called ferromagnetic materials.
 Some alloys (mixtures of metals) are also magnetic.
o Ferromagnetic materials are made up of magnetically
aligned regions called domains.
o Each domain behaves like a tiny magnet, with a north and
south pole.

 To test if a substance is magnetic use a magnet.

 Magnets are used in our everyday life’s, e.g., compasses, motors,
generators, speakers etc.

25
1.3. EXERCISE 1

1. Copy and complete the following table. Classify the following as a

mixture or a pure substance, for mixtures indicate the type of mixture:

Homogeneous or
Mixture or Pure
Substance Heterogeneous
substance
mixture
1.1. Fizzy cold drink
1.2. Steel
Iron fillings and
1.3.
sulphur powder
1.4. Smoke
Limestone
1.5.
(CaCO3)
1.6. Blood
1.7. Bottled water
1.8. Distilled water
1.9. Table salt
1.10. Air
1.11. Milk
1.12. Muesli
1.13. Bronze
1.14. Cup of coffee
Sugar
1.15.
(C12H22O11)

2. Copy and complete the following table by giving the formulae of the
compounds formed:

OH- NO3- SO42- CO32- MnO4- PO43-

Na+
Ca2+
K+
Mg2+
Al3+
NH4+

26
3. Copy and complete the following:

Common name
Formula Chemical name
(Household name)
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
3.1. 3.2. Sulphureted hydrogen
H2O 3.3. 3.4.
3.5. Copper sulphate 3.6.
CaSO4 Calcium sulphate 3.7.
3.8. Magnesium sulphate 3.9.
NaNO3 3.10. 3.11.
3.12. 3.13. Saltpetre
NaHCO3 3.14. 3.15.
3.16. Potassium carbonate Potash
3.17. Sodium hydroxide 3.18.
NH3 3.19. 3.20.
3.21. Hydrogen sulphate 3.22.
3.23. 3.24. Nitrous acid

4. Copy and complete the following table:

Metal / Thermal Electrical Magnetic /

Substance Non- conductor conductor Non-
metal / insulator / insulator magnetic
Iron
Copper
Graphite (C)
Nickel
Silicon
Sulphur
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Argon

5. Grade 10 learners were given the substances in the table below:

Bronze Salad dressing Mercury

Simple syrup Epsom salt Silver oxide
Carbon dioxide Air Salsa
Chlorine gas Iron pipe Mud

From the table above write down:

27
5.1. An element.
5.2. Homogeneous mixture.
5.3. A solid compound at room temperature.
5.4. A heterogeneous mixture.
5.5. A solid mixture.
5.6. A diatomic gas.
5.7. A liquid metal.

6. Define the following terms:

6.1. Strength
6.2. Brittle
6.3. Malleable
6.4. Ductile
6.5. Density
6.6. Boiling point
6.7. Melting point
6.8. Element
6.9. Compound
6.10. Pure substance
6.11. Electrical conductor
6.12. Semiconductor
6.13. Electrical insulator
6.14. Thermal conductor
6.15. Thermal insulator

7. Choose from the following list the description that fits with each of
the pictures below and write it down next to the pictures number.

 Element
 Compound
 Mixture of elements
 Mixture of compounds
 Mixtures of elements and compounds

Each circle represents an atom. Each different colour represents a

different kind of atom. When two atoms touch they are bonded
together.

28
7.1. 7.7.

7.2. 7.8.

7.3. 7.9.

7.4. 7.10.

7.5. 7.11.

7.6. 7.12.

29
1.4. EXAM QUESTIONS

1.4.1. Multiple choice questions (MCQ)

Four options are given as possible answers to the following questions.

Each question has only ONE correct answer. Write only the letter (A-D)
next to the question number.

1. An example of a homogeneous mixture.

A Muesli
B Petrol
C Pizza
D Smoke

2. The correct formula for silver nitrate:

A AgN
B AgNO2
C AgNO3
D AgNO

3. A substance with strong magnetic properties is ...

A Iron
B Lithium
C Phosphorous
D Argon

4. The correct formula for sodium carbonate:

A Na2CO3
B NaCO4
C Na2CO3
D NaCO3

30
5. The charge on a sulphate on is

A 1+
B 2-
C 3-
D 4+

6. Example of heterogeneous mixture.

A Petrol
B Sugar solution
C Muesli
D Tap water

7. Mixtures of metals are:

A anodes
B alloys
C ampholytes
D anions

8. Clean air can be classified as a(n) ...

A homogeneous mixture.
B compound.
C element.
D heterogeneous mixture.

9. The chemical formula for sodium sulphate is ...

A NaSO4
B Na2(SO4)2
C Na2SO4
D Na(SO4)2

31
10. The diagram below shows a chromatogram of an ink X used in
a fraud case and four inks A, B, C, and D from four suspects.

Which ink, A to D, is most likely to have been use in the fraud

case?

11. Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?

A Oil and water

B Ethanol
C Air
D Sand and water

12. Air can be classified as a / an ...

A element
B compound
C homogenous mixture
D heterogeneous mixture

13. The chemical name for Fe2(SO4)3 is ...

A iron sulphite
B iron(III) sulphate
C iron(II) sulphate
D iron sulphide

32
14. Which separation method is shown by the picture below?

A distillation
B chromatography
C purification
D sifting

15. In which of the following options are all the labels for the flow-
chart correct?

33
 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pure Impure Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Elements Compounds
A substance substance mixture mixture
Pure Impure Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
B substance substance mixture mixture
Impure Pure Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Compounds Elements
C substance substance mixture mixture
Impure Pure Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
D substance substance mixture mixture

16. A gr 10 learner puts cornflakes, raisins, sugar and milk into her
bowl for breakfast. She mixes it together. It is a ...

A Heterogeneous mixture
B Homogeneous mixture
C Pure substance
D Pure mixture

17. The correct name for K2SO4 is:

A Potassium Sulphur
B Potassium Sulphate
C Calcium Sulphur
D Calcium Sulphate

18. The correct chemical formula for Zinc (II) phosphate is:
A ZnP
B Zn2(PO4)3
C Zn3(PO4)2
D Zn(PO4)

19. Which ONE of the following is NOT a pure substance?

A 100% Orange juice

B Distilled water
C 100% Ethanol
D Sugar

34
20. Which ONE of the following materials abilities to conduct
electricity will increase as the temperature of the material
increases?

A Graphite
B Stainless steel
C Copper
D Silicon

21. Which ONE of the following is NOT a compound?

A Ozone
B Water
C Table salt
D Ammonia

22. Mixtures of metals are:

A anodes
B anions
C ampholytes
D alloys

23. When magnesium and hydroxide ions bond, the following

compound will form.

A MgOH
B Mg(OH)2
C Mg2OH
D MgH

24. Which ONE of the following will show properties of metal and
non-metal elements?

A Aluminium
B Carbon
C Phosphorus
D Silicon

35
25. A carbonate ion has the following formula:

A CO3-
B ClO3-
C ClO32-
D CO32-

26. Which ONE of the following will show properties of metal and
non-metal elements?

A Aluminium
B Boron
C Phosphorus
D Sulphur

27. A chlorate ion has the following formula:

A Cl-
B ClO-
C ClO2-
D ClO3-

28. The correct formula for bicarbonate of soda is ...

A CaCO3
B KHCO3
C Na2CO3
D NaHCO3

29. Which ONE of the following is NOT a property of non-metals?

A It has a metallic shine.

B It breaks when it is hit with a hard object.
C It is an insulator, but there are a few exceptions.
D It has lower melting and boiling points than metals.

36
30. Which ONE of the following is an example of a microscopic
property of matter?

A Strength of the material.

B Type of bonds.
C Solubility.
D Density.

31. Which ONE of the following is an example of an impure

substance which is a homogeneous mixture?

A Filtered tap water

B Carbon bisulfide
C White copper (II) sulphate
D Paraffin

32. A compound contains X2+ and Y3- ions. A possible formula for
the compound is:

A 3X2Y
B X2Y3
C X3Y2
D (XY)6

33. Which ONE of the following substances is NOT a compound?

A CBr4
B CH3Br
C CH2Br2
D Br2

34. Which ONE of the following is a homogeneous mixture?

A Brine
B Water
C Carbon dioxide
D Sulphuric acid

37
35. Element A have a charge of 3+ and element B a charge of 2-.
A possible formula for a compound than can form is:

A A3B2
B A3B2
C (AB)6
D A2B3

36. Which formula of the metal M does not fit?

A MSO4
B MO
C MCO3
D MCl

1.4.2. Contextual questions

1. The circuit below was assembled by a group of learners in grade

10 to determine the electrical conductivity of different materials.
The following materials were tested during the experiment to
check whether the light bulb will light up or not.

Glass, Brass, Copper, Plastic, Rubber, Paper, Steel

1.1. Define electrical conductor. (1)

38
1.2. Copy and complete the following table by writing YES or NO in
your answer book. Stating whether the bulb will light up nor not.
(6)

Material Light bulb lights up

E.g. Wood No
Glass
Brass
Copper
Plastic
Rubber
Steel

1.3. From the list above identify TWO non-magnetic materials. (4)
1.4. Which material from the above list is classified as an element?
(1)
[12]

2.
2.1. What is a compound? (2)

2.2. What is the difference between a homogeneous and a

heterogeneous mixture? (4)

2.3. Copy and complete the following table by indicating whether the
substances is pure, a homogeneous mixture or a heterogeneous
mixture, by placing a (X) in the correct column. (6)

Heterogeneous Homogeneous Pure

Substance mixture mixture substance
2.3.1. Soda water
2.3.2. Coffee with milk
and sugar
2.3.3. Carbon dioxide
gas
2.3.4. Oil and vinegar
2.3.5. Concentrated
swimming pool
acid
2.3.6. Sugar and sand
[12]

39
3.
3.1. Give the chemical name of the following compounds:
3.1.1. Li2O
3.1.2. Al(NO3)3
3.1.3. NO2
3.1.4. KMnO4
3.1.5. MgCO3 (5)

3.2. Give the chemical formula for each of the following compounds:
3.2.1. Copper (II) sulphide
3.2.2. Mercury (II) chloride
3.2.3. Barium sulphite
3.2.4. Ammonia
3.2.5. Silver bromide (5)
[10]

4. A group of Grade 10 learners combined different substances to

make heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures with water.
Among these were the following:

4.1. Define the following terms and give an example of each from the
above mixtures.
4.1.1. Heterogeneous mixture. (3)
4.1.2. Homogeneous mixture. (3)
40
4.2. Name the separation method that will be used to separate:
4.2.1. B (1)
4.2.2. D (1)

4.3. Explain how the learners would be able to separate a mixture of

iron fillings and sulphur powder. (2)
[10]

5. Most substances used in our daily lives are either pure

substances or mixtures.

5.1. Define the term pure substance. (1)

5.2. Complete the table below. Write down only the answer next to
the question number (5.2.1. – 5.2.4.) in your ANSWER BOOK.

SUBSTANCE ELEMENT / COMPOUND REASON

/ MIXTURE
Diamond 5.2.1. 5.2.2.
Air 5.2.3. 5.2.4.
(4)

5.3. Explain why pots and pans are made of metal but the handles
are made of plastic or wood. (2)

5.4. Write down the chemical formulae of the following compounds.

5.4.1. Table salt. (2)
5.4.2. Calcium hydroxide (2)
[11]

41
6.
6.1. Differentiate between an element and a compound. (4)

6.2. The table below is a key of elements.

Use the key and the diagrams A, B and C above to answer the
questions that follow

6.2.1. Which compound (A, B or C) is considered to be an element?

(1)
6.2.2. Write down the chemical formulae for each of the compounds
represented by A, B and C. (3)
6.2.3. Write down the CHEMICAL NAME for compounds A, B and C.
(3)
[11]
7.
7.1. Materials have different properties for different applications.
Give four properties of materials we need to consider selecting
a material for an application. (4)

7.2. Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous

mixtures. (2)

7.3. A mixture of salt water and water and clean sand in an

Erlenmeyer flask can be separated by decanting.
7.3.1. What is meant by decanting? (1)
7.3.2. After the removal of the sand, explain how the salt can be
removed from the water? (2)
[9]

42
8. Give the name for the following symbols / formulae:
8.1. Al3+
8.2. Mn
8.3. Ag+
8.4. HCO3-
8.5. MgSO4 (5)

9.
9.1. Consider the polyatomic ion MnO42-.
9.1.1. Give the name of the ion. (1)

9.2. Write down the chemical formula of the product that forms when:
9.2.1. SO42- and Cu2+ bond. (1)
2+ -
9.2.2. Ca and OH bond. (2)
9.2.3. Sodium ion and Nitrite ion bond. (2)
9.2.4. Magnesium ions bond to Phosphate ions. (2)
[8]

10. All the objects that we see in the world around us, are made of
matter. Matter makes up the air we breathe, the ground we walk
on, the food we eat and the animals and plants that live around
us. Even our own human bodies are made of matter.

Different objects can be made of different types of materials (the

matter from which objects are made). For example, a cupboard
(an object) is made of wood, nails, hinges and knobs (the
materials). The properties of the materials will affect the
properties of the object. In the example of the cupboard, the
strength of the wood and metals make the cupboard strong and
durable. It is very important to understand the properties of
materials, so that we can use them in our homes, in industry and
in other applications.

10.1. Define the terms:

10.1.1. Malleable. (2)
10.1.2. Homogeneous mixtures. (2)

43
10.2. Copy and complete the following tale of mixtures and pure
substances, and indicating the type of mixture or pure substance
it belongs to. Make an X under the correct heading. (4)

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Substances Element Compound
mixture mixture
Salt and
water
Sugar and
sand
CuSO4
crystals
N2 gas
[8]

11.
11.1. Give the definition of a pure substance. (1)

11.2. Classify the following as homogeneous, heterogeneous, or pure

substance.
11.2.1. Stainless steel. (1)
11.2.2. Aluminium foil. (1)
11.2.3. Electrolyte solution (containing salts). (1)

11.3. Give the common names (household) of the following:

11.3.1. Calcium carbonate. (1)
11.3.2. MgSO4∙7H2O (1)
[6]

12.
12.1. Define the following terms:
12.1.1. Brittle (1)
12.1.2. Ductile (1)
12.1.3. Density (1)
12.1.4. Element (1)
12.1.5. Malleable (1)
12.1.6. Electrical conduction (1)
12.1.7. Boiling point (2)

44
12.2. Consider the following list of materials and answer the
questions that follow:

Ice; Argon gas; Iron nail; Copper wire;

Oxygen gas; Silicon chip; Aluminium foil;
Sulphur powder; Zinc nail.

12.2.1. Which substance conduct electricity better when it is heated?

(1)

12.2.2. Which substance will conduct electricity the best? (1)

12.2.3. Which substance is a compound? (1)

12.2.4. Which substance cannot be separated into simpler components

by physical methods (1)

12.3. Write down the correct formulae for the compounds that are
formed when you combine:

12.3.1. Potassium and oxygen (1)

12.3.2. Sodium and oxygen (1)
12.3.3. Lithium and chlorine (1)
12.3.4. Potassium and chlorine (1)
12.3.5. Ammonium and nitrate (1)
12.3.6. Ammonium and hydroxide (1)
12.3.7. Calcium and hydroxide (1)
12.3.8. Calcium and permanganate (1)

12.4. Give the formulae for the following compounds:

12.4.1. Hydrochloric acid (1)

12.4.2. Nitric acid (1)
12.4.3. Ozone (1)
12.4.4. Saltpetre (1)
12.4.5. Caustic coda (1)
12.4.6. Table salt (1)
12.4.7. Marble (1)
12.4.8. Sodium carbonate (1)
[28]

45
13. Give the chemical formulae of the following:
13.1. Sulphate ion (1)
13.2. Ammonium ion (1)
13.3. Sodium hydroxide (1)
13.4. Marble (1)
13.5. Washing soda (1)
13.6. Quicklime (1)
13.7. Nitrous acid (1)
13.8. Milk of magnesia (1)
13.9. Calcium carbonate (1)
13.10. Blue vitriol (1)
[10]

46
UNIT 2: STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC
MOLECULAR THEORY

2.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

Three states of matter

 Describe the particle nature of matter by referring to diffusion and
Brownian motion.
Diffusion: The movement of atoms or molecules from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Brownian motion: The random movement of microscopic particles
suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by collisions between these
particles and the molecules of the liquid or gas.
 List and characterise the three states of matter.
 Define freezing point, melting point, and boiling point.
Boiling point: The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure
equals the external (atmospheric) pressure.
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid, given sufficient heat,
becomes a liquid. Freezing point: The temperature at which a liquid
change to a solid by the removal of heat.
 Interpret/Draw heating and cooling curves and interpret data given on
heating and cooling curves.
 Identify the physical state of a substance at a specific temperature,
given the melting point and the boiling point of the substance.
 Define melting, evaporation, freezing, sublimation, and condensation
as changes in state.
Melting: The process during which a solid change to a liquid by the
application of heat.
Evaporation: The change of a liquid into a vapour at any temperature
below the boiling point. (Note: Evaporation takes place at the
surface of a liquid, where molecules with the highest kinetic
energy are able to escape. When this happens, the average kinetic
energy of the liquid is lowered, and its temperature decreases.
Freezing: The process during which a liquid change to a solid by the
removal of heat.
Sublimation: The process during which a solid change directly into a
gas without passing through an intermediate liquid phase.
Condensation: The process during which a gas or vapour changes to
a liquid, either by cooling or by being subjected to increased
pressure.

47
Kinetic Molecular Theory
 Describe a solid, a liquid, and a gas according to the Kinetic
Molecular Theory in terms of particles of matter. According to the
Kinetic Molecular Theory:
o Matter consists of small particles.
o The particles are in constant motion.
o There are forces of attraction between the particles.
o Particles collide (with the sides of the container and each
other) and exert pressure.
o The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles.
o A phase change may occur when the energy of particles
changes.

2.2. NOTES

The physical state (phase) of substances is one way to classify matter.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory with Intermolecular forces forms the basis
for solid (s), liquid (ℓ), and gas (g).

Robert Brown studied pollen grains that was suspended in liquid. He

noted that the pollen grains had jerky random motion, this later was called
the Brownian motion.

Microscopic view of movement of a small

particle suspended in a liquid.

Diffusion: The movement of atoms or molecules from an area of

higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Brownian motion: The random movement of microscopic particles

suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by collisions between these
particles and the molecules of the liquid or gas.
48
2.2.1. States of matter

Table 1: States of matter (phases).

Solid (s) Liquid (ℓ) Gas (g)

Packed close together

Arranged irregularly
in a regular Packed together in an
and spread very far
arrangement or irregular arrangement.
apart.
lattice.
Does not move freely,
Move about freely in a Have enough kinetic
but vibrate about their
confined space, some energy to enable them
fixed positions, almost
kinetic energy. to move random.
no kinetic energy.
Fixed volume but take The matter expands
Fixed volume and
on the shape of the to occupy whatever
shape.
container. volume is available.
Have attractive
Have almost no
Have strong attractive (intermolecular) forces
attractive
(intermolecular) forces between the particles,
(intermolecular) forces
between the particles. but the forces are
between the particles.
weaker than in solids.
Liquids exert pressure
Gas exerts pressure
Cannot be in all directions and
in all directions and
compressed. can be slightly
can be compressed.
compressed.
Specific boiling point
Specific melting point Specific condensation
and freezing point
under standard points under standard
under standard
conditions. conditions.
conditions.

49
2.2.2. Phase change

During a phase change:

 The physical properties as well as the potential energy of the
substance change.
 The chemical composition (formula) stays the same.

Substances undergoes phase change because of specific boiling points;

melting points; and freezing points of a specific substance.

Boiling point: The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour

pressure equals the external (atmospheric) pressure.

Melting point: The temperature at which a solid given sufficient heat,

becomes a liquid.

Freezing point: The temperature at which a liquid change to a solid

by the removal of heat.

Table 2: Melting and Boiling points.

Substance Melting point (ºC) Boiling point

(ºC)
Metals
Copper 1 083 2 600
Mercury -39 357
Sodium 98 892
Magnesium 650 1 107
Lead 327 1 750
Iron 1 536 3 000
Metalloids
Silicon 1 420 3 280
Germanium 940 2 830
Salts
Table salt (NaCl) 801 1 413
Rust (Fe2O3) 1565 decomposes

50
Melting: The process during which a solid change to a liquid by the
application of heat.

Evaporation: The change of a liquid into a vapour at any temperature

below the boiling point.

Evaporation takes place at the surface of a liquid, where molecules with

the highest kinetic energy are able to escape. When this happens the
average kinetic energy of the liquid is lowered, and its temperature
decreases.

Table 3: Difference between boiling and evaporation.

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a specific temperature Takes place at any temperature
(boiling point). below boiling point.
Takes place at the surface of the
Takes place throughout the liquid.
liquid only.
Takes place when there are more
Takes place when the pressure of the
high energy particles, which can
vapour (gas) in the bubbles is equal
overcome the attraction forces and
to the pressure of the atmosphere.
escape from the liquid.

Sublimation is the process where a solid changes directly to a gas

without going through an intermediate liquid state, by adding heat.

51
Deposition is the process where a gas changes directly to a solid
without going through an intermediate liquid state, by the removal of
heat.

Condensation is a process where a gas changes to a liquid by

cooling or increasing the pressure.

Freezing: The process during which a liquid change to a solid by the

removal of heat.

When the melting and boiling point of a substance is known the state (s;
ℓ; or g) of the substance can be determined at any temperature.

e.g., the melting point for HF is -83ºC and the boiling point is 20ºC, HF will
be a solid at -90ºC and a gas at 25ºC.

2.2.3. Heating and Cooling curve

A heating curve of a substance gives the changes in temperature as it

moves from a solid to a liquid to a gas.

A cooling curve gives the changes in temperature as it moves from a gas

to a liquid to a solid.

 An important observation is that as a substance melts or

boils, the temperature remains constant until the substance
has change state completely.
 This is because all the heat energy goes into breaking or forming
the bonds between the molecules.
 Phase change:
o Temperature and kinetic energy remain the same.
o Potential energy changes.

52
[Link]. Explanation of heating curve

AB Solid absorb energy without melting. The temperature increases.

The particles will vibrate more. The kinetic energy increases.
BC Substance begins to melt. The temperature remains the same till
all the solid particles has melted. Movement of the particles
remains the same. The potential energy increases.
CD The liquid absorb energy without boiling. The temperature
increases. The particles move faster. The average kinetic energy
increases.
DE The substance boils. The temperature remains the same while
its boiling until all the particles becomes a gas. The movement of
the particles remains the same. The potential energy increases.
EF The vapour particles absorb energy. The temperature increases.
The particles move faster. The average kinetic energy increases.

2.2.4. The Kinetic Molecular Theory

The kinetic theory of matter attempts to explain the behaviour of

matter in different phases.

The kinetic theory of matter is composed of particles which have a

certain amount of energy which allows them to move at different speeds
depending on the temperature (Energy). There are spaces between the
particles and attractive forces between particles when they come
closer together.

53
Table 4: Kinetic Molecular Theory for the three states of matter, solid,
liquid, and gas.

Property of
Solid Liquid Gas
matter

Diagram

Atoms or Atoms or Atoms or

Particles
molecules. molecules. molecules.
More energy High energy
than in a solid, and are
Low energy,
Energy and but less energy constantly
particles vibrate
movement of than a liquid. moving.
around a fixed
particles. Collisions Collisions
point.
causing causing
pressure. pressure.
Very little space
between Bigger spaces
Spaces Large spaces
particles. than solids, but
between because of high
Particles are smaller than
particles. energy.
tightly packed gases.
together.
Weak forces of
Very strong Weaker forces
attraction
Attractive forces forces of of attraction
because of the
between attraction. than in solids,
large empty
particles. Solids have a but stronger
spaces between
fixed volume. than in gases.
particles.
A gas becomes
a liquid or solid
when it is
Becomes a gas cooled.
Solids become if temperature is Particles have
liquids or gases increased. less energy,
Changes in
if their Becomes a move closer
phase.
temperature is solid if together so
increased. temperature is attractive forces
decreased. increase, and
the gas
becomes a solid
or a liquid.

54
2.2. EXERCISE 2
1. The following table gives the melting and boiling points of
various substances under specific circumstances.

Boiling Melting Boiling

Melting
Substance point Substance point point
point (ºC)
(ºC) (ºC) (ºC)
Water Bromine
0 100 -7 59
(H2O) (Br2)
Ethanol
-114 78.4 Iodine (I2) 114 184
(C2H6O)
Hydrogen
Barium (Ba) 704 1 700 chloride -115 -85
(HCl)
Ammonia
Brass 900 1 100 -78 -33
(NH3)
Hydrogen
Calcium
850 1 439 fluoride -83 20
(Ca)
(HF)
Hydrogen
Paraffin 52 300 telluride -49 -2
(H2Te)
Phosphorus Octane
44 280 -57 126
(P) (C8H18)
Potassium Acetic acid
63 762 17 118
(K) (C2H4O2)
Chlorine Propanol
-101 -35 -127 98
(Cl2) (C3H8O)
Use the table of melting and boiling points to determine the
state (phase) in which you will find the following:
1.1. Octane at room temperature (25ºC).
1.2. Hydrogen oxide at 110ºC.
1.3. Hydrogen nitride at -50ºC.
1.4. Brass at 1000ºC.
1.5. Phosphorus at 40ºC.
1.6. Chlorine at 20ºC.
1.7. Hydrogen fluoride at 19º.
1.8. Potassium at 765ºC.
1.9. Propanol at -130ºC.
1.10. Iodine at 120ºC.
55
2. In which phase (state) would you find a substance if it has the
following property / properties:

2.1. Packed close together in a regular arrangement or lattice.

2.2. Fixed volume but take on the shape of the container.

2.3. Arranged irregularly and spread very far apart.

2.4. Cannot be compressed.

2.5. Have weaker intermolecular forces between the particles.

2.6. Have enough kinetic energy to enable them to move randomly.

2.7. Specific condensation points under standard conditions.

2.8. Exerts pressure in all directions and can be compressed.

3. Study the following diagram and answer the questions that

follow:

3.1. Name the phase of A, B and, C.

3.2. Name the processes 1 to 6.

56
4. Study the heating curve of an unknown substance below and
answer the questions that follow:

4.1. Name the state(s) in which you would find the substance
between the following points:
4.1.1. AB
4.1.2. BC
4.1.3. CD
4.1.4. DE
4.1.5. EF

4.2. Write down the alphabet letter(s) where the following processes
will take place.
4.2.1. Melting
4.2.2. Boiling

4.3. What is the:

4.3.1. Boiling point value?
4.3.2. Melting point value?

4.4. Give the chemical formula of the substance.

4.5. How will the average kinetic energy of the particles of the
substance be affected between:
4.5.1. AB
4.5.2. BC
4.5.3. EF

57
5. Define the following:
5.1. Diffusion
5.2. Brownian
5.3. Freezing point
5.4. Melting point
5.5. Boiling point
5.6. Melting
5.7. Evaporation
5.8. Freezing
5.9. Sublimation
5.10. Condensation

6. Study the cooling curve of an unknown substance below and

answer the questions that follow:

6.1. Name the state(s) in which you would find the substance
between the following points:
6.1.1. AB
6.1.2. BC
6.1.3. CD
6.1.4. DE
6.1.5. EF

58
6.2. Name the processes that takes place between:
6.2.1. BC
6.2.2. DE

6.3. What is the temperature at which condensation takes place?

6.4. What is the temperature at which freezing takes place?

6.5. Give the name of the unknown substance (use the table of
melting and boiling points in question 1).

6.6. Explain why the temperature between points BC stays the

same.

2.3. EXAM QUESTIONS

2.3.1. Multiple choice questions (MCQ)

Four options are given as possible answers to the following questions.

Each question has only ONE correct answer. Write only the letter (A-D)
next to the question number.

1. When a solid changes directly into a gas ... takes place.

A sublimation
B condensation
C dissociation
D evaporation

2. According to the kinetic molecular theory the particles of a solid

...

A vibrate in their fixed positions and have a fixed shape.

B are free to move and are compressible.
C are free to move and have a fixed shape.
D vibrate in their fixed positions and are compressible.

59
3. Which ONE of the following substances undergoes the
process of sublimation?
A Water
B Wood
C Solid carbon dioxide
D Sodium chloride

4. The change in phase from a gas to liquid is called ...

A melting
B condensation
C freezing
D boiling

5. The graph below shows the heating curve of a substance.

In which part(s) of the graph does the substance gain kinetic

energy?

A BC only
B CD only
C AB and CD
D AB, BC and CD
6. Carbon dioxide can change directly from the solid phase to the
gas phase. The process is known as ...

A sublimation
B evaporation
C decomposition
D melting

60
7. When a substance goes through the phase change from a gas
to solid directly. It’s called ...

A sublimation
B solidifying
C evaporation
D deposition

8. The movement of atoms or a molecule from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration is known as ...

A Brownian motion
B Diffusion
C Evaporation
D Osmosis

9. Which ONE of the following will be a vapour at room

temperature?

Melting point Boiling point

Substance
(ºC) (ºC)
A Oxygen -219 -183
B Diamond 3 550 4 830
C Pentane -130 36
D Water 0 100

10. Iodine crystals that turn into iodide vapour are an example:

A Sublimation
B Evaporation
C Condensation
D Deposition

11. 200cm3 of a certain compound is frozen in the freezer at -5ºC.

At what temperature will 400cm3 of the same substance freeze?

A -10ºC
B -5ºC
C 0ºC
D 5ºC

61
12. Water droplets form on the side of a cupboard when a kettle is
boiling:

A Sublimation
B Condensation
C Melting
D Boiling

13. If the state of a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.

A The kinetic energy of the particles decreases.

B The potential energy of the particles increases.
C The kinetic energy of the particles increases.
D The potential energy of the particles stays the same.

14. Dry ice (Carbon dioxide) that turns into a vapour is an example
of:

A Deposition
B Sublimation
C Melting
D Boiling

15. If the state of a substance changes from a liquid to a solid.

A The kinetic energy of the particles decreases.

B The potential energy of the particles increases.
C The kinetic energy of the particles increases.
D The potential energy of the particles stays the same.

16. The movement of atoms or a molecule from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration is known as ...

A Brownian motion
B Diffusion
C Evaporation
D Osmosis

62
17. When carbon dioxide gas is frozen quickly under very low
temperatures, which ONE of the following processes will take
place?

A melting
B freezing
C deposition
D solidifying

2.3.2. Contextual questions

1. The table below shows the melting and boiling points of some
substances in the laboratory.

Substance Melting point (ºC) Boiling point (ºC)

Ethanol -117 78
Butane -138 0
Fluorine -220 -188
Iodine 114 183
Acetic acid 16 118
Benzene 5 80
Sulphur 115 444

1.1. Draw up a similar table as indicated below. Complete the table

by indicating which of the substances listed in the table above,
are solids, liquids and gases at room temperature (25ºC). (7)

Solid Liquid Gas

1.2. Name the substance that is a liquid at 100ºC. (1)

1.3. Write down the name of the substances that are solids between
100 and 113ºC. (2)

1.4. Write down the name of the substance that is a solid at 400ºC.
(1)

1.5. Draw labelled diagrams that clearly represent the PARTICLE

ARRANGEMENT in solids, liquids and gases. (6)
[17]
63
2. Below is the heating curve of an unknown substance.
Study the graph and answer the questions.

2.1. Name the physical state(s) of the substance at points A, B, C

and D? (6)

2.2. At which temperature does this substance melt? (2)

2.3. Indicate the temperature that represents the boiling point of the
substance? (2)

2.4. Using the kinetic molecular theory, describe the change that
this substance undergoes from A to C. (4)
[14]

3. Ice blocks was heated. The following graph of temperature

versus time was drawn. Write down the letter(s) corresponding
to the statement made below.

64
3.1. The liquid absorbs energy without boiling. (2)
3.2. Vapour. (2)
3.3. Ice begins to melt. (2)
3.4. Temperature of the gas increases. (2)
3.5. The water boils. (2)
3.6. Ice (solid). (2)
3.7. Water (liquid) (2)
[14]

4. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow:

GAS C
E F D
LIQUID
A

SOLID B

4.1. Which of the three phases respectively have the highest and
lowest kinetic energy? (2)

4.2. Which of the changes A to F, represents the following phase

changes?
4.2.1. Evaporation
4.2.2. Liquefaction
4.2.3. Solidification
65
4.2.4. Sublimation
4.2.5. Condensation (5)

4.3. Deposition is the opposite of sublimation. Which one of the

changes A to F represents deposition? (1)

4.4. Give two examples of substances that sublimate. (2)

5. A small amount of sulphur powder is heated in the laboratory

starting from room temperature until all the sulphur has
evaporated. The following idealized temperature versus time
was obtained.

5.1. What is the approximate temperature at A? (1)

5.2. Say, with reasons, which parts of the graph represent the
melting and the boiling point respectively. (4)

5.3. Which parts (AB, BC, CD, DE or EF) of the graph represent
sulphur in each of the following phases?
5.3.1. Gas phase
5.3.2. Solid phase
5.3.3. Liquid phase (5)

5.4. Suppose you are a researcher working in a laboratory. You are

asked to explain to a group of students what would happen to
sulphur fumes in a closed transparent container which is cooled
down from 460ºC to room temperature. How will you explain to
them what happened in the container? (4)
[14]
66
6. One night an explosion in a learner’s house awakened the
family. To his mother’s surprise, the cause of the explosion was
inside the freezer. When they opened it, it was full of broken and
chunks of ice. The learner admitted that he had wanted to do
his own little science experiment to see if water can really turn
into ice, but he had used his mother’s jam bottles that are made
of glass to freeze the water.

To separate the glass from the ice chunks, the learner’s mother
threw all the pieces into a pot and put it on the stove. The learner
thought this would be the perfect opportunity to see how long the
ice take to melt.

Look at the following graph and answer the questions that follow:

6.1. Write down the aim of the experiment that the learner
conducted with his mother. (2)
6.2. Match the following phases / processes with the stages
indicated on the above graph: AB, BC, CD, DE, EF.
6.2.1. evaporation
6.2.2. melting
6.2.3. solid (3)

67
6.3. Referring to the increase in temperature, intermolecular forces
and average kinetic energy between molecules, explain what is
happening between parts:
6.3.1. A and B (3)
6.3.2. E and F (3)

6.4. Give THREE characteristics of any ONE of the phases (gas,

liquid, solid). (3)
[14]

7. Learners are investigating the effect of increasing temperature

on two different substances (1 and 2) over a period of time.
Study the temperature versus time graphs below and answer the
questions that follow:

7.1. Write down the:

7.1.1. Dependent variable (1)
7.1.2. Independent variable (1)

68
7.2. Write down an investigative question for this investigation. (2)

7.3. In which phase is substance 1 at -10 ºC? (1)

7.4. At what temperature does substance 2 melt? (1)

7.5. Define the term boiling point. (2)

7.6. State the phase change that takes place at B. (1)

Temperature remains constant at B.

7.7. Explain this phenomenon in terms of the spaces and the forces
between the particles. (4)

7.8. Which substance on the graph has the weakest intermolecular

force between the molecules in the liquid? Give a reason for the
answer. (2)

7.9. Name the apparatus used to measure the average kinetic energy
of the particles. (1)

7.10. How does the average kinetic energy of substance 1 compare to

the average kinetic energy of substance 2 at 90 ºC?

Write down LESS THAN, EQUAL TO or GREATER THAN and

give a reason for the answer. (2)
[18]

69
8. Learners conducted an experiment to determine the heating cure
of water. They heated ice in a beaker and recorded the
temperature of the water over a period of time. The results for
the experiment are shown in the graph below.

8.1. Write down a suitable aim for the experiment. (2)

8.2. Write down the ...

8.2.1. Dependant variable (1)
8.2.2. Independent variable (1)

8.3. The following apparatus and chemicals were used during the
experiment: A bunsen burner, a tripod stand and gauze, a
beaker, ice, a thermometer and a stopwatch.

Write down, in point form, the method used to conduct the

experiment. (4)

8.4. Referring to intermolecular forces and average kinetic energy

between molecules, explain what is happening ...
8.4.1. Between points D and E. (3)
8.4.2. At point A. (3)

8.5. Are the changes shown by the results in the graph above,
physical, or chemical? (3)

8.6. If the heating continues beyond point E, will the water be

changed into oxygen and hydrogen? Explain your answer. (3)
[20]

70
9. Look at the following diagram and answer the questions:

9.1. Match the following to show which part of the graph represents
the water in each of the following phases:
COLUMN A COLUMN B
9.1.1. Gas phase A 1
9.1.2. Solid phase B 2
9.1.3. Liquid phase C 3
D 4
E 5
(3)

9.2. The following table represents the results of the temperature that
was taken every 5 minutes for an hour.

Time
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
(min)
Temp
-5 -2 0 0 1 4 8 12 12 16 20 23 26
(ºC)

Use the information in the table to plot an accurate graph of the

data obtained. (5)
[8]

71
10. Consider the following diagram which represents the phase
changes which acetone (C3H6O) undergoes when heated.

Answer the following questions:

10.1. Define the term boiling point of a substance. (2)

10.2. At which point did the acetone start to melt? (1)

10.3. What was the temperature at this point? (1)

10.4. Which phase(s) is/are present between D and E? (2)

10.5. Is the Kinetic energy from B to C: INCREASING / DECREASING

/ REMAINING THE SAME? (2)

10.6. Explain briefly, with reference to the Kinetic Molecular Theory,

how the acetone particles are behaving between C and D. (4)
[12]

72
11. Study the heating curve of ethanol and answer the questions that
follow:

11.1. Define the following terms:

11.1.1. Freezing (2)
11.1.2. Sublimation (2)

11.2. Write down the freezing point ethanol. (1)

11.3. Use the Kinetic Molecular Theory to explain what happens to the
ethanol particles from BC. (3)

11.4. Indicate the phase(s) of ethanol during the following intervals:

11.4.1. AB (1)
11.4.2. CD (1)
11.4.3. DE (1)

11.5. Discuss the difference between evaporation and boiling point by

referring to the temperature the processes take place at. (2)
[13]

73
12.
12.1. Define the term sublimation. (1)

12.2. Grade 10 learners investigated the melting and boiling points of

two different substances, a solution of salt and water and
ethanol.

The following graph represents the change in temperature for

the two substances which were heated over time.

The heating curves of substances X and Y.

12.2.1. At which temperature does substance X melt? (1)

12.2.2. At which temperature does substance Y boil? (1)

12.2.3. In which state is substance X at -20ºC? (1)

12.2.4. In which state is substance Y at -20ºC? (1)

74
12.2.5. A to F represent certain stadiums in the heating of substance Y.
Why does the temperature between points DE remain constant?
(3)

12.2.6. Which substance X or Y represent the salt solution? (1)

12.2.7. Give a reason for your answer in Question 12.2.6. (1)

[10]

13.
13.1. Define the following:
13.1.1. Diffusion. (2)
13.1.2. Melting point. (1)

13.2. The grade 10 learners placed 250g of grated wax in a glass

beaker on a hot plate and heated it uniformly at a constant rate.
As represented in the diagram below:

They recorded the following results:

Time (min) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Temperature
25 30 34 39 44 49 53 53 53 57 61
(ºC)

13.2.1. Identify the following variables:

[Link]. Independent. (1)
[Link]. Dependent. (1)
[Link]. A control. (1)

75
13.2.2. Plot the heating curve of wax and place the time on the x-axis.
(5)

13.2.3. In which phase is the wax during the following times?

[Link]. 0 – 10 min (1)
[Link]. 12 – 16 min (2)

13.2.4. What type of energy change takes place during the following
times?
[Link]. 12 – 16 min (2)
[Link]. 16 – 20 min (2)

13.2.5. Why does the temperature at times 12 – 16 min remain

constant? (2)
[20]

76
UNIT 3: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

3.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

Models of the atom

 Describe the major contributions (Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford,
Bohr, and Chadwick) to the atomic model used today.

Structure of the atom: protons, neutrons, electrons

 Define the atomic number as the number of protons in an atom of an
element.
 Given a periodic table or suitable data, determine for an atom/ion the:
o Atomic number
o Number of protons
o Number of electrons
o Number of neutrons
o Mass number
 Show that by removing electrons from an atom the neutrality of the
atom is changed.
 Determine the charge on an ion after removing electrons from or
adding electrons to an atom.

Isotope
 Define isotopes as atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
 Define relative atomic mass as the mass of a particle on a scale
where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12.
 Calculate the relative atomic mass of naturally occurring elements
from the percentage of each isotope in a sample of the naturally
occurring element and the relative atomic mass of each of the
isotopes.
 Represent atoms using the notation AZ E where E is the symbol of the
element, Z is the atomic number and A is the mass number.

Electron configuration
 Use Aufbau diagrams (orbital box diagrams) and the electron
configuration notation (sp notation) to give electronic arrangements
of atoms up to Z = 20.
 Know that every orbital corresponds to a specific energy value that
electrons have when occupying it. Describe atomic orbitals as the

77
 most probable regions in space where electrons that have the
specific energy corresponding to the orbital are found.
 Describe the shape of s-orbitals as spherical and that of p-orbitals as
pairs of dumb-bells aligned along the x-, y- and z-axes at 90° to each
other.
 State Hund's rule: No pairing in p orbitals before there is not at least
one electron in each of them.
 State Pauli's Exclusion Principle: Maximum of two electrons per
orbital provided that they spin in opposite directions.

3.2. NOTES

 Atoms are the basic building block of all matter.

 An atom consists out of a nucleus (centre) which contains
protons (p+) and neutrons (no).
 The protons are positively charged.
 The neutrons are neutral.
 Protons and neutrons have the same mass (very small), 1,67 ×
10−27 kg, called the atomic mass unit, symbol u.
 The mass of a proton and a neutron is 1u.
 Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons.
 There are electrons (e-) that moves constantly around the
nucleus in spaces called orbitals.

78
3.2.1. Atomic number (Z)

The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.

 Indicated by the symbol Z.

 Which indicates the number of protons in the nucleus of the
atom, also indicates the position you will find the atom on the
periodic table.

3.2.2. Mass number (A)

 The mass of an atom is determined by its nucleus, which

contains the number of protons and neutrons.
 The symbol for mass number is A.
 A = Z + no

3.2.3. Atom

 Electrons is much smaller than protons and neutrons.

1
 The mass of an electron is u.
1840
 Electrons is negatively charged.
 Electrons are found in a space around the nucleus.
 The positive charge on a proton is equal to the negative charge
on an electron.
 A neutral atom has equal number of protons and electrons.
 That will make the number of electrons is also equal to the
atomic number (Z).

 e.g., 168O
 O is the symbol for the oxygen atom.
 The mass number (A) of the oxygen atom is 16.
 The atomic number of (Z) oxygen is 8.
 There are 8 protons in the nucleus of the oxygen atom.
 The oxygen atom is neutral.
 There are 8 electrons in the space around the nucleus.
 There are 8 neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
 (no = A – Z)
79
IONS

 Ions are small, charged particles.

 A neutral atom either lose an electron (positively charged) or
gain an electron (negatively charged).
 A positive ion is known a cation has less electrons than
protons.
 A negative ion known as an anion has more electrons than
protons.
 The number of protons and neutrons remains the same in the
nucleus.
 e.g.,

p+ =8
e- = 10 (8 + 2; gained 2 electrons to have a 2- charge)
no = 16 – 8 = 8

 e.g.,

p+ = 56
e- = 54(56 - 2; lost 2 electrons to have a 2+ charge)
no = 137 – 56 = 81

80
3.2.4. Isotopes

Isotopes is atoms of the same elements having the same number of

protons, but different numbers of neutrons.

35
e.g., 17𝐶𝑙
17p+ and 18no = 35 u

37
17𝐶𝑙
17p+ and 20no = 37 u

∴ Both have seventeen protons, but the number of neutrons is

different.

 If there are different isotopes, the mass number is different which

means the atom will have a relative atomic mass.

[Link]. Relative atomic mass

The Relative atomic Mass is the mass of a particle where an atom of

C-12 has a mass of 12.

 C-12 atom was chosen as the standard and one C-12 has a
mass of 12 atomic mass units (u).
 In a sample of C, there will be atoms with different masses.
 1 out of a 100 C-atoms might be a C-13.
 1 out of millions of C-atoms might be a C-14.
 The rest will be C-12 atoms which makes the average atomic
mass of C-atoms just over 12.

e.g., In a sample of a 100 Cl-atoms 75 is Cl-35 atoms and 25 Cl-37

atoms.

(75×35)+(25×37)
𝐴𝑟 =
100
𝐴𝑟 = 35,5 𝑢
Or 𝐴𝑟 = 35,5 gmol-1
17
∴ 35,5Cl

81
 124
e.g., Element X is found naturally in three forms, namely 25% of 248X;
25% of 124 124
250X and 50% of 249X.

What is the relative atomic mass of element X?

(25×248)+(25×250)+(50×249)
𝐴𝑟 =
100
𝐴𝑟 = 249 𝑢
Or 𝐴𝑟 = 249 gmol-1
∴ 124
249X

3.2.5. Electron configuration

 Electrons are negatively charged particles.

 Electron’s mass is 9,11×10-31 kg, which is very small.
 Electron’s move in an area around the nucleus of the atom called
orbitals.
 Electrons don’t move randomly around the nucleus.
 The way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus is
called the atom’s electron configuration.
 Only electrons are involved in the changes that happen during
chemical reactions.

[Link]. Orbitals

 Electrons are found in different energy levels that contains sub-

shells called orbitals.
 Each energy level contains sub-shells called orbitals.
 Four types: s; p; d; and f.

82
83
 s-orbitals has a spherical shape.
 p-orbitals has a dumbbell shape along the 𝑥-; 𝑦- and 𝑧-axes at
90o to each other.
 Each orbital can only contain 2 electrons.
 Each energy level has a specific number of orbitals.
 Each orbital can only take 2 electrons.
 We only do the following (first 20 elements)
 1st Energy level - 1 orbital - 2 electrons
 nd
2 Energy level - 4 orbitals - 8 electrons
 3rd Energy level - 4 orbitals - 8 electrons
 th
4 Energy level - 1 orbital - 2 electrons

84
[Link]. Aufbau

 Orbitals are represented by blocks (or circles) in an energy

level.

 Electrons in the orbitals are represented by arrows.

 s-orbital fill up first before p-orbitals get 1 electron each.

 The electrons in p-orbitals are found in p𝑥 -, p𝑦 – and p𝑧 –
orbitals with a maximum of 2 electrons in each.

HUND’S RULE: No pairing in p-orbitals before there is at least5 one

electron in each of them.

85
PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE: Maximum of two electrons per
orbital provided that they spin in opposite directions.

[Link]. sp-notation (electron configuration notation)

e.g., for Phosphorus atom 𝟏𝟓

𝟑𝟏𝐏
 Z = 15
 15p+ = 15 e-
 A = 31
 1s2;2s22p6;3s23p3
 The sum of the numbers 2+2+6+2+3 = 15,
corresponds with the atomic number of phosphorus.

e.g., for Oxygen atom 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝐎

 Z=8
 8p+ = 8 e-
 A = 16
 1s2;2s22p6;3s23p3
 The sum of the numbers 2+2+4 = 8, corresponds with
the atomic number of oxygen.

86
[Link]. Abbreviated electron configuration.

 Because electron configuration for Lithium is the same as helium

plus one electron in the 2s-orbital, the electron configuration can
be written as follows:

𝟐
𝟒𝐇𝐞 : 1s2
𝟑
𝟕𝐋𝐢 : 1s2; 2s1
∴ 𝟑𝟕𝐋𝐢: [He] 2s1

𝟏𝟎 2 2 6
𝟐𝟎𝐍𝐞 : 1s ; 2s 2p
𝟏𝟐 2 2 6
𝟐𝟒𝐌𝐠 : 1s ; 2s 2p ; 3s2
∴ 𝟏𝟐
𝟐𝟒𝐌𝐠: [Ne] 3s
2

3.3. EXERCISE 3

1. Define the following terms:

1.1. Atomic number.
1.2. Isotopes.
1.3. Relative atomic mass.

2. Explain what is meant with the following terms:

2.1. Protons.
2.2. Neutrons.
2.3. Electrons.
2.4. Nucleons.
2.5. Nucleus.
2.6. Orbital.

87
3. Copy and complete the following table:

Number
Atomic Atomic Number of Number of
Symbol of
Atom / ion mass number electrons neutrons
( 𝑨𝒁𝑬) protons
(A) (Z) (e-) (nº)
(p+)
9
4𝐵𝑒 Beryllium 9 4 4 4 5
27 3+ Aluminium
13𝐴𝑙 ion
27 13 13 10 14
24
12𝑀𝑔 3.1. 24 12 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.
37 −
17𝐶𝑙 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 17 18 3.8.
3.9. Phosphorus 31 15 3.10. 3.11. 3.12.
3.13. Sodium ion 23 3.14. 11 10 3.15.
3.16. 3.17. 3.18. 3.19. 16 16 16
14 3−
7𝑁 3.20. 14 7 3.21. 3.22. 3.23.
59 3+
26𝐹𝑒 Ferrous ion 3.24. 3.25. 26 3.26. 3.27.

4. Calculate the relative atomic mass for the following:

4.1. Iron if there is in a 100g sample, 5.845% of 54 26𝐹𝑒 , 91.754% of
56 57 58
26𝐹𝑒 , 2.119% of 26𝐹𝑒 , and 0.286% of 26𝐹𝑒 .
4.2. Neon if there is in a 100g sample, 90.48% of 20 10𝑁𝑒, 0.27% of
21 22
10𝑁𝑒, and 9.25% of 10𝑁𝑒.

5. State the following:

5.1. Hund’s rule.
5.2. Pauli’s exclusion principle.

6. Draw the Aufbau diagrams for the first 20 elements.

7. Give the sp-notation for the first 20 elements.

8. Give the abbreviated sp-notation of atoms nr 11, 12, 16, 17, 19,
and 20.

88
9. Answer the following questions on an element represented by Y
82
with the symbol 207 𝑌.
9.1. How many electrons does this atom have?
9.2. How many neutrons does this atom have?
9.3. How many protons does this atom have?
9.4. What is the atomic mass of this atom?
9.5. What i9s the atomic number of this atom.
9.6. How many electrons will an ion of this atom have with a charge
of 2+?
9.7. Give the name of this atom.
9.8. Give the correct symbol of this atom.

10. Draw the Aufbau diagrams of the ions of the following atoms:
10.1. Lithium.
10.2. Magnesium.
10.3. Oxygen.
10.4. Chlorine.

11. Give the abbreviated sp-notion of the ions of the following atoms:
11.1. Sodium.
11.2. Beryllium.
11.3. Fluorine.
11.4. Sulphur.

89
UNIT 4: PERIODIC TABLE

4.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

The positions of the elements in the periodic table related to their

electronic arrangements.
 Describe the periodic table as displaying the elements in order of
increasing atomic number and showing how periodicity of the
physical and chemical properties of the elements relates to atomic
structure.
 Define the group number and the period number of an element in the
periodic table.
Groups are the vertical columns in the periodic table. Some groups
have names, e.g, alkali metals (group I), earth-alkaline metals (group
II), halogens (group 17 or VII) and noble gases (group18 or VIII).
Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table.
 Relate the position of an element in the periodic table to its electronic
structure and vice versa.
 Describe periodicity from Li to Ar in terms of atomic radius, ionisation
energy, electron-affinity, and electronegativity. Describe the changes
in terms of change in charge of the nucleus and distance between the
nucleus and the electron. Periodicity is the repetition of similar
properties in chemical elements, as indicated by their positioning in
the periodic table.
 Define atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron-affinity, and
electronegativity.
Atomic radius: Radius of an atom, i.e., the mean distance from the
nucleus to the border of the outer orbital.
Ionisation energy: Energy needed per mole to remove an electron(s)
from an atom in the gaseous phase.
First ionisation energy: Energy needed per mole to remove the first
electron from an atom in the gaseous phase.
Electron affinity: The energy released when an electron is attached
to an atom or molecule to form a negative ion.
Electronegativity: A measure of the tendency of an atom in a
molecule to attract bonding electrons.

90
Similarities in chemical properties among elements in Groups 1, 2,
17 and 18
 Relate the electronic arrangements to the chemical properties of
group 1, 2, 17 and 18 elements.
 Describe the trend in reactivity of elements in groups 1, 2 and 17.
Groups 1 and 2: Chemical reactivity increases from top to bottom.
Group 17: Chemical reactivity decreases from top to bottom.
 Predict chemical properties of unfamiliar elements in groups 1, 2, 17
and 18 of the periodic table.
 Indicate that metals are found on the left-hand side of the periodic
table.
 Indicate that non-metals are found on the right-hand side of the
periodic table.
 Indicate where transition metals are to be found on the periodic table.

4.2. NOTES

Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, known as the father of the Periodic

Table, was the first to place elements in order of increasing, atomic mass.
Other chemist before him have grouped together elements with similar
properties. The first Periodic Table was printed in 1869.

91
4.2.1. Periodic table as on gr 10 -12 data sheets.

 Elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows (periods), in

order of increasing atomic number from left to right and from
top to bottom.
 These rows are called periods which also indicates the energy
levels where you find the electrons.
 Elements with similar chemical properties form vertical columns
called groups, 1-18 or I – VIII
 Groups 1 (I), 2(II) and 13 (III) through to 18 (VII) are main group
elements. (The main groups are indicated with the roman
numbers as 1 to 8).
 Groups 3 to 12 are in the middle of the Periodic Table and are
called the transition metals.
 Group 1 (I) - alkali metals
 Group 2 (II) - alkali earth metals
 Group 17 (VII) - halogens
 Group 18 (VIII) - noble gases
 When halogens react with metals, they form ionic solids called
halides.
 The halide names end in –ide, for example fluoride and chloride.

92
 Oxygen combines with almost all elements; we can compare the
properties of oxides to see how metals differ from metalloids and
non-metals.
 The oxides of metals are ionic compounds that have high melting
and boiling points.
 They dissolve in water to form basic solutions.
 The oxides of non-metals form small molecules that can dissolve
in water to form acids.

GROUPS: are the vertical columns in the periodic table.

PERIODS: are the horizontal rows in the periodic table.

4.2.2. Electron configuration and the Periodic Table

 The electron configuration of atoms is linked to their position in

the Periodic Table.
 Each consecutive (following in numbers) atom has one more
electron.
 The number of electrons in its highest (outer most) energy level
is the same as the group number that it is in, this called the
valence electrons.

 Group I: only have 1 electron in its highest energy level.

 Group II: have 2 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group III: have 3 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group IV: have 4 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group V: have 5 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group VI: have 6 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group VII: have 7 electrons in its highest energy level.
 Group VIII: have 8 electrons in its highest energy level.

E.g., Aluminium is in group III (13): 1s2; 2s22p6; 3s23p1, its highest
energy level is 3, which is the period (row) it’s found in, and it only
have 3 electrons (3s23p1) in its highest energy level, which is the
same as the group number III and the amount of valence electrons.

93
 Each group have a full set of inner electrons that was filled in the
previous period and that are indicated by the symbol of the
preceding noble gas (previous row).
 Each group’s valence electron structure is the same.

 The number of valence electrons of an element determines its

chemical properties because they are involved in chemical
bonding which makes chemical reactions possible.
 The noble gases highest energy level is completely filled, which
means they do not react with other elements, which makes them
inert (they do not react).
 Elements with incomplete energy levels wants to be completely
filled, because they are unstable, and seek to change to a noble
gas electron configuration so that their outermost orbitals are
completely filled.
 That is why ions form: - negative ion – adding of electrons.
- positive ion – loosing of electrons.

94
4.2.3. Periodicity

 Periodicity is the repetition of similar properties in chemical

elements as indicated by their positioning on the Periodic Table.

[Link]. Atomic radius

 The size of an atom on the Periodic Table decreases from left to

right and increase from top to bottom.

ATOMIC RADIUS: the radius of an atom, the mean distance from the
nucleus to the border of the outer orbital.

 The nucleus of an atom is positively charged, because of the

protons, and attract the electrons in the orbitals around the
nucleus.
 The higher the atomic number the higher the positive charge of
the nucleus the more it will attract the electrons which means the
atomic radius becomes smaller from left to right in the Periodic
Table or the atomic radius increase from right to left.
 The atomic radius increases from top to bottom on the Periodic
Table.

95
[Link]. Ionisation energy

IONISATION ENERGY: Energy needed per mole to remove an

electron(s) from an atom in the gaseous phase.

FIRST IONISATION ENERGY: Energy needed per mole to remove the

first electron from an atom in the gaseous phase.

 When an electron is removed from an atom, the atom gains a

positive charge, become a cation.
 To remove an electron energy is needed which is known as the
ionisation energy.
 The ionisation energy increase from left to right in the Periodic
Table. Which means the energy needed to remove an electron
from the non-metals is high. That’s why metals will more likely
give electrons away and non-metals will gain electrons.
 Ionisation energy decrease from top to bottom. The outer
electrons are further away, which means less energy needed.

96
[Link]. Electron affinity

ELECTRON AFFINITY: the energy released when an electron is

attracted to an atom or molecule to form a negative ion.

 The atom’s ability to accept one or more electrons.

 Electron affinity is the energy change that occurs when an
electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an
anion.

X(g) + e- → X-(g) + electron affinity

 Electron affinity increases from left to right on the Periodic Table

(period).
 The values vary little within a group.

[Link]. Electron negativity.

ELECTRON NEGATIVITY: a measure of the tendency of an atom in a

molecule to attract the bonding electrons.

 Electron negativities increase from left to right across a period

on the Periodic Table.
 Electron negativities decrease from top to bottom in s group on
the Periodic Table.

97
4.3. EXERCISE 4

1. Define the following terms:

1.1. Group number.
1.2. Period number.
1.3. Atomic radius.
1.4. Ionisation energy.
1.5. Electron affinity.
1.6. Electronegativity.

2. Fill in the missing words:

2.1. Elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows, in order of
______ atomic number from ___________ and from.
2.2. Elements with _________ chemical properties form _______
columns called groups.

3. Give the name of the following group(s):

3.1. VIII
3.2. VII
3.3. II
3.4. I
3.5. Nr 3 -12

98
4. The electron configuration of atoms is linked to their …

5. The amount of electrons in its highest energy level is called the …

6. How many electrons are found in the highest energy level of

group…?
6.1. VIII
6.2. V
6.3. III
6.4. VI
6.5. IV

7. What determines the chemical property of an element?

8. How does a
8.1. Positive ion form?
8.2. Negative ion form?

9. The repetition of similar properties in chemical elements on the

periodic table is called?

10. Name the positively charged region of an atom.

11. Explain how atoms are arranged on the periodic table according
to their…
11.1. Atomic radius.
11.2. Ionisation energy.
11.3. Electron affinity.
11.4. Electronegativity.

12. 20 Elements have been given imaginary chemical symbols in the

form of the letters of the alphabet, A – T. Using a Periodic Table
and the clues given below, place these 20 letters in the correct
place on the table given below.

e.g. U – Ferromagnetic metal also used in nails.

99
 I II III IV V VI VII VIII

The following elements belong to the same group: CHJL; DMR; FNP;
AB; EQ; IO; KS; GT

J - the non-metal in its group.

L - the biggest atomic radius.
C - found in period two of the periodic table.

M - An element used in the light signage of a roadhouse or restaurant

to stand out at night.
D - The smallest atom in its group.
R - an atom with 18 protons in its nucleus.

N - A metal that burns with a blinding white light.

P - An element necessary for strong bones.
F - An element that have 5 neutrons in its nucleus.

A - A halogen with an electronegativity of 3,0.

B - An element used in toothpaste.

E - A metal used in producing of food containers.

Q - The element with the highest ionisation energy in its group.

O - An element used in Silicon chips.

I - An element in its crystal form is the hardest substance on earth.

T - An element with an atomic number of 15.

G - An element in group 15 and period 2.

K - An atom with an atomic mass of 32.

S - An element in its compound form is necessary for combustion.

100
UNIT 5: CHEMICAL BONDING

5.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

Covalent bonding, ionic bonding, and metallic bonding

 Define a chemical bond as a mutual attraction between two atoms
resulting from the simultaneous attraction between their nuclei and
the outer electrons. (The energy of the combined atoms is lower than
that of the individual atoms resulting in higher stability.)
 Draw Lewis dot diagrams of elements.
A Lewis dot diagram is a structural formula in which valence electrons
are represented by dots or crosses. It is also known as an electron
dot formula, a Lewis formula, or an electron diagram.
 Define a covalent bond as the sharing of electrons between atoms to
form molecules.
Molecule: A group of two or more atoms that are covalently bonded
and that functions as a unit.
 Draw Lewis dot diagrams of simple covalent molecules containing
single, double, and triple covalent bonds: H2; F2, Cℓ2, O2, N2, HF, HCℓ,
CH4, NH3, H2O
In a Lewis dot diagram two dots between atoms represent a covalent
bond. These two electrons are known as a bonding pair, whilst non-
binding electron pairs are called lone pairs.
 Write names and formulae of covalent compounds.
 Define ionic bonding as the transfer of electrons to form cations
(positive ions) and anions (negative ions) that attract each other to
form a formula-unit.
A formula-unit is the simplest empirical formula that represents the
compound.
An ion is a charged particle made from an atom by the loss or gain of
electrons.
An anion (negative ion) is a charged particle made from an atom by
the gain of electrons.
A cation (positive ion) is a charged particle made from an atom by the
loss of electrons.
 Draw Lewis dot diagrams of cations and anions.
 Draw Lewis dot diagrams to show the formation of simple ionic
compounds such as NaCℓ, KCℓ, KBr, CaCℓ2 and MgBr2.
 Predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals by using
information in the periodic table. Metals occur on the left-hand side of

101
 the periodic table and form positive ions, whilst non-metals occur on
the right-hand side of the periodic table and form negative ions.
 Name ionic compounds based on the component ions.
 Describe the structure of the sodium chloride crystal. In the crystal
each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions to form a cubic
structure. Each chloride ion is also surrounded by six sodium ions.
A crystal lattice: An orderly three-dimensional arrangement of
particles (ions, molecules, or atoms) in a solid structure.
 Define metallic bonding as the bond between positive ions and
delocalised valence electrons in a metal.
Valence electrons or outer electrons are the electrons in the highest
energy level of an atom in which there are electrons.
 Calculate relative molecular masses for covalent molecules, e.g., Mr
(HCℓ) = 35, 5.
 Calculate relative formula masses for ionic compounds, e.g., Mr
(NaCℓ) = 57, 5.

5.2. NOTES

5.2.1. Chemical bonding

Chemical bonding is an important process because it allows different

combinations of atoms and molecules.
A chemical bond is formed when electrons are shared between atoms or
when electrons were transferred between atoms.

A CHEMICAL BOND: is a mutual attraction between two atoms

resulting from the simultaneous attraction between nuclei and the
outer electrons.

Chemical bonds between atoms forms new compounds.

• When the atoms are close enough to each other the attractive forces
between the nucleus of the one atom and the valence electrons of the
other atom becomes stronger than the repulsive forces between the
atom’s orbitals.

102
 A simple diagram of a chemical bond that forms.

• The compound forms a stable structure. (Noble gas structure, outer

orbitals filled completely).
• The compound now has a lower potential energy.
• There are three different types of chemical bonds.
o Covalent bonds – between non-metals.
o Ionic bonds – between metals and non-metals.
o Metallic bonds – between metals.

5.2.2. Lewis dot diagram

The structural formula in which valence electrons are either represented

as dots around the atom or as crosses.

The symbol of the element is used to represent the nucleus (which

contains the protons and neutrons) and the inner (core) electrons of the
atom.

VALENCE ELECTRONS: the amount of electrons in its highest (outer

most) energy level in which there are electrons.

 The valence electrons are equal to the group number (column) of the
atom found on the Periodic Table.
 The highest energy level is equal to the period (row) on the Periodic
Table.

103
E.g. Phosphorus 1531𝑃 is found in period 3 and group 5 (v) on the Periodic
Table.
A neutral atom of phosphorus will have 15 electrons over 3 energy
levels and 5 valence electrons.
Valence electrons
1s2;2s22p6;3s23p3

Fluorine 199𝐹 is found in period 2 and group 7 (VII) on the Periodic

Table.
A neutral atom of fluorine will have 9 electrons over 2 energy levels
and 7 valence electrons.
Valence electrons
1s2;2s22p5

5.2.3. Covalent bond

COVALENT BOND: the sharing of electrons between atoms to form

molecules.

The outermost (highest energy level) orbitals of the atoms overlap so that
unpaired electrons in each of the bonding atoms can be shared.

The outermost orbitals overlap in such a way that the unpaired electrons
in each of the bonding atoms can be shared, which means the outer most
energy level are filled. Normally following the “octet rule” where most the
of the atoms now appear as if they all have eight electrons around them,
exceptions is Hydrogen which will now appear as if it’s 1s-orbital is now
completely filled.

MOLECULE: a group of two or more atoms that are covalently

bonded and that functions as a unit.

104
Unpaired electrons are involved with chemical bonding.
Paired electrons also known as lone pairs.

e.g.
Overlapping of Single covalent bond
unpaired electrons

Double covalent bond

Overlapping of
unpaired electrons

Triple covalent bond

Overlapping of
unpaired electrons

Overlapping of
unpaired electrons

Two single covalent

bonds

105
The bonding electron pairs is closer to Sulphur because sulphur has the
higher electronegativity (EN).
ENH = 2.1
ENS = 2.5

Two double covalent bonds

The bonding pairs are closer to the Oxygen atoms because Oxygen has
the higher electronegativity (EN).
ENC = 2.5
ENO = 3.5

[Link]. Polar or Non-polar

 Non-polar bonds: Atoms attract the shared pair of electrons equally;

they have the same electronegativity.
 Polar bond: One atom (highest electronegativity) attracts the shared
pair of electrons more than the other atom (lowest electronegativity).

[Link]. Properties of Covalent bonds

 Melting and boiling points are generally lower than that of ionic
compounds.
 Generally, more flexible than ionic compounds.
 The molecules are able to move around to some extent.
 Generally, not soluble in water for example, plastics.
 Do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water.

106
5.2.4. Ionic bond

The transfer of electrons to form cations (positive ions) and anions

(negative ions) that attract each other to form a formula unit.

Instead of sharing electrons between the atoms it is a transfer of electrons

between the atoms, so that each atom acquires a completely filled highest
energy level.

The following three stages are identified:

 Metal atom(s) give away electron(s) in their highest energy level to
become positively charged known as cations.

E.g.

 Non-metal atom(s) receive electron(s) to fill its highest energy level

to become negatively charged known as anions.

E.g.

 The positive and negative ions attract each other through

electrostatic forces to form an ionic bond.

E.g.
KF – Potassium fluoride

107
 Two fluoride ions formed.
CaF2 – Potassium fluoride.

Metals occur on the left-hand side of the Periodic table and forms positive
ions.
Non-metals occur on the right-hand side of the Periodic table and forms
negative ions.

[Link]. Crystal lattice

An orderly three-dimensional arrangement of particles (ions,

molecules, or atoms) in a solid structure.

The arrangement of ions in a regular, geometric structure is called a

crystal lattice/

Sodium chloride crystal

 In the crystal each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions is

surrounded by six chloride ions to form a cubic structure. Each
chloride ion is also surrounded by six sodium ions.

108
[Link]. Properties of Ionic compounds

 Arranged in a lattice structure.

 Ionic solids are crystalline at room temperature.
 Strong electrostatic attraction.
 Hard and have high melting and boiling points.
 Are brittle and bonds are broken along planes when the compound is
put under pressure.
 Solid crystals do not conduct electricity, but ionic solutions do.

5.2.5. METALLIC BOND

THE BOND BETWEEN POSITIVE IONS AND DELOCALISED

VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A METAL.

 Bonds between atoms of metals.

 Atoms are closely packed so that the outermost orbitals overlap.
 The valence electrons are delocalised (removed from their own
atoms) and can move in adjacent orbitals.
 Positive core ions from a compact crystal lattice.

[Link]. Properties of metals

 Metals are shiny.

 Conduct electricity because electrons are free to move.
 Conduct heat because the positive nuclei are packed closely
together and can easily transfer the heat.
 High melting point because the bonds are strong and high
density because of the tight packing of the nuclei.

109
5.2.6. Calculate relative molecular masses for covalent molecules.

𝑀𝑟 (𝐻2 𝑂) = (1 × 2) + 16 = 18 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑀𝑟 (𝐶𝐻4 ) = 12 + (1 × 4) = 16 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑀𝑟 (𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) = (1 × 2) + 32 + (16 × 4) = 98 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

5.2.7. Calculate relative formula masses for ionic compounds.

𝑀𝑟 (𝐾𝐶𝑙) = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑀𝑟 (𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 𝑔 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

5.3. EXERCISE 5

1. Define the following terms:

1.1. Chemical bond.
1.2. Covalent bond.
1.3. Molecule.
1.4. Ionic bonding.
1.5. Formula unit.
1.6. Ion.
1.7. Anion.
1.8. Cation.
1.9. Metallic bonding.

2. When does a chemical bond form?

3. What happens to the attractive forces between the nucleus of one

atom and the valence electrons of another atom when the atoms
are close enough to each other?

4. Draw Lewis dot diagrams for:

4.1. F2
4.2. Cl2
4.3. O2
4.4. HF
4.5. CH4
110
4.6. NH3
4.7. H2O

5. Explain what a bonding pair of electrons is.

6. A non-bonding pair of electrons is also known as a …

7. Name four properties of covalent bonds.

8. Draw Lewis dot diagrams to show the formation of ionic

compounds.
8.1. NaCl
8.2. KCl
8.3. KBr
8.4. CaCl2
8.5. MgBr2

9. Complete the following table and write the ionic compound names:

OH- SO42- CO32- NO3-

Sodium
Na+
hydroxide
Potassium
K+
sulphate
Mg2+

Ca2+

10. Describe what is a crystal lattice.

11. Explain what is meant by valence (outer) electrons.

12. Name five properties of Ionic compounds.

13. Name four properties of metals.

111
14. Calculate the relative molecular masses of:

14.1. Cl2
14.2. HF
14.3. CH4
14.4. C3H18
14.5. NH3

15. Calculate the relative formula mass of:

15.1. NaCl
15.2. CaCl2
15.3. Mg(OH)2
15.4. CaCO3
15.5. H2SO4
15.6. NH4OH
15.7. (NH4)2SO3

112
 MODULE 2

CHEMICAL CHANGE

UNIT 1: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

1.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

Separation of particles in physical and chemical change

 Define a physical change as a change in which:
o No new substances are formed.
o Energy changes are small in relation to chemical changes.
o Mass, numbers of atoms and molecules as being conserved.
 Describe the rearrangement of molecules during physical changes,
e.g.
o Molecules separate when water evaporates to form water
vapour.
o When ice melts molecules become disorderly arranged due to
breaking of intermolecular forces
 Define a chemical change as a change in which:
o New chemical substances are formed.
o Energy changes are much larger than those of the physical
change.
Endothermic reaction: Energy is absorbed during the reaction.
Exothermic reaction: Energy is released during the reaction.
o Mass and atoms are conserved, but the number of molecules is
not.
 Describe examples of a chemical change that include the:
o Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to form water and oxygen
o Synthesis reaction that occurs when hydrogen burns in oxygen
to form water.
o Heating of iron and sulphur
o Reaction of lead (II) nitrate and potassium iodide (in solid phase
and/or as solutions)
o Titration of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide to measure
the change in temperature.

113
Conservation of atoms and mass

Calculate relative molecular masses of reactants and products in

balanced equations to illustrate that atoms are conserved during chemical
reactions, but not molecules.

Representing Chemical Change

Balanced chemical equations.

 Write and balance chemical equations. Use formulae with subscripts
to represent phases, viz. (s), (ℓ), (g) and (aq).
 Interpret balanced reaction equations in terms of:
o Conservation of atoms.
o Conservation of mass (use relative atomic masses).

1.2. NOTES

[Link] of particles in physical and chemical change.

Substances (chemicals) undergoes several changes in different

situations. These changes can either be physical or chemical.

[Link]. Physical change.

 No new substances are formed.

 Energy changes are small in relation to chemical change.
 Mass, numbers of atoms and molecules are conserved.

 Physical change is when a substance ‘s formula remains the same

throughout the change.

 E.g., water stays H2O.

114
 Image from Istock

 The formula of water, H2O stays the same throughout the physical
(phase) change.

 When the ice melts the crystal lattice becomes less arranged
because the intermolecular forces (forces of attraction that’s
between the water molecules to keep them close) are overcome and
the solid turns into a liquid.

 When water liquid turns into water vapour it gained energy, either
some molecules because of evaporation or all the molecules
because of boiling.

[Link]. Chemical change.

 New chemical substances are formed.

 Energy changes are much larger than those of physical
changes.

A chemical change is a change that involves the transformation of

one or more substances into one or more different substances.

115
 The change of the substance (particle or molecules) forms a total
new substance (particle or molecule). The formula of the substance
will be different.

 We have reactants that change into products a new substance with

different properties.

 The reactants are a substance a reaction start with.

 The products are the substance a reaction ends with.

 The energy transfer in chemical reactions are much higher than in

physical changes.

 The strong interatomic force within a molecule has to be broken

which needs more energy.

e.g., water forms from the combustion of hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen + Oxygen → water
 The substances at the left-hand side of the arrow are the reactants.
 The substances at the right-hand side of the arrow are the products.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(ℓ)

116
 The mass and the atoms are conserved but not the number of
molecules.

Reactants
2 H2-molecules ∴ 4 H-atoms
1 O2-molecule ∴ 2 O-atoms
∴ 3 molecules reactants ∴ 6 atoms

Products
2 H2O-molecules ∴ 4 H-atoms and 2 O-atoms
2 molecules products ∴ 6 atoms

 The combustion of hydrogen gives heat off during the reaction,

which makes it an exothermic reaction.

Exothermic reaction: Energy is released during the reaction.

e.g., The heating of a mixture of iron fillings and sulphur powder.

Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)

 When the reaction mixture is heated it starts to turn red.

 The grey iron fillings and the yellow sulphur powder mixture then
turns darker grey to form the iron sulphide.
 The iron that was magnetic is nonmagnetic as part of the iron
sulphide.
 With a chemical change the products have different properties than
the reactants.
 The compound iron sulphide cannot be separated by any physical
means, whereas a mixture of iron and sulphur can be separated
using a magnet.

117
 Drawing form alamy

 In the reaction of iron and sulphur to form iron sulphide heat is taken
in, which makes it an endothermic reaction.

Endothermic reaction: Energy is absorbed during the reaction.

Decomposition:

The breaking down of chemical substances into smaller chemical

substances.

 Usually a big molecule (reactant) breaks up into two or more smaller

molecules.

e.g., heating of limestone

CaCO3(s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Limestone Quicklime Carbon dioxide

118
 When calcium carbonate is heated it breaks down (decompose) into
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

e.g., Heating of hydrogen peroxide

2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ)

 The hydrogen peroxide breaks down into oxygen and water.

Synthesis:

The forming of bigger molecules from smaller molecules.

e.g., The heating of an iron and sulphur mixture to produce iron

sulphide.

Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)

Sciencemadness

119
 Two chemical substances form one bigger molecule with new
properties.

e.g., Combustion of hydrogen gas.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

 The chemical bond of the hydrogen molecule and the oxygen
molecule are broken to form four hydrogen atoms and two oxygen
atoms.
 The atoms rearrange to form two water molecules.

e.g., HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 The acid reacts with the base to produce salt and water.
 This is an exothermic reaction because heat is given of.

1.2.2. Conservation of atoms and mass.

 In a chemical reaction the sum of the mass of the atoms in the

reactants will be the same as the sum of the atoms in the products
when the reaction is balanced.

Law of conservation of mass: In a chemical reaction, the sum of the

mass of the reactants equals the sum of the mass of the products.

 Because new products are formed in a chemical reaction the

number of molecules is not always the same.

e.g., combustion of hydrogen.

2H2(g) + (O2) → 2H2O(ℓ)

Mr(H2) = (1×2)2 + Mr(O2) = 16 × 2 → Mr(H2O) = [(1×2)+16]2

120
 Mr(H2) = 4 + Mr(O2) = 32 → Mr(H2O) = 36
-1
Mr (reactants) 36 g∙mol = Mr (products) 36 g∙mol-1

Number of molecules reactants ≠ Number of molecules products

2 H2 + 1 O2 ≠ 2 H2O
3 molecules reactants ≠ 2 molecules products
 The number of atoms remains the same before and after the
reactions.
4 H-atoms and 2 O-atoms = 4 H-atoms and 2 O-atoms

e.g., Hydrogen and Nitrogen reacts to form ammonia.

3H2(g) + N2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Mr(H2) = (1×2)3 + Mr(N2) = 14 × 2 → Mr(NH3) = [(1×3)+14]2

Mr(H2) = 6 + Mr(N2) = 28 → Mr(NH3) = 34
-1
Mr (reactants) 34 g∙mol = Mr (products) 34 g∙mol-1

Number of molecules reactants ≠ Number of molecules products

3 H2(g) + 1 N2(g) ≠ 2 NH3(g)
4 molecules reactants ≠ 2 molecules products

Law of constant composition: All samples of a given compound have

the same elemental composition.

 The ratio of the atoms in a molecule stays the same, the moment
the ratio change it is a different molecule.
 When we balance reactions, we do not change the ratio of the
molecules.
 We change the number of molecules.

121
1.2.3. Representing chemical change

In balanced chemical reactions we use the symbols (s); (ℓ); (g); and (aq)
to indicate the phase the reactants and products are in:
(s) solid
(ℓ) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqua in solution with water

1.3. Exercise 6

1. Define the following terms.

1.1. Physical change.
1.2. Chemical change.
1.3. Endothermic reaction.
1.4. Exothermic reaction.

2. Classify the following as a chemical or a physical change.

2.1. Lead is melted to make weights.
2.2. Water vapour condensates.
2.3. Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form table salt
and water.
2.4. Sugar is dissolved in coffee.
2.5. Mercury oxide is heated and mercury and oxygen forms.
2.6. Magnesium burns in air to form a white powder (magnesium oxide).
2.7. Green copper carbonate forms black copper oxide and carbon
dioxide.
2.8. A container is left open with dry ice.

3. Explain the difference between a synthesis and a decomposition

reaction.

4. Classify the following as a synthesis or decomposition reaction.

4.1. Iron rust in the presence of oxygen to form iron oxide.
4.2. Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
4.3. Butane burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(ℓ)
4.4. CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g_
4.5. 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3

122
5. Use the law of conservation of mass to determine if the following
equations is balanced or not balanced.
5.1. NaOH + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O
5.2. 3H2 + 2N2 → 2NH3
5.3. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
5.4. H2O2 → H2O + O2

6. Write balanced equations for the following word equations (use the
symbols s, ℓ, aq, and g):
6.1. Calcium carbonates dissociate to form calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide.
6.2. Magnesium reacts with sulphur dioxide to form Magnesium oxide
and sulphur.
6.3. Caustic soda reacts with hydrogen sulphate to form sodium
sulphate and hydrogen oxide.

123
1.4. A

124
UNIT 3: QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF
CHEMICAL CHANGE.

3.1. EXAM GUIDELINES

Atomic mass and the mole concept

 Describe the mole as the SI unit for amount of substance.
 Define one mole as the amount of substance having the same
number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g carbon-12.
 Define relative atomic mass as the mass of a particle on a scale
where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of 12.
 Describe Avogadro's number, NA, as the number of particles (atoms,
molecules, formula-units) present in mole (NA = 6,023 x 1023 mol-1).
 Define molar mass as the mass of one mole of a substance measured
in g·mol-1.
 Describe the relationship between molar mass and relative molecular
mass and relative formula mass.
 Calculate the molar mass of a substance given its formula.

Molecular and formula masses

 Calculate mass, molar mass and number of moles according to the
m
relationship n .
M
 Determine the empirical formula for a given substance from
percentage composition.
Define an empirical formula as the simplest whole-number ratio of
atoms in a compound.
 Determine the number of moles of water of crystallisation in salts like
AℓCℓ3·nH2O.
Define water of crystallisation as water that is stoichiometrically
bound into a crystal, e.g., the H2O in CuSO4·5H2O.

Determining the composition of substances

• Determine percentage composition of an element in a compound.
Percentage composition is the mass of each atom present in a
compound expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the
compound.
• Define concentration as the number of moles of solute per cubic
decimetre of solution.
n
• Calculate concentration in mol·dm-3 using c .
V
125
Molar volume of gases
• State Avogadro's law, i.e., one mole of any gas occupies the same
volume at the same temperature and pressure.
• At STP: 1 mole of any gas occupies 22,4 dm3 at 0 °C (273 K) and 1
atmosphere (101,3 kPa). Thus, the molar gas volume, VM, at STP =
22,4 dm3∙mol-1.
• Interpret balanced equations in terms of volume relationships for
gases, i.e., under the same conditions of temperature and pressure,
equal number of moles of all gases occupies the same volume.

Basic stoichiometric calculations

• Perform stoichiometric calculations based on balanced equations.
These may include calculations based on concentration, mass,
moles, molar mass, number of particles and volume.
• Determine the theoretical yield of a product in a chemical reaction
when you start with a known mass of reactant. The theoretical yield
is the calculated yield of a product in a chemical reaction. Actual yield
is the quantity physically obtained from a chemical reaction.
• Determine the percentage yield of a chemical reaction:
actual yield
%yield  x100
theoretical yield

3.2. NOTES

3.2.1. Atomic mass and the mole concept.

In everyday life we use units for example we talk about a dozen of eggs
when there are twelve eggs or a pair of socks when there two socks.

In chemistry we measure the number of atoms or molecules in moles. In

the SI-unit system the mole is the unit we use for the amount of a
substance.

It is sometimes important to know the exact number of atoms or

molecules of a substance for a chemical reaction.

One mole is the amount of substance having the same number of

particles as there are atoms in 12 g Carbon-12.

126
One mole contains 602 204 500 000 000 000 000 000 particles. This is
known as Avogadro’s number, which we write as 6,02 × 1023 mol-1. This
big number shows clearly how small atoms are.

NA = 6,02 × 1023 mol-1

Avogadro’s number, NA, is the number of particles (atoms,

molecules, or formula units present in a mole.

N = n × NA

N Number of molecules, ions, atoms, etc.

n Number of moles (mol).
NA Avogadro’s constant (6,023 × 1023 mol-1)

e.g., How many molecules of ammonia is in three moles of ammonia?

n = 3 mol
NA = 6,023 × 1023 mol-1

N = n × NA
Nmolecules = 3 × (6,023 × 1023)
Nmolecules = 18,06 × 1023 molecules NH3

How many nitrogen atoms are there in these three moles of

ammonia?
There is only one nitrogen atom in one NH3 molecule.
∴ N-atoms in 3 mole NH3 = 18,06 × 1023 N-atoms

How many hydrogen atoms are in 3 moles of ammonia?

There is 3 H-atoms in each NH3 molecule.
∴ N H-atoms = (18,06 × 1023) × 3
∴ 54,18 × 1023 H-atoms in 3 moles NH3

127
e.g., How many formula units are there in two moles of magnesium
chloride (MgCl2)?

N formula units = n × NA
N formula units = (2)(6,023 × 1023)
N formula units = 12,04 × 1023 formula units MgCl2

How many ions are in 2 moles of MgCl2?

There is a Mg2+-ion and two Cl—ions in one MgCl2.
∴ there is 3 ions in one MgCl2 formula unit.

N ions = 12,04 × 1023 × 3

N ions = 36,12 × 1023 ions in 2 moles of MgCl2 formula units

3.2.2. Molecular and formula masses.

Atoms and molecules are too small to use a single atom or molecule.
The relative atomic mass of an element is a value that compares the
mass of one atom of the element with that of one atom of carbon-12 that
has a mass of 12 atomic mass units.

When the mass in grams of an atom / element is equal to its relative

atomic mass, the sample contains one mole of that element. This mass
is called the molar mass of that element.

e.g. 44 g of carbon dioxide gas (CO2).

Mr (CO2) = 12 + (16 × 2)
= 44 g∙mol-1

∴ The mass of CO2 and the molar mass of the CO2 is the same,
which means there will be one mole of CO2.

128
e.g. 40 g of sodium hydroxide.
Mr (NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1
= 40 g∙mol-1

∴ The mass of NaOH and the molar mass of the NaOH is the
same, which means there will be one mole of NaOH.

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance measured in

g∙mol-1.

The molar mass is the molecular mass for covalent molecules and the
relative formula mass for ionic substances.

The molar mass, mass of one mole of a compound is equal to its

molecular mass.
e.g. The molecular mass of ammonia is:
Mr (NH3) = 14 + (1×3)
= 17 u
And its molar mass is 17,0 g.
∴ 1 mole of ammonia = 17 g NH3
∴ molecules NH3 = 6,02 × 1023

e.g., The formula mass of calcium chloride is:

Mr (CaCl2) = 40 + (35,5×2) = 111 g∙mol-1
∴ 1 mole calcium chloride = 111g CaCl2
∴ CaCl2 units = 6,023 × 1023

Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a substance.

Relative molecular mass: mass of 1 molecule of a substance
(NH3).
Relative formula mass: mass of 1 formula unit of a substance
(CaCl2).

129
[Link]. Relationship between molar mass, mass, and mole.

The mole equation:

𝒎
𝒏=
𝑴𝒓
Where,
n number of moles (mol)
m mass of the substance (g)
Mr molecular mass (g∙mol-1)

e.g., Determine the number of moles in 60g of neon.

m = 60g
Mr = 20 g∙mol-1

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
60
𝑛=
20
𝑛 = 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙

e.g., Calculate the number of moles in 4g of sodium hydroxide.

m = 4g
Mr (NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1
= 40g∙mol-1

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
4
𝑛=
40
𝑛 = 0,1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

130
e.g., Calculate the mass of 0,2 mol sodium chloride crystals.
n = 0,2 mol
Mr (NaCl) = 23 + 35,5
= 58,5 g∙mol-1

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
𝑚
0,2 =
58,5
m = 11,7g

[Link]. Empirical formula

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a

compound.

 Knowing the empirical or molecular formula of a compound will

contribute to determining its composition in more detail.
 Determining the composition of a substance helps with
determining the formula of the substance.
 For many chemicals the empirical and molecular formula is the
same.
 The molecular formula indicates the total number of atoms found in
a molecule or compound.
 The empirical formula shows the simplest ratio of elements a
molecule consist out of.

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula

Water H2O H2O
Hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2
Benzene CH C6H6
Ethane CH3 C2H6
Hexane C3H7 C6H14

131
  To calculate the empirical formula from percentage composition
we take it that there are 100g (100%) of the compound.
 This means the given percentage of each element is the mass in
grams.
 Determine the mole ratio of each element:
𝑚 (%)
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟 (𝐴𝑟 )
 If ALL the answers is not VERY close to a whole number answer
you divide all answers with the smallest answer.
 Round off to the nearest whole number.

e.g., There is found to be 52,2% carbon, 13% hydrogen and 34,8%

Oxygen in a sample of a compound. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound.
52,2
n (C) =
12
= 4,35 mol

13
n (H) =
1
= 13 mol

34,8
n (O) =
16
= 2,175 mol

Not one of the answers are very close to a whole number answer.
∴ divide with the smallest answer.
∴ n (O) = 2,175 mol

C : H : O
4,35 13 2,175
: :
2,175 2,175 2,175
2 : 5,977 : 1
2 : 6 : 1

∴C2H6O

132
e.g., Determine the empirical formula of a compound with a percentage
composition of 43,396% sodium, 11,321% carbon and 45,283%
oxygen.

43,396
n (Na) =
23
= 1,8867 mol

11,321
n (C) =
12
= 0,9434 mol

54,283
n (O) =
16
= 2,8301875 mol

Not ALL of the answers are very close to a whole number answer.
∴ divide with the smallest answer.
∴ n (C) = 0,9434 mol

Na : C : O
1,8867 0,0434 2,8302
: :
0,9434 0,9434 0,9434
1,999 : 1 : 2,9998
2 : 1 : 3

Na2CO3

e.g., Calculate the molecular formula of a compound with a molar mass

of 58 g∙mol-1 and a percentage composition of 82,7586% carbon
and 17,2414% hydrogen.

82,7586
n (C) =
12
= 6,89655 mol

17,2414
n (H) =
1
= 17,2414 mol

Not ONE of the answers are very close to a whole number answer.
133
 ∴ divide with the smallest answer.
∴ n (C) = 6,89655 mol

C : H
6,89655 17,2414
:
6,89655 6,89655
1 : 2,5
 In this case now you can multiply with two to get a whole number
answer.
2 : 5

C2H5 is the empirical formula.

 Now get the formula mass of C2H5
Mr (C2H5) = (12 × 2) + (1 × 5)
Mr (C2H5) = 29 g∙mol-1
 Get the ratio between the formula mass and the given molecular
mass.
58
n=
29
n=2
 Multiply both (all) the atoms with 2
∴ C2H5 ×2
∴ C4H10 is the molecular formula.

e.g., 414g of lead reacts with oxygen to form 478g of lead oxide.
Determine the empirical formula of the lead oxide that formed.

 Find the mass of the oxygen.

m (Oxygen) = m (lead oxide) – m (lead)
m (Oxygen) = 478 – 414
m (Oxygen) = 64g

 Find the mole ratio of each atom.

𝑚 (𝑃𝑏)
n (Pb) =
𝐴𝑟 (𝑃𝑏)
414
n (Pb) =
207
n (Pb) = 2 mol

134
 𝑚 (𝑂)
n (O) =
𝐴𝑟 (𝑂)
64
n (O) =
16
n (O) = 4 mol

∴ The simplest whole number ratio.

Pb : O
2 : 4
1 : 2
∴ PbO2

[Link]. Water crystallisation (Hydrates)

 The crystals of some salts have a specific number of water

molecules attached around them.
 Blue copper sulphate (CuSO4) crystals contains water. Heating
blue copper sulphate, the crystals turns white as water is released
as water vapour. By weighing the starting and the ending products
the amount of water around the copper sulphate crystal can be
determined.

CuSO4∙5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

Blue (heat) White
The blue copper sulphate turns white.

 White copper sulphate is an anhydrous salt, which means

without water.
 White anhydrous CuSO4 (waterless) can be used to test for water.
When you add water to the anhydrous CuSO4 it turns blue.

Water of crystallisation is water that is stoichiometrically bound

into a crystal.

135
e.g., Aluminium trichloride is an ionic substance that forms crystals.
Water molecules are trapped inside the crystal lattice.

AlCℓ3∙nH2O (n for number of H2O molecules)

When 5g Aluminium trichloride is heated the mass left behind after

the water vapour was released is 2,8g. Determine the number of
water molecules in the Aluminium trichloride molecules.

 Determine the mass water.

m (H2O) = 5 – 2,8
= 2,2g

 Find the mass ratio.

AlCℓ3 : H2O
2,8 : 2,2

 Find the molar mass of AlCℓ3 and H2O.

Mr (AlCℓ3) = 27 + (35,5 × 3)
= 133,5g∙mol-1

Mr (H2O) = (1×2) + 16
= 18 g∙mol-1

 Find the mole number of each.

𝑚
𝑛 (𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 ) =
𝑀𝑟
2,75
𝑛=
133,5
𝑛 = 0,02059
𝑛 ≈ 0,021mol

𝑚
𝑛 (𝐻2 𝑂) =
𝑀𝑟
2,25
𝑛=
18
𝑛 = 0,1267mol

136
  Find the mole ratio.

AlCℓ3 : H2O
0,02059 : 0,1267
0,02059 0,1267
: (Divide with the smallest)
0,02059 0,02059
1 : 6,15 (round off to nearest whole number)
1 : 6

∴ AlCℓ3∙6H2O

e.g., Calculate the number of moles of water crystallisation in

CoCℓ2∙nH2O if the molar mass is 238g∙mol-1.
 Find the molar mass of CoCℓ2.
Mr = 59 + (35,5×2)
Mr = 130g∙mol-1

 Find the total mass of the nH2O.

Mr = 238 – 130
Mr = 108 g∙mol-1

 Determine n of H2O.
108
𝑛=
18
𝑛=6

∴ CoCℓ2∙6H2O

3.2.3. Determining the composition of substances.

[Link]. Determine percentage composition of an element in a

compound.

Percentage composition is the mass of each atom present in a

compound expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the
compound.

137
To calculate percentage composition, follow these steps:

 Find the atomic mass of each element and determine the molar
mass of the compound.
 For each element divide the atomic mass by the molar mass and
multiply by a 100 to find percentage.
 For compounds divide the molecular or formula mass by the molar
mass and multiply by a 100.

e.g., Determine the percentage composition of ammonia.

 Find the molecular mass of ammonia (NH3)

Mr (NH3) = 14 + (1×3)
Mr (NH3) = 17 g∙mol-1

 Find the % of each atom in the molecule.

𝐴𝑟 (𝑁)
%N = × 100
𝑀𝑟 (𝑁𝐻3 )
14
%N = × 100
17
%N = 82,35%

𝐴𝑟 (𝐻)
%H = × 100
𝑀𝑟 (𝑁𝐻3 )
1×3
%H = × 100
17
%H = 17,65%

e.g., Determine the percentage composition of magnesium chloride.

 Find the formula mass.

Mr (MgCℓ2) = 24 + (35,5×2)
Mr (MgCℓ2) = 95 g∙mol-1

𝐴𝑟 (𝑀𝑔)
%Mg = × 100
𝑀𝑟 (𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙3 )
24
%Mg = × 100
95
%Mg = 25,26%

138
 𝐴𝑟 (𝐶𝑙)
%Cℓ = × 100
𝑀𝑟 (𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙3 )
35,5×2
%Cℓ = × 100
95
% Cℓ = 74,74%

[Link]. Concentration.

Concentration is the number of moles of solute per cubic decimetre

of solution.

Calculate concentration using:

𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉

c concentration in mol∙dm-3
n number of mole in mol
V volume in dm3
 Concentration is the amount of solute present in each quantity of
solvent.
 mol∙dm-3 is also called molarity.
 Molarity (M) or molar concentration is the number of moles of
solute in one litre (1 dm3) of solution.
 A typical solution is made by dissolving some solid substance in a
liquid. The amount of substance that is dissolved in each volume
of liquid is known as the concentration of the liquid.
 Volume must always be converted to dm3.

1ℓ = 1dm3
1dm3 = 1 000cm3
1mℓ = 1cm3
1m = 10dm
1dm = 10cm
1m = 100cm

139
 V =ℓ×b×h
V = 1m × 1m × 1m
V = 1m3

V =ℓ×b×h
V = 10dm × 10dm × 10dm
V = 1 000dm3

V =ℓ×b×h
V = 100cm × 100cm × 100cm
V = 1 000 000cm3

∴ 1m3 = 1 000dm3 = 1 000 000cm3

 You can also calculate concentration if mass of a substance is

given and not the moles, by applying the mole equation.

𝑛
𝑐 = eq. (1)
𝑉
𝑚
𝑛= eq. (2)
𝑀𝑟

𝒎
∴ 𝒄=
𝑴𝒓 𝑽

140
e.g., Calculate the concentration of 0,5 mol hydrochloric acid in 250cm3
water.

n = 0,5 mol
V = 250cm3 = 0,25dm3

𝑛
𝑐 =
𝑉
0,5
𝑐 =
0,25
𝑐 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3

e.g., Calculate the volume water needed to be added to 0,2mol

sulphuric acid to make a concentration of 0,5mol∙dm-3.
c = 0,5mol∙dm-3
n = 0,2mol
V=?

𝑛
𝑐 =
𝑉
0,2
0,5 =
𝑉

𝑉 = 0,4𝑑𝑚3

e.g., Calculate the concentration of a table alt solution when 14,63g of

salt is added to 200mℓ water.

m = 14,63g
Mr (NaCl) = 23 + 35,5 = 58,5g∙mol-1
V = 200mℓ = 200cm3 = 0,2dm3

𝑚
𝑐=
𝑀𝑟 𝑉

14,63
𝑐=
(58,5)(0,2)
𝑐 = 1,25𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3

141
 OR

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
14,63
𝑛=
58,5
𝑛 = 0,25𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑛
𝑐 =
𝑉
0,25
𝑐 =
0,2
𝑐 = 1,25𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝑑𝑚−3

e.g., Calculate the mass sodium hydroxide needed to make 1ℓ of a

1,5mol∙dm-3 solution.

m=?
V = 1ℓ = 1dm3
c = 1,5mol∙dm-3

Mr (NaOH) = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40g∙mol-1

𝑛
𝑐=
𝑉
𝑛
1,5 =
1
𝑛 = 1,5𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
𝑚
1,5 =
40
𝑚 = 60𝑔

3.2.4. Molar volume of gases.

To weigh a gas is difficult, that’s why we rather measure its volume.

Avogadro’s law: One mole of any gas occupies the same volume at
the same temperature and pressure.

142
STP – Standard Temperature and Pressure

Standard pressure (p°) = 1,013×105Pa (101,3kPa)

Standard temperature (T°) = 273K = 0°C

 In science when we do calculations with temperature the SI-unit is

K (Kelvin).

∴T = t + 273
T measured in K (Kelvin)
t measured in °C (degrees Celsius)

 Standard pressure SI-unit is Pa (Pascal).

 1 mole of a gas occupies 22,4dm3 at STP. This is called the molar
volume (Vm) of gas.

𝑉
𝑛=
𝑉𝑚

n amount of mole (mol)

V volume of the gas (dm3)
Vm molar volume 22,4dm3∙mol-1

𝑉
𝑉𝑚 =
𝑛
𝑑𝑚3
𝑉𝑚 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙
∴ 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑑𝑚3 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

 1mol of oxygen gas (O2) will have a volume of 22,4dm3.

 1mol of ammonia gas (NH3) will have a volume of 22,4dm3.
 At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas are
directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas present.
𝒏 ∝𝑽

Avogadro said that equal volumes of different gases contain

the same number of molecules at the same temperature and
pressure.

143
 ∴When the amount of substance (mole) increase the volume
increase with the same ratio.

 You can thus determine the relative molecular mass of a gas by

using volumes in balanced equations.

e.g., 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

2 volumes + 1 volume → 2 volumes
∴ 3 volumes → 2 volumes

At STP
(2×22,4 dm3) + 22,4dm3 → (2×22,4dm3)
44,8dm3 + 22,4dm3 → 44,8dm3
∴ 44,8dm3 SO2 reacts with 22,4dm3 O2 to form 44,8dm3 SO3.

e.g., Determine the volume of 0,2mol SO3 at STP.

n = 0,2mol
1mol SO3 occupies a volume of 22,4dm3
∴V (SO3) = nVm
V (SO3) = (0,2)(22,4)
V (SO3) = 4,48dm3

e.g., Determine the volume occupied by 6,4g oxygen at STP.

Mr (O2) = 16 × 2
Mr (O2) = 32g∙mol-1
m = 6,4g

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
6,4
𝑛=
32
𝑛 = 0,2𝑚𝑜𝑙

V (O2) = nVm
V (O2) = (0,2)(22,4)
V (O2) = 4,48dm3

144
3.2.5. Basic stoichiometric calculations.

To perform stoichiometric calculations the chemical reaction must be

balanced.

A chemical reaction takes place when a substance reacts chemically,

called the reactants, to produce a new substance called the product.

[Link]. Mass calculations.

Law of conservation of mass: The total mass of the reactants must

always be equal to the total mass of the products.

Mass can neither be created nor destroyed. It ensures that the same
number of atoms of each element is on both sides of an equation.

 It is important to have a balanced equation.

 To determine the number of reactants and products you need to
write a mass equation, where the molar mass of each reactant
and product is used and multiplied with the moles in the balanced
equation.

e.g., 300g Limestone is heated to form calcium oxide and carbon

dioxide. Calculate the mass calcium oxide that formed.

 First write a balanced chemical equation.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 Write a mass equation – determine the molar mass of each

substance first.
Mr (CaCO3) = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100g∙mol-1
Mr (CaO) = 40 + 16 = 56g∙mol-1
Mr (CO2) = 12 + (16×2) = 44 g∙mol-1

145
 CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
∴100 → 56 + 44
∴100g CaCO3 produces 56g CaO and 44g CO2

∴300g will give how much calcium oxide?

CaCO3 : CaO
1 : 1
Balanced equation 100 : 56
Real amount 300 : 𝑥
100 56
=
300 𝑥
100𝑥 = 16 800
𝑥 = 168g
∴168g of CaO will be formed.

[Link]. Volume calculations.

We can calculate the volumes involved in a reaction.

In a reaction where nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas ammonia gas
is formed.

The balanced equation:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
∴1mol N2 reacts with 3 mol H2 to form 2mol NH3.
∴1 volume N2 reacts with 3 volumes H2 to form 2 volumes NH3.
At STP:
1×22,4dm3 N2 + 3×22,4dm3 H2 → 2×22,4dm3 NH3
∴22,4dm3 N2 + 67,2dm3 H2 → 44,8dm3 NH3

146
e.g., Calculate the volume ammonia gas that will form when 40,125g
ammonium chloride reacts with an excess calcium hydroxide to
form ammonia, calcium chloride and hydrogen at STP.

 First write the balanced equation.

2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → 2NH3 + CaCl2 + 2H2

 Just take into consideration the information given of a substance

and the question asked of the other substance.
∴ In this question ammonium chloride and ammonia.

 Check their mole ratio.

NH4Cl : NH3
2 : 2
∴1 : 1 (simplest ratio)
∴If there is 1 mol NH4Cl there will form 1 mol NH3.

 Find the “real” amount of the substance given, in this case the
reactant NH4Cl.
Mr (NH4Cl) = 14 + (1×4) + 35,5 = 53,5g∙mol-1
m = 40,125g
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
40,125
𝑛=
53,5
𝑛 = 0,75𝑚𝑜𝑙

 Use the mole ratio to determine the mole amount of NH3 that will
form.
NH4Cl : NH3
1 : 1
0,75 : 𝑥
1 1
∴ =
0,75 𝑥
∴𝑥 = 0,75mol
∴ the mole number of NH3 that will form is 0,75mol.

147
  Calculate the volume at STP.
𝑉
𝑛=
𝑉𝑚
𝑉
0,75 =
22,4
𝑉 = 16,8 𝑑𝑚3

∴ 16,8dm3 ammonia gas forms when 40,125g ammonium chloride

reacts with an excess of calcium hydroxide.

e.g., 84g nitrogen gas reacts with an excess of hydrogen gas to form
ammonia gas. Calculate the volume ammonia gas that will form at
STP.

 Write a balanced chemical reaction.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

 Calculate the volume nitrogen gas at STP.

Mr (N2) = 14×2 = 28g∙mol-1
m = 84g
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
84
𝑛=
28
𝑛 = 3𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑉
𝑛=
𝑉𝑚
𝑉
3=
22,4
𝑉 = 67,2𝑑𝑚3

 Calculate the volume ammonia formed.

Use mole ratio of substance given and substance wanted.
N2 : NH3
1 : 2
67,2 : 𝑥 (use the volume of substance given)
1 2
=
67,2 𝑥
𝑥 = (2)(67,2)
𝑥 = 134,4
148
 ∴ V (NH3) = 134,4dm3 (Volume ammonia that will form from 84g
nitrogen).

[Link]. Theoretical and Actual yield.

Yield – produce or provide.

- An amount produced of an industrial product (Oxford
dictionary).

The theoretical yield is the calculated yield of a product in a

chemical reaction.

Actual yield is the quantity (amount) physically obtained from a

chemical reaction.

 The theoretical and the actual yield is almost never the same. The
reason for this is that most of the times the reactants used have
some impurities which will cause that the actual yield will be less
than the theoretical (calculated) yield.

 This is why we determine the percentage yield.

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
% 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅

e.g., 55g lead(II) carbonate decomposes to form lead(II) oxide and

carbon dioxide. Calculate the percentage yield lead(II) oxide if the
actual yield of lead(ii) oxide is 44,6g.

 First write a balanced equation.

PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)

 Calculate the number of moles of lead(II) carbonate.

m = 55g
Mr (PbCO3) = 207 + 12 + (16×3) = 267g∙mol-1

149
 𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
55
𝑛=
267
𝑛 = 0,20599𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Try not to round of to soon, keep at least 4 decimals till final
answer)

 Use mole ratio to calculate the theoretical number of lead(II) oxide

that could form.
PbCO3 : PbO
1 : 1
0,20599 : 𝑥
∴ 𝑥 = 0,20599
∴n (PbO) = 0,20599 mol

 Calculate the theoretical mass lead(II) oxide.

Mr (PbO) = 207 + 16 = 223g∙mol-1
n = 0,20599mol

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
𝑚
0,20599 =
223
𝑚 = 45,93633𝑔 (theoretical mass)

 Calculate % yield mass.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
44,6
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
45,93633
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 97,09%

OR
 Calculate the actual mole number of lead(II) oxide.
m (actual) = 44,6g
Mr (PbO) = 223g∙mol-1
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟
44,6
𝑛=
223
𝑛 = 0,2mol
150
  Calculate %yield mole.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
0,2
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
0,20599
% 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 97,09%

3.3. EXERCISE 8

1. Define the following terms:

1.1. Mole.
1.2. Avogadro’s number.

2. How many molecules are there in 0,1mol sodium hydroxide.

3. Calculate the number of molecules in 5 moles of sulphuric acid.

4. Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 5 mol sulphuric acid.

5. How many ions are there in 0,5mol of table salt?

6. Calculate the Molecular and Formula masses of the following:

6.1. H2SO4
6.2. NaOH
6.3. C2H6
6.4. C12H22O11
6.5. Table salt
6.6. Marble
6.7. Water
6.8. Hydrogen peroxide

7. Define the term molar mass.

8. Determine the number of moles in 8g of Helium.

9. Calculate the number of moles in 4,5g water.

10. Calculate the number of moles in 200g magnesium oxide.

151
11. Calculate the number of moles in 0,5kg table salt.

12. Calculate the mass of 10 mol sodium hydroxide.

13. There is found to be 0,2 moles of Oxygen in a gas cylinder.

Calculate the mass of the oxygen.

14. Calculate the empirical formulae of the following:

14.1. 11,11% hydrogen and 88,89% oxygen.
14.2. 5,88% hydrogen and 94,12% oxygen.
14.3. 25,263% magnesium and 74,737% chlorine.
14.4. 80% carbon and 20% hydrogen.
14.5. 57,5% sodium, 40% oxygen and 2,5% hydrogen.
14.6. 56,52% potassium, 8,697% carbon and 34,783% oxygen.

15. Determine the molecular formula of Question 14.4 if the molecular

mass is 30g∙mol-1.

16. The molecular mass of a molecule is 92 g∙mol-1. The percentage

composition of the substance is 30,435% nitrogen and 69,565%
oxygen. Determine the molecular formulae of the molecule.

17. Calculate the number of water crystallisation in:

17.1. CuSO4∙nH2O if the molar mass is 213,5g∙mol-1.
17.2. Na2SO4∙nH2O if the molar mass is 322 g∙mol-1.

18. Define the term percentage composition.

19. Determine the percentage compositions of the following:

19.1. CH4
19.2. NaOH
19.3. Na2SO4

20. Calculate the concentration of the following:

20.1. 2 mol HCl in 0,5dm3.
20.2. 0,2mol nitric acid (HNO3) in 100ml.
20.3. 9,75g table salt is dissolved in 250cm3 water.
20.4. When 790g potassium permanganate are dissolved in 1ℓ water.

152
21. Calculate the volume of a 0,2mol∙dm-3 sulphuric acid solution with
a mole amount of 0,5mol.

22. Calculate the mole amount of a solution ethanoic acid with a

concentration of 0,1mol∙dm-3 in a 250ml container.

23. Calculate the volume of the following at STP.

23.1. 0,2mol ammonia.
23.2. 2 mol hydrochloric acid.
23.3. 3,75mol nitrogen gas.
23.4. 4g carbon dioxide gas.
23.5. 10,67g sulphur trioxide gas.

24. 6,6875g ammonium chloride reacts with an excess calcium

hydroxide. The balanced chemical equation:

2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ)

Calculate the mass calcium chloride that will form.

25. 135g Aluminium reacts with an excess amount of oxygen to form

aluminium oxide.
25.1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
25.2. Calculate the mass aluminium oxide that will form.

26. 500cm3 nitrogen reacts with an excess of hydrogen gas to form

ammonia gas.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Calculate the volume ammonia that will form at STP.

27. 8 g of Marble reacts with nitric acid to form calcium nitrate, carbon
dioxide and water at STP.

CaCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(ℓ)

Calculate the volume carbon dioxide that will form.

153
28. 8g caustic soda reacts with excess nitric acid to form sodium
nitrate and water.

NaOH(s) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

28.1. Calculate the mass sodium nitrate that will form.

28.2. Calculate the volume water that will form.
28.3. If only 15g of sodium nitrate formed calculate percentage yield of
the sodium nitrate.

29. The following balanced reaction is obtained for when 2ℓ ammonia

react with excess oxygen at STP.

4NH3(g) + 7O2(g) → 4NO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

29.1. Calculate the mole amount of ammonia.

29.2. Calculate the volume nitrogen dioxide that can form.
29.3. Calculate the percentage yield if only 1,95dm3 nitrogen dioxide
have formed.
29.4. Calculate the mass water that will form.

154
3.4. EXAM QUESTIONS

3.4.1. Multiple choice questions (MCQ)

3.4.2. Contextual questions.

3.5.

155