FLUIDS

PRESSURE AND PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE

F
P=
A

Pressure is force acting normally per unit area

S.I unit is N/M2 or Pascal’s
If F is a perpendicular component of a force that acts at an angle to the
surface
Fcosθ
P=
A
mass
Density=
volume
S.I unit is kg/m3

Pressure and depth

Consider a fluid in n a container which is at rest

F=mg=w

ƍ=m/ v

mass = ƍ x V x g (weight)
volume of the liquid column = hA
F=w
¿ ƍ Vg

1
 But V = hA
F ƍ hAg
=
A A
F F
=ƍ hg =P
A A

P = ƍgh (for incompressible fluid )

- If a pressure p0 acts on the liquid surface the total pressure = Po +

hƍg
- If the container is open then Po is the atmospheric pressure
1atm = 1.001325 x 105N/M2
What is the total pressure on the back of a diver in a lake at a depth
of 8m?
P = Pa + ƍgh
1.01 x 105 + 1000 x 9.8 x 8
= 1.79 x 105N/M2

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
- Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished
to every point in the fluid and to the walls of the container.
- Applications – hydraulic brake system
Hydraulic lifts

2
 F1 F0
=
A1 A0

- A garage lift has input and output pistons with diameters 10cm and
30cm respectively. The lift is used to hold up a car with a weight
of 1.4 x 104N
(a)What is the force on the input piston
Fo A1
F 1=
A1

( )
2
π d1
4
¿ =1.6x103 A
π d 02
4

(b) Pressure applied to the input piston

1.6 x 103
2
π (0.1) 5 2
=2.0 x 10 N /M
4

Measurement of pressure
(1) Open u-tube manometer
(2) Mercury barometer
(3) Aneroid barometer

3
Buoyancy and Archimedes’ principle
- Objects float on water because they are buoyed up
- The upward force resulting from an object being wholly or
partially immersed in a fluid is called the buoyant force.
- Experiments show that the magnitude of the buoyant force is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the block.

Archimedes principle states that a body immersed wholly or partially in

a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the weight of the
volume of fluid it displaces.
F b=ƍ F gV F

Question
What is the buoyant force in air on a spherical helium balloon with a
radius of 30cm. If ƍ in air = 1.29kg/m3 (Neglect the weight of the
balloon material)
F B=ƍgv
4 3 4
V= π τ = π ¿
3 3

= 1.29 x 0.11 x 9.8 = 1.4N

NB:- Buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid and the volume
of the body.

4
Buoyancy and Density
(1) An object will float in a fluid if the average density of the
object is less than the density of the fluid.
(2) An object will sink in a fluid if the average density of the
object is greater than the density of the fluid.
(3) An object will be in equilibrium at any submerged depth in a
fluid if the average density of the object and the density of the fluid
are equal.
Law of fluctuation – A floating object displaces its own weight of
the fluid in which it floats.

VISCOSITY
FLUID AND DYNAMICS AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL FLUID
(1) Steady flow –all the particles of a fluid have two same
velocity as they pass a given point. The path of a steady flow is
in the form of streamlines.
(2) Irrotational flow – a fluid element (a small volume of the
fluid) has no net angular velocity, which eliminates the
possibility of whirlpools and eddy currents (flow is non
turbulent)

5
 (3) Non viscous flow- viscosity is neglected (non internal
friction)
(4) Incompressible flow – The fluid density is constant

Equation of continuity

The mass of the fluid flowing into the tube in a given time must be equal
to the mass flowing out of the tube in the same time.
Mass ∆ m1 entering the tube during a short time interval ∆ t is
∆ m1=ƍ( A 1 , V 1 , ∆ t ) A1 – Cross sectional area of the tube at the
entrance

Mass leaving the tube in the same time interval.

∆ m2=ƍ 2 ( A 2 v2 ∆ t )

Critical velocity is that velocity of fluid flow upto which its flow is
streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent.

Factors affecting critical velocity

- Coefficient of viscosity of liquid
- Density of liquid

6
 - Diameter of the pipe through the liquid is flowing
Kn
V c=
ƍr

Vc ∝ ɳ – coefficient of viscosity
Inversely proportional to ƍ and r
Since mass is conserved
∆ m1=∆ m2

ƍ A 1 V 1=ƍ A 2 V 2 (Equation of continuity)

Since the fluid is incompressible, ƍ is constant
A1 V 1= A2 V 2 (flow rate equation)
The radius of the aorta is about 1cm and the blood flowing through it has
a speed of about 30cm/s. Calculate the average speed of the blood in the
capillaries given that although each capillary has a diameter of about 8 x
10-4cm, their total cross section is about 2,000cm2.
A1 V 1= A2 V 2

Aorta=capillaries
A1 V 1
V 2=
A2
0.3 x 3.14 ¿ ¿
−4
¿ 5 x 10 m/s

Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is high, the
pressure is low and where the velocity is low the pressure is high.

7
Bernoulli developed an equation that expresses this principle
quantitatively.

Assumptions
(1) Flow is steady and laminar
(2) Fluid is incompressible
(3) Fluid is non-viscous
The fluid is assumed to be flowing in a tube of non-uniform cross
section that varies in height above some reference level.

A fluid at position 1 flows distance ∆ L1 and forces the fluid at point 2 to

move a distance ∆ L2
The fluid to the left of point 1 exerts a pressure P1 and does an amount of
work.
w 1=F 1 ∆ L1=P1 A 1 ∆ L1

At point 2 the work done is

w 2=−P2 A 2 ∆ L2

8
(-sign) the force exerted on the fluid by work is also done on the fluid by
the force of gravity.
w 3=−mg( y 2 − y 1)

y1 and y2 are heights of the centre of the tube above some reference
level.
Net work done on the fluid is
W= w1+ w2 + w3
w=P1 A 1 ∆ L1−P2 A 2 ∆ L2−mg y 2 +mg y 1

According to work energy theorem, the net work done on a system is

equal to its change in kinetic.
1 2 1 2
mv − mv =P 1 A1 ∆ L1−P2 A 2 ∆ L2−mg y 2+ mg y 2
2 2 2 1

The mass m has a volume A 1 ∆ L1 = A 2 ∆ L2

Mass = density x volume

1 2 1 2
ƍ ( A 2 ∆ L2 ) V 2 − ƍ ( A 1 ∆ L1 ) V 1
2 2
¿ P1 ( A 1 ∆ L1) −P2 ( A 2 ∆ L2) −ƍ ( A 1 ∆ L1 ) ( y 2− y 1) g

Dividing through by A 1 ∆ L1 = A 2 ∆ L2 we obtain

1 2 1 2
ƍ V 2− ƍ V 1=P1−P2−ƍg y 2 + ƍg y 1
2 2

Rearranging we get
1 2 1 2
P2 + ƍ V 2 +ƍg y 2=P1 + ƍ V 1 +ƍ gy 1
2 2

Bernoulli’s equation
Since points 1and2can be any two points along a tube of flow,
Bernoulli’s equation can be written.

9
 1 2
P+ ƍ v + ƍ gy=¿constant every point in the fluid.
2

Water circulates through a house in a hot water heating system. If the

water is pumped at a speed of 0.5m/s through a 4cm diameter pipe in the
basement under a pressure of 3 atmosphere. What will be the flow speed
and pressure in a 2.6cm diameter pipe on the second floor 5.0m above.
Speed
A1 V 1= A2 V 2
2
A1 V 1 V 1 (π r 1)
V 2=
A2
= 2 =V 1 ¿ ¿= 0.5 (0.0 2 ¿2 ¿ ¿ 0.01 32)
π r2

=1.2m/s
Pressure
1 2 1 2
P1 + ƍ V 1 +ƍgy 1=P2 + ƍ V 2 +ƍg y 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
P2=P1 + ƍ V 1 + ƍ gy 1− ƍ V 2−ƍ gy 2
2 2
1 2 2
P2=P1 + ƍ (V ¿ ¿ 1 −V 2 )+ ƍ( y 1− y 2)¿
2
5 1
3 x 10 + x 1000¿
2
5 2 4
3 x 10 −6.0 x 10 −4.9 x 10
5 2
¿ 2.5 x 10 N / M

Water at a pressure of 3.8 atmospheres at street level flows into an office

building at a speed of 0.6m/s through a pipe 5.0 cm in diameter. The
pipes taper down to 2.6cm in diameter by the top floor 20m above.

10
Calculate the flow velocity and the pressure in such a pipe on the top
floor.

Viscosity
- Real fluids have a certain amount of internal friction called
viscosity. This is a frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid
as they move past one another.
- In liquids viscosity is due to the cohesive forces between the
molecules and in gases. It arises from collisions between the
molecules.
- Different fluids posses different amounts of viscosity.
- The viscosity of different fluids can be expressed quantitatively by
a coefficient of viscosity ɳ (etd)
- Consider a thin layer of fluid placed between two flat plates. One
plate is stationary and the other is made to move. To move the
plate a force (F) is required which is proportional to the area of the
fluid in contact with each plate A1and V1 and is inversely
proportional to the separation L of the plates.
F ∝VA
L
AV
F=ɳ
L
ɳ is given in N.s/m2

FLOW IN TUBES
11
Due to viscosity a pressure difference between the ends of a tube is
necessary for the steady flow of any real fluid. The rate of flow of a fluid
in a round tube depends on the viscosity of the fluid, the pressure
difference and the dimensions of the tube.
4
π τ (P 1−P2)
Q= Poiseuille’s equation for flow rate in a tube
ƍɳ L

r = Inside radius of the tube

L = its length
P1 –P2 is the pressure difference between the ends
Q – Volume rate of flow
ɳ – viscosity

Engine oil of n = 200 x 10-3 passes through a fine 1.80mm diameter tube
in an engine. The tube is 5.5cm long, what is the pressure difference
need to maintain a flow of 5.6ml/min

ƍ ɳ LQ
P1−P2= 4
πr
−6 3
−1 −2 5.6 x 10 m
8 x 2 x 10 x 5.5 x 10 x
60
¿
3.14 ¿ ¿

3 2
¿ 4.0 x 10 N /M

12