Digital Logic Design

Dr. Irfan Yousuf

Department of Computer Science (New Campus)
UET, Lahore
(Lecture # 6; March 12, 2020)
Outline
• Boolean Algebra
• Standard Forms of Optimization
Boolean Algebra
▪ An algebraic structure defined on a set of at least two
elements together with three binary operators
(denoted +, · and ) that satisfies the following basic
identities:
Boolean Algebra
▪ An algebraic structure defined on a set of at least two
elements together with three binary operators
(denoted +, · and ) that satisfies the following basic
identities:
Summary of Boolean Algebra
Some Properties of Identities & the Algebra

▪ If the meaning is unambiguous, we leave out the symbol “·”

▪ The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by

interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
▪ The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only one
identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the dual
expression = the original expression.
Some Properties of Identities & the Algebra
(Continued)

▪ Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an expression

does not equal the expression itself.
▪ Example: F = (A + C) · B + 0
dual F = (A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
▪ Example: G = X · Y + (W + Z)
dual G = ((X+Y) · (W · Z)) = ((X+Y) ·(W' + Z')
▪ Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C
dual H = (A + B)(A + C)(B + C)
= (A +BC) (B+C) = AB + AC + BC
Boolean Operator Precedence

▪ The order of evaluation in a Boolean expression is:

1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR

▪Parentheses appear around OR expressions

▪ Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)
Example 1: Boolean Algebraic Proof

▪ A + A·B = A (Absorption Theorem)

Proof Steps Justification
A + A·B
= A· 1 +A· B X = X · 1 (identity or theorem)
= A · ( 1 + B) X · Y + X · Z = X ·(Y + Z)(Distributive Law)
= A·1 1+X=1
= A X·1=X

▪ Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

• Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of Boolean
algebra, and
• How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply to
make forward progress, irrespective of the application.
Example 2: Boolean Algebraic Proofs
Boolean Function Evaluation

F1 = xy z x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
F2 = x + yz 0 0 0 0 0
F3 = x y z + x y z + x y 0 0 1 0 1
F4 = x y + x z 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
Simplify Boolean Expressions
Simplify Boolean Expressions
Simplify Boolean Expressions
Complementing Functions
▪ Use DeMorgan's Theorem to complement a
function:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant value and literal
Standard Forms
▪ A Boolean function expressed algebraically can be written
in a variety of ways.
▪ There are, however, specific ways of writing algebraic
equations that are considered to be standard forms.
▪ It is useful to specify Boolean functions in a form that:
• Allows comparison for equality.
• Has a correspondence to the truth tables
Standard Forms
▪ The standard forms contain product terms and sum
terms.
▪ An example of a product term is XYZ. This is a
logical product consisting of an AND operation
among three literals.
▪ An example of a sum term is X + Y + Z. This is a
logical sum consisting of an OR operation among
the literals.
▪ In Boolean algebra, the words “product” and “sum”
specify the logical operations AND and OR,
respectively.
Minterms
▪ A truth table defines a Boolean function.

▪ A product term in which all the variables appear

exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented, is called a minterm.

▪ Its characteristic property is that it represents exactly

one combination of binary variable values in the
truth table.
▪ It has the value 1 for that combination and 0 for all
others.
Minterms
Minterms
Maxterms
▪ A truth table defines a Boolean function.

▪ A sum term in which all the variables appear exactly

once, either complemented or uncomplemented, is
called a maxterm.

▪ Its characteristic property is that it represents exactly

one combination of binary variable values in the
truth table.
▪ It has the value 0 for that combination and 1 for all
others.
Maxterms
Maxterms
Standard Order
▪ Minterms and maxterms are designated with a subscript
▪ The subscript is a number, corresponding to a binary pattern
▪ The bits in the pattern represent the complemented or normal state of
each variable listed in a standard order.
▪ All variables will be present in a minterm or maxterm and will be
listed in the same order (usually alphabetically)
▪ Example: For variables a, b, c:
• Maxterms: (a + b + c), (a + b + c)
• Terms: (b + a + c), and (c + b + a) are NOT in standard order.
• Minterms: a b c, a b c
• Terms: (a + c), b c, and (a + b) do not contain all variables
Purpose of the Index
▪ The index for the minterm or maxterm, expressed as a
binary number, is used to determine whether the variable is
shown in the true form or complemented form.
▪ For Minterms:
• “1” means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
• “0” means the variable is “Complemented”.
▪ For Maxterms:
• “0” means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
• “1” means the variable is “Complemented”.
Index Example in Three Variables
▪ Example: (for three variables)
▪ Assume the variables are called X, Y, and Z.
▪ The standard order is X, then Y, then Z.
▪ The Index 0 (base 10) = 000 (base 2) for three
variables). All three variables are complemented for
minterm 0 ( X , Y, Z ) and no variables are complemented
for Maxterm 0 (X,Y,Z).
• Minterm 0, called m0 is X YZ .
• Maxterm 0, called M0 is (X + Y + Z).
• Minterm 6, called m6 is XYZ’
• Maxterm 6, called M6 is (X’ + Y’ + Z)
Minterm and Maxterm Relationship

▪ Review: DeMorgan's Theorem

x · y = x + y and x + y = x  y
▪ Two-variable example:
M 2 = x + y and m 2 = x·y
Thus, M2 is the complement of m2 and vice-versa.
▪ Since DeMorgan's Theorem holds for n variables, the
above holds for terms of n variables
▪ giving:
M i = m i and m i = M i
Thus, Mi is the complement of mi.
Function Tables for Both

▪ Minterms of Maxterms of
2 variables 2 variables
xy m0 m1 m2 m3 x y M0 M1 M2 M3
00 1 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1
01 0 1 0 0 01 1 0 1 1
10 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 0 1
11 0 0 0 1 11 1 1 1 0

▪ Each column in the maxterm function table is the

complement of the column in the minterm function
table since Mi is the complement of mi.
Observations

▪ In the function tables:

• Each minterm has one and only one 1 present in the 2n
terms (a minimum of 1s). All other entries are 0.
• Each maxterm has one and only one 0 present in the 2n
terms. All other entries are 1 (a maximum of 1s).
▪ We can implement any function by "ORing" the minterms
corresponding to "1" entries in the function table. These are
called the minterms of the function.
▪ We can implement any function by "ANDing" the maxterms
corresponding to "0" entries in the function table. These are
called the maxterms of the function.
Sum of Products (SOP)

▪ The sum-of-minterms (SOM) form is a standard algebraic

expression that is obtained directly from a truth table.
▪ The expression so obtained contains the maximum number
of literals in each term and usually has more product terms
than necessary.
▪ Once the sum of minterms is obtained from the truth table,
the next step is to try to simplify the expression to see
whether it is possible to reduce the number of product terms
and the number of literals in the terms.
▪ The result is a simplified expression in sum-of-products
(SOP) form.
Minterm Function Example

▪ F1 = x y z + x y z + x y z (Canonical Form)
x y z index m1 + m4 + m7 = F1
000 0 0 + 0 + 0 =0
001 1 1 + 0 + 0 =1
010 2 0 + 0 + 0 =0
011 3 0 + 0 + 0 =0
100 4 0 + 1 + 0 =1
101 5 0 + 0 + 0 =0
110 6 0 + 0 + 0 =0
111 7 0 + 0 + 1 =1
Sum of Products (SOP)

▪ The logic diagram for a sum- of- products form consists of a

group of AND gates followed by a single OR gate,
Product of Sum (POS)

▪ The Product of Maxterms (POM) form is a standard

algebraic expression that is obtained directly from a truth
table.
▪ The expression so obtained contains the maximum number
of literals in each term and usually has more sum terms than
necessary.
▪ Once the product of maxterms is obtained from the truth
table, the next step is to try to simplify the expression to see
whether it is possible to reduce the number of sum terms
and the number of literals in the terms.
▪ The result is a simplified expression in Product-of-Sum
(POS) form.
Maxterm Function Example

F1 = (x + y + z) ·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z )
·(x + y + z )·(x + y + z) (Canonical Form)

xyz i M0  M2  M3  M5  M6 = F1
000 0 0  1  1  1  1 =0
001 1 1  1  1  1  1 =1
010 2 1  0  1  1  1 =0
011 3 1  1  0  1  1 =0
100 4 1  1  1  1  1 =1
101 5 1  1  1  0  1 =0
110 6 1  1  1  1  0 =0
111 7 1  1  1  1  1 =1
Product of Sum (POS)

▪ The gate structure of the product- of- sums expression

consists of a group of OR gates for the sum terms, followed
by an AND gate.
Simplification Using Algebraic Manipulations
Simplification Using Algebraic Manipulations
Summary
• Boolean Algebra
• Standard Forms