Principles Entomology

MZO-09
Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota
Entomology II
MZO-09
Entomology II
Course Development Committee
Chair Person
Prof. Ashok Sharma Prof. L.R.Gurjar
Vice-Chancellor Director (Academic)
Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota
Coordinator and Members

Convener
SANDEEP HOODA
Assistant Professor of Zoology
School of Science & Technology
Members
Prof . (Rtd.) Dr. D.P. Jaroli Prof. (Rtd.) Dr. Reena Mathur
Professor Emeritus Former Head Department of Zoology
Department of Zoology University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
Prof. (Rtd.) Dr. S.C. Joshi Prof. (Rtd.) Dr. Maheep Bhatnagar
Department of Zoology Mohan Lal Sukhadiya University
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur Udaipur
Prof. (Rtd.) Dr. K.K. Sharma Prof. M.M. Ranga
Mahrishi Dayanand Saraswati University, Ajmer
Ajmer
Dr. Anuradha Singh Dr. Prahlad Dubey
Rtd. Lecturer Government College Head Department of Zoology
Kota Government College , Kota
Dr. Subrat Sharma Dr. Anuradha Dubey
Lecturer Deputy Director
Government College , Kota School of Science and Technology
Dr. Subhash Chandra
Director (Regional Center)
VMOU, Kota
Editing and Course Writing
Editor
Prof.(Dr.) Rajeev Kumar Gupta
Professor ,Department of Zoology
JNVU, Jodhpur
Writers:
Writer Name Unit No. Writer Name Unit No
Ms. Asha Kumari Verma 2,17 Dr. Abhishek Rajpurohit 6,7,8,9,10,11,12
UGC-NET JRF Department of Assistant Professor
Zoology, JNVU, Lachoo Memorial College
Jodhpur of Science &
Technology,Jodhpur
Dr. Neetu Kachhawaha 1,19,15 Dr. Surabhi Shrivastava 3,4,5
Assistant Professor, Ex-Principal , College
Department of Zoology, Education Department,
University of Rajasthan ,Jaipur. Government of Rajasthan
Dr. M.M.Sundariya 13,18,20 Dr. Nisha Patel 14
Assistant Professor(Entomology) Principal Scientist,
Agriculture University,Jodhpur Agricultural Entomology
Division of Plant
SANDEEP HOODA 16 Protection,Improvement &
Assistant Professor Management
& Convener of Zoology, CAZRI,Jodhpur.
School of Science & Technology,
Vardhman Mahaveer Open
University,Kota
Academic and Administrative Management

Prof. Ashok Sharma Prof. L.R. Gurjar
Vice-Chancellor Director (Academic)
Prof. Karan Singh Dr. Subodh Kumar
Director (MP&D) Additional Director (MP&D)
ISBN :
All Right reserved. No part of this Book may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any other means
without permission in writing from V.M. Open University, Kota.
Printed and Published on behalf of the Registrar, V.M. Open University, Kota.
MZO-09

Index
Unit No. Unit Name Page No.
1 Definition and Classification of Insecticides 1
2 Structure of insecticides 29
3 Principles of evaluation of toxicity of insecticides 76
4 Metabolism of insecticide and insecticide 91
Resistance
5 Insecticide residue and poisoning: Microbial and 104
environmental degradation of pesticides
6 Agricultural Pests – I 120
7 Agricultural Pests – II 168
8 Pests of Agricultural importance – III 223
9 Storage products Pests and Pests of medical and 276
veterinary importance
10 Beneficial insects 349
11 Pests of Forestry and Forensic Entomology 389
12 Social insects: Termites, Honeybees, Ants; social 544
organization and caste differentiation
13 Pest management 571
14 Biological control of crop pests and weeds – I 513
15 Biological control of crop pests and weeds – II 640
16 Biological control of crop pests and weeds – III 671
17 Pesticide Application Equipments 696
18 Techniques in plant protection 738
19 Innovative approaches in pest control 758
20 Integrated Pest Management 801
MBO-09
Preface
The present book entitled “Entomology II” has been designed so as to cover the
unit-wise syllabus of MZO-09 course for M.Sc. Zoology (Final) students of
Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota. The basic principles and theory have
been explained in simple, concise and lucid manner. Adequate examples,
diagrammes, photographs and self-learning exercises have also been included to
enable the students to grasp the subject easily. List of books suggested for further
study will be a great help the students. The unit writers have consulted various
standard books and internet as their reference on the subject and they are thankful
to the authors of these reference books. Suggestions for the further improvement of
the book will be thankfully acknowledged and incorporated in further editions.
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MZO-09
Unit -1
Definition and Classification of
Insecticides
Structure of the Unit
1.1 Objective
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Definition and scope of insecticide toxicology
1.4 History of chemical control
1.5 Pesticide use
1.6 Pesticide industry in India
1.7 Classification of insecticides and acaricides
1.7.1 Mode of entry
1.7.2 Mode of action
1.7.3 Chemical nature
1.8 Concept of Ist, IInd, IIIrd generation of insecticides
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.111 Self learning exercise
1.12 References
1.1 Objective
After going through this unit you will be able to answer the following question
 What are pesticides?
 How the chemical control started long years back?
 How pesticides are classified?
 What are the importance of pesticides in trophic level of food chain?
 What are I, II and III generation pesticides?
1.2 Introduction
Pests are organisms that damages human resources and compete for his food
supplies. These are small or large organism which directly or indirectly related
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to human beings. The examples of pest are like rat, grasshoppers, moths, stored
grain insects and many more. They damage agricultural crops, causes diseases
in human or animals, furniture, or any article. The FAO defines pesticide that
any chemical substance that prevent, destroy, attract, repel or control any pest
including unwanted species of plants or animals. Pesticide is a general term
used to kill any pest.
Specific terms such as insecticide to kill insect, acaricide for ticks and mites,
fungicide for fungal control, herbicide to remove herbs, rodenticide to kill rats,
nematodicide to harm nematodes, bactericide to kill bacteria, etc. are used to
indicate precisely the target pest. In India consumption of chemical pesticides
are more as compared to the World consumption. The insecticides are classified
on the basis of mode of entry, chemical nature and mode of action. Insecticides
are categorized into I,II and III generation.
1.3 Definition and scope of insecticide toxicology
Toxicity
The toxicity of a substance is its capacity to cause injury to a living system as
human body or parts of the body (such as the lungs or the respiratory system); a
system like a pond, a forest and those creatures that live in direct contact.
Toxicity represents the kind and extent of damage that can be done by a
chemical.
Dose-Time Relationship
The effect of a pesticide depends on a number of factors; dose-time relationship
is the most important factor of all. Dose/dosage is the quantity of a substance
used against a surface, plant, or animal to control pest. Time means how long
will the exposure occurs. This relationship gives rise to two different types of
toxicity acute and chronic toxicity that should be considered at the time of using
and handling pesticide.
Kinds of Toxicity
Acute toxicity refers to how much toxic is a pesticide to a human, animal, or
plant after a single short-term exposure. Acute toxicity is used to describe
effects which appear very soon, or within 24 hours of exposure. A pesticide
having a high acute toxicity is deadly even when it is absorbed in very small
amount. Acute toxicity levels are used to compare how poisonous pesticides are
and for the warning statements on the label. Acute toxicity may be measured as
acute oral toxicity, acute dermal toxicity, and acute inhalation toxicity.
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 Acute oral toxicity: Chemicals are given to pest with food and
mortality or sub-lethal effects are noted in a short period of time. It is
measured in mg/kg body weight. Pesticides enter the body through the
mouth by a normal process called ingestion. This can occur when hands
are not properly washed before eating or smoking pesticides may be
swallowed by mistake. Improper storage of pesticide in food containers
can also ingested anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract mainly the
small intestine. Once absorbed, they enter the blood stream and circulate
throughout the body.
 Acute dermal toxicity: Chemicals may be of wet, dry or gaseous are
applied to external body parts or surface or may be eye because it is the
most sensitive part of the body. Oil or paste forms allow greater
absorption through the skin as compared to water-based pesticides.
Some pesticides do not pass through the skin very readily while others
absorbed quickly through the skin. Skin capacity varies in every pest to
act as a barrier to pesticide absorption. The eyes, ear drums, scalp and
groin area absorbs pesticides more quickly than other areas. If the skin is
damaged or injured penetration by pesticide will be easier. Once they
get absorbed through skin, pesticides enter the blood stream and are
transported throughout the body.
 Acute Inhalation toxicity: Chemicals are in the form of dust or vapor
that is inhaled by the pest and toxicity tested. Whether as dust, spray,
mist, or fumes, pesticides can be drawn into your lungs as you breathe.
Inhalation of pesticides can occur when wettable powders are mixed
with water or other solvent in dust form or granule form. Poisoning can
also occur while fumigation or spraying without applying breathing
apparatus The largest particles that are inhaled stick to the surface of the
throat and nasal passages but smaller particles can be inhaled directly
into the lungs. Once they are absorbed through the surfaces of the lungs,
chemicals enter the blood stream and are distributed to the rest of the
body.
Chronic toxicity refers to the delayed poisonous effect after exposure to a
substance. Chronic toxicity of pesticides concerns the general public health, as
well as those people handling directly with pesticides because of continuous
exposure to pesticides in food products, water and the air. It is measured in
experimental conditions after three months of either continuous or occasional
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exposure and at least two generation of test insect is examined for changes in
liver tissues, carcinogenic effects and teratogenic properties.
It is not necessary for a material having high acute toxicity, does have high
chronic toxicity or with low acute toxicity will have low chronic toxicity. For
many pesticides, the toxic effects of single acute exposures are quite different
from those produced by chronic exposure. For example, when large amounts of
the pesticide cryolite are eaten by rats at one time, little or no harmful effects
will be observed as it quickly passes through the intestinal tract and eliminated
without harmful effects as it is insoluble. But, if the rats are fed by small
amounts of cryolite every day in their food, they become ill and die. Small
amount of chemical absorbed from a one-time exposure is not sufficient to
cause illness, but absorption of the same small amount every day, can cause
chronic illness and death. The effects of both acute toxicity and chronic toxicity
depends upon dose; the greater the dose, the greater will be the effect.
We cannot change the inherent toxicity of pesticides, but we can limit the
possibility of poisoning by preventing and limiting the exposure rate. In other
words, the risk of pesticide exposure is equal to toxicity and route of exposure
to the pesticide.
RISK = Toxicity X Exposure
Toxicity in human may vary with the health condition in pregnancy cases, age
as child are more sensitive, gender, body size and habits like smoking, drug
inhaler or alcohol taker. Effect may of immediate action or delayed, reversible
or irreversible, permanent or temporary, mutagenic or suppressant. Toxicity can
be measured in terms of LD 50, LC 50, LT 50.
1.4 History of chemical control
The use of chemical control started 1200 BC when Chinese used chalk and
wood ash to control insects and botanicals for treating seeds. Pyrethrum was
used in mid eighteenth century. A number of insecticides which are synthetic
inorganic Paris green, lead arsenate and botanical like rotenone, nicotine started
developing in the end of 18th and starting of 19th century. Introduction of
chemical pesticides started replacing cultural and ecological control. Age of
pesticide began with the discovery of DDT since the period started from 1940.
It is divided into three phases as era of optimism, era of doubt and era of IPM.
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 Era of optimism (from 1946 to 1962)

As the DDT discover and its insecticidal properties were known other
synthetic organic insecticides like HCH, aldrin, dieldrin, parathion,
allethrin were discovered, manufactured and applied on field. The
organophosphates and carbamates ensure immediate killing of insects
and easy to apply. The use of pesticide offers cheap, easier method to
yield more production with large profitable amount and hence
universally accepted to minimize the pest damage. This is the age of
pesticide evolution with dominance of chemical control.
 Era of doubt (from 1964-1976)
Aucante observed the arsenic poisoning, mercury and its health hazards
and France banned the use of arsenic products. Due to health hazards of
inorganic compounds, organic compounds were extensively used and
misused. The problem occurred when these insecticides killed natural
enemies, non target species, and beneficial insects and resulted in pest
resurgence and outbreak of secondary pest. Rachel Carson mentioned in
his book Silent Spring about health hazards due to pesticide misuse. In
this era doubt occurred about magic power of chemical insecticides and
control measure turn their way to non chemical ways to develop. As the
profit is large in using chemical pesticides more chemicals like
monocrotophos, fonofos, aldicarb, permethrin and other
organophosphates and carbamates develop. One more problem
developed with all these as resistance occurred in insect species from
one or more insecticides and upto the year 1975; 364 species become
resistant. Out of these 70 species showed multiple resistances and 7
developed resistances to all major groups of insecticides. The other
problems also generated with contamination of food chain and
environment toxicology.
 Era of IPM (1976 onwards)
Forbes enumerated the principles of IPM even before a century. Stern et
al. in 1959 gave concept of economic injury level (EIL) and economic
threshold level (ETL) and emphasize on the integrated use of selective
chemical use and biological control. Pest Management term was first
given by Geier in 1970. Then IPM Integrated pest management come in
role where the use of all control methods cultural, ecological, biological
etc are used to control pest and chemical control only use when the pest
population reaches the EIL.
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Even today with advances in agricultural technologies losses due to pests and
diseases range from 10-90%, with an average of 35 to 40%, for all potential
food and fibre crops. As there was no chemical industry, any products used had
to be either of plant or animal derivation or, if of mineral nature, easily
obtainable. Research into pesticides continued; in 1970s and 1980s the
introduction of the world’s greatest selling herbicide, glyphosphate there was
the synthesis of a 3rd generation of pyrethroids, the introduction of avermectins,
benzoylureas and Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) as a spray treatment. This period
also saw the introduction of the triazole, morpholine, imidazole, pyrimidine and
dicarboxamide families of fungicides. In the 1990s research activities
concentrated on finding new members of existing families which have greater
selectivity and better environmental and toxicological profiles. Today the pest
management has expanded to include use of genetically modified crops
designed to produce their own insecticides or exhibit resistance to broad
spectrum herbicide products or pests. These include herbicide tolerant crops
like soybeans, corn, canola and cotton and varieties of corn and cotton resistant
to corn borer and bollworm respectively. In addition ,the use of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) systems which discourage the development of pest
populations and reduce the use of agrochemicals have also become more
widespread. These changes have altered the nature of pest control and have the
potential to reduce and/or change the nature of agrochemicals used.
1.5 Pesticide use
Reasons for Use of Pesticides
1) Pesticides are used to ensure better protection at standing crop harvest
stage against unpredictable losses caused by plant diseases and pests.
2) Pesticides are used to improve both quality and quantity of food crop.
3) Pesticides are used to decrease the vector born and other diseases in
humans and animals.
Ideal Pesticide: The ideal pesticide should have the following properties:
1) It should have a broad spectrum to kill the pests.
2) It should not be toxic to mammals.
3) It should not cause harm to plants.
4) It should not be costly, have low production cost.
5) It should be easily formulated and manufactured.
6) It should have optimal residue persistence, without longer residual
effect.
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7) It should have low toxicity to beneficial insects or non target species.

8) It should be compatible with other pesticides.
9) It should not produce bad odor on vegetables on which it is sprayed.
10) It should be non inflammable and should have non corrosive action on
spraying and dusting equipments.
11) It should spread uniformly and quickly degradable.
1.6 Pesticide industry in India
The state-wise utilization of pesticides in India vary, out of the 28 states and 7
union territories of India, above 80% of total pesticide consumption are from
five states viz., Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Punjab and Maharashtra
(FIG 1.2). Rest of the states consumes only 20% of the total pesticides used in
whole of the country. Per hectare farmland or cropland usage of pesticides in
India is too small as compared to other advanced countries. The available
statistics show it to be presently 400-500 g/ha (different sources) in India as
against up to about 3000 g/ ha in the USA, Europe and West Germany, and
11800 g/ha in Japan. We share only 3-5% world annual production of
pesticides which is about to be 2 million tonnes, against 45% shared by Europe
and 24% by the USA (FIG 1.1). In spite of this, the fast growth of pesticide
industry in India played a very important role in maintaining Indian Green
Revolution free of pests and participating in providing food security to our ever
increasing population during the last decade, in particular. Maximum pesticide
use in g/ha against crops of cotton, fruits, and plantation crops as compared to
rice, cereals, pulses, sugarcane and other crops.
FIG 1.1: Pie chart showing consumption of insecticide throughout world
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FIG 1.2: Pie chart showing consumption of insecticide throughout India
Pesticide Names: There are three names associated with every pesticide:
1) Chemical Name: The systematic name of a chemical compound
according to the rules of nomenclature of the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry as adapted for indexing in chemical
abstracts. For example 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyloxyacetic acid is a
chemical name.
2) Common Name: A generic name for a chemical compound (see the
Weed Science Society of America list of herbicide nomenclature). For
example: The common name for 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinoxyacetic acid
is triclopyr. The common name is the name generally used in discussing
pesticide toxicology and environmental behavior and fate.
3) Product Name: The trade name of a pesticide is referred to the name on
the container you purchase. It is also the name to which the EPA
registration number is applied at the time of registration. Triclopyr alone
is sold as Garlon 3A or Garlon 4.
There are several steps involved in Commercial preparation of Pesticide
starting from;
1) Laboratory synthesis of pesticides
2) The preliminary screening of pesticide
3) Formulation
4) Toxicity studies (acute toxicity, oral toxicity, dermal toxicity etc.)
5) Metabolism affecting studies
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6) Residual studies
7) Registration of pesticide manufactured
8) Promotion of pesticide
9) Pilot plant studies
10) Commercial Development in factory on large scale
Table 1: Insecticides Registered in India u/s 9(3) of the Insecticides Act
1968 (Personal Communication DPPQ&S, Faridabad (Haryana), (As on
7th March, 2005)
Chlorfenvinphos Chlorpyriphos
Chlorpyriphas methyl Cyfluthrin
Cypermethrin Cyphenothrin
Decamethrin (=deltamethrin) Diazinon
Dichloro-Diphenyl Trichloroethane Dichlorvos (DDVP)
(DDT)
Dicofol (acaricide) Difenthiuron
Diflubenzuron Dimethomorph
Dimethoate D-trans Allethrin
Endosulfan Ethion (Acaricide)
Ethofenprox (=etofenprox) Fenazaquin (acaricide)
Fenitrothion Fenobucarb (BPMC)
Fenpropathrin Fenthion
Fenvalerate Fipronil
Flufenoxuron (acaricide) Fluvalinate
Formothion Hydrogen Cyanamid (fumigant)
Imidacloprid Imiprothrin
Indoxacarb Lambdacyhalothrin
Lindane (=gamma HCH) Malathion (also fumigant)
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Methomyl Methyl bromide (fumigant)

Milbemectin Methyl Parathion
Monocrotophos Oxydemeton methyl
(= metasystox)
Paradichlorobenzene (PDCB) Permethrin
Phenthoate Phorate (also nematicide)
Phosalone Phosphamidon
Prallethrin Pirimiphos-methyl
Profenofos Propargite (acaricide)
Propetamphos Propoxur
Pyrethrins (Pyrethrum) (botanical) Quinalphos
S- bio-allethrin Spinosad (microbial)
Tebuconazole Temephos (= abate)
Thiodicarb Thiomethoxain
Thiometon Triazophos
Transfluthrin Trichlorofon
Remarks: The total number of registered pesticides in India is 186, which
is lowest among the top seven pesticide using countries, with USA having
highest number of 755 registered pesticides. The neighboring country
Pakistan has registered so far 495 pesticides
India produces 90,000 metric tons of pesticides every year and it is the largest
producer in Asia and the 12th largest in the world. Overall about 400 million
acres area under cultivation 60% approximately of the country’s population are
dependent on agriculture.
India loses nearly 30% of its potential crop due to damage by weeds, pests,
insects and fungus, both before and after harvest. Pesticide helps to increase
crop yields with cultivable land is shrinking. The industry manufactures two
main types of products the one of which are technical grade pesticides (the
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basic concentrated chemical compound) and the other is formulations from

these technical grade pesticides.
1.7 Classification of insecticides and acaricides
Pesticides have been classified on various basis as follows:
On the basis of effect on target organism
 Ovicidal – if kills eggs
 Larvicidal- if kills larval stage
 Adulticidal- if kills adult stage
1.7.1- Mode of entry (On the basis of route of entry): In the insects there are
different routes of entry by which pesticides get inside and cause their effects.
Repper has given the following classification of systemic (FIG 1.3):
 Stomach poison: These chemicals enter insect body through gut when
the insecticides feed or clean their body parts. Example, inorganic
chemicals, arsenicals, boric acid.
 Systemic poison: These chemicals are taken up by plants and
translocated within the plants or animals when treated with insecticides.
When piercing and sucking insects like bugs sucks the juices they are
killed. Example, DNOC.
 Stable systemic: Insecticides which don't metabolize in the system e.g.
sodium fluorpsilicate, sellinum.
 Endolytic systemics: Systemic insecticides in which the toxic
compound is present in 98% in its original form and taken up by the
insects e.g. Schradan.
 Endometatoxic: Systemic insecticides in which the toxic compounds
gets converted into more toxic form after ingestion, e.g. systox,
metasystox.
 Contact poison: These chemicals enter the body through cuticle when
come in contact and absorbed through integument, example botanicals.
 Fumigants: These are highly volatile and enter through the tracheal
system through the openings called spiracles and absorbed by the
tissues, example respiratory poison – DD, PDV, Naphthalene, CS2.
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FIG 1.3: General insect showing mode of entry of insecticides

1.7.2- Mode of action
 Physical poisons: These compounds exert a physical effect rather than a
biochemical effect and these actually kill the insects by suffocation.
i) Asphyxiation:These may exert a purely asphyxiation effect
killing scale insects slowly by exclusion of air. Example heavy
mineral oil or emulsion.
ii) Mechanical injury: These chemical causes abrasion of cuticle
leading to the desiccation and death of insect like Aluminium
oxide, boric acid.
 Inert dusts: They affect loss of body moisture from insects by two
types of action. Abrasive dusts e.g. aluminum oxide cause water loss by
lacerating the epicuticle and water adsorbents e.g. charcoal remove
water as a consequence of their hygroscopic properties.
 Protoplasmic poisons: The action of these poisons appears to be
associated primarily with the precipitation of proteins e.g. Heavy-
metals/ nitrophenols, nitro cresols.
 Respiratory poisons: They combine with cytochrome oxidase and other
oxidases containing Fe and thus inhibit their catalytic action e.g. HCN,
H2S, CO.
 Nerve Poisons: The action of these poisons is associated primarily with
their solubility in the tissue lipids. e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organophosphates, botanical insecticides.
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i) Nacrotics: It induces unconsciousness in insects; they are fat

soluble and stores in fatty tissue, nerve sheaths, and lipoproteins.
For example, Chlorine, Bromine, Flourine.
ii) Axonic poison: It interrupts normal axonic transmission from
one cell to another and causes them to stay in permanently
depolarized state, example chlorinated hydrocarbon, pyrethroids.
iii) Synaptic poison: Nerve poison interferes with
acetylcholinesterase that breaks the acetylcholine into acetate and
choline, example organophosphate, carbamates.
Acetylcholine------------ Acetate + choline
aectylcholinesterase
 Muscular poison: These chemical disrupt excitable membrane muscles
which results in three fold increase in oxygen consumption and cause
paralysis and death. Example, Ryanodine, Rotenone.
 Molt/chitin inhibitor: It does not allow the insect to form chitin,
example Dimilin.
1.7.3-On the basis of chemical nature
 Inorganic: Molecules that do not contain carbon, example: heavy
metals like lead and arsenic compounds, Copper products, Sulfur
products.
 Organic: Molecules contain carbon and may be chain or ring compound
hydrocarbons. It can be further divided into different groups as
i) plant originated biochemicals as pyrethrum, nicotine
ii) animal originated chemicals nereistoxin
iii) synthetic organic compounds
iv) Hydrocarbons such as petroleum, oil
Inorganic pesticides
1. Arsenicals: made of arsenic compounds
i) Lead arsenate- They are weak poison, insoluble in water, stable,
have better degree of adherence quality, safer to plants, can be
sprayed or dust. Example: acid orthoarsenate, basic orthoarsenate
used against Epilachna, lemon butterfly.
ii) Calcium arsenate- One third more toxic than lead arsenate,
incompatible with benzene but compatible with soap, sulphur,
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used as dust. Example:tricalcium arsenate against cut worms,

grasshopper, ants.
iii) Paris green- It is green in color, completely soluble in ammonia,
used as dust or spray. Example: copper acetoarsenate (Paris
green) against Colorado patato beetle.
iv) Arsenic trioxide- it is cheaper, active poison, used as baits.
Example,grasshoppers, armyworm, ants.
v) Sodium trioxide- it is highly soluble in water, highly phytotoxic,
used as baits. Example, weedicides, locust control.
2. Fluorine compounds: it is relatively safer to plants as compared to

arsenicals, less toxic to mammals but it is not obtained in fine powder
form so coverage is poor .
i) Sodium fluoride- It is white in color so care must be taken not to
be mixed with flour, used as dust. Example:earwigs, locust.
ii) Sodium fluosilicate- It is cheaper, safe and used as baits.
Example, moths, cutworms.
iii) Borium fluosilicate- It has less compatibility and corrosive to
appliances, used as spray and dust. For example: used against
fleas and blister beetle.
iv) Cryolite/ sodium fluoaluminate- It is found as mineral in
Greensland as deposits, more toxic to human beings, used against
chewing insects. Example: flea beetle.
3. Sulphur compounds: It has greater residual effect, strong foul smell;
container becomes black so used rarely. Example: lime sulphur.
4. Phosphorous compound: It is made of sulphur constituent used as
poison baits against rats, crickets, moles.
5. Mercury compounds: Mercuric chloride used as repellent against
cabbage maggots, ants, termites, cockroaches.
6. Thallium compounds: As thallium sulphate used as poison baits
against ants.
7. Boron compounds: Borax or boric acids against mosquito maggots,
houseflies.
8. Sodium compounds: Sodium selecate absorbed as systemic poison
against aphids, mites.
9. Antimony compounds: potassium antimonyl tartarate against thrips,
fruit flies.
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Organic compounds
i) Plant originated biochemical- These are called botanicals as they are
the components of plants and used as biochemical against pest as they
have toxicity effect.
 Nicotine- It is a byproduct of tobacco plant Nicotina tabaccum
and Nicotina rustica. It is an alkaloid, colorless, odorless, fast
acting and nerve poison. It darkens in light and nicotine content
is higher in leaves and stalk of the plant. Example, Nicotine
benconite contains 14% nicotine used against codling moth on
apple plant; nicotine sulphate is banned in India.
 Pyrethrum- It is the first botanical preferred in all botanicals.
Flowers come from Yugoslavia and Japan but Kenya supplies
most of them. It is obtained from plant Chrysanthemum
coccineum, C. cinerariaefolium, C. cameum. The active
component is pyrethrin I, pyrethrin II and cinerins I, cinerins II
affects Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). After coming in
exposure to air, heat, sunlight, UV looses its toxic properties
therefore stored at 0ºC. It is used as dust or spray and has no
residual effect. Can be mixed with other compounds (PBO) to
use as synergist against silver fish, bedbugs, flies.
 Rotenone- It is the second most widely used botanical, found in
leguminous plant Derris elliptica, D malaccensis (containing 5-
9% rotenone), Tephrosia, Lonchocarpus utilis, L. uruca (8-11%)
in South America. It attacks nervous system causes paralysis in
insects. It is a metabolic inhibitor inhibits respiratory chain by
oxidation of NADH-linked substrate. It is used against pest of
horticulture crops.
 Ryaniodine- It is obtained from the plant Ryania speciosa. It is
an alkaloid acting as contact or stomach poison, less toxic to
mammals than rotenone, longer residual action, most effective in
hot weather. It is used against codling moth (Cydia pomonella)
on apple plant.
 Sabadilla and Hellebore- It is product of Schoenocaulon
officinale, Veratrum album containing alkaloid cevadine,
veratridine used as contact or stomach poison. It is least toxic of
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all botanicals but highly toxic to honeybees. Used against

hemipterous insect, human lice.
 Azadiracta indica- Commonly called as neem contains
component nimbidine, nimbindiol, azadiractin affects moulting,
metamorphosis, oviposition and feeding deterrence. Used against
stored grain pest, armyworms, patato beetle, leafhopper,
grasshopper.
 Sweat flag- It is a constituent of rhizome of aquatic plant Acorus
calmus found in Western ghats and Nilgiri. Used against stored
grain pest.
 Labelia excelsa- This plant is found in Western Ghats of South
India and used against aphids on snake gourd, tingid bug, mites
on castor.
 Volatile oil plants- Oils obtained from plants and used as
repellent (oil of cedar, citrenella) and attractants ( eugenol,
geraniol).
ii) Animal originated chemicals- Nereistoxin is a toxic component
possess insecticidal properties obtained from marine annelid
Lumbrinereis heteropoda and Lumbrinereis brevicirra.
iii) Synthetic organic compounds-
 Dinitrophenols- They are the derivatives of 4,6-dinitro-2-
alkylphenols and their salts or ester. They can be fungicides,
insecticides or herbicides.
 DNOC (4,6-dinitro-o-cresol, syntox)- They are yellow,
odorless, solid, highly toxic to plants. It kills all plants in an
area.
 DNOCHP (4,6-dinitro-o-cyclohexylphenol)- yellowish
white, odorless, used against red spider mite.
 DNOSBP (4,6-dinitro-o-butylphenol)- orange color
crystalline solid.
 DINOCAP-trade name is karathane and crotothane used as
acaricide and fungicide.
 Binapacryl- trade name is Endosan, Acricid against all
stages of mites
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 Organic thiocyanites- Trade name is Loro against aphids, spider

mites, thrips and Lethane A-70 as cattle sprayer, household
insecticide.
 Organochlorine compounds- It is the oldest chlorinated
hydrocarbon used against pest. They were commonly used in the
past, but many have been removed from the market due to their
health and environmental effects and their persistence (e.g. DDT and
chlordane). They operate by disrupting the sodium/potassium
balance of the nerve fiber, forcing the nerve to transmit
continuously. Their toxicities vary greatly, but they have been
phased out because of their persistence and potential to
bioaccumulate (FIG 1.4).
 DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichoroethane)- It is the first synthetic
organic compound and synthesized by German scientist
Othner Zeidler in 1874 and the insecticidal properties of DDT
is found in 1939 by Paul Muller. It is banned in India and used
against wide variety of insect’s lice, fleas, mosquito, housefly,
cockroaches. Methoxychlor contains 80% pp isomer of DDT
used against housefly. Other are DDD, DMC and Decofol.
 BHC (benzenehexachloride)/HCH(hexachlorocyclohexane)-
It is more toxic than DDT and stable in light and heat. Lindane
is 99% gamma isomer of BHC and discovered by Vander
Lindane and do not accumulate in fat safer than BHC but
more toxic to insects.
 Chlorinated terpenes- It is obtained by chlorination of terpenes.
 Toxaphene-It is used extensively in agriculture and most
widely used insecticide but toxic to cucurbits plants and
fishes. It is less toxic to man than DDT. Used against
grasshopper, thrips, Lepidoptera larva.
 Strobane- It is a chlorinated mixture of camphene and
pinene consisting of 66% chlorine.
 Cyclodiene insecticides- It is highly chlorinated cyclic
hydrocarbon with endomethylene bridged structure prepared by
Diels Alderdiene reaction. It is more toxic to DDT act upon
nerves ganglion and causes convulsion, hyperactivity and
prostration.
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 Eldrin/octalene- It is white crystalline solid, insoluble in

water and converts into dieldrin in animal and plant
tissue. It is most effective poison used as dust against
grasshoppers and locust.
 Dieldrin- It is the epoxy derivative of aldrin having long
residual effect, most toxic and most persistant chemical
used to control cotton pest, household pest, flies, fleas,
termites but restricted to locust.
 Endrin- It is less stable than dieldrin, most toxic
hydrocarbon insecticide having high residual activity
used to control grasshopper, lepidopterous larva,
coleopteran larva.
 Chlordane/octachlor- It is unstable in presence of alkali,
lime which destroys its toxicity to insects. It is used
against wireworm, termite, white, grubs, lice, ticks, fleas,
ants.
 Heptachlor- It is derivative of chlordane and stable
compound. It is a nervous poison and four five times
more toxic than chlordane. Used to treat soil dwelling
insect, termites.
 Isobenzan/Telodrin- highly toxic contact insecticides.
 Thiodon/endosulphan- Control noxious insects like
cucurbits, aphids, pod borer, bugs caterpillar and do not
harm beneficial insects. It is non toxic, leave no residues,
safe insecticides.
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LINDANE BHC
DDT
FIG 1.4: Chemical formula of organochlorine insecticides
 Organophosphorous insecticides- It is most romantic group of
insecticide as it shows systemic and non systemic action both. It
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breakdown in presence of light into non toxic compound therefore it

has replaced chlorinated compounds. It is derived from phosphoric
acid with different alcohol group discovered by Schrader. The
phosphorous esters inhibit enzyme acetylcholinesterase and most
widely used insecticides. They were developed during the early 19th
century, but their effects on insects, which are similar to their effects
on humans, were discovered in 1932. Some are very poisonous (they
were used in World War II as nerve agents). However, they usually
are not persistent in the environment (FIG 1.5).
 Dichlorovos/ DDVP (Trade name- Nuvan, Dedevap,

Noges,Vapona)- It is highly toxic to bees and fishes, having
good penetrating power, rapid knock down effect, safe
insecticide, do not leave residues.
 Malathion (Trade name- cythion, Malathion)- It is an
aliphatic derivative of organophosphates, causes death in 72
hours and toxicity persist for 7 days. It is safest to all
insecticides kills storage pest, all vegetable pest, crop pest.
 Diazinon (Trade name- Basudin)- It is phosphoric acid esters
used as fumigants having good penetrating quality.
 Parathion (Trade name- Folidol M, Metacid 50, Metaphos)-
Extensively toxic to man, high toxic insecticidal properties,
non volatile used against mites and aphids.
 Schradan- First organophosophate studied safer and most
effective.
 Monocrotophos- restricted to vegetables.
 Acetaphate- Latest insecticide for aphids, leafminer, thrips
and vegetable pest.
 Phorate- older pesticide used against corn rootworm.
 Fenitrothion (Trade name- Foliothion, Sumithion)- used for
rice pest, bedbugs, fleas.
 Phoxim- It is exceptionally fast acting against lepidopterous
larvae.
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PARATHION
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDE P- valency 5, R- short chain

group, X- leaving group
-
DICHLORVOS
ACEPHATE
FIG 1.5: Chemical formula of organophophorous insecticides
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 Carbamates- It is a derivative of carbamic acid having –

OCON group and persist about 2-3 years.
 Isofenphos/ olfanol- against rice stem borer, soil
insects
 Methamidophos- harmless to bees, eradicate resistant
strains.
 Carbaryl- oldest carbamates with low toxicity to
human.
 Carbofuran- highly toxic to human being, used
against corn rootworms, nematodes, soil insect pest.
 Propoxur-Against chinch bugs, adult mosquitoes
extensively used in restaurant and in homes.
 Aldicarp (Trade name- Temik)-against insect pest of
potato.
 Pyrethroids- They are synthetic analogues of plant
product pyrethrin, most stable, Effects PNS and
fastest developing group. It is grouped under
categories
Allethrin- I generation pyrethriod
Resmethrin- II generation pyrethriod
Permethrin- III generation pyrethriod
Cypermethrin, deltamethrin against Lepidoptera and
coleopteran.
 Formamidines- It is against those insect that develop
resistance against organophosphate and carbamates. For
example, chlordimeform (Trade name- Fundal, Galecron)
most widely used and restricted to non food crops like cotton.
 Thiocyanates- Butaxyethoxyethyl thiocynates (Lethane 384)
and isoborylthiocyanates (Thanite) causes knock down
insecticides safer to use.
iv) Hydrocarbons such as petroleum, oil, kerosene used to wide

variety on insects.
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1.8 Concept of Ist, IInd, IIIrd generation of insecticides

All the insecticides are categorized in generation as Ist, IInd, IIIrd and even IV on
the basis of their discoveries and introduction to the insecticidal world.
Ist generation pesticides
 1st Generation pesticides are simple but they are usually very toxic
chemicals which harm almost everything nearby them.
 They includes all the insecticides used in large-scale before 1950's both
inorganic compounds like arsenical, fluorine compounds and botanical
pesticides as nicotine, rotenone.
 Inorganic compounds include sulfur, arsenic, calcium arsenate, copper
acetoarsenite, hydrogen cyanide, mercury, lead compounds which are
persistent gropu, highly toxic, causes biomagnifications and are non
specific in nature.
 Botanical compounds include nicotine sulfate, rotenone, pyrethrum,
and chlordecone which have properties like non-persistent, highly toxic
and causes nervous effects.
 2500 BC ago the farmers started using the toxic chemical sulfur to kill
pests from their crops.
 In 15th century AD wide variety of chemicals such as, arsenic, hydrogen
cyanide, mercury and lead compound were used.
 In the starting of 17th century nicotine sulfate obtained from tobacco
leaves was discovered observed to be effective pesticide, ants were
controlled with mixtures of honey and arsenic.
 The jacamar vine plant and chrysanthemums come in use in 19th
century to make the natural pesticides of rotenone and pyrethrin.
Farmers were mainly using copper acetoarsenite (Paris green), calcium
arsenate, nicotine sulphate and sulfur to control wide variety of insects.
nd
II Generation pesticides
 They are the synthetic chemical compounds created for the intentional
use as a pesticide.
 They are persistant, less toxic compared to inorganic compounds, short
lived, causes biomagnifications and are water soluble.
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 They are species specific and less harmful to human.

 In the year 1874, DDT was first synthesized.
 In 1939 scientist Paul Hermann Müller discovered the insecticidal
properties of DDT in Switzerland..
 Aerosols developed in US in 1941.
 After World War second BHC, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT and 2,4-D
were introduced and became widespread used as they are cheap.
 Carbamates were developed and put to use in 1958.
 1962 Rachel Carson published his book Silent Spring which emphasize
the impact of misuse and overuse of pesticides on environment (FIG
1.6).
 In 1946 parathion was first organophosphates to be used.
 Isolan was the first carbamate used in 1951 and dominate the pesticide
market.
 1970- EPA established
 1972- DDT usage was banned in the Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act in USA and in 1989 in India.
 1976-Photostable and usable pyrethroid was developed in Japan
 In 1975 R.L.Metcalf and W.H.Luckmann published his book
Introduction to Integrated Pest Management and in1976 IPM becomes
recommended in the US by FDA
 1984 Methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas was leaked in industrial accident in
Bhopal, known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy, India.
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FIG 1.6: Food chain showing different trophic levels biomagnification of

DDT
IIIrd Generation Pesticides

 The pesticides or chemicals that are replacing DDT now a days have the
advantage of degrading more quickly in the environment, but they still
hit a broad spectrum of insects often beneficial ones and non target
species.
 Most of the chemical companies looking forward for safer, more
specific insecticides that simply have insect-killing value.
 Researchers motivate more stress on biological controls such as
introducing parasites, predators, sterile males, specific diseases, natural
enemies or natural hormones.
 A Harvard scientists Carroll M. Williams had discovered specific
insecticides based on insects own hormones. And considered as
WILLIAMS "third generation pesticides" which is much more superior
to the lead arsenate and DDT.
 These chemicals are called as juvenile hormones, are secreted by two
endocrine small glands in insect head. If the amount of the hormone is
less in the eggs or late larvae, the eggs fail to hatch and the larvae die
without metamorphising.
 In 1956, Williams isolated this hormone from silkworms and Elias J.
Corey, Sheldon Emery Professor of Organic Chemistry, later
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synthesized it. But like other artificial versions of juvenile hormone, this
silkworm hormone affected many different types of insects along with
the target moth.
 Third generation pesticide must be a species specific and do not harm
natural enemies, non target organisms either it will be merely a more
potent variety of DDT.
 The finding of Lynn M. Riddiford, Assistant Professor of Biology that
juvenile hormone are absent in insect eggs for normal hatching to take
place led to the possibility of releasing males with juvenile hormone on
their genitalia. So that wild female that mates with one of these males
would become sterile decreasing the target insect's population and the
hormone would not affect other species.
 The other accidental discovery by Williams' group found that a
European bug would grow fairly well in the Bio Labs until the last larval
stage but died without metamorphising. This syndrome lead to another
use of JH that, if some extra juvenile hormone hit the bugs it will not
reproduce.
 Balsam fir used to make the paper towels produce a compound very
similar to the bug's juvenile hormone and effect only a single family of
bugs like silkmoth JH.
Pecocene I (7-methoxy,2,2-dimethyl chromene) and Precocene II (6,7-
dimethoxy,2,2-dimethyl chromene) are now newly discovered and
considered as IV generation pesticides.
Recent insecticides
Avermectins derived from fungus and belongs to a group of chemicals called
macrolactones. They affect the nervous system as axonic poisons and bind to
another protein in the nerve fiber called gamma amino butyric acid (GABA).
Avermectins blocks the channel causing nerve hyper excitation resulting in
tremors and uncoordinated movement.
Imidacloprid belongs to the chloronicotinyl chemical class of insecticides is
another recent discovery which is also a synaptic nervous system poison. It
mimics the action of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine which normally
turns on a nerve impulse at the synapse but its effects are terminated very
quickly. Imidacloprid turns on the nerve impulse but cannot terminate it back
like acetylcholine because of its chemical structure. Therefore, the nervous
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system is overexcited and the results are same as that of avermectins in causing
tremors and uncoordinated movement.
The other new insecticide that affects the nervous system is fipronil. Fipronil is
a phenylpyrazole chemical class insecticide showing similar action to that of
cyclodiene insecticides (e.g. chlordane or aldrin). These chemicals are axonic
poisons that affect the GABA-gated chloride channel.
1.9 Summary
A pesticide is any substance that is used to control or kill pests. Pests may be
target insects, vertebrate like rat, mole, vegetation, weed, fungi, etc. Most
measure used to control the pests is by poisoning them through pesticides but
they can be poisonous to humans as well. Some are very poisonous, or toxic,
and may contaminate the food, irritate the skin, eyes, nose, or mouth while
using, should always keep out of reach to children. The most important thing to
remember is that you should always use with great caution whenever you work
with any pesticide.
Different use of pesticides causes toxicity which may be acute, dermal, inhaled,
oral and chronic. Pesticide can be classified into inorganic and organic which
may be further categorize into animal originated, plant originated, synthetic or
hydrocarbons. There are three eras of chemical control as era of optimism, era
of doubt and era of IPM.
1.10 Glossary
 Active ingredient (a.i.): The main chemical component in a product
responsible for the pesticides effects.
 Acute toxicity: Immediate toxicity of a pesticide to an organism.
 Bioconcentration: It is the tendency for a compound to accumulate in
an organism tissue.
 Biomagnifications: An increase in concentration of a compound in food
chain.
 Bound residues (pesticide): Chemical pesticide usage in plants residing
in tissues, particularly cell walls.
 Contact insecticide: Insecticide that kills an insect pest by coming in
contact.
 Pest control: To kill the pest by any of the agent.
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 Pest: An organism that competes with man for his food supply, damages
his possession, and attacks his person.
 Pesticide contamination: Pollution of any chemical constituent to the
environment with some pesticide.
 Pesticide: A chemical, synthetic or natural, used to prevent, retard, or
decline the growth of the target pest to desired level.
 Systemic Insecticide: Pesticide which is inoculated within a plant from
the point of application to the point where the insect will contact or
ingest it.
 Volatilization: It is the evaporation of a heated pesticide.
1.11 Self Learning Exercise
Section -A (Very Short Answer Type)
1. Give the trade name of Aldicarp?
2. Give example of protoplasmic poison?
3. Name the plant having nicotine?
4. What are the categories of nerve poisons?
5. What is the example of chitin inhibitor?
6. Name the newly discovered pesticides?
7. Who gave the term Pest Management?
8. Who gave the concept of EIL and ETL?
9. Who reported chemical properties of DDT?
10. What was the first organ- phosphate insecticide developed?
11. Who published book Silent Spring?
Section -B (Short Answer Type):
1. Differentiate I, II and III generation pesticide?

2. Define term ETL and EIL?
3. What is the importance of inorganic pesticides?
4. Give in brief the role of synthetic pesticides?
5. Briefly explain the pesticide industry in India?
6. Write the pesticide classified on the basis of mode of entry?
7. What is acute and chronic toxicity?
Section -C (Long Answer Type)
1. What are pesticide and its different categories?
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2. Define toxicology and its types?

3. What are the different eras in the history of chemical control?
4. Name different plants that are used to control pest?
5. Give the classification of pesticides based on different criteria?
Answer Key of Section-A

1. Temik
2. nitrophenols, nitro cresols.
3. Nicotina tabaccum and Nicotina rustica
4. Narcotics, axonic poison and synaptic poison
5. Dimilin
6. Avermectins, fipronil
7. P.W. Geier
8. V.M.Stern
9. Paul Muller
10. Parathion
11. Rachel Carson in 1962
1.12 References
 Cedric Gillot : Entomolgy
 Kachhwaha N.: Principles of Entomology-Basic and Applied
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Unit - 2
Structure of insecticides
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Structure and mode of action of organochlorides
2.4 Structure and mode of action of organophosphates
2.5 Structure and mode of action of carbamates
2.6 Structure and mode of action of pyrethroids
2.7 Structure and mode of action of tertiary amines and chlordimeform
2.8 Structure and mode of action of chitin synthesis inhibitors
2.9 Structure and mode of action of avermectins and nitroguandines
2.10 Structure and mode of action of neonicotinoids and oxadiazines
2.11 Structure and mode of action of phenyl pyrozoles
2.12 Structure and mode of action of insect growth regulators
2.13 Structure and mode of action of microbials
2.14 Structure and mode of action of botanicals (natural pyrethroids,
rotenone, neem products, nicotine, pongamia spp, etc)
2.15 Structure and mode of action of new promising compounds
2.16 Problems of pesticide hazards and environmental pollution
2.17 Summary
2.1 Objectives
This unit describes the structure and mode of action of various insecticides such
as organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates, insects growth regulators,
avermectines, rotenones etc. It gives detailed information on the Problems of
pesticide hazards and environmental pollution.
2.2 Introduction
The chemicals which kill the insects by their chemical action are termed as
insecticides. They include ovicides and larvicides used against
insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used
in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to
be a major factor behind the increase in agricultural 20th century's
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productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter

ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; some concentrate along the food chain.
Insecticides can be classified in two major groups: systemic insecticides, which
have residual or long term activity; and contact insecticides, which have no
residual activity.
Furthermore, one can distinguish three types of insecticide. 1. Natural
insecticides, such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts, made by plants as
defences against insects. 2. Inorganic insecticides, which are metals. 3. Organic
insecticides, which are organic chemical compounds, mostly working by
contact.
The mode of action describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest. It
provides another way of classifying insecticides. Insecticides are classified on
the basis of the mode of their entry into the insect body as stomach, contact and
fumigant poisons. Mode of action is important in understanding whether an
insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals.
Insecticides are distinct from insect repellents, which do not kill.
2.3 Structure and mode of action of Organochlorides
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are the oldest insecticides having been the first
widely used synthetic organic insecticides. All insecticides of this group contain
at least chlorine, hydrogen and carbon. Some of the insecticides also contain
oxygen and sulphur. There is a large number of chlorinated hydrocarbons
including DDT, HCH (BHC), methoxychlor with their analogues and isomeric
forms such as lindane (γ- BHC). Other insecticides of this group are
chlorinated terpenes (toxaphene), cyclodienes (aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane,
isodrin, heptachlor, endrin etc.) and other compounds like chlordecone
(kepone) and endosulfan (thiodon).
Most of these chemicals have been banned from use because of their
persistence in the environment and toxicity to nontarget organisms.
a) DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane)

IUPAC name – 1,1,1- trichloro – 2,2 – di- (4 - chlorophenyl)
ethane
Structural formula
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Chemical formula – C14H9C15l
It is a very powerful insecticide which exercise a prolonged lethal residual

effect till covered by the dust or dechlorinated. It is a creamy white, crystalline
powder having a faint unpleasant odour. It is one of the first synthetic organic
insecticides, which is representative of the organochlorine chemicals.
Organochlorine molecules tend to be very stable because of the placement of
the chlorine ions in the molecule.
It is almost insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like castor oils,
cotton seed oils, xylene, benzene, kerosene, dioxane, ether, acetone,
chloroform, liquid paraffin etc.
DDT act as either a contact or a stomach poison to insects, affecting the sensory
organs and nervous system and causing violent agitation at first ,followed by
paralysis and death. The effect is gradual but sure and persists for a long time. It
is non phytotoxic except to cucurbits. It is very effective against most insects
such as beetles, weevils, caterpillars, thrips, whiteflies and leaf hoppers. It is
compatible with most insecticides and fungicides, except lime sulphur.
Considering the effective insecticidal dose, it is comparatively less toxic to
mammals (a human fatal dose taken orally in 30 gms). Insolubility in water
renders it harmless to use on human skin in dust or aqueous emulsion but when
dissolved in oils, its large doses may cause a number of diseases like
convolution, cerebral depression and necrosis of liver. Its inhalation is also
harmful but due to its high toxicity for insects, large areas can be treated with
small quantities of insecticides by ordinary hands or power sprayers.
It is never used in pure form but compounds are made with certain bases to
form dust or spray. The dose of DDT ranges between 0.5 to 20% in mineral
oils, 0.1 to 5% of emulsified dispersible or wettable powder in water and 2 to
10% in dust mixed with talc, clay, chalk, sulphur and other carriers.
Several DDT analogues also possess insecticidal activities. They are :
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Methoxychlor (C6H15Cl13O2) –
It is a white crystalline pale flaky powder. It is less toxic to mammals and bring
about rapid knock down of many insects (e.g.house flies). It does not
accumulate in animal fatty tissues or excreted in milk.
It should not be mixed in alkaline material. It has also been found that its acute
and chronic toxicity is relatively less than DDT. Its use is favoured for animal
forage. It is used for the control of pests of vegetable crops and dairy cattle.
DDD (dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethane)
It is less toxic to mammals and is used for flies and vegetable pests. It is less
effective against most insects than DDT.
Dilan – it is a commercial product containing a mixture of two nitro paraffins
analogues of DDT. It is more effective than DDT against certain insects.
b) BHC or HCH (Benzene hexachloride)
IUPAC name – 1,2,3,4,5,6- hexachorocyclohexane

Structural formula
Chemical formula – C6H6Cl6
It is a crystalline tasteless perfectly stable powder of sand colour, having a

camphor like odour, practically insoluble in water but soluble in oils and
paraffins. Commercial BHC contain 10- 13% gamma isomer, 55-70% alpha
isomer, 5-14% beta isomer, and 6-8% epoilon isomer. The assay of
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effectiveness of BHC depend upon the content of gamma isomer and not on the
total amount of insecticide in an insecticidal formulation.
It is available as a pure product or mixed with a carrier like lime, gypsum or
chalk. It is perfectly compatible with sulphur and DDT but it decomposes,
when mixed with alkalies like lime, Bordeaux mixture and nicotine etc. It is
five times toxic than DDT hence acts more quickly but being volatile, the
residual effect is less lasting.
It can serve both as stomach and contact poisons for most of the insects such as
thrips, leafhoppers, aphids, woodlice and earwigs but less effective against flour
moths. It can be used as a slow acting fumigant for stored products alone or in
combination with carbon disulphide, carbon tetrachloride etc. It is less toxic to
mammals when taken orally or absorbed to skin. A fatal oral dose for man is
30gms (its gamma isomer is more toxic and 15gms is fatal dose for man).
c) Lindane
It is the coined name for the gamma isomer of BHC of a purity of not less than
99%. Using llindane in formulation eliminates the disagreeable odour and tastes
on some crops which result when they are treated with BHC. It occurs as
colourless crystals and is practically insoluble in water, slightly soluble in
petroleum oils, soluble in acetone, aromatic and chlorinated solvents.
It exhibits strong stomach poison action, persistent contact toxicity and
fumigant action, against a wide range of insects. It is non phytotoxic at
insecticidal concentrations. The technical BHC causes “tainting” of many crops
but there is less risk of this with lindane. It is stable to air, light, heat and carbon
dioxide and is not attacked by strong acids but can be dehydrochlorinated by
alkalies. It is effective against many soil insects e.g. beetle larvae and adults, fly
larvae, ants and many biting and sucking insects e.g. aphids, psyllides,
whiteflies, capsids, midges, thrips etc. This insecticide is now restricted in use.
d) Aldrin
IUPAC name – 1,2,3,4,10,10-Hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,8,8a-hexahydri-1,4,5,8-
dimethanonaphthalene
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Structural formula
Chemical formula - C12H8Cl6

It is a cyclodeine. It is a white crystalline solid, insoluble in water but is quite
soluble in mineral oils and highly soluble in most organic solvents like acetone,
benzene, xylene etc. It is stable to heat, alkaline and mild acids and can be
mixed with alkaline soils, fertilizers and other insecticides like sulphur,
Bordeaux mixture, calcium arsenate, nicotine, paris green, rotenone etc. It is a
broad spectrum, persistent, nonphytotoxic insecticide.
It acts as a stomach as well as a contact poison. Toxic effect on insects is
cumulative and therefore it is not advised to use on edible crops. It is used
against all soil insects like termites, beetles (both larvae and adults) fly larvae,
cutworms, wireworms, crickets etc. Aldrin is dusted on soil at the rate of about
2.5 kg per acre. Aldrin can control a variety of soil insects at the depth of about
10-11 cm. It is used as 30% emulsifiable concentrate, 2.5-5% dust, 5 and 20%
granules, 20-25% wettable powder or liquid seed dressing. The treated seeds
should not be used for human or animal consumption.
Insecticidal preparations containing aldrin, should be handled with care.
Respirators should be worn by those applying this material and excessive skin
contact should be avoided.
e) Endosulfan (Thiodan/ Endosel)

IUPAC name – 6,7,8,9,10,10-Hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,9a-hexahydro-6,9-
methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathirpine-3-oxide
Structural formula
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Chemical formula - C9H6Cl6O3S

It is a brownish crystalline solid. It does not accumulate in milk or fat but has a
high mammalian toxicity. In plants and animals both, it is metabolized to a
sulphate. It is extremely toxic to fish but is safe for bees. It is formulated as
emulsifiable concentrate, wettable powder, dust and granules.
f) Toxaphene
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C10H10Cl8

It is a chloroterpene and is used exclusively in agriculture. Until a few years
ago, toxophene was the single most widely used insecticide in agriculture
particularly against grasshoppers, cotton insects and livestock pests. It is
unstable in the presence of prolonged exposure to sunlight. Toxaphene is
formulated as a 25-40% wettable powder as an emulsive concentrate, as a
kerosene solution and as a dust. Though it is not highly toxic to birds and
mammals as they easily metabolised it but is highly toxic to fishes. Like other
countries it is also banned for use in india.
2.4 Structure and mode of action Organophosphates
An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) or phosphate ester is the
general name for esters of phosphoric acid. Organophosphate pesticides
irreversibly inactivate acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function
in insects, humans, and many other animals. The symptoms of poisoning due to
organophosphorous compounds are hyperactivity, tremors, convulsions,
paralysis and death in insects and muscarinic effects viz., nausea, salivation,
lachrymation and myosis, nicotinic effects viz., muscular fasciculations and
central effects such as giddiness, coma and convulsions in higher animals. Even
at relatively low levels, organophosphates may be most hazardous to the brain
development of fetuses and young children.
Organophosphate pesticides degrade rapidly by hydrolysis on exposure to
sunlight, air, and soil, although small amounts can be detected in food and
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drinking water. Their ability to degrade made them an attractive alternative to

the persistent organochloride pesticides, such as DDT, aldrin, and dieldrin.
Although organophosphates degrade faster than the organochlorides, they have
greater acute toxicity, posing risks to people who may be exposed to large
amounts.
Commonly used organophosphates have included parathion, malathion, methyl
parathion, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos, phosmet, fenitrothion, tetrachlorvi
nphos, azamethiphos, and azinphos-methyl. The EPA banned most residential
uses of organophosphates in 2001, but they are still sprayed agriculturally on
fruits and vegetables.
a) Malathion
IUPAC name –
Diethyl 2-[(dimethoxyphosphorothioyl)sulfanyl]butanedioate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C10H19O6PS2
It is yellowish brown liquid slightly soluble in water and miscible with most of
the organic solvents. It has a strong penetrating, unpleasant smell and is broken
up into non toxic ingradients when mixed with alkaline media. It can be used as
stomach and contact poison, besides as a strong fumigant for mites and other
insects which are not killed by other poisons for aphids, scale insects, mealy
bugs, jassids and caterpillars in 5% dust or 25-50% emulsion for spraying. Two
or three applications fortnightly will control white flies, mealy bugs and scale
insects.
b) Parathion
IUPAC name – O,O-Diethyl O-(4-nitrophenyl)
Phosphorothioate
Structural formula
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Chemical formula – C10H14NO5PS

Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally known as
"Folidol". It is a potent insecticide and acaricide. It is highly toxic to non-target
organisms, including humans. Parathion is a white crystalline solid, however it
is commonly distributed as a brown liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic.
The insecticide is more or less stable, although it darkens when exposed to
sunlight. It is insoluble in mineral oils and kerosene.
It is contact and stomach poison with slightly fumigant action. As a pesticide,
parathion is generally applied by spraying. It is often applied
to cotton, rice and fruit trees. The usual concentrations of ready-to-use solutions
are 0.05 to 0.1%. The chemical is banned for use on many food crops.
Parathion acts on the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, but indirectly. After being
ingested by insects (and unintentionally, by humans), the parathion becomes
oxidized by oxidases to give paraoxon, replacing the double bonded sulfur with
oxygen. The phosphate ester is more reactive in organisms than the
phosphorothiolate ester, as the phosphorus atoms become much more
electropositive.
Degradation of parathion leads to more water-soluble products. Hydrolysis,
which deactivates the molecule, occurs at the aryl esterbond resulting in diethyl
thiophosphate and 4-nitrophenol. Degradation proceeds differently
under anaerobic conditions: the nitro group on parathion is reduced to
the amine.
c) Methyl parathion
IUPAC name – O,O-dimethyl-O-nitrophenyl-phosphorothionate
Structural formula
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Chemical formula - C8H10NO5PS

It is a white crystalline substance in pure state, sparingly soluble in water and
well soluble in most organic solvents. It has a low thermal stability. It
hydrolyzed rapidly in alkaline medium. Due to its low stability, toxicity is lost
soon from the treated surface. In soil micro-organisms decompose it within a
week. It is a contact and stomach poison with mild fumigant action. It is less
toxic to mammals and highly poisonous to insects as compared to parathion. It
is formulated in combination with DDT. It can be used against aphids, mites,
leafhoppers, whiteflies, scale insects etc.
d) Dichlorvos or DDVP
IUPAC name – 2,2 –dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate or O, O – dimethyl –
2,2 – dichlorovinyl phosphate
Structural formula
Chemical formula – C4H7Cl2O4P

It is colourless liquid and it is soluble in water and most organic solvents. It is
hydrolysed slowly in neutral and acid media and rapidly in alkaline medium. It
is effective against mushroom flies, aphids, spider mites, caterpillars, thrips,
and whiteflies in greenhouse, outdoor fruit, and vegetable crops. It is also used
in the milling and grain handling industries and to treat a variety of parasitic
worm infections in dogs, livestock, and humans. It is fed to livestock to
control bot fly larvae in the manure. It acts against insects as both a contact and
a stomach poison. It is available as an aerosol and soluble concentrate. It is also
used as a fumigant against mosquitoes and other dipterous insects. It is
moderately toxic to fish and highly toxic to bees.
e) Fenitrothion
IUPAC name – O,O-Dimethyl O-(3-methyl-4-nitophenyl) phosphorothioate
Structural formula
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Chemical formula – C9H12P5NPS

It is a brownish yellow liquid with faint smell and unstable in alkaline medium.
It is insoluble in water but soluble in most organic solvents. Its thermal stability
is also low and may explode at 100oC. It is a contact and stomach poison
recommended against a wide range of insect pest of crops and certain mites
specially for the control of rice pests. It is also useful for the control of
mosquito larvae, bed bugs and poultry lice, fleas and ticks. Toxic to bees and
phytotoxicity may be caused on Brassica crops, some susceptible apple
varieties and on cotton at higher doses. Used in the form of 5% dust or 50%
emulsifiable concentrate.
f) Diazinon
IUPAC name – O,O-Diethyl O-[4-methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-yl]
phosphorothioate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C12H21N2O3PS
It is a non systemic insecticide with some acaricidal action. It may be

phytotoxic at higher dosages. It is a colourless oil almost insoluble in water but
is miscible with ethanol, acetone, xylene and is soluble in petroleum oils. It
decomposes above 120oC and is susceptible to oxidation. Contact and stomach
poison and has a fumigant effect and penetrating quality. A wide spectrum
insecticide used against large number of insect pests attacking various crop. It
is formerly used to control cockroaches, silverfish, ants, and fleas in residential,
non-food buildings.
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g) Monocrotophos
IUPAC name – Dimethyl (E)-1-methyl-2-(methylcarbamoyl)vinyl phosphate
Structural formula
Chemical formula – C7H14NO5P

It is a crystalline solid with mild ester smell. It is miscible with water, soluble in
acetone and ethyl alcohol but insoluble in kerosene and diesel. It is a fast acting
stomach, contact and systemic insecticide. It can be used against a wide range
of pests. It is absorbed by roots and then translocated to stem and leaves.
Scorching of edges occur in some varieties of sorghum, apple and cherry.
Monocrotophs is recommended for the control of aphids, white flies, leaf
miners, thrips, shoot borers, boll worms, caterpillars, foliage feeder beetles and
a number of other pests. It is formulated as emulsifiable concentrate.
2.5 Structure and mode of action carbamates
A carbamate is an organic compound derived from carbamicacid (NH2COOH).
A carbamate group, carbamate ester (e.g., ethyl carbamate), and carbamic acids
are functional groups that are inter-related structurally and often are
interconverted chemically. Carbamate esters are also called urethanes. Included
in this group
are aldicarb (Temik), carbofuran (Furadan),carbaryl (Sevin), ethienocarb, fenob
ucarb, oxamyl and methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by reversibly
inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate pesticides
also inhibit this enzyme, although irreversibly, and cause a more severe form of
cholinergic poisoning.
a) Carbaryl
IUPAC name - 1-naphthyl methylcarbamate
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Structural formula –
Chemical formula - C12H11NO2

It is a white crystalline solid commonly sold under the brand name Sevin. It is a
non specific insecticide effective against a wide spectrum of pests including
those that are resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides.
It is a contact and stomach poison having a longer residual action. The
carbamates do not have the persistence of chlorinated pesticides. Although
toxic to insects, carbaryl is detoxified and eliminated rapidly in vertebrates. It is
neither concentrated in fat nor secreted in milk, so is favored for food crops. It
is the active ingredient in Carylderm shampoo used to combat head lice until
infestation is eliminated. 2.5% carbaryl dust is used in the control of human
lice. 5% carbaryl dust is used for the control of ticks of cattles, sheeps, dogs and
mites and lice of poultry. It is effective in controlling pests of cotton, coconut
and vegetable.
Carbamate insecticides are slowly reversible inhibitors of the
enzyme acetylcholinesterase. They resemble acetylcholine, but the
carbamoylated enzyme undergoes the final hydrolysis step very slowly
(minutes) compared with the acetylated enzyme generated by acetylcholine
(microseconds). They interfere with the cholinergic nervous system and cause
death because the effects of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine cannot be
terminated by carbamoylated acetylcholinesterase.
b) Aldicarb
IUPAC name - 2-methyl-2-(methylthio) propanal O-(N-methylcarbamoyl)
oxime
Structural formula
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Chemical formula - C7H14N2O2S

in water and more soluble in organic solvents. Aldicarb is
a carbamate insecticide which is the active substance in the pesticide Temik. It
is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and
leafminers, but is It is a crystalline white solid with slightly sulphurous odour. It
is slightly soluble primarily used as a nematicide. In plants it is rapidly
absorbed and oxidised to principal toxicant aldicarb silfoxide which is further
oxidised to the aldicarb sulfone. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor which prevents
the breakdown of acetylcholine in the synapse. In case of severe poisoning, the
victim dies of respiratory failure.
Aldicarb is one of the most widely used pesticides internationally, and is also
one of the most environmentally toxic. Aldicarb poisoning from agricultural
water runoff has led to the destruction of healthy ecosystems and the
irreversible poisoning of fertile agricultural land. Poisoning from this pesticide
is also believed to be linked to high cancer rates in communities located around
the Aral Sea.
Aldicarb is effective where resistance to organophosphate insecticides has
developed, and is extremely important in potato production, where it is used for
the control of soil-borne nematodes and some foliar pests. Its high level of
solubility restricts its use in certain areas where the water table is close to the
surface. Exposure to high amounts of aldicarb can cause weakness, blurred
vision, headache, nausea, tearing, sweating, and tremors in humans. High doses
can be fatal to humans because it can paralyze the respiratory system.
c) Carbofuran
IUPAC name - 2,2-dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-7-yl methylcarbamate
Structural formula

It is a white crystalline solid with weak phionlic odour. It is non inflammable
and unstable in alkaline media. It is marketed under the trade names Furadan. It
is reversible cholinesterase inhibitor capable of causing systemic toxic effects
when inhaled or ingested. It is used to control insects in a wide variety of field
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crops, including potatoes, corn and soybeans. Very effective against sucking
pests, thrips, mites and soil inhabitating pests viz., paddy root weevil, corn root
worms, flea beetle larvae, white grubs, maggots and nematodes. It is a systemic
insecticide, which means that the plant absorbs it through the roots, and from
here the plant distributes it throughout its organs where insecticidal
concentrations are attained. Carbofuran also has contact activity against pests.
Carbofuran usage has increased in recent years because it is one of the few
insecticides effective on soybean aphids.
d) Methomyl
IUPAC name -
(E,Z)-methyl-N-
{[(methylamino)carbonyl]oxy}ethanimidothioate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C5H10N2O2S

Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide introduced in 1966. It is highly toxic to
humans, livestock, pets, and wildlife. Methomyl is a broad-spectrum insecticide
that is used to kill insect pests. Methomyl is registered for
commercial/professional use under certain conditions on sites including field,
vegetable, and orchard crops; turf (sod farms only); livestock quarters;
commercial premises; and refuse containers. Products containing 1% Methomyl
are available to the general public for retail sale, but more potent formulations
are classified as restricted-use pesticides: not registered for homeowner or non-
professional application.
2.6 Structure and mode of action pyrethroids
A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins produced
by the flowers of pyrethrums (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and C.
coccineum). Pyrethroids now constitute the majority of commercial house hold
insecticides. In the concentrations used in such products, they may also
have insect repellent properties and are generally harmless to human beings in
low doses but can harm sensitive individuals. They are usually broken
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apart by sunlight and the atmosphere in one or two days, and do not
significantly affect groundwater quality.
Pyrethroids are axonic excitoxins, the toxic effects of which are mediated
through preventing the closure of the voltage-gated sodium channels in
the axonal membranes. The sodium channel is a membrane protein with
a hydrophilic interior. This interior is a tiny hole which is shaped precisely to
strip away the partially charged water molecules from a sodium ion and create a
favourable way for sodium ions to pass through the membrane, enter the axon,
and propagate an action potential. When the toxin keeps the channels in their
open state, the nerves cannot repolarize, leaving the axonal membrane
permanently depolarized, thereby paralyzing the organism.
The earliest pyrethoids are related to pyrethrin I and II by changing the alcohol
group of the ester of chrysanthemic acid. This relatively modest change can
lead to substantially altered activities. For example the 5-benzyl-3-furanyl ester
called resmethrin is only weakly toxic to mammals (LD50 (rat, oral) =
2,000 mg/kg) but is 20-50x more effective than natural pyrethrum and is also
readily biodegraded. Other commercially important esters include tetramethrin,
allethrin, phenothrin, barthrin, dimethrin, and bioresmethrin. Another family of
pyrethroids have altered acid fragment together with altered alcohol
components. These require more elaborate organic synthesis. Members of this
extensive class include the dichlorovinyl and dibromovinyl derivatives. Still
others are tefluthrin, fenpropathrin, and bioethanomethrin.
a) Allethrin
IUPAC name –
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C19H26O3

The allethrins are a group of related synthetic compounds used in insecticides.
They are synthetic pyrethroids, a synthetic form of a chemical found naturally
in the chrysanthemum flower. Allethrin was the first pyrethroid.
The compounds have low toxicity for humans and birds, and are used in many
household insecticides such as RAID as well as mosquito coils. It is highly
toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. At normal application rates, allethrin is
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slightly toxic to bees. Insects subject to exposure become paralyzed (nervous

system effect) before dying. Allethrins are toxic to cats because they either do
not produce, or produce less of certain isoforms of glucuronosyltransferase,
which serve in hepatic detoxifying metabolism pathways.
They are also used as an ultra-low volume spray for outdoor mosquito control.
b) Permethrin
IUPAC name -
(±)-3-phenoxybezyl-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-
dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C21H20Cl2O3

Permethrin is a common synthetic chemical, widely used as an
insecticide, acaricide, and insect repellent. It is functions as a neurotoxin,
affecting neuron membranes by prolonging sodium channel activation. It is not
known to rapidly harm most mammals or birds, but is dangerously toxic to fish
and to cats: in cats it may induce hyperexcitability, tremors, seizures, and even
death. In general, it has a low mammalian toxicity and is poorly absorbed by
skin.
In medicine, permethrin is a first-line treatment for scabies; a 5% (w/w) cream
is marketed by Johnson & Johnson under the nameLyclear. In Nordic countries
and North America, it is marketed under trade name Nix, often available over
the counter. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential
Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.
It is a broad spectrum insecticide used against a variety of pests on nut, fruit,
vegetable, cotton, ornamental, mushroom, potato and cereal crops. It is used in
greenhouse, home gardens and for termite control. It also controls animal
ectoparasites, biting flies and cockroaches. Permethrin is available in dusts,
emulsifiable concentrates, smokes, ULV and wettable powder formulatins. It
may persist in fatty tissues. Soil microorganisms play a large role in the
degradation of permethrin in the soil.
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c) Cypermethrin
IUPAC name - [Cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl]3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-
dimethylcydopropane-1-carboxylate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C22H19Cl2NO3

Cypermethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale
commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for
domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily
degraded on soil and plants but can be effective for weeks when applied to
indoor inert surfaces. Exposure to sunlight, water and oxygen will accelerate its
decomposition. Cypermethrin is highly toxic to fish, bees and aquatic insects,
according to the National Pesticides Telecommunications Network (NPTN). It
is found in many household ant and cockroach killers, including Raid and ant
chalk.
It is active against a wide range of insect pests, particularly leaf and fruit eating
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera, cattle ectoparasites, sheep scab, lice
and ked.
2.7 Structure and mode of action tertiary amines and
chlordimeform
Tertiary amines
Structural formula
Amines are compounds and functional groups that contain

a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of
ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group.
In tertiary amines, all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic
substituents. Examples include trimethylamine, which has a distinctively fishy
smell, ortriphenylamine. It acts as acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
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Chlordimeform
IUPAC name - N’-(4-chloro-2-methylphenyl)-N,N-dimethylmethanimidamide
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C10H13ClN2

Chlordimeform is an acaricide (pesticide) active mainly against motile forms
of mites and ticks and against eggs and early instars of
some Lepidoptera insects. After the International Agency for Research on
Cancer reported sufficient evidence that its major metabolite, 4-chloro-o-
toluidine, was a carcinogen, its use has ceased and its registration has been
withdrawn in most countries.
2.8 Structure and mode of action Chitin synthesis
inhibitors
Chitin synthesis inhibitors work by preventing the formation of chitin, a
carbohydrate needed to form the insect's exoskeleton. With these inhibitors, an
insect grows normally until it moults. The inhibitors prevent the new
exoskeleton from forming properly, causing the insect to die. Death may be
quick, or take up to several days depending on the insect. Chitin synthesis
inhibitors can also kill eggs by disrupting normal embryonic development.
Chitin synthesis inhibitors affect insects for longer periods of time than
hormonal insect growth regulators. These are also quicker acting but can affect
predaceous insects, arthropods and even fish. Compounds
include benzoylurea pesticides.
Benzoylurea
Benzoylureas are chemical derivatives of N-benzoyl-N′-phenylurea
(benzoylurea). They are best known for their use as insecticides. They act
as insect growth regulators by inhibiting synthesis of chitin in the insect's body.
One of the more commonly used benzoylurea pesticides is diflubenzuron.
Others include chlorfluazuron, flufenoxuron, hexaflumuron, andtriflumuron.
Lufenuron is the active compound in flea control medication for pet dogs and
cats.
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When applied in a dispersed way, for example through fumigation or spraying,

these chemicals have an effect against a wide range of insect species, some of
which may be beneficial to human activities, including crop-pollinators such as
bees.
Diflubenzuron
IUPAC name – N-[(4-chlorophenyl)carbamoyl]-2,6-difluorobenzamide
Structural formula
Chemical formula – C14H9ClF2N2O2

Diflubenzuron is a benzoylurea-type insecticide of the benzamide class. It is
used in forest management and on field crop to selectively control insect pests,
particularly forest tent caterpillar moths, boll weevils, gypsy moths, and other
types of moths. Themechanism of action of diflubenzuron involves inhibiting
the production of chitin which is used by an insect to build its exoskeleton.
2.9 Structure and mode of action Avermectins and

Nitroguandines
Avermectins
Structural formula
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Chemical formula – C48H72O14

The avermectins are a series of drugs used to treat parasitic worms. They are a
16-membered macrocyclic lactone derivatives with potent anthelmintic and
insecticidal properties. These naturally occurring compounds are generated as
fermentation products by Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil actinomycete. Eight
different avermectins were isolated in 4 pairs of homologue compounds, with a
major (a-component) and minor (b-component) component usually in ratios of
80:20 to 90:10. Other anthelmintics derived from the avermectins include
ivermectin, selamectin, doramectin and abamectin.
Half of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded
to William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura for discovering avermectin, "the
derivatives of which have radically lowered the incidence of River
Blindness and Lymphatic Filariasis, as well as showing efficacy against an
expanding number of other parasitic diseases".
A commonly used therapy in recent times has been based on oral, parenteral,
topical, or spot topical (as in veterinary flea repellant "drops") administration of
avermectins. They show activity against a broad range
of nematodes and arthropod parasites of domestic animals at dose rates of 300
microgram/kg or less (200 micrograms / kg ivermectin appearing to be the
common interspecies standard, from humans to horses to housepets, unless
otherwise indicated). Unlike the macrolide or polyene antibiotics, they lack
significant antibacterial or antifungal activities.
The avermectins block the transmittance of electrical activity in invertebrate
nerve and muscle cells mostly by enhancing the effects of glutamate at the
invertebrate-specificglutamate-gated chloride channel, with minor effects
on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors. This causes an influx of
chloride ions into the cells, leading to hyperpolarisation and subsequent
paralysis of invertebrate neuromuscular systems; comparable doses are not
toxic for mammals because they do not possess glutamate-gated chloride
channels.
Nitroguandines
IUPAC name - 1-nitroguanidine
Structural formula
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Chemical formula - CH4N4O2

It is a colorless, crystalline solid that melts at 232 °C and decomposes at 250
°C. It is not flammable and is a low-sensitivity explosive; however,
its detonation velocity is high. It is used as a propellant (air bags), fertilizer, and
for other purposes. Nitroguanidine derivatives are used as insecticides, having a
comparable effect to nicotine. Derivatives include clothianidin, dinotefuran,
imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam.
2.10 Structure and mode of action neonicotinoids and

Oxadiazines
Neonicotinoids
Neonicotinoids (sometimes shortened to neonics ("NEE-oh-Nicks")) are a class
of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine. In the
1980s Shell and in the 1990s Bayer started work on their development. The
neonicotinoid family includes
acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, nitenpyram, nithiazine, thiacloprid and
thiamethoxam. Imidacloprid is the most widely used insecticide in the
world. Compared to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides
neonicotinoids cause less toxicity in birds and mammals than insects. Some
breakdown products are toxic.
In the late 1990s neonicotinoids came under increasing scrutiny over their
environmental impacts. Neonicotinoid use was linked in a range of studies to
adverse ecological effects, including honey-bee colony collapse disorder (CCD)
and loss of birds due to a reduction in insect populations. In 2013, the European
Union and a few non EU countries restricted the use of certain neonicotinoids.
Imidacloprid is effective against sucking insects, some chewing insects, soil
insects and fleas on domestic animals. It is systemic with particular efficacy
against sucking insects and has a long residual activity. Imidacloprid can be
added to the water used to irrigate plants. Controlled release formulations of
imidacloprid take 2–10 days to release 50% of imidacloprid in water. It is
applied against soil pests, seed, timber and animal pests as well as foliar
treatments.
As of 2013 neonicotinoids have been used In the U.S. on about 95 percent of
corn and canola crops, the majority of cotton, sorghum, and sugar beets and
about half of all soybeans. They have been used on the vast majority of fruit
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and vegetables, including apples, cherries, peaches, oranges, berries, leafy

greens, tomatoes, and potatoes, to cereal grains, rice, nuts, and wine
grapes. Imidacloprid is possibly the most widely used insecticide, both within
the neonicotinoids and in the worldwide market.
Neonicotinoids, like nicotine, bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of a cell
and trigger a response by that cell. In mammals, nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors are located in cells of both the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous systems. In insects these receptors are limited to the central nervous
system. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are activated by
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. While low to moderate activation of these
receptors causes nervous stimulation, high levels overstimulate and block the
receptors, causing paralysis and death. Acetylcholinesterase breaks down
acetylcholine to terminate signals from these receptors. However,
acetylcholinesterase cannot break down neonicotinoids and their binding is
irreversible.
a) Imidacloprid
IUPAC name - N-{1-[(6-chloro-3-pyridyl)methyl]-4,5-dihydroimidazol-2-yl}
nitramide
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C9H10ClN5O2

Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide which acts as an insect neurotoxin and
belongs to a class of chemicals called theneonicotinoids which act on
the central nervous system of insects, with much lower toxicity to mammals.
The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect
nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal
pathway. By blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid
prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses between nerves, resulting in
the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via
stomach action.[1] Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect
neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, this insecticide is more
toxic to insects than to mammals.[2]
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Imidacloprid is currently the most widely used insecticide in the

world. Although it is now off patent, the primary manufacturer of this chemical
is Bayer CropScience (part of Bayer AG). It is sold under many names for
many uses; it can be applied by soil injection, tree injection, application to the
skin of the plant, broadcast foliar, ground application as a granular or liquid
formulation, or as a pesticide-coated seed treatment. Imidacloprid is widely
used for pest control in agriculture. Other uses include application to
foundations to prevent termite damage, pest control for gardens and turf,
treatment of domestic pets to control fleas, protection of trees from boring
insects, and in preservative treatment of some types of lumber products (e.g.,
Ecolife brand).
It is effective against aphids, cane beetles, thrips, stink bugs, locusts, emerald
ash borer termites, carpenter ants, cockroaches, fleas Japanese beetle.
b) Acetamiprid
IUPAC name - N-[(6-chloro-3-pyridyl)]-N’-cyano-N-methyl-acetamidine
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C10H11ClN4

It is an odourless white powder insecticide produced under the trade names
Assail, and Chipco by Aventis Crop Sciences. It is systemic and intended to
control sucking insects on crops such as leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, pome
fruits, grapes, cotton, cole crops, and ornamental plants. It is also a key
pesticide in commercial cherry farming due to its effectiveness against
the larvae of the cherry fruit fly.
c) Dinotefuran
IUPAC name - 2-methyl-1-nitro-3-[(tetrahydro-3-furanyl)methyl] guanidine
Structural formula
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Chemical formula - C7H14N4O3

It is used for control of insect pests such as aphids, white flies,
thrips, leafhoppers, leafminers, sawflies, molecricket, whitegrubs, lacebugs, bill
bugs, beetles, mealy bugs, and cockroaches on leafy vegetables, in residential
and commercial buildings, and for professional turf
management. Its mechanism of action involves disruption of the insect's
nervous system by inhibiting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. In order to avoid
harming beneficial insects such as bees, it should not be applied during bloom.
Dinotefuran is also used in veterinary medicine as a flea and tick preventative
for dogs and as a flea preventative for cats. It is used in combination
with pyriproxifen or permethrin.
Oxadiazines
IUPAC name - Methyl-7-chloro-2,5-dihydro-2-[[(methoxycarbonyl)[4-
(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]amino]carbonyl]indeno[1,2-e][1,3,4]oxadiazine-
4a(3H)-carboxylate
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C22H17ClF3N3O7

Indoxacarb is an oxadiazine pesticide developed by DuPont that acts against
lepidopteran larvae. It is marketed under the names Indoxacarb Technical
Insecticide, Steward Insecticide and Avaunt Insecticide. It is also used as the
active ingredient in Syngenta line of commercial pesticides: Advion and Arilon.
Its main mode of action is via blocking of nerve sodium channels. It is
fairly lipophilic with a Kow of 4.65. Indoxacarb is the active ingredient in a
number of household insecticides, including cockroach and ant baits, and can
remain active after digestion.
2.11 Structure and mode of action Phenyl Pyrozoles
Phenylpyrazoles are a relatively modern chemical class of pesticides introduced
in the early 1990's both for agricultural and veterinary use. However, they can
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be considered as classic synthetic pesticides both by their mode of action and

by their general features.
They have a broad spectrum of insecticidal and acaricidal activity and are
effective against a number of veterinary parasites such as
fleas, flies, ticks, lice and mites. They are not systemic and have a tarsal
activity, i.e. they act by contact.
Phenylpyrazoles are inhibitors of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), a key
neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. This mechanism exists not only
in insects but also in mammals and other vertebrates. However phenylpyrazoles
seem to be much less effective on GABA receptors in vertebrates than in
invertebrates.
a) Fipronil
IUPAC name - (RS)-5-amino-1-[2,6-dichloro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4-
(trifluoromethylsulfinyl)pyrazole-3-carbonitrile
Structural formula
Chemical formula - C12H4Cl2F6N4OS

Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide that disrupts the insect central nervous
system by blocking GABA-gated chloride channels and glutamate-gated
chloride (GluCl) channels, resulting in central nervous system toxicity. This
causes hyper excitation of contaminated insects' nerves and muscles. Specificity
of fipronil on insects may come from a better efficacy on GABA receptor, but
also because GluCl channels do not exist in mammals.
It is used against major lepidopteran (moth, butterfly, etc.)
and orthopteran (grasshopper, locust, etc.) pests on a wide range of field and
horticultural crops and against coleopteran (beetle) larvae in soils. Fipronil is
the main active ingredient of Frontline TopSpot, Fiproguard, Flevox and
PetArmor (used along with S-methoprene in the 'Plus' versions of these
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products); these treatments are used in fighting tick and flea infestations
in dogs and cats.
2.12 Structure and mode of action insect growth regulators
An insect growth regulator (IGR) is a substance (chemical) that inhibits the life
cycle of an insect. IGRs are typically used to control populations of harmful
pests, such as cockroaches or fleas.
As an insect grows, it undergoes a process called molting, where it grows a
new exoskeleton under its old one and then sheds to allow the new one to swell
to a new size and harden. IGRs prevent an insect from reaching maturity by
interfering with the molting process. This in turn curbs infestations because
immature insects cannot reproduce. Because IGRs work by interfering with an
insect's molting process, they take longer to kill than traditional insecticides.
Death typically occurs within 3 to 10 days, depending on the product, the
insect's life stage when the product is applied and how quickly the insect
develops. Some IGRs cause insects to stop feeding long before they die.
Hormonal IGRs
Hormonal IGRs typically work by mimicking or inhibiting the juvenile
hormone (JH), one of the two major hormones involved in insect molting. IGRs
can also inhibit the other hormone, ecdysone, large peaks of which trigger the
insect to molt. If JH is present at the time of molting, the insect molts into a
larger larval form; if absent, it molts into a pupa or adult. IGRs that mimic JH
can produce premature molting of young immature stages, disrupting larval
development. They can also act on eggs, causing sterility, disrupting behavior
or disrupting diapause, the process that causes an insect to
become dormant before winter. IGRs that inhibit JH production can cause
insects to prematurely molt into a nonfunctional adult. IGRs that inhibit
ecdysone can cause pupal mortality by interrupting the transformation of larval
tissues into adult tissues during the pupal stage.
Chitin synthesis inhibitors
Chitin synthesis inhibitors work by preventing the formation of chitin, a
carbohydrate needed to form the insect's exoskeleton. With these inhibitors, an
insect grows normally until it molts. The inhibitors prevent the new exoskeleton
from forming properly, causing the insect to die. Death may be quick, or take
up to several days depending on the insect. Chitin synthesis inhibitors can also
kill eggs by disrupting normal embryonic development. Chitin synthesis
inhibitors affect insects for longer periods of time than hormonal IGRs. These
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are also quicker acting but can affect predaceous insects, arthropods and even
fish. Compounds include benzoylurea pesticides.
a) Hydroprene
IUPAC name - Ethyl (2E,4E)-3,7,11-trimethyl-2,4-dodecadienoate
Structural formula

Hydroprene is an insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is used
against cockroaches, beetles, and moths. Products using hydroprene include
Gencor, Gentrol, and Raid Max Sterilizer Discs.
b) Methoprene
IUPAC name - 1-methylethyl(E,E)-11-methoxy-3,7,11-trimethyl-2,4-
dodecadienoate
Structural formula

Methoprene is a juvenile hormone (JH) analog which acts as a growth regulator
when used as an insecticide. It is an amber-colored liquid with a faint fruity
odor which is essentially nontoxic to humans when ingested or inhaled. It is
used in drinking water cisterns to control mosquitoes which spread dengue
fever and malaria.
Methoprene does not kill insects. Instead, it acts as an insect growth regulator,
mimicking natural juvenile hormone. Juvenile hormone must be absent for
a pupa to molt to an adult, so methoprene-treated larvae will be unable to
successfully change from pupae to adults. This breaks the biological life
cycle of the insect, preventing recurring infestation. Methoprene is used in the
production of a number of foods, including meat, milk, mushrooms, peanuts,
rice, and cereals. It also has several uses on domestic animals (pets) for
controlling fleas. Methoprene is considered a biological pesticide because
rather than controlling target pests through direct toxicity, methoprene
interferes with an insect’s lifecycle and prevents it from reaching maturity or
reproducing.
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Methoprene is commonly used as a mosquito larvicide used to help stop the

spread of the West Nile virus.
Methoprene is also used as a food additive in cattle feed to prevent fly breeding
in the manure.
c) Pyriproxyfen
IUPAC name - 4-phenoxyphenyl (RS)-2-(2-pyridyloxy)propyl ether 2-[1-(4-
phenoxyphenoxy)propan-2-yloxyl]pyridine
Structural formula

Pyriproxyfen is a pyridine-based pesticide which is found to be effective
against a variety of arthropoda. It was introduced to the US in 1996, to protect
cotton crops against whitefly. It has also been found useful for protecting other
crops. It is also used as a prevention for fleas on household pets.
Pyriproxyfen is a juvenile hormone analog, preventing larvae from developing
into adulthood and thus rendering them unable to reproduce.
2.14 Structure and mode of action microbials
Pathogens include bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoans, rickettsia, nematodes
etc. that cause disease or physiological disturbances to insect pests. Pathogenic
microorganisms attack insects and have life cycle more or less characteristic or
similar microorganisms developing in other groups of animals. Insects are
probably subject to as wide as variety of disease as are the vertebrates. Except
for the fungi, disease organisms gain entry in the host via mouth or the
digestive tract, that is the insect host must eat plant or other food contaminated
with pathogen. In case of fungi, entrance is gained through the insect
integument and free water or very high humidity is generally required. Thus,
fungi tend to be restricted to moist environment.
Virtually no insect disease organisms occur in mammals and none have been
recorded from man. Thus they are safe to use in biological control even in large
scale microbial spraying operations.
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Bacteria
Because it can be produced fairly easily on a large scale and has a wide
spectrum of activity, Bacillus thuringiensis was of the first microorganisms to
be incorporated into a commercial microbial insecticide. The most sensitive
insects appear to be lepidopterous caterpillars, particularly those in which
alkaline conditions prevail in the midgut. This is related to the fact that the
spores (it is a crystal bearing spore former and can be conveniently stored and
applied in the resistant state without loss of potency) can only enter the insect
on ingestion and that the proteinaceous crystals of toxin is only liberated at
around pH 9-10.
Those pathogenic bacteria which do not form spores have proved to be of little
practical value in the field and indeed only two other groups of spore formers
have been employed with any success i.e., Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus
cereus. The former species produces a condition known as milky disease in the
Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica and has been used extensively in North
America for control of this pest and Chaffer beetles, it also requires closely
defined mid gut conditions with an optimum around pH 7. This Bacillus is
active against the codling moth and certain Hymenopterous pests.
Viruses
The classic example of the employment of viruses in pest control is the highly
successful use of a polyhedrosis viruses against the pine sawfly, Neodiprion
sertifer in Canada. A related pest similarly controlled by a polyhedrosis virus.
Another example is the control of alfalfa caterpillar, Colias eurytheme by
introduction of polyhedrosis virus. The cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni and
other group of viruses, the granulosis type has been used against pests in field,
in this case the Lepidopterans, Pieris brassicae and Pieris rapae.
Fungi and Nematodes
Pathogenic fungi have several properties which should make them ideal
organisms for use in biological control. They produce highly resistant stages
and are capable of prolific spore production once they became established.
However, their great dependence on microclimatic conditions, especially
humidity has seriously curtailed their use and only a few have been employed
successfully of these Entomophthora exitialis has produced promising results
against the spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculate.
The most common fungi pathogenic to insects belong to three subdivisions of
Eumycotina, viz. Deuteromycotina, Mastigomycotina and Ascomycotina; the
majority being in Deuteromycotina. The important genera are :
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Coelomomcyces, Entomophthora, Massospora (Mastigomycotina), Cordyceps,

Podonectria, Torrubiella (Ascomycotina) and Aschersonia, Aspergillus,
Beauveria, Fusarium, Hirsutella, Metarhizium, Nomuraea, Paecilomyces etc.,
(Deuteromycotina) causing diseases among lepidopteran, homopteran and
coleopteran insect pests.
Among the nematodes species belonging to Steinernematidae, Mermithidae and
Heterorhabitidae are symbiotically associated with bacteria attacking insect
pests belonging to Lepidoptera and Coleroptera.
Protozoa
More than 1000 species of protozoa pathogenic to insects have been described.
Most of these are chronic debilitating agents affecting host vigour, longevity
and fecundity of the host. Nosema fumiferarae is being exploited for the
management of spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana, the most
destructive forest pest of North America.
Many protozoa appear to cause chronic rather than acute symptoms in their
victims and the microsporidian, Thelohania hyphantriae takes upto four weeks
to exert its full effect which has been shown to cause mortality in the fall
webworm, Hyphantria cunea.
2.15 Structure and mode of action botanicals or plant origin
insecticides
These are insecticides derives from plants and majority of them are contact
poisons. They have several uses in insect control. The most important
insecticides of plant origin are nicotine, pyrethrum, rotenone, sabadilla, ryania
and neem, all of which serve as insect toxicants.
a) Pyrethrins
Structural formula
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The pyrethrins are a class of organic compounds normally derived

from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium that have potent insecticidal activity by
targeting the nervous systems of insects. Pyrethrin is synthetically made by
industrial methods, but it also naturally occurs in the Chrysanthemum flowers,
and thus is often considered an organic insecticide, or at least when is not
combined with piperonyl butoxide or other synthetic adjuvants. Their
insecticidal and insect repellent properties have been known and utilized for
thousands of years.
It is prepared by extracting the toxins with kerosene, alcohol or ethylene
dichloride from flowers of the Chrysanthemum. This concentrated form may be
diluted with petroleum oil and used as sprays. Concentrated extracts as acetone,
alcohol or a hydrocarbon solvent are available for spraying plants. These are
diluted with water to form aqueous emulsion. Pyrethrum is harmless to warm
blooded animals and man but is highly toxic to most insects.
Pyrethrins delay the closure of voltage-gated sodium ion channels in the nerve
cells of insects, resulting in repeated and extended nerve firings. This
hyperexcitation causes the death of the insect due to loss of motor coordination
and paralysis. The most important characteristics of these compounds is their
irritating effect or “knock down” which causes the insect to stop feeding as
soon as it encounters a treated surface.
Specific pest species that have successfully controlled by pyrethrum include:
potato, beet, grape, and six-spotted leafhopper, cabbage looper, celery leaf tier,
Say’s stink bug, twelve-spotted cucumber beetle, lygus bugs on peaches, grape
and flower thrips, and cranberry fruit worm.
b) Rotenone
IUPAC name - (2R,6aS,12aS)-1,2,6,6a,12,12a-hexahydro-2-isopropenyl-8,9-
dimethoxychromeno[3,4-b]furo(2,3-h)chromen-6-one
Structural formula
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Rotenone is an odorless, colorless, crystalline ketonic chemical compound used
as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in
the seeds and stems of several plants, such as the jicama vine plant, and the
roots of several members of Fabaceae (Derris, Lonchocarpus etc.). It was the
first described member of the family of chemical compounds known
as rotenoids.
Rotenone may be extracted with a solvent like chloroform or carbon
tetrachloride and a concentrated extract is then prepared. This may be diluted in
sprays or mixed with a dust carrier and used as an impregnated dusts. It is
nontoxic to warm blooded animals and man. It is also non phytotoxic. But it is
poisonous to cold blooded animals. Rotenone sprays and dusts loose their
toxicity rapidly on exposure to light and air.
Rotenone works by interfering with the electron transport
chain in mitochondria. To be specific, it inhibits the transfer of electrons from
iron-sulfur centers in complex I to ubiquinone. This interferes
with NADH during the creation of usable cellular energy (ATP). Complex I is
unable to pass off its electron to CoQ, creating a back-up of electrons within the
mitochondrial matrix. Cellular oxygen is reduced to the radical, creating
a reactive oxygen species, which can damage DNA and other components of
the mitochondria. They are used in combating cattle grubs, lice, aphids and
beetles.
c) Neem products
A lot of work has been done in the past few decades and several seminars and
symposia were held to evaluate the insecticidal properties of various parts of
the neem tree viz., leaves, flowers, fruit kernels in the powder or oil form to
control insect pests infesting various crops and crop products. It has been stated
that the neem is an important source of insecticide and all its parts viz., leaves ,
bark, flower, kernel and kernel oil are variously used as insect repellents. Since
ancient times, its leaves are kept amongst woollen and silken clothes and books
to protect them against insects. Farmers throughout the country are aware of the
need to protect the grains from spoilage during storage and use of neem leaves
in grain heaps.
The oil is also used as a disinfectant and emulsifying agent in insecticides. The
maximum insecticidal activity has been found in neem kernel. Several workers
have tried the neem leaves and kernel powder as grain protectant. Mixing of
seeds with neem powder at 1.0 and 2.0% effectively protected from pest
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infestation. Neem oil at 0.5 and 1.0% provided the beat surface protection when
applied to pulses against the pulse beetles Callosobruchus chinensis and C.
Maculates. Repellent effect of extracts of neem leaves, flowers and kernels
against rust red beetle Tribolium castaneum and khapra beetle Trogoderma
granarium has been evaluated and found that neem kernel extract was more
repellent than the leaf or the flower. Adults of T. Castaneum failed to reproduce
when fed with flour treated with neem kernel extract. Neem oil was found
effective in preventing adult emergence and prolonging the development from
egg to adult stage of Rhizopertha dominica.
Chopped leaves of neem were found effective in controlling the Sitotroga
cerealella in stored rice. In addition to stored grain pests, numerous other pests
of agricultural importance have been controlled by neem products in the form
of powder, seed cake or aqueous and solvent extracts.
Several commercial formulations have been evaluated against pest of tobacco,
groundnut, black papper, pulses, cotton, oil seeds, vegetable and other
agricultural crops. Neem plant parts also act as growth regulator, repellent and
antifeedant, thus help to control crop pest population without altering the
quality and nutritive value. One of the most potent derivatives of neem is
Azadiractin. It is a highly oxidized tetranortriterpenoid which boasts a plethora
of oxygen bearing functional groups, including an enol ether,
acetal, hemiacetal, tetra-substituted epoxide and an variety of carboxylic esters.
Powdered flowers and fruit kernel powder treated rice, caused mortality of
Sitotroga adults, 59-64% after 7 days, 2-8% powder was used. As pointed out
above neem oil 1-2% was found most effective in reducing adult population of
Sitophilus, Rhizopertha and Ephestia. The neem kernel powder when mixed
with cowpea Vigna sinensis at 3%, caused 85-95% mortality of
Callosobruchus.
d) Nicotine
IUPAC name - (s)-3-[1-Methylpyrrolidin-2-yl]pyridine
Structural formula
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Nicotine is a potent parasympathomimetic alkaloid found in
the nightshade family of plants (Solanaceae) and is a stimulant drug. Nicotine is
a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor(nAChR) agonist, except at nAChRα9 and
nAChRα10 where it acts as an antagonist. It is made in the roots of and
accumulates in the leaves of the nightshade family of plants. Nicotine is found
in the leaves of Nicotiana rustica in amounts of 2–14%,
the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum, Duboisia hopwoodii and Asclepias
syriaca.
It constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco and is
present in the range of 2–7 µg/kg of various edible plants. It functions as an anti
herbivore chemical; consequently, nicotine was widely used as an insecticide in
the past and neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid are currently widely used.
Among the twelve alkaloids, nicotine, nornicotine and anabasine are important.
Nicotine is not found free in the plant but in the form of maleates and citrates.
Nicotine is essentially a non persistent contact insecticides. It affects the
neuromuscular junction in vertebrates and central nervous system in insects. Its
mode of action consists in mimicking acetylcholine when it binds with its
receptor in the post synaptic membrane of the muscular union. The
acetylcholinic receptor is a site of action of the postsynaptic membrane which
reacts with acetylcholine and alters the membrane permeability. Nitocitne
activity causes the production of new impulses which cause convulsions and
death.
Commercial formulation containing 40% nicotine was effective against several
soft bodied insects. Now, however in India it has been banned this and the
manufacture is permitted for export purposes only. Synthetic derivatives of the
nicotine structure have been developed recently and are called as
neonicotinoids. These include imidacloprid, thiacloprid, nitempiran,
acetamiprid and thiamethoxan, among others.
e) Pongamia sp.
Pongamia oil is derived from the seeds of the Millettia pinnata tree, which is
native to tropical and temperate Asia. Millettia pinnata, also known
as Pongamia pinnata or Pongamia glabra, is common throughout Asia and
thus has many different names in different languages, many of which have
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come to be used in English to describe the seed oil derived from M.

pinnata; Pongamia is often used as the generic name for the tree and is derived
from the genus the tree was originally placed in.
Other English names for this oil include Honge oil (from Kannada), Kanuga
oil (from Telugu), Karanja oil (from Hindi), and Pungai oil (from Tamil).
Karanja Oil is used in agriculture and pharmacy just like neem oil. It has similar
insecticidal properties as neem oil and acts against a number of pests and
insects. It is pale yellow in colour and viscous. It is known for its medicinal and
antiseptic properties for centuries in its naive India. it is often used in pet care
for the treatment of fleas, mange and scabies. As it has insecticidal properties it
is great for agriculture use serving as a natural pest repellent. It is also used for
skin care purposes and can be used to treat eczema, psoriasis, skin ulcers,
dandruff. Karanjin is the main active ingredient of Karanja Oil. It acts as an
acaricide and insecticide. Karanjin also have nitrification inhibitory properties.
2.16 Structure and mode of action of new promising
compounds
Spinosad
Spinosad is a fermentation product derived from actinomycete,
Saccharopolyspora spinosa. It has a remarkable selectivity between insects and
mammals. It is highly effective against Helicoverpa and Spodoptera, but
induces the populations of sucking insects including mites. Since its mode of
action is different from those of pyrethroids, it is effective against those
populations, which exhibit resistance against pyrethroids. Spinosad is an
acetyocholine receptor agonist. The exact mechanism of spinosad is somewhat
different than that of the neonicotinoid class, but the end result is the same.
Formamidines
Formamidines have a unique mode of action.. these compounds are locomotor
stimulants, anorexiens and eclosion inhibitors in insects. Formamidines mimic
octopamine and stimulate the octopamine receptors. Chlordemiform was
withdrawn as it was suspected to be carcinogenic. Another compound of this
group, amitraz, is effective against sucking pests, mites and cattle ticks as well.
Nereistoxins
Nereistoxins is a poison from marine annelids, Lumbrineris brevicirra and L.
heteropoda. Synthetic compounds viz., cartap, bensultap, thiocyclam etc. were
developed.
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Amino triazinones
Pymetrozine represents not only a new class of chemistry but also a unique
mode of action. Although it has no knock down effect and is not directly toxic
to insects it acts on salivary pumps causing immediate and irreversible
cessation of feeding. The exposed insects appear normal for several days before
they die from starvation. Being contact and systemic in action pymetrozine is
effective sucking pests.
Quinazolines
Quinazolines inhibit the mitochondrial electron transport chain.
Oxidative phosphorylation disruptors
Oxidative phosphorylation is the process through which ATP is synthesized in
plants and animals. Organotin miticides inhibit oxidative phosphorylation
directly, while pyrroles work by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylaion from
electron transport. Diafenthiuron, a thiourea derivative is a potent
acaricide/insecticide. In the presence of sunligjt diafenthiuron is converted to its
carbodiimide derivative, which is a potent inhibitor of mitochondrial ATPase.
The end result for these groups of compounds is that the cell is unable to
produce ATP for energy.
2.17 Problems of pesticide hazards and environmental
pollution
The environmental impact of pesticides consists of the effects of pesticides on
non-target species. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95%
of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are
sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Runoff can carry pesticides
into aquatic environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing
areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other
species. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport and storage
practices. Over time, repeated application increases pest resistance, while its
effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence.
Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental
concerns. Such undesirable effects have led many pesticides to be banned,
while regulations have limited and/or reduced the use of others. Over time,
pesticides have generally become less persistent and more species-specific,
reducing their environmental footprint. In addition the amounts of pesticides
applied per hectare have declined, in some cases by 99%. However, the global
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spread of pesticide use, including the use of older/obsolete pesticides that have
been banned in some jurisdictions, has increased overall.
Pesticides are used extensively in agriculture and farming practices to eradicate
insects, rodents, weeds and other forms of life considered to be pests. They are
widely used on lawns, fields, golf courses, inside buildings, and even directly
on our pets in some cases, to control pests. They are also used for controlling
the spread of disease, for example, to eradicate malaria carrying mosquitos in
the tropics. They come in all forms from powders, liquid sprays, gels, granules,
pellets or lotions to name a few, and can be applied using various methods.
Pesticide/class Effect
Organochlorine DDT/DDE Egg shell thinning in raptorial birds
Endocrine disruptor
Thyroid disruption properties in
rodents, birds, amphibians and fish
Acute mortality attributed to
inhibition of acetylcholine esterase
activity
DDT Carcinogen
Endocrine disruptor
DDT/ Diclofol, Dieldrin and Juvenile population decline and
Toxaphene adult mortality in wildlife reptiles
Susceptibility to fungal infection
Organophosphate Thyroid disruption properties in
activity
Immunotoxicity, primarily caused
by the inhibition of serine
hydrolases or esterases
Oxidative damage
Modulation of signal transduction
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pathways
Impaired metabolic functions such
as thermoregulation, water and/or
food intake and behavior, impaired
development, reduced reproduction
and hatching success in vertebrates.
Carbamate Thyroid disruption properties in
Impaired metabolic functions such
as thermoregulation, water and/or
food intake and behavior, impaired
development, reduced
Interact with vertebrate immune
systems
activity
Pyrethroid Thyroid disruption properties in
Nicotinoid respiratory, cardiovascular,
neurological, and immunological
toxicity in rats and humans
Disrupt biogenic amine signaling
and cause subsequent olfactory
dysfunction, as well as affecting
foraging behavior, learning and
memory.
Effect on soil
When pesticides enter the soil, they kill the tiny micro organisms present in the
soil that are important for keeping the soil healthy. Microscopic bacteria and
fungi are essential for decomposing organic matter to make nutrients available
to plants for growth. The decomposed organic matter, or humus, is not only rich
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in nutrients, but it also acts as a sponge and aids in water retention in the soil.
As soil condition deteriorates, farmers compensate by adding chemical
fertilizers to enhance crop growth. The poor soil condition results in
nutritionally compromised crops of inferior quality.
Air
Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides
suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially
contaminating them. Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may
be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to
wildlife. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature
and relative humidity change the spread of the pesticide in the air. As wind
velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative humidity
and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable
pesticides in the outdoor environment is therefore often dependent on the
season. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied
as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas, or pesticides may adhere to
particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles. Ground spraying
produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does. Farmers can employ a
buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such
as evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing
drift into other areas. Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.
Pesticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off
chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other
chemicals and form a pollutant called tropospheric ozone. Pesticide use
accounts for about 6 percent of total tropospheric ozone levels.
Effect on plants
Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered
by pesticides in soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and
especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-
rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling
results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root
nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in
synthetic nitrogen fertilizer every year.
Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the
loss of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism
of Colony Collapse Disorder, in which worker bees from a beehive or western
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honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are
in bloom can kill honeybees, which act as pollinators.
The USDA andUSFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a
year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields
eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional
15%.
On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including
poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth.
Effects on animals
Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to
regulate pesticide usage through Biodiversity Action Plans.
Animals including humans may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain
on food, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas
shortly after spraying.
Pesticides can eliminate some animals' essential food sources, causing the
animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the food
chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that
have consumed pesticides. Earthworms digest organic matter and increase
nutrient content in the top layer of soil. They protect human health by ingesting
decomposing litter and serving as bioindicators of soil activity. Pesticides have
had harmful effects on growth and reproduction on earthworms. Some
pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of
organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species
high on the food chain especially hard.
Birds
Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by
pesticide use. Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring dealt with damage to bird
species due to pesticide bioaccumulation. There is evidence that birds are
continuing to be harmed by pesticide use. In the farmland of the United
Kingdom, populations of ten different bird species declined by 10 million
breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, allegedly from loss of plant and
invertebrate species on which the birds feed. Throughout Europe, 116 species
of birds were threatened as of 1999. Reductions in bird populations have been
found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used. DDE-
induced egg shell thinning has especially affected European and North
American bird populations. In another example, some types offungicides used
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in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill
earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals
that feed on them.
Some pesticides come in granular form. Wildlife may eat the granules,
mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide may be enough
to kill a small bird.
The herbicide paraquat, when sprayed onto bird eggs, causes growth
abnormalities in embryos and reduces the number of chicks that hatch
successfully, but most herbicides do not directly cause much harm to birds.
Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat.
Aquatic life
Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated
water. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to
aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.
Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead
plants decay and consume the water's oxygen, suffocating the fish. Herbicides
such as copper sulfite that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and
other water animals at concentrationssimilar to those used to kill the plants.
Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause
physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as
abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease and decreased
predator avoidance.
Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill plants on which fish
depend for their habitat.
Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton,
the main source of food for young fish.[55] Pesticides can also kill off insects on
which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and
exposing them to greater risk from predators.
The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it
poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life than
herbicides and fungicides.
Amphibians
In the past several decades, amphibian populations have declined across the
world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which
pesticides may be a part.
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Pesticide mixtures appear to have a cumulative toxic effect

on frogs. Tadpoles from ponds containing multiple pesticides take longer
tometamorphose and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch
prey and avoid predators. Exposing tadpoles to theorganochloride endosulfan at
levels likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills
the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.
The herbicide atrazine can turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their
ability to reproduce. Both reproductive and nonreproductive effects in aquatic
reptiles and amphibians have been reported. Crocodiles, many turtle species
and some lizards lack sex-distinct chromosomes until after fertilization
during organogenesis, depending on temperature. Embryonic exposure in
turtles to various PCBs causes a sex reversal. Across the United States and
Canada disorders such as decreased hatching success, feminization, skin
lesions, and other developmental abnormalities have been reported.
Humans
Pesticides can enter the body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapor that
contain pesticides; through oral exposure by consuming food/water; and
through skin exposure by direct contact. Pesticides secrete into soils and
groundwater which can end up in drinking water, and pesticide spray can drift
and pollute the air.
The effects of pesticides on human health depend on the toxicity of the
chemical and the length and magnitude of exposure. Farm workers and their
families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through
direct contact. Every human contains pesticides in their fat cells.
Children are more susceptible and sensitive to pesticides, because they are still
developing and have a weakerimmune system than adults. Children may be
more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put
unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Hand to mouth contact depends on the child's
age, much like lead exposure. Children under the age of six months are more
apt to experience exposure from breast milk and inhalation of small particles.
Pesticides tracked into the home from family members increase the risk of
exposure. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child’s exposure. The
chemicals can bioaccumulate in the body over time.
Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors,
genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or
death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent
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increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as leukemia,

may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt
insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic
and acute alterations have been observed in exposees. DDT and its breakdown
product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer.
Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce
undescendedtesticles. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of
development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception.
Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and
through structural changes.
Persistent organic pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and
thus remain in the environment for years. Some pesticides, including aldrin,
chlordane, DDT, dieldrin,
endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and toxaphene, are considered
POPs. Some POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances
through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. Such chemicals
may have the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify and can bioconcentrate
(i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original
concentrations. POPs can affect non-target organisms in the environment and
increase risk to humans by disruption in theendocrine, reproductive,
and immune systems.
2.18 Summary
 The chemicals which kill the insects by their chemical action are
termed as insecticides. They include ovicides and larvicides used
against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used
in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers.
 Insecticides can be classified in two major groups: systemic
insecticides, which have residual or long term activity; and contact
insecticides, which have no residual activity.
 Chlorinated hydrocarbons are the oldest insecticides having been
the first widely used synthetic organic insecticides. All insecticides
of this group contain at least chlorine, hydrogen and carbon.
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 Organophosphate pesticides irreversibly inactivate

acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects,
humans, and many other animals.
 A carbamate is an organic compound derived from carbamic
acid (NH2COOH). A carbamate group, carbamate ester (e.g., ethyl
carbamate), and carbamic acids are functional groups that are inter-
related structurally and often are interconverted chemically.
Carbamate esters are also called urethanes.
 A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the
natural pyrethrins produced by the flowers of pyrethrums
(Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and C. coccineum). Pyrethroids
now constitute the majority of commercial house hold
insecticides. In the concentrations used in such products, they may
also have insect repellent properties and are generally harmless to
human beings in low doses but can harm sensitive individuals.
 The avermectins are a series of drugs used to treat parasitic worms.
They are a 16-membered macrocyclic lactone derivatives with
potent anthelmintic and insecticidal properties. These naturally
occurring compounds are generated as fermentation products
by Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil actinomycete.
2.19 Model Examination Questions
1. What is DDT?
2. Write the IUPAC name of BHC, parathion and carbryl.
3. Which insecticides are used as insect growth regulators?
4. Give any three name of plant origin insecticides.
5. Which plant produced the pyrethroid insecticide?
Section -B (Short Answer Type)
1. Describe the structure and mode of action of DDT.
2. Write short notes on:
a) Phenyl Pyrozoles
b) Oxadiazines
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3. Write an assay on structure and mode of action of microbials.

4. Give a detailed account on chitin synthesis inhibitors and nitroguandines.
a) Chlordimeform
b) Allethrin
1. Describe the IUPAC name, structural formula and mode of action of
Organochlorides.
a) Insect growth regulators
b) Neonicotionids
c) Avermectins
3. Write an assay on Problems of pesticide hazards and environmental
pollution.
Carbamets.
5. Write an assay on plant origin insecticides.
6. Give a detailed account on organophosphates.
Pyrethroids.
2.20 References
 A text book of Agricultural Entomology by Kumar & Nigam
 Introduction to General and Applied Entomology by V. B. Awasthi
 Wikipedia
 http://www.ozonebiotech.com/karanjaoil.html
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Unit - 3
Principles of evaluation of toxicity of
insecticides
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Principles of Toxicology: Basic Concepts
3.3.1 Environment
3.3.2 Toxicants
3.3.3 Toxicity
3.3.4 Effects and Responses
3.3.5 Dose-Response Relationship
3.3.6 Statistical Concept
3.3.7 Margin of Safety
3.3.8 Toxicity of Chemical Mixtures
3.4 Evaluation of Insecticide Toxicity:- Methods of Toxicity Testing:
3.4.1 Acute Toxicity
3.4.2 Sub-Acute Toxicity
3.4.3 Chronic Toxicity
3.4.4 Specified(Special) Tests
3.4.5 Test Design
3.4.6 Indicator Tests(Single Species tests)
3.4.7 Community Structure(Multi Species tests)
3.4.8 Acute Toxicity Tests
3.5 Lethality Test
3.5.1 LC50
3.5.2 LD 50
3.5.3 LT50
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3.6 Joint Action of Insecticides

3.6.1 Potentiation
3.6.2 Synergism
3.6.3 Antagonism
3.7 Factors Affecting Toxicity of Insecticides
3.8 Phytotoxicity
3.9 Summary
3.10 Self-Learning Exercise
3.1 Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to understand
 The general and basic concept of Toxicology.
 Evaluation of Insecticide Toxicity.
 Lethality Tests.
 Joint Action of Insecticides
 Factors Affecting Toxicity of Insecticides.
 Insecticide Compatibility and Selectivity.
 Phytotoxicity.
3.2 Introduction
Swiss Physician Paracelsus (1493-1541) credited with being the “ father of
Modern Toxicology” said ‘All substances are poisons: there is none which is
not a poison .The right dose differentiates a poison from a remedy’.
The study of adverse effects of chemical agents on living organism s is
toxicology. Adverse effects refers to any change from an organism’s normal
state which is dependent upon the concentration of active compound at the
target site for a sufficient time. Poison=toxicant are inorganic and organic
lifeless substances that causes deleterious effects in a living organism. Toxin is
a poisonous substance produced by a living organism such as a plant, animal or
micro-organism.
3.3 Principal of Toxicology (The Basic Concepts)
The word toxicology is derived from greek word ‘Toxin, Toxicum or Toxicon
= poison and logus = knowledge meaning the science of poisons’. Presently the
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toxicology is not restricted to the knowledge of only poisons, but the study of
nature and mechanism of toxic results of poison on living individuals as well as
other biological systems. In 1969, the first ever research institute of
toxicological research in our country was established at Lucknow as ITRC
(Industrial toxicology research centre).
For the basic approach towards toxicology, the type of problem, nature of
toxicant, effect of toxicant on living organism and the time of disposal are
taken, as the study stand points. The toxicologists must know the physical,
chemical and biological components of the environment, concentration of
toxicants in the environment, factors influencing the toxicity, dose- response
relationship and methods of testing the toxicity.
Basic Concepts :
3.3.1 Environment
The environment includes abiotic (physical and chemical) as well as biotic
components (biosphere). Thus ecosystem is a product of interaction between
abiotic and biotic components. Adaptation in living organisms, biodiversity and
different make up in structural and functional responses makes the assessment
of a chemical highly complicated.
3.3.2 Toxicant
Toxicant is an agent which produces an adverse response in a biological system
by damaging its structure (anatomy) and function (physiology). The foreign
substance in the form of toxicant is introduced in the ecosystem, accidentally or
through experimentation. The quality of environment is deteriorated and
impaired, which makes is unfavorable for living beings. The toxicants may also
concentrate in the ecosystem through agricultural and urban run off, bottom
sediments disposal, atmospheric fall outs, effluents from industries, waste
disposals, municipal wastes etc. the toxicants may be natural, artificial or
synthetic.
3.3.3 Toxicity
Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to cause low or high injury to a living
individual. A highly toxic substance cause a great damage, even in a micro
quantity while a low toxic substance produces its toxicity when used in large
amount. Hense the toxicity of an administered substance can not be estimated
through its dose, but it must be measured through absorbed dose inhalation,
ingestion, injection, distribution duration (e.g. single dose, double dose,
repeated dose etc.) and the time needed to result in injury. The injuries may be
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as corrosives, irritants, narcotics, systematic. On the basis of intensity of injury,

the toxicity may be acute, sub acute or chronic toxicity.
3.3.4 Effects and responses
Biological change due to toxicant in an individual is the ‘effect’ while the
proportion of a population that demonstrates a defined effect is denoted as
“response” (i.e. incidence rate of an effect). The acute effects are resulted due
to short term single exposer to a pesticide. They generally cause lethality.
While chronic or subchronic effects are sublethal showing physiological,
biochemical or histological changes in exposed organisms. In many cases the
effects are ‘reversible’ when the exposed individuals are able to escape from
the toxic environment and get that damages tissues regenerated.
3.3.5 Dose – Response – Relationship
Various factors e.g. rate of absorption in the tissue, distribution, detoxification,
excretion of a chemical, interaction of toxicant with other chemical,
hypersensitivity and tolerance, genetic factors and the health status of an
organism are important in dose – response relation of a chemical with that
exposed organism.
3.3.6 Statistical Concepts
The data collected from the toxicity investigation are statistically analysed by
some appropriate methods e.g. concentration, response relationships, mortality
as an index for LD50 or LC50 estimation.
3.3.7 Margin of Saftey
The ratio of lethal or toxic dose to therapeutic dose is expressed as ‘margin of
safety’. The larger ratio, the greater is the relative safety.
3.3.8 Toxicity of Chemical mixtures
Here the LD50 environment of two compounds may antagonize or synergise the
effect of each other.
3.4 Evaluation of Insecticide Toxicity : Methods of Toxicity
Testing
Methods of Toxicity Testing
The investigators have developed various methods for toxicity testing of
pesticides or other chemicals from time to time, which have been designed
according as -
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(i) Eco taxonomic methods (e.g. Single indicator species, multi species or
community and eco system)
(ii) Acute toxicity methods (lethal effects)
(iii) Chronic and sub chronic tests (lethal or sub lethal effects including
reproductive cycle, early stages of life cycle, bioaccumulation,
biochemical and physiological tests, behavioural response,
histopathological tests.)
(iv) Specialized methods or tests.
Different types of methods for animal toxicological or toxicity testing are thus :
3.4.1 Acute toxicity
(a) LD50 estimation (7 to 14 days observation)
(i) Two species (one is non- rodent)
(ii) Two routes of administration of poison
(b) Irritation studies
(i) Desmal
(ii) Eye sensitiveness (irritation)
3.4.2 Sub acute toxicity
(a) Duration about 90 days
(b) Two species
(c) Three dose levels
(d) Route of administration according to the route of exposure.
3.4.3 Chronic toxicity
(a) Duration – two years
(b) Species (two ; one species non rodent )
(c) Three dose levels
(d) Route of administration (according to route of exposure)
3.4.4 Specified (special) tests
(a) Metabolism
(b) Neurotoxicity
(c) Reproduction and teratogenicity(at least one species)
(d) Carcinogenicity
(e) Mutagenicity
Toxicity tests are conducted in two ways :
 The effects of toxicity can be estimated in a laboratory with limited
number of variables.
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 The effects of toxicity can be estimated in a natural ecosystem (in

field).
3.4.5 Test Design
In the laboratory toxicity tests are initiated from short term tests to complex
long term tests. The tests must be based on the results obtained from previous
investigation and the general test design must remain similar (however the
details may differ).
We must go through the following steps :
 pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, photoperiod concentration or % of
chemical etc. must be carefully controlled.
 Test organisms must be exposed in test chambers to various doses
(concentration) of test material dissolved in a medium (e.g. aqueous
solution for aquatic organism and acetone or other solvents for terrestrial
organism)
 Mortality, growth, reproduction etc. are evaluated by comparision of
chemically treated organisms with untreated organism(control experiment).
 The species of target organism must be correctly selected. For example in
aquatic toxicological test methods static test, recirculation test, renewal test
and flow through test are used.
Some commonly applicable test methods are discussed as an outline below :
3.4.6 Indicator tests (single-species)
When a single species is used as a target organism, indicator test method is used
applicable. Here the response of an ecosystem having interacting species is
predicted from single species toxicity tests. The single species tests are done for
years where no adverse ecosystem or multispecies effects were observed.
community test according to weis (1985) have not been found successful
because the species which is most sensitive can automatically protect the entire
community. This is because the investigator would not use extra dose of the
chemical to access the impact above the particular level.
3.4.7 Community Structure (multi species tests)
Ecosystem or community tests can also be exercised in the laboratory. Here the
small enclosures (glass or plastic contents) with samples from ecosystem e.g.
sediment, fish, small invertebrates are used. The effect of pesticide on many
species is simultaneously estimated. It all the condition remain uniform, then
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the tests can standerdise the replicates. Taub (1985) performed 24 replicates test
by using 10 species of algae, 5 species of animal and numerous number of
bacterial species.
3.4.8 Acute Toxicity Tests
The tests were conducted for about 40 years with industrial effluents and
lateron with drilling mud, mine tailings etc. Acute toxicity is severe effects of
short terms exposure of organisms to toxicity chemicals. Through these tests
the dose or concentration of a test material is estimate that produced a particular
response on a group or species or strain of an organism in a short term exposure
under controlled conditions. The results are obtained by calculating the number
of dead or moribund organisms.
3.5 Lethality tests (LC50 or LD50 tests)
3.5.1 LC50
The concentration of material in a medium to which test organism are exposed,
is found lethal (causing mortality) to 50% of the test organisms. The LC50 is
expressed as a time dependent value. e.g. 24 hrs., 48 hours or more. LC50 is the
statistical estimate of the dose concentration necessary to kill 50% of large
population of test species under standard conditions. The chemical at graded
doses is administered to a group of selected organisms and by observing
mortality group of selected organisms and by observing mortality in a set time
period, the acute toxicity is estimated –
Three different approaches for LC50 estimation are evolved :
(i) Parametric method
(ii) Moving average method
(iii) Non parametric method
3.5.2 LD50
The dose of material which is estimated as lethal to 50% population of selected
organism is LD50 value.
The LC50 and LD50 values are calculated by any of the following two methods
in general :
(A) Graphical interpolation method :
In this method data is plotted on semi logarithmic co-ordinate paper where
concentration of chemical is taken as logarithmic and mortality percentage of
test animal as arithmetic scale. Then mortality is plotted against logarithmic
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concentration of chemical. A straight line is drawn between two points

representing the LC50 value.
(B) Statistical method :
From the data obtained from acute toxicity test, the time dependent LC50 or
LD50 values and their 95% confidence limits are calculated by any of the
statistical methods (Litch field and Wilcoxon, 1949; Golden, 1959; Finney,
1971). The widely used method is Finney’s(1971) probit analysis method. The
logarithmic values are seen for each concentration or dose and probit values are
seen for percent mortality.
Now a graph is plotted between logarithmic concentration dose and the probit
mortality. The result curve is termed as probit mortality curve. From the curve,
the value of expected probits are seen in the probit table and corrected probits
are calculated by finney’s(1971) formula and finally the LC50 or LD50 values
are estimated.
If the mortality is also observed in ‘control’ groups of test organism, then the
data are corrected by Abbott’s (1925) formula :
% Corrected mortality= % Test mortality - % Control mortality *100
100-% Controlled Mortality
The data of acute toxicity tests enable to determine no observed effect dose or
concentration which is minimum dose / concentration of test chemical causing
+no toxic effect on test animals. It provides the data on lowest observed effect.
The acute toxicity data are beneficial in fixing the sub lethal dose / sub lethal
concentration for chronic toxicity tests.
3.5.3 LT50
This is the time required to kill 50% of the population of test individual at a
certain dose or concentration.
3.6 Joint Action of Insecticides
In pesticide treatment, the mixture of chemicals are known to have advantages
over the chemicals applied singly or individually. In the pest control techniques,
the use of mixture of chemical has been found superior to single pesticide. The
mixtures show following advantages –
 Increased effectiveness against target organisms.
 Safety towards non- target organisms.
 Utilization of lesser quantities of chemicals without any loss in
effectiveness.
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 Less residues are deposited in the environment

 Cost benefit of the material because of utilization in lesser quantity.
3.6.1 Potentiation :
Potentiation is a phenomenon in which the toxicity of a chemical substance on
an organisms is markedly increased by another chemical substance which when
used alone has no toxic effect on that organism. Iso propanol is a chemical
substance, which has no toxic effect on liver but when used with carbon tetra
chloride (CCI4) increases its hepato – toxicity considerably. Similarly
scopolamine and morphine are sedative drugs. The combined (joint)
administration of these two drugs results in far more sedation than the sum of
two drugs, when given at different times separately. Thus the administration of
two drugs jointly to exert a greater response is termed “potentiation” , where
one toxicant potentiates the toxicity of the other toxicant.
Drug used Degree of response
X A
Y B
X+Y C
According to definition of potentiation
C > A+B
A number of chemically related compounds e.g. chloroform, carbon tetra
chloride, tetra chloro ethane and phosphorus show similar potentiation action.
The potentiation test can be performed through a very simple exercise. A
fraction of lethal doses of two toxicants having similar mode of action are
exposed to test. Animals and a parameter is selected on the basis of their mode
of action individually. Then similarly the same fraction of both toxicants is
applied together and the toxic effect produced by two toxicants is quantified.
Example of Potentiation :
 DDT + Benzene -----> More toxicity than individual.
 C2H5OH + Barbiturate -----> More toxicity.
 Morphine + Heroin -----> Higher toxicity.
3.6.2 Synergism
Both chemical compounds which produce higher toxic effects in combination
in comparison to that when used individually are termed synergists if the
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chemical agents at on the same organ or tissue and to toxic effect is algebric
sum of their individual action than it is called an additive effect (e.g. 1+1= 2).
But if the response is greater than the algebric sum of the individual effect the
term used is positive summation or synergism (1+1= > 2). For example, the two
cholinesterase inhibiting pesticides, EPN (o-ethyl, o-para nitrophenyl
phosphorthiate ) and malathion, when given jointly to test animal are found to
show more toxicity than the sum of their individual toxicities.
3.6.3 Antagonism
In contrast to potentiation or synergism one of the two agents may antagonize
the toxicity of other administered chemical. There may also found non
compatibility between chemicals when they are mixed with each other. When
the toxic effect of one drug or chemical is suppressed by the use of other
chemical in combination, the ‘ antagonism’ is said to occur, where the toxicity
of two chemicals is estimated to be less than individual effect (e..g. 1+1= < 2).
3.7 Factors Affecting Toxicity of Insecticides

Toxicity tests are performed for evaluation of adverse effects of a chemical on
living organism under standerdised reproductive conditions. In the environment
also the concentration, transport, transformation and disposition of a chemical
are primarily controlled by the following factors :
 The physical properties of the compound
 The chemical properties
 The physical, chemical and biological properties of the ecosystem and
 The source and rate of input of the chemical into the environment.
The physical and chemical properties of a chemical compound include
molecular structure, solubility in water, rate constant for hydrolysis,
biodegradation, evaporation, sorption uptake by organism, partition
coefficients (e.g. air : water; sediment : water; octanol : water).
The properties of aquatic environment are, surface area to volume
relationships; temperature salinity. pH, depth, flow, amount of suspended
material, size of sediment particle and the carbon content in the sediment.
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All the above parameter not only predict the environmental concentration of
toxicants but also the mobility of a chemical ; the kinds of chemical and
biological reaction that take place during transport as well as after
deposition ; the resulting chemical form of the toxicant and the persistence
of the chemical.
In the environment a chemical exists in various forms :
In aqueous medium a chemical exists in three different forms which affect
its availability to organisms.
i) Dissolved form
ii) Adsorbed to biotic or abiotic component and suspended in water column
or at the bottom.
iii) Accumulated in the organism.
Water soluble chemical may persist and retain their physico – chemical
characteristics when transported and distributed in the environment.
The chemical which are not significantly degraded can be accumulated in
the environment as toxic levels. The chemicals which are not degraded
show their persistence as a ‘half life’. The biotic and abiotic transformation
converts the chemicals into other forms. Biotransformations are
enzymatically mediated and affect the environmental concentration of
toxicants, which are soluble forms of generally lesser toxicity.
The toxicity is also influenced by –
 Exposure
 Organism
 Environmental factors
 Chemical
Exposure :
For adverse response in organism the compound must react with a particular
receptor site at a high concentration at a required duration. The concentration
and adverse effect vary with the species, chemical, and severity of the effect.
The contact reaction of organism and chemical is called ‘exposure’.
The significant factors related to exposure are
 The type
 Duration and
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 Frequency of the exposure and

 Concentration of the toxicant
The toxic effects are observed by acute (short- term) or chronic (long term)
exposure to chemicals. The exposure of intermediate duration are called
subchronic exposure.
1. Acute exposure : In short term exposure the target organism are exposed to
chemicals in a short time. The chemicals are rapidly absorbed and generally
show delayed effects.
2. Chronic exposure : In long term exposure organism are exposed to low
concentration of toxicant over a long period of time.
3. Subchronic exposure : The duration of exposure is one month to several
months. These exposures include sensitive early stages of development.
Factors Related To The Organism : Species and strain (if available), size,
sex, age, diet, changes in the internal environment due to physiological factors,
stress, hormones etc.
External Environmental Factors : Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH
salinity, hardness of water and dissolved solids in water affect The toxicity to
the organism. The physical environment e.g. light temperature and relative
humidity also affect the toxicity.
Factor Related To The Toxicant : The toxicity of a chemical is influenced by
its composition. The identity and purity of the pesticides are important in
toxicity testing. The solubility of toxicant in water, oils, organic solvents etc.
and their vapour pressure and pH are also directly related to the chemicals.
These factors affect the bio availability, persistence, transformation and
ultimate fact of the toxicant in the environment.
Selective Toxicity : The chemicals have also been found species specific in
their selective activity. They may be more toxic for one species and less
harmful for another. Two significant mechanisms are involved for selective
action of chemicals:
 Presence or absence of specific target (receptive sites ) in the exposed
cell system. The target may be altered by the chemical.
 The factors that are responsible for the distribution and alteration of the
concentration of the toxicant (chemical) at specific cell or tissue sites.
3.8 Phytotoxicity
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It refers to plant injury of all pesticide types as a group, herbicides are

considered to have the greatest potential for causing phytotoxicity, since they
are designed to control unwanted vegetation. Inert ingredients in pesticide
formulations may also be capable of causing phytotoxicity.
Many species of plants in natural and undeveloped areas are desirable because
they protect the watershed by reducing erosion and runoff . They also provide
food and cover for wildlife and part of an ecosystem’s balance. A disruption of
this balance may increase the likelihood of undesirable vegetation becoming
more prevalent .There are situations where desirable plants are injured because
of one or more of the following reasons:-
1. Excessive application rate.
2. Inadequate mixing and agitation.
3. Environmental conditions such as extremely hot temperatures and high
humidity at the time of application.
Positive confirmation of toxicity caused by pesticides can be difficult. Keeping
accurate application records can assist in trying to determine if a pesticide is
responsible for the suspected injury.
Even with accurate records pesticide injury can easily be confused with
environmental disorders.
Diagnosis of Phytotoxicity: Phytotoxicity can show up as spotting on leaves
and fruits, unusual growth patterns, blighting leaves or flowers , stunted
growth, reduced root growth as well as complete plant death. Symptoms often
develop within few days of an application, although in some cases
phytotoxicity may take much longer to develop. The causes of phytotoxicity
can be summarized as follows:
1. Direct toxicity
2. Overdose
3. Improper mixing of Pesticides.
4. Incompatibile spray schedules.
5. Excessive Concentrations.
6. Climatic Factors.
3.9 Summary
After going through this unit you have understood that toxicology is the study
of nature and mechanism of toxic results of poison on living individuals as well
as other biological systems. The basic concepts of it includes the environment
,toxicant, its toxicity ,effects and responses and dose -response relationship.
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Methods of acute,sub-acute,chronic and specific toxicity evaluation by

LD50,LC50 and LT50 were studied .Potentiation, Synergism and Antagonism and
their role in application of pesticides was understood. The various factors
affecting toxicity of insecticides were enumerated and Lastly we explained how
Phytotoxicity or plant injury due to pesticides takes place.
3.10 Glossary
 Toxicant: Toxicant is an agent which produces an adverse response in a
biological system by damaging its structure (anatomy) and function
(physiology).
 Potentiation: Potentiation is a phenomenon in which the toxicity of a
chemical substance on an organisms is markedly increased by another
chemical substance which when used alone has no toxic effect on that
organism.
 Synergism :Both chemical compounds which produce higher toxic
effects in combination in comparison to that when used individually are
termed synergists if the chemical agents at on the same organ or tissue
and to toxic effect is algebric sum of their individual action than it is
called an additive effect.
 Antagonism :In contrast to potentiation or synergism one of the two
agents may antagonize the toxicity of other administered chemical.
 Phytotoxicity:It refers to plant injury of all pesticide types as a group,
herbicides are considered to have the greatest potential for causing
phytotoxicity, since they are designed to control unwanted vegetation.
1. Define Toxicology.
2. Who is called the father of Modern Toxicology?
3. What is Phytotoxicology?
4. What is LT50 ?
5. What is the duration of Chronic Toxicity?
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6. Name the factors affecting Toxicity.

7. What is Synergism?
8. Define Antagonism?

1. Explain the basic Concepts of Toxicology.
2. Enumerate the various methods of Toxicity Testing..
3. Write about the factors affecting Toxicity of Insecticides..
4. Explain the Joint Action of Insecticides
5. Write a short note on Phytotoxicity.
1. Explain what is Toxicology with its principles of evaluation .
2. Write in detail about the factors affecting Toxicology and the joint
action of Insecticides
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Unit - 4
Metabolism of insecticide and insecticide
Resistance
Structure of the unit
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Insecticide Metabolism:
4.2.1 Detoxification Enzyme and their role in Metabolism
4.2.1.1 Detoxification Enzyme Inducers
4.3 Selectivity of Insecticidal Actions
4.3.1 Need of the Selectivity of Insecticide
4.3.2 Scientific bases of selectivity of an Insecticide
4.3.3 Three Principles for Selective toxicity
4.3.4 Mechanism of Selectivity in toxicity
4.3.5 Advantages of Selectivity of Insecticidal Actions
4.4 Insecticidal Resistance
4.4.1 Insecticidal Resistance traits
4.4.2 Natural Mutations
4.4.3 Gene Amplification
4.4.4 Genetics of Insecticide Resistance
4.4.5Management of Insecticide Resistance
4.5 Summary
4.6 Glossary
4.7 Self- learning Exercise
4.0 Objective
The objective of present unit is to understand the mechanism of Metabolism of
Insecticides and Insecticide Resistance. It is important to study the
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detoxification enzymes present in the body of the insect involved in the

metabolism of Insecticides. Need, Scientific bases of selectivity are to be
studied so are the three principles for selective toxicity. It will acquaint the
learner with the different mechanisms of selectivity in toxicity and the
advantages of selectivity of insecticide actions. In the next part the learner will
understand the concept of insecticide resistance, the various traits of insecticide
resistance and the mechanism of development of resistance. Lastly genetics of
insecticide resistance and its management have been discussed.
4.1 Introduction
Elucidation of the metabolism and fate of organic insecticides in plants and
animals is prerequisite to the development of these chemicals for use in insect
control. From a public health viewpoint , information on the chemical behavior
and reactions of insecticides in living systems is essential for the assessment of
hazards arising from the use of these compounds .Identification and
establishment of the toxological properties of the metabolic products formed in
plants and animals after exposure to insecticides is indeed mandatory before
residual hazards may be assessed .From a more fundamental aspect,
metabolism studies are necessary for our understanding of the mode of action
of insecticidal chemicals i.e. the elucidation of the intoxication and detoxication
processes that occur in biological systems .Explanations for such important
phenomena as insecticide specificity and the development of insecticide
resistance are often found in the intoxication and detoxication reaction that
occur in the animal ..
The metabolism of the organic insecticides may be divided into two large but
distinct categories (1) Activation and (2) Detoxication. Activation is defined as
the metabolic reaction or reactions that convert an intrinsically inactive
compound to an active compound or an active compound to another active
compound .In some cases a number of toxic compounds may be produced
.Detoxication is defined as the reaction or reactions that lead to nontoxic
substances.
There are a number of ways insect can become resistant to insecticidal crop
protection and public health products. Resistant insect may detoxify or destroy
the toxic faster than susceptible insects, or quickly rid their bodies of the toxic
molecules. Metabolic resistance is the most common mechanism and often
presents the greater challenge. Insects use their internal enzyme systems to
break down the insecticides. Resistance strains may possess higher levels or
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more efficient forms of these enzymes . In addition to being more efficient ,

these enzymes systems also may have a broad spectrum of activity (i.e. they can
degrade many different insecticides.)
4.2 Insecticide Metabolism
4.2 .1 Detoxification Enzymes And Their Role In Metabolism
It has been estimated for many decades, say about 60 years, the insect pests are
showing resistance towards many pesticides. The generations of pests are able
to inherit the resistance, further creating a hurdle in insect pest control through
chemical pesticides. It has been observed through number of investigations, that
these insect pests have many enzymes which can detoxify the chemical
pesticides and help in development of resistance in their body toward such
chemicals. Some detoxification enzymes which have been recognized for
detoxifying the pesticides are glutathione S- transferases, carboxy esterases,
phosphorotriester hydrolases, DDT dehydrochlorinase etc.
The ‘resistance’ is known as a highly complex term in which many mechanism
work simultaneously in a single insect ‘strain’ behaving as pests. Some other
biochemical mechanism for resistance development in insect pests are
penetration mechanisms, behavioral pattern and altered target sites eg.
Cholinesterase and binding proteins.
In resistant tobacco budworm larvae (heliothis viresens) a high concentration of
glutathione S – transferase is reported. The high levels of the enzyme are also
found in many strains of resistant houseflies. The enzyme is able to detoxify
some organophosphates.
DDT resistant insect pest strains are found to have sufficient amount of DDT –
dehydrochlorinase.
The ester-containing insecticides are detoxified by carboxyesterase enzymes
resulting in resistance among many strains of insect pests.Some strains of sheep
bow fly, Lucilia, some house flies, a strain of mosquitoes Culex tarsalis, rust
red flour beetle, Tribolium castneum, Blatella germanica(a strain of
cockroach), have been reported to show a high resistance towards malathion.
Phosphotriester hydrolases are the detoxification enzymes which have also been
reported to develop resistance towards many organophosphorus pesticides
among various strains of insect pests e.g. Myzus persicae (a strain of house fly),
rice leaf hopper, sheep blow fly etc.
4.2.2 Detoxification Enzyme’s Inducers
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In the living individuals a variety of inorganic and organic compounds can

induce various enzymes. An overall increase in xenobiotic metabolizing
enzymes is reported as major induction, which is generally non specific. Some
insecticides e.g. cyclodienes, phosphoric acid esters, polycyclic hydrocarbons,
phenobarbitol, juvenile hormones (analogs), DDT etc. have found to induce
cytochrome P-450 among insect pests. The chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides have been found more effective inducers than organophosphates,
carbamates and other insecticides.
4.3 Selectivity of Insecticidal Actions
The chemical toxicants are able to produce injury to one group of living
organism without harming another group even though the two groups are living
in the same territory. Here the living individuals which have been injured or are
toxicated are called uneconomic forms and the individuals which are protected
are called economic forms (desirable). In agriculture there are insects, crop,
fungi and other competitive plants that injure the original desirable crop. Here
the selection of appropriate pesticides is needed which can save the life of
desirable species and have toxic effect on undesirable one.
4.3.1 Need of the selectivity of insecticide
It has became multi disciplinary in life science to select the insecticide.
Obviously it is an achievement of the prime importance to select the toxic
agents which can be applied in agriculture to remove many uneconomic species
without causing deleterious effect to the economic species.
In the animal husbandry man’s domestic as well as economic animals are
affected with ecto as well as endo parasites. The application of potent selective
toxicant to remove parasites gives an explaination of selective toxicity needed
for these organisms.
4.3.2 Scientific bases of selectivity of an insecticide

A favorable selective effect is exerted by an agent through three principles –
The toxicant can be found equitoxic to all the species but on the other hand
accumulated by uneconomic species. It may react with cyto chemical or
biochemical feature which plays an important role in uneconomic in
comparison to economic species.
4.3.3Three principles for selective toxicity
 Selectivity through accumulation
 Selectivity through comparative biochemistry
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 Selectivity through comparative cytology.

1. Selectivity through accumulation :
Comparatively large surface area (per unit weight) of an insect resting on a
mammal brings about greater retention of sprayed toxicant by uneconomic
species. Similarly selective accumulation can be measured in a positive way.
For example- orally administered phenothiazine is highly toxic to the intestinal
worms in a sheep than to the sheep it self.
2.Selectivity through comparative biochemistry :
All the living beings e.g. plants, animals and microbes have a common
universal biochemistry. In animal life one species functions differently from
another strong species differences depend upon homologous proteins.
The N- terminal amino acids in the fibrinogen of seven mammals were studied
by Blombacs & Yamoshina, 1958 :
Sheep and Goat -> Glyeine, alanine, tyrosine
Dog and Horse -> Threonine and tyrosine
Pig -> Alanine(2) and tyrosine
Ox -> Glutamic acid and tyrosine
Man -> Alanine and tyrosine
1. Selectivity through comparative cytology :
The plants and animals have remarkable cytological differences. Even there are
differences among the cells of plants species and animal species among them.
And there are noticeable differences among different tissues of same animal or
plant species. Hence the difference in the structure of the cells make them
selective for toxic agents also.
4.3.4 Mechanism of Selectivity In Toxicity
I. Due to differences in translocation of chemical
Morphological, anatomical and cytological differences in the cell structures of
different organisms and even organs of same individuals account for
differential absorption, distribution and accumulation of toxicants (selective
toxicity). For instance , the insect have large surface area as compared to
mammals per unit body weight. It causes greater absorption and accumulation
of toxicant in insects. DDT can be easily absorbed through chitinous skeleton of
insect but poorly absorbed through the mammalian skin (Hayes, 1955). Hence
it (DDT) causes deleterious effects on insects but very less in mammals.
II. Selective toxicity due to differences in biotransformation
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Biotransformation is the conversion of one form of toxicant into another in the

body of organisms. The chemical may be bio activated in ‘one group’ of
organisms while in ‘other’ they can be deactivated or converted into inactive
forms. Thus the toxicant is found more injurious to former group and lesser
injurious to the later. The biotransformation of a toxicant thus can alter the
translocation and hence the toxicity also. Heath (1961) reported the
signification of the rates of bio catalytic activation and inactivation of
organophosphate insecticides as determinates of their selective toxicity to insect
pests.
These pesticides cause toxicity inhibition of acetyl chlorine esterase activity.
The species in which the rate of oxidation of hydrolysis is slow, the active form
of compounds accumulates, causing toxicity of the chemical. In others if the
rate of hydrolysis is rapid, the activated chemicals rapidly convert into inactive
or less active form, hence the toxicity is diminished. This is the reason why the
mammals get less harm in comparison to insects.
III. Selective toxicity due to presence or absence of receptors
However all the cells of economical or uneconomical species are equally
exposed to same concentration or toxicants, even then the toxicant induce there
effects on account of their interaction with various receptors in organism. The
chemical is toxic to one species having appropriate receptors for a particular
chemical while it may be non toxic for those organisms which are devoid of
such receptors.
4.3.5 Advantages of Selectivity Of Insecticide Actions
 Selective toxicity solves much of the problems of diseases in plants,
domestic animals and human beings. e.g. spraying of some
organophosphorus insecticides on the exposed breeding sites of tse tse
fly. The tripanosomiase is controlled, because the biological cycle of the
parasites is broken due to veiling of the vector.
 Selectively toxic agents are found economic in the control off weeds.
 They can control insect pests to a great extent.
 They show advantage in seed protection.
 In veterinary science, the selectivity of insecticide action is also
advantages.
 The diseases in economical animals can be caused.
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 The infectious diseases in man can be controlled to a great extent

through selective use of toxicants.
Conclusion : The selectively toxic agents have been found not only toxic to
many of pests but they are also used for animal husbandry, agricultural
practices and forests.
4.4 Insecticide Resistance
‘The ability to tolerate the doses of pesticides in certain strains of insects is
called resistance’. The dose has been found lethal to majority of organism of
the same species. The ability of tolerance to pesticides, is inherited in
generations showing the capacity to tolerate the toxicant. The resistance
depends on genetic variability of the population exposed to the toxicant. A.L.
Melander in 1914 first of all evaluated the phenomenon of resistance in scale
insects towards lime sulfur . Then in 1916 the red scale (pest) was found
resistance to cyanide in California by Quale. Many more cases of developing
resistance were regularly reported towards arsenicals, cyanide, selenium etc.
The houseflies were identified to show resistance towards DDT in 1947. Up to
1938, 7 species of mites and insects were found to show resistance while up to
1984, 447 species were discovered as resistant towards all classes of
insecticides e.g. cyclodienes, DDT, carbamates, organophosphates and
pyrethroids.
The resistance has been more widely studied in order ‘Diptera’ which includes
156 resistant species , while in Lepidoptera, only 67 species have been
discovered to develop resistance , ‘Coleoptera’ has 66 specie ‘Acarine’ 58
species, Homoptera 46 species and Heteroptera 20 species. The resistance
towards cyclodienes has been found maximum i.e.62% while DDT resistance
species are 47% .
Now days, the resistant species can resist the toxicants in two, three, four or all
the five classes of pesticides. 17 species have been found to show resistance
towards five classes of the toxicants.
The phenomenon of the resistance is observed under field conditions where a
toxicant, at a fixed application rate progressively becomes inable to control the
target pest. However during laboratory conditions the resistance can be
estimated by treating the generations of target pest with little higher dose every
time than the previous dose to kill a large percentage of pests (say about 90%) .
The next breeding is obtained by 10% remaining survivors. Some insects with
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resistance genes survive and pass their resistance capacity (Trait) to their
offspring through natural selection by the insecticide. The resistant pests
continue to multiply while susceptible insects are killed and eliminated from the
population. Hence the resistant insects gradually supersede over the susceptible
strain and pesticide is found no longer effective to them.
There are some draw backs of resistance in resistant insects.
. They show poor viability.
. Some strains of resistant bud worm larvae grow very slowly.
.Their weight is somewhat lesser than the susceptible ones.
.Resistant females release less pheromones.
.They lay fewer number of eggs.
.They have higher natural mortality than susceptible strains.
Thus susceptible strains have an advantage over resistant strains provided that
no insecticide selection pressure is imposed on them. The resistant strains
sometimes revert back to susceptible strains when the pressure of insecticides is
discontinued.
The disadvantage of resistance is that the scientists have to switch over to a
different pesticide which is more costly and more frequent application of them
on the pest is needed.
4.4.1 Insecticide- Resistant Traits
In a selected population some individuals can tolerate certain amount of dose of
the toxicant while other individuals can not do so. It follows the rule of
Darwininian selection due to natural mutations or gene amplification.
4.4.2 Natural mutations
The insecticide resistant genes have altered function which are expected to be
reported at a low frequency. They can also show incomplete dominance. The
incomplete dominance has economic importance because the genetic selection
favour the rare dominant or incomplete dominant genes than the rare recessive
genes. In dominant genes the insecticides resistance has been found difficult to
manage. The heterozygotes are killed by somewhat higher insecticide doses
and more higher doses in recessive strains. Hence resistant individuals have
been reported to be recessive genetically.
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4.4.3 Gene amplification

When activated multiple copies of a gene are obtained resulting in increased
synthesis of messenger RNA, and hence increased transfer RNA, finally the
increased synthesis or amount of respective protein.
Once a gene amplified becomes homozygous the duplications are observed at a
higher frequency in every successive generation.
The mechanism of pesticide resistance:
The mechanism of development of resistance can be studied as behavioral,
penetration, knock down, metabolic, altered site of action and increased
excretion.
1. Behavioral resistance (pseudo resistance):
The resistance insects can detect a danger and immediately avoid the
toxin. The insect start quitting the feeding or go away from that area of
application of pesticide. Such resistance is difficult to be estimated in
the laboratory conditions because there, they do not get the places to
hide themselves and have to remain in touch to the applied pesticide.
Here they will be recognized as sensitive strains.
2. Penetration resistance :
The insects develop barriers in their cuticle through which absorption of
insecticides is found very slow. The amount of pesticide sprayed or
applied can be measured by topical application. The left over chemical
on cuticle is estimated but the actual amount of penetrated pesticide
remains unobserved. The chemically inert compounds e.g. dieldrin
retardation of knock- down is reported.
3. Knock down resistance (kdr) :
In the insect with Kdr the symptoms of poisoning takes longer duration
in comparison to sensitive insects. Kdr mechanism was seen by Busvine
(1951) for resistance of DDT in Musca domestica. He saw that
susceptible strain had fast knock down, while Kdr genes in Italian
(having Kdr like genes) Musca resisted the knock- down. In Sardinian
genes recovered soon. One or more recessive genes on chromosome 3
govern the Kdr.
4. Metabolic resistance :
Here the resistance strains of pests can detoxify the toxicants at a higher
rate than susceptible ones. The resistant pests utilize their enzymes to
degrade the insecticides while the sensitive strains can degrade them at a
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very low rate. The enzymes in resistance strains may show broad
spectrum activity, degrading many pesticides at one time.
5. Altered site of action :
The active sites of the body of a pest where the toxicant initiate their
toxic action are genetically modified and enormous amount of the
toxicant is required to show the knock down symptoms in comparison to
previous treatments.
6. Increases in the rate of excretion :
Guthrie et al fed biosynthetic c14. nicotine to tobacco hornworm. They
reported that 90% of the oral dose was excreted in just four hours and
the insects got rid of the dose completely in one day.
When they injected the nicotine, the 83% of the dose was defecated
within 15 minutes of the injection. Hence the tobacco horn worm has
become resistant towards nicotine due to its rapid rate of excretion and
defecation.
4.4.4 Genetics of Insecticide Resistance
As already discussed the resistance generally depends in single genetic factor,
the R – factors. But there are also some examples where gene amplifications
have been also found to induce resistance.
The resistance can genetically be studied as ‘cross’ and ‘multiple’ resistance:
Cross – Resistance:
The gene responsible for resistance is designated as R- gene. The experiments
are carried over to identify this gene to show resistance towards on selected
insecticide. But during the investigations, it has been estimated that not only the
selected insecticide but a number of other toxicants are found harmless to the
test insect. This is called the ‘ Cross – resistance’.
In a group of insect DDT include resistance is found in closely selected toxicant
e.g. methoxychlor, but not resistant to dieldrin, lindane and non-chlorinated
compounds. It has also been reported that one toxicant is correlated with
susceptibility to other (negative correlated cross resistance). For example spider
mites have increased susceptibility to synthetic pyrethroids but highly
resistance to an organophosphorus compound ; azinphos – methyl.
Multiple – Resistance:
When a number of R – mechanisms are noticeable the multiple resistance is
said to occur. In houseflies spider mites, cattle ticks, spodoptera species etc. the
multiple resistance results due to continuous use of certain pesticides even after
their replacement by others.
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Besides the major genes responsible for resistance, modifier genes enhance the
resistance. The linked genes (genes very close to R- genes) are never selected
for investigation because they do not have any effect on resistance.
Induction :
The enzymes which are derived from the food intake treatment with chemical
or those which normally occur in the body are activated by the including
substances. However the induction is non heritable. Due to induction, the
reaction of the individuals to the presence of the insecticides and toxicants
induces less sensitivity and hence the increase in the tolerance. Eventually the
development of resistance is the result.
4.4.5 Management of Insecticide Resistance
All the effective insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies seek to
minimize the selection of insecticide for resistance.
In Egypt unlimited use of same insecticide on cotton and other crops against
Spodoptera litura has given way to develop resistance. The authorities
restricted the use of photostable pyrethroids against. S. litura on cotton and
allowed a single treatment of pyrethroids per year throughout the country. The
resistance was gradually decreased and finally no case of resistance was
reported through this strategy.
In 1983 at Emerald the larvae of Helicoverpa armigera were found to show
resistance towards pyrethroids. The use of pyrethroids was immediately banned
there and good results were obtained. The laboratory assays showed that 10 %
of H. armigera collected from restricted areas heterozygos for pyrethroids
resistance while homozygos individuals were very few. The further
investigation in these areas showed that there was resurgence of resistance
where endosulfan was frequently sprayed.
An another report of resistance towards pyrethroids in houseflies in United
kingdom was made to show the widespread sequential application of DDT and
trichlorfen both the mechanism show cross resistance to pyrethroids
4.5 Summary
The development of resistance in insects has been prominent in the last few
decades. The factors responsible for it may be detoxification enzymes, other
biochemical mechanism like penetration mechanisms, behavioral patterns and
altered target sites. The ability of insecticide to produce its toxicity in one group
of organism s without harming another group living in same territory is termed
as selectivity. The selectivity has three principles and it operates through
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various mechanisms . The resistance developed by an insect affects its

physiology too and the genetics of insect plays a role in resistance.
Management of insecticide resistance involves various means.
4.6 Glossary
 Resistance: ‘The ability to tolerate the doses of pesticides in certain
strains of insects is called resistance’.
 Behavioral Resistance: The resistance insects can detect a danger and
immediately avoid the toxin. The insect start quitting the feeding or go
away from that area of application of pesticide.
 Penetration resistance : The insects develop barriers in their cuticle
through which absorption of insecticides is found very slow.
 Knock down resistance (kdr) :In the insect with Kdr the symptoms of
poisoning takes longer duration in comparison to sensitive insects.
 Metabolic resistance :Here the resistance strains of pests can detoxify
the toxicants at a higher rate than susceptible ones.
 Cross–Resistance:The gene responsible for resistance is designated as
R- gene. The experiments are carried over to identify this gene to show
resistance towards on selected insecticide.
 Multiple–Resistance:When a number of R – mechanisms are noticeable

the multiple resistance is said to occur. In houseflies spider mites, cattle
ticks, spodoptera species etc.
Section A- Very Short type questions
1. Define the term ‘ Insecticidal Resistance’.
2. Name two detoxifying Enzymes.
3. Write the name of some insects which developed high resistance towards
malathion.
4. What are the three principles of Selective Toxicity?
5. What is gene Amplification?
6. Define ‘Altered site of Action’.
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Section-B Short Answers types questions

1. Write a note on Detoxification Enzyme’s Inducers.
2. Explain Selectivity of Insecticidal Actions in brief.
3. What are Insecticide Resistant traits?
4. Describe the mechanisms of development of Insecticidal Resistance.
Section-C Long Answer Type Questions
1. Write a detailed note on mechanism of selectivity in toxicity and its
advantages.
2. Explain the insecticide resistance genetics and also write about resistance
management strategies.
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Unit - 5
Insecticide residue and poisoning:
Microbial and environmental degradation
of pesticides
Structure of the unit
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Breakdown of the chemicals in the environment
5.3 Microbial Degradation of Toxic Chemicals
5.4 Environmental Implications of Insecticide Residues: Bioaccumulation &
Biomagnification
5.5 Insecticide Act & Environmental Legislation
5.6 Insecticide Residue
5.7 Safe Use of Insecticide
5.8 Diagnosis of Insecticide Poisoning
5.9 Treatment of Poisoning
5.10 Glossary
5.0 Objective
The objective of the present unit is to enable the learner to understand what is
insecticide residue and how it can accumulate in the environment and result in
biomagnifications. This unit also describes the microbial and environmental
degradation of pesticides. Lastly the legal acts related to registration, quality
control of insecticide have been discussed along with safe use , diagnosis and
treatment of insecticide poisoning
5.1 Introduction
Insecticide Residue includes any derivative of a pesticide, such as conversion
products , metabolites and impurities considered to be of toxological
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significance. Apart from those stemming from direct application to above and
underground parts of the crop, residues also include those from unknown or
unavoidable sources such as contaminated water and air pollution .When a crop
is treated with an insecticide a very small amount of the insecticide or what it
changes in the plant( its metabolite or degradation product) can persist in the
crop or its surrounding environment .This is known as the residue which may
be present in fruits and vegetables, processed food and drink made from the
crop and fresh or prepared animal products . Occasionally residues may also
result from environmental or other ‘indirect’ sources .Residues of old pesticides
like DDT, endosulfan, chloropyrifos etc. are an example of such environmental
contaminants.
5.2 Breakdown of the chemicals in the environment
The pesticides have been found as the biggest source of chemical pollutants
which regularly accumulated in the environment creating basic cause of its
pollution. Based on their molecular structures there are some pesticides which
can be biodegraded very easily but some other groups of pesticides are of such
complex structures that their degradation is very slow.
Besides having no adverse effect on the non - target organisms, a pesticides
should be biodegradable for minimizing any possible harmful ecological side
effects.
Different types of pesticides exist in the environment for different durations.
Some are short lived and degraded very fast while others are available
persistently in the environment. If persistent toxicants enter the biosphere they
can be detected any where and can be transported from one organism to the
other through food chain. Some chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides have been
estimated in arctic region which is about 1000 miles away from the point where
the insecticide were originally applied. Biomagnification occurs when the
pollutant (toxicant) is persistent and lipophilic. The lipophilic nature tends to
give entrance of pesticide into lipids of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes from
surrounding water. In the food web the chemical is neither degrade nor excreted
and thus concentrates in higher and higher tropic levels. Hence the top
consumers of food chain carry the pollutants that exceeds the environmental
concentration by a factor of 104-106. Thus biomagnification is a serious threat
causing death or malfunctioning in the top most trophic levels.
The pesticide for the use in agriculture or other place must be ideal in having
biodegrable structure, which can be easily degraded through ‘microbes’.
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Three major natural mechanisms are required for the breakdown of toxicants in
the environment:
 Auto oxidation
 Degradation by sunlight
 Microbial degradation
It has been evaluated that most of the xenobiotics (which are the chemicals
foreigners to the ecosystem), deposit in the soil and then run with water. As
sunlight can not properly work in water, the microbial degradation is the only
mean for complete mineralization of xenobiotics in soil and water.
Many metabolic processes in microbes make them unique tools for
biodegradation or detoxification. These metabolic processes are :
(i) Fermentation
(ii) Anaerobic metabolism
(iii) Chemo lithotrophic metabolism
(iv)Metabolism through exo enzymes
(v) Adaptability to unfavourable environment through mutation and
induction.
5.3 Microbial Degradation of Toxic Chemicals

The microbes can detoxify or biodegrade the toxicants by enzymatic or non
enzymatic processes. The compound can be bio transformed through oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis, and condensation. The synthetic pesticides contain
halogen, amino, nitro hydroxyl and other functional groups.
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are oxidized to fatty acids, these fatty acids are
degraded via β- oxidation sequence, resulting in formation of C2 fragments
which are then metabolized through TCA cycles.
The aromatic ring structures are metabolized by dihydroxylation and ring
cleavage mechanisms. Before these transformations the substituent on the ring
may be completely or partially removed. The substituent e.g. halogen, nitro and
sulphonate initiate oxygenation and cause recalcitrance. Sometime a simple
change in the substituent of a pesticide can make the difference between
‘recalcitrance’ (a complete resistance to biodegradation) and biodegradation.
The herbicide 2, 4 – D is degraded within few days, while 2, 4, 5 – T persists
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for many months. The reason behind it is 2, 4, 5 – T possesses an additional

chlorine substitution in the meta position.
Propham (a toxicant) can be cleaved by microbial amidases very rapidly. While
an other pesticide propachlor (having a tertiary amine groups) can not be
cleaved by these enzymes and persist for a longer duration. Methoxychlor is
less peisistent than DDT because the p- methoxy groups can undergo
dealkylation in them. While in DDT, p- chloro substitution give the DDT a
greater biological as well as chemical stability. In some other cases one part of
the toxicant molecules is susceptible to degradation while the other group is
recalcitrant. Some acylamide herbicides can be cleaved by microbial amidases
and the aliphatic moiety of the molecules is mineralized (changes into co2 and
h2o). while the aromatic moiety is stabilized by chlorine substitution and resists
mineralization.
In the transformation of acylanilide herbicide propanil, microbial acyl
amydases, oxidases and peroxidases are used.
A good range of micro organisms have been discovered to be used in
environmental biodegradation of various pesticides.
Pesticides Microbes used for Pathway or enzymes
biodegradation used
DDT,Lindane, Aerobacter aerogenes, E. coli, Reductive
Heptachlor, Klebsiella pneumonia, dechlorination
Chlordane Proteus vulgaris, (anaerobic),
(chlorinated Chlostridium, Pseudomonas Dehydrochlorination
hydrocarbons) fluorescens, P. putida, (aerobic)
Nocardia, Streptomyces,
Aspergillus flavus,
Diazinon, Parathion,
Saccharomyces.
Chloropyrifan, Hydrolysis of alkyl
Paraoxon, Malathion, and aryl bonds,
Fenetrothion Arthrobacter, Streptyomyces, reductive
(organophospahtes), flavobacterium, transformation,
Carbaryl, Carbofuran Pseudomonas, Nocardia, Phosphotriesterase;
Corgnebacterium, Reductive
Trichoderma viride, demethylation,
Pseudomonas striaia, hydrolases.
Achromobacter strain WM-III
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TABLE : Examples of environmental use of micro organisms in biodegradation

detoxification of pesticides used in agricultural practices.
5.4 Environmental Implication of Insecticide Residues

The chemical in the bodies of organism have various routes of their excretion.
Some of these chemicals including toxicants are metabolized by many
organisms to eliminate them from the body. Generally the metabolic processes
occur in the liver while the exertion takes place through kidneys. The processes
of metabolism of toxic chemical into non – toxic ones to eliminate them from
the body are included in ‘excretion’ and ‘biotransformation’. The pollutants can
easily enter the food chain. The rate of elimination of a chemical from the
organism can affect the accumulation potential of a xenobiotic. Hence the
exertion, transformation and accumulation of toxicants are interrelated
processes.
The environmental concentration of any toxicant is not only controlled by its
physical and chemical properties or the source and rate of input of the toxicant
in the environment, But also by the physical, chemical and biological properties
of the ecosystem.
Bio Accumulation :
The entrance of the toxicants in the food chain and the process of their
concentration from the environment to first trophic level and then further
trophic levels is referred to as ‘Bioaccumulation’. It is the tendency of toxicants
to concentrate in the higher trophic levels from the lower ones. Even micro
quantities of chemicals in the environment get their entrance into the organisms
and accumulate in high doses in higher trophic levels of food chain, eventually
affecting the environment.
During 1960s DDT,DDD methyl mercury etc. residues were reported in fish
and wild life, and gained public attention towards bio accumulation of
environmental pollutants.
Thus ‘Bioaccumulation’ has been discussed as a common term for
accumulation of toxicants in living organism. These toxicants can accumulate
in the tissues, fat bodies or any other organ of the organism. These toxicant can
enter the organism through epidermal contact with substance; food intake,
through respiration or by any other means.
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The level to which a toxicant can bio accumulate, depends on many factors e.g.
 Rate of uptake of the substance
 The mode of uptake (through food, through gills, through other
respiratory means or through skin)
 The rate of excretion or elimination of the toxicants from the animal’s
body
 Transformation of the pollutants by metabolic processes
 Lipid content of the organism
 The hydrophobicity of the pollutant
 Environmental factors, and
 Other biological and physical factors.
The substance which is more hydrophobic can bio accumulate in the organism
(e.g. fish) to a great extent. Bio accumulation does not necessarily result in bio
magnification.
The bio accumulation is a normal and essential process for growth and nutrition
of the organism. However vitamin - ‘A’, vitamin - ‘D’, vitamin - ‘K’, trace
elements. Fats, amino acids etc. are daily bio accumulated in all animals
including humans, but in a toxicological review, the ‘ bio accumulation’ is the
accumulation of the substance in the body at the level which can cause the
harm. When a chemical enters into animal cells from the environment the bio
accumulation is said to begin with.
BIOMAGNIFICATION :
Biomagnification is the process of accumulation of toxicants in the food chain
tropics levels by the transfer of residues in smaller organisms and from them
into higher tropic level organisms. Through the biomagnification the organisms
of higher tropic level receive higher concentration of a chemical than is present
in their food (lower tropics level). The chemical becomes more and more
concentrated as it is shifted to higher tropics level from lower level of food
chain.
The pollutants which have the following characteristic can only be
biomagnified:
 The pollutant must be persistent (long lived)
 It must show high mobility
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 It must be lipid soluble

 It must have high biological activity.
If a toxicant is found less persistant than it may be degraded before becoming
dangerous. If it is less mobile or immobile, it can not be taken up by high tropic
level organism. If the toxicant is soluble in water then it may be excreted with
other nitrogenous excretory substance. Hence the pollutants are generally
estimated in adipose or fatty tissues of the organisms because they are found in
these tissues as of their solubility in lipids. In mammals, the toxicants can also
be tested in milk because it also has some facts which can receive the toxicants
through their mobility. All the above characteristics necessary for bio
magnification are seen in chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g. DDT), cyclodiens
(endrin, aldrin, heptachlor, chlordane).
Bio magnification has been illustrated by the study of availability of DDT
residues. The investigation have show that DDT is found @ 10 ppm in soil,
while in earthworms, its concentration reaches @ 141 ppm and the robins
which are the consumers of earthworms have its residues upto 444 ppm. The
high enough concentration of toxicant at high tropic level are the main causes
of death or ill effects on reproduction, resistance towards diseases.
The DDT and PCBs (Poly chlorinated biphenyls) show very less bio
degradability. These chemicals are in indiscriminated use in agriculture and
other pest control techniques. Measurable amounts of BHC, DDT, PCBs
residues are recorded in soil, air, water etc. If for example DDT enters a pond
or lake, it is absorbed by plants and other produces as such. These residues
enter the successive consumers, zooplanktons (feeding on produces), then enter
the minnows eating the zooplankton, then to the fish and then to the top
consumers the birds who eat the fish. It has been found more threatening that
DDT concentration continuously increases in successive tropic levels of food
chain. This is the reason that our food in the form of vegetables, grains, fruits
etc. contain a sufficient amount of pesticide residues.
Besides the pesticides some metals like lead, mercury, copper etc. have shown
the bio magnification in food chain. The radioactive substances e.g. Strontium-
90, Iodine-131,Calcium-137 etc. accumulated in the body tissues and result in
bio magnification.
5.5 Insecticide Act & Environmental Legislation
The disciplines of toxicology have been influenced by legislation for regulation
of chemicals in the environment. Environment has been toxified due to
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agricultural and industrial effluents and global ecosystem has been identified as
threatened at an international level.
The World Commission on Environment and Development had discussed
major threats to earth’s environment.
Environmental Legislation :
The scientists have developed standardised procedures for evaluation of the
effect of chemical on life of individuals the legislation also provides focal point
for the standardization of evaluation processes of hazards.
A national environmental policy act (NEPA) of 1969, associated with
environment quality and public awareness towards problems was launched.
Then in 1970 environmental quality improvement act (EQIA) was
implemented. Then an independent federal agency the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) was created. Under the EPA the previously existing
FIFRA – 1947 (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide ACT); FWPCA
– 1948 (Federal Water Pollution Control ACT); MPRAS – 1972 (Marine
Protection, Research and Sanctuaries ACT) and TSCA – 1976 (Toxic
Substance Control ACT) were brought within the jurisdiction of Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
In India, Department of Environment, Forests and Wild Life was set up in 1980
to serve as the focal point in the Government administrative structure of
environmental programs. The integrated department of environmental, forests,
and wild life in the ministry of environment and forests was launched in 1985.
The regulation of the hazardous chemicals is taken over by central and state
pollution control bounds.
International regulation of chemical manufacture :
Japan, UK, Canada, USA and others 23 members nations of organization for
economic cooperation and development (OECD) have recognized the
essentiality for an international effort to protect humans and its environment
from exposure to hazardous toxicants. OECD agreement have resulted in
publication of data called MPD – 1981 (Minimum –Pre marked Data) for use in
the assessment of chemical.
Enforcement of quarantines :
The legislative measures in different countries now can be grouped into 5
classes :
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i. Legislation to prevent the introduction of foreign pests

(international quarantines).
ii. Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests
(Domestic quarantines).
iii. Legislation to enforce the suppression of pests in limited areas
(State level quarantines).
iv. Legislation regarding the insect and insect and residue
contamination in food stuffs.
v. Legislation to prevent the adulteration and misbranding of
pesticides (Insecticide act – 1968).
The insecticide ACT – 1968 (no.46 of 1968) has been implemented by

government of India for the regulation of import, manufacture, sale, transport,
distribution and use of pesticides to prevent risks to human being and animals.
Govt. of India has constitute the central insecticide board for giving advise to
central and state governments on technical matters through administration of
this Act. The Insecticide Rule (1971) framed under Insecticide Act -1968 came
into force from 1971. According to this act the firms engaged in the insecticide
manufacture should get registered themselves, highlighting the name, address
of manufacturer and brands and trade name of the insecticide and also the
active ingredients of products and net contents in the unit pack. They must also
print detailed directions of use as well as antidotes during poisoning. The
standardized products must carry ISI (Indian Standards Institute) mark.
5.6 Insecticide Residue
All the toxicants (pesticides) are hazardous and risky molecules for life of
individuals. Their indiscriminate use deposits the residues in the environment,
soil, plants, surfaces, water leading to animal and human health hazards the
pesticides (Toxicants) are the chemicals which includes insecticides acaricides,
herbicides, fungicides, bacteriocides, molluscicides, nematicides and
rodenticides. A nobel laureate Paul muller (1940’s) has been designated as a
land mark in the discovery of insecticide properties in DDT. Many other
scientists have also discovered insecticidal properties in thousands of
chemicals. However the misuse of insecticides beyond the suggested levels has
created unwanted problems to harm the animals, humans, and ultimately the
environment. The effect of pesticides is found acute and chronic. The proper
application of these pesticides can minimize the risk to the applicator, but
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indiscriminate use of these toxicants increases the risks manifold. The dosages
received through exposure e.g. walking over a treated area, food consumption
through treated vegetables can create sufficient health problems.
Dispensing of pesticides deposit, their residues in a variable amount depending
on the toxicity and rate of metabolism of the metabolites is very important. The
‘residues’ include derivatives of pesticides e.g. conversion products metabolites
reaction products and impurities .
Rachel Carlson published a book in 1962 by the name “Silent Spring” in which
he first of all discussed about the deposits of pesticides as residues. Now a days,
through many researches it has been proved that cancer, hormonal and
reproductive imbalance decreased immune function, sensitivity, neurotoxicity,
digestive disruption etc. are mainly associated with the deposits (residues) of
pesticides.
In Karnataka during 1980s, a ‘Handigolu syndrome’ among farmers (who
consumed fish from paddy fields) was reported. It was proved later that the
syndrome was due to deposition of residues of high doses of organochlorine
insecticides in paddy fields which were deposited in the fish bodies and the
farmers consuming those fishes were affected with Handigolu syndrome.
In the environment including soil, water air etc., many techniques of pesticide
residue measurement are applied.
Thus pesticide ‘residues’ are specified substance in food, agricultural produce,
trophic levels of food chain and even human beings which are considered to be
of toxicological significance. They can be estimated even after many days of
the application in field, houses, gardens, buildings, offices etc.
Pesticide Residue analysis :
For the analysis of pesticide residues any sample can be analyzed going through
the following steps-
 Transport and storage of the sample (Sampling)
 Preparation of laboratory sample (Working solution)
 Extraction of pesticide residue
 Clean up process.
 Identification of the residue.
 Quantification (to estimate the percentage of pesticide in the sample)
 Analysis and result.
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5.7 Safe Use of Insecticide

In recent years great attention is paid towards the hazards associated with the
manufacture, distribution, utilization and disposal of chemicals. A ‘risk’ is a
measure of probability that a certain adverse effect may happen while a
‘Hazard’ is the prediction of the magnitude and duration of concentration of a
toxicant in various segment of the environment resulting because of a chemical
in the food water or/and air which become harmful to a representative species,
populations and the ecosystem.
Poisoning :
‘Poisoning’ or toxicity is the potential of a chemical to create deleterious effects
in biological systems. It is the function of the exposure concentration or dose
and the nature of biological system that is exposed to a chemical.
Safety :
The term is defined as the value judgment of the acceptability of a risk towards
a chemical.
The toxicants (insecticides, fungicides, acaricides, rodenticides, nematicides)
are toxic not only to insects and other pests but also to domestic animals and
human beings. They may cause toxicity through skin contact, breathing
(inhalation) or ingestion of toxic food. The risks and hazards are caused only
when the toxicants are not properly handled and precautions are avoided during
then application.
On the basis of the toxicity on mammalian fauna the pesticides are classified as
:
(i) Non hazardous (e.g. sulphur, pyrethrum based pesticides etc.)
(ii) Moderately hazardous (e.g. BHC, DDT, carbaryl, malathion,
endosulfan, fenitrothion etc.)
(iii) Hazardous or dangerous (e.g. endrin, parathion, DDVP, Carbofuran,
thimet etc.)
The hazards are generally noticeable due to accidental poisoning, suicidal
intention, killing intention, careless application, residue deposits (Post
application hazard)etc.
The users or applicators of insecticides (generally including researchers,
farmers and laymen) should strictly follow the instructions during handling of
toxicants :
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 Label on the pesticide container must be carefully read to follow the

direction of use.
 The toxicants must be stored in their original packing containers in a
safe locked room where no food material must be kept.
 The pesticide must not be measured by the utensils of daily use in the
house. They must be measured through separate utensils.
 The containers which have become empty after the use of insecticides
must be buried and should not be used for any other purpose (even not
for cleaning purpose etc.)
 Always, the contact with the skin must be avoided
 For dusts and mists use of mask must be compulsory.
 Even after so many safety measures, the hands, face and other body
parts must be thoroughly washed with soap and water.
 Complete bath is necessary after application of hazardous pesticides.
 During handling of the toxicants smoking drinking or eating food must
be avoided.
 Always wear boots, gloves, goggles, masks and other protective clothing
during the use of pesticides.
 Knife or cutting utensil must be separate for opening the container or
bags of pesticides.
 A long handled mixer must be used during preparation of spray
solutions. The hands must also be covered (wear gloves)
 If the person handling the insecticide feels nausea, vomiting and
headache the pesticide application must be immediately stopped.
 The recommended rates of application of pesticides must not be
exceeded.
 The safety period after spray must be strictly seen to avoid the residue
deposits.
 The pesticides contains must not be washed in the field soil and must
not be thrown in the stream, pond or near the place of live stocks.
 Spraying must be done in the early morning or afternoon periods. The
hot conditions must be avoided.
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 Beneficial insects like honey bees must be protected by the use of

selective insecticides
 Poultry, dairy or meat animals must be kept away from pesticide treated
area for a safe period.
 Insecticide treated fields or places must be labeled highlighting the date
of spray.
 If signs of poisoning are observed the person must immediately go for a
treatment.
 Children and old persons must not be allowed to enter the field during
spray.
5.8 Diagnosis of Insecticide Poisoning
Headache, nausea, vomiting, tireness, palpitation, irregularity in heart beat,
respiratory problems etc. when any or almost all the symptoms are observed
immediately consult a doctor. The doctor must clearly know the cause of
insecticide poisoning. Tell the doctor, whether insecticide was inhaled or
swallowed or touched through the skin.
5.9 Treatment of Poisoning
First Aid Box – Every person handling the pesticide must have the first aid box
having the following items :
 5 ml disposable syringe.
 Ammonium carbonate.
 Ground mustard seed.
 Common salt
 Potassium permanganate
 Tannic acid
 Vinegar
 Milk of magnesium
 Charcoal
 Amyl nitrile pearls
 Atropin sulfate
 Caffeine
 Apomorphin capsules
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 Stomach cleaning tubes.

TREATMENT OF POISONING BY MISTAKE
Poison must be immediately washed out from the body.
Antidote must be immediately used.
Excretory waste should be collected for pathological test.
Patient must be immediately admitted for proper treatment in the
hospital.
TREATMENT OF PERSON WHO HAS SWALLOWED THE POISON
 If a person has swallowed the poison, a glass of warm water with a table
spoon of salt must be given to induce vomiting till the vomiting fluid
looks clear.
 The vomiting is induced by one gm. of zinc sulfate in a glass of water or
apomorphine hydrochloride injection of 1/10 grain.
 The patient must lie down and must not be disturbed
 The unconscious person must not be given any oral treatment
 Vomiting should not be induced through salt or other chemical if we
observe ‘fits’ or unconsciousness in a patient or if he/ she has swallowed
petroleum product or concentrated acid or caustic soda. The stomach
cleaning must be done through the expert treatment of a doctor.
 There are some universal antidotes (e.g. an antidote made of charcoal 2
parts: tannic acid 1 part: milk of magnesia 1 part) which must be
immediately given to patient after vomiting or cleaning of stomach. The
above mixture is an antidote of acid, glycoside, and heavy metal
poisoning. But in corrosive substance poisoning the above antidote must
be followed by giving gastric lavage also.
Some other antidotes which are generally used in insecticide poisoning
are atropine sulphate, diacetyl mono hexene and pyridine aldoxymet etc.
TREATMENT OF PERSON WHO HAS INHALED THE POISON
 Take the patient to fresh air
 All the windows and doors must be opened if the patient is inside a
room.
 All tight cloth must be loosened.
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 Patient must be prevented from chilling effect.

 He must be covered with a blanket.
 If irregular breathing is observed artificial respiration must be applied
till the patient is taken to the hospital.
5.10 Summary
The pesticide are the biggest source of chemical pollutants which gets
accumulated in the environment whose degradation may be slow and hence
tend to accumulate in the ecosystem. The nature of insecticide makes its
bioaccumulating or biodegradable. There are natural mechanisms for
breakdown of insecticide and microbes play a important role in it. Insecticide
residue pose a major threat to environment and can result in biomagnifications.
The insecticide acts and environmental regulation provide for judicious use of
these chemicals. The safe use of insecticide with minimum harm is
recommended for best results .The safety during application and post accident
can save from poisoning.
5.11 Glossary
 ‘Poisoning’ or toxicity is the potential of a chemical to create
deleterious effects in biological systems.
 Safety :The term is defined as the value judgment of the acceptability of
a risk towards a chemical.
 Biomagnification :It is the process of accumulation of toxicants in the
food chain tropics levels by the transfer of residues in smaller organisms
and from them into higher tropic level organisms.
 Bio Accumulation :The entrance of the toxicants in the food chain and
the process of their concentration from the environment to first trophic
level and then further trophic levels is referred to as ‘Bioaccumulation’.
Very short Answer Type Questions
1. Define Biomagnification.
2. Name the three major natural mechanisms required for the breakdown of
toxicant in the environment.
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3. Name the metabolic processes in microbes which make them unique

tool for biodegradation.
4. What is Bioaccumulation ?
Short Answer Type Questions
5. Explain microbial degradation of toxic Chemicals.
6. Give suitable examples of biomagnification.
7. Write a note on treatment of insect poisoning.
8. What do you understand by ‘risk’ and ‘Hazard’.
Long Answer Type Questions
3. What is insecticide Act 1968?Explain in detail.
4. Give a detailed account of safety measures adapted during handling of a
toxicant.
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Unit - 6
Agricultural Pests – I
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Biology, Nature, Extent of Damage And Control Of Polyphagus Pests
6.4 Schistocerca Gregaria (Desert Locust)
6.5 Insect Biology
6.6 Locusta Migratoria (Migratory Locust)
6.7 Nature of Damage
6.8 Comparison Account of Locust and Grasshoppers
6.9 Locust Warning Organisation (Lwo)
6.10 Hieroglyphus Spp. (Rice Grasshopper)
6.12 Host Plants
6.12 Distribution
6.13 Host Plants
6.14 Role of Termites in ecosystem
6.15 Pests of Maize and Millets
6.16 Chilo Zonellus (Swinhoe) / Chilopartellus (Swinhoe, 1885)
6.17 Larvae (Caterpillar)
6.18 Mechanical and Physical Control
6.19 Host-Plant Resistance
6.20 Summary
6.21 Self Assessment Questions
6.22 References
6.1 Objectives
After completing the unit, you will be able to understand about-
 Pest
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 Different harmful effects of pest on agricultural crops

 Effective methods of pest control
 Monophagous Pest
 Oligophagous Pest
 Polyphagous Pest
 Biology, Life Cycle, Nature of Damage and different types of
control measures of Polyphagus Pests - Schistocerca gregaria,
Locusta migratoria, Hieroglyphus spp., Termites (Odontotermes
obesus, Microtermes obesus) Amascata spp.
 Brief idea about maize and millets and its different pests.
 Biology, Life Cycle, Nature of Damage and different types of
control measures of Pests of maize and millets- Chilo zonellus,
Sesamia inferens.
6.2 Introduction
A pest is any living organism which is invasive or prolific, detrimental,
troublesome, noxious, destructive, a nuisance to either plants or animals, human
or human concerns, livestock, human structures, wild ecosystems etc. Pest
refers to any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people or their animals,
crops, or possessions, even if it only causes annoyance. Pests belong to a broad
spectrum of organisms including insects, mites, ticks and other arthropods,
mice, rats, and other rodents, slugs, snails, nematodes, cestodes and other
parasites, weeds, fungi, bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. In its broadest
sense, a pest is a competitor of humanity.
Often animals are designated as pests when they cause damage to agriculture by
feeding on crops or parasitizing livestock, such as codling moth on apples, or
boll weevil on cotton. An animal could also be a pest when it causes damage to
a wild ecosystem or carries germs within human habitats. Examples of these
include those organisms which vector human disease, such as rats and fleas
which carry the plague disease, mosquitoes which vector malaria, and ticks
which carry Lyme disease.
Agriculture is the keystone of the Indian economy and the largest contributor to
the country’s GDP. Over 58% of the rural households rely on agriculture as
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their primary means of livelihood. Ensuring food security for more than 1.3
billion population is an arduous task considering the diminishing cultivable
land resource because of urbanization. Agricultural pest contribute to a great
degree in agricultural loss. It has caused losses virtually on countless number of
crops.
India is facing crop losses and problem of food security as agricultural pests,
such as insects, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and weeds are spreading. Pests belong
to a broad spectrum of organism which causes annoyance, harm or damage to
people, animals, crops or possessions. They harm the ecology by preying
directly on native fauna, decreasing their number and the balance on ecology.
Pests harm agriculture by feeding on crops or parasitizing livestock. Plants need
to be protected from variety of different pests that presents threat to the crops.
The causes of pest outbreaks and crop losses are due to different factors
creating changes in the agricultural ecosystem. Outbreaks can impair
fertilization rates or seed recovery. The use of pesticide destroys beneficial
natural enemies, damage crops and alters physiology of crops making them
susceptible to pest attack. Some pests appear due to certain weather patterns,
too much or too little rain can trigger pest outbreak. Sudden pest outbreak could
ruin a whole season’s worth of planting and cultivation, leading to financial
loss. The most direct economic impact of agricultural pest is the reduced
efficiency of agricultural production may it be crops or animals, which reduces
farmer’s income.
Many of the known pest control methods and technologies provide economic
benefits when used in a satisfactory manner. Crop protection products such as
insecticides, fungicides and herbicides are chemical method of pest control
management. By their nature, crop protection can be toxic against the pests they
are aimed at but sometimes have a negative impact on agriculture.
In India there is a need of raising awareness for management of the vast range
of pest that threaten agricultural crops by use of low external inputs and
traditional techniques by using non-chemical alternatives is widely advocated.
The efforts are broadly classified as integrated pest management, low external
input sustainable agriculture and organic agriculture. Integrated Pest
Management is the most commonly recommended and widely adopted. These
technological options could help create sustainable ways and decrease the needs
for expensive and undesirable effects of chemical pesticides and promote
greater production.
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6.3 Biology, Nature, Extent of Damage And Control Of

Phytophagus Pests
For feeding, reproduction and survival purpose organisms uses various types of
resources. These resources are combinly termed as ecological range of
organism. Similarly insect use the plant resources for fulfilling their different
requirements such as shelter, food, protection from different predators.
However use of host plant range is relatively different in the phytophagous
insect species. Entomologist classified the plant feeding insect into two
categories such as generalist and specialist according to the mode of host plant
used by them.
Generalist insects can be defined as those insects which use wide range of plant
species as their host, whereas the specialist insect uses a specified range of host
plants in its life span. Phytophagous insects can be differentiated into three
categories such as monophagous, oligophagous and polyphagous.
Monophagous Pests– The insect species which usually feed on plants which
comes under single genus or only a single species of plants. Tryporyza
incertulus (The Yellow Stem borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)) is a monophagous
pest and attacks only on paddy plants.
Oligophagous Pests– The insects species which confine their feeding activity
to wide range of plants of different genera but belonging to one taxonomic
group i.e., one family. A well known example is the cabbage butterfly.
Polyphagous Pests- The insects feed on wide range of plants under different
families. Most of the phytophagous insects are specialized for choosing their
host plant. Schistocerca gregaria, Locusta migratoria are polyphagous insect
pests.
LOCUSTS
Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers
in the family Acrididae of order Orthoptera. Locusts are the short-horned
grasshoppers with highly migratory habit, marked polymorphism and voracious
feeding behaviour. In the solitary phase, these grasshoppers are harmless, their
numbers are low and they cause little economic threat to agriculture. They are
capable of forming swarms of adult’s congregation and hopper bands of
nymphal congregation. They cause great devastation to natural and cultivated
vegetation. However, under suitable conditions of drought followed by rapid
vegetation growth, serotonin in their brains triggers a dramatic set of changes.
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They start to breed abundantly, becoming gregarious and nomadic when their
populations become dense enough. They form bands of wingless nymphs which
later become swarms of winged adults. Both the bands and the swarms move
around and rapidly strip fields and cause damage to crops. The adults are
powerful fliers, can travel great distances, consuming most of the green
vegetation wherever the swarm settles.
There are 10 important species of locusts in the world which are as follows:-
S. Common Name Scientific Name
No.
1. The Desert Locust Schistocerca gregaria
2. The Bombay Locust Nomada crissuccincta
3. The Migratory Locust Locusta migratoria manilensis
Locusta migratoria migratoriaoides
4. The Italian Locust Callipta musitalicus
5. The Moroccan Locust Dociostaurus morocannus
6. The Red Locust Nomada crisseptemfaciata
7. The Brown Locust Locusta napardalina
8. The South American Schistocerca paranensis
Locust
9. The Australian Locust Chortoicetes termenifera
10. The Tree Locust Anacridium spp.
From the above species only four species viz. Desert locust (Schistocerca
gregaria), Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), Bombay Locust (Nomada
crissuccincta) and Tree locust (Anacridium sp.) are found in India. The desert
locust is most important pest species in India as well as in intercontinental
context. We will study about two species -The Desert Locust (Schistocerca
gregaria) and The Migratory Locust (Locusta migratoria) in this unit.
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6.4 Schistocerca Gregaria (Desert Locust)

Systematic Position
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Family: Acrididae
Genus: Schistocerca
Species: gregaria
Distribution:
The invasion area of Schistocerca gregaria covers about 30 million sq km
which includes whole or parts of nearly 64 countries. This includes countries
like North West and East African countries, Arabian Peninsula, the Southern
USSR, Iran, Afghanistan, the Indian sub-continent. The widespread outbreaks
(Plagues) of desert locusts have threatened agricultural production in Africa,
the Middle East and the Asian countries. The livelihood of at least one-tenth of
the world’s human population can be affected by this voracious insect. The
desert locust is potentially the most dangerous of the locust pests because of the
ability of swarms to fly rapidly across great distances. It has two to five
generations per year. During recession periods when locust occurs in low
densities, it inhabits a broad belt of arid and semi-arid land which stretches
from the Atlantic Ocean to North West India. Thus, it covers over 16 millions
sq kms in 30 countries.
Main host plants- Polyphagous with some preference for Gramineae (Barley,
Maize, Sorghum, Wheat). Although it can be present on nearly all crops, and
noncrop plants like Pearl Millet, Rice, Pasture Grasses, Sugarcane, Cotton,
Fruit Trees, Date Palms, Banana Plants, Vegetables, Citrus, Corn, Cotton, Oats,
Peanuts, Rye, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Vegetables, Rangeland Grasses,
Acacia, Pines and Weeds.
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6.5 Insect Biology

Life Cycle
The life cycle of the desert locust consists of three stages, the egg, the nymph
known as the hopper and the winged adult. Copulation takes place when a
mature male hops onto the back of a mature female and grips her body with his
legs. Sperm is transferred from the tip of his abdomen to the tip of hers, where
it is stored. The process takes several hours and one insemination is sufficient
for a number of batches of eggs. Locusts usually breed in sandy areas in
deserts, where soil is loose enough to hold egg pods and
abundant Cyperus weed to serve as food for the nymphs. The female seeks
suitable soft soil to lay her eggs. It needs to be in the right temperature and
degree of dampness and be in close proximity to other egg-laying females. She
probes the soil with her abdomen and digs a hole into which an egg pod
containing up to a hundred eggs is deposited. The egg pod is 3 to 4 cm long and
the lower end is about 10 cm below the surface of the ground. The eggs are
surrounded by foam and this hardens into a membrane and plugs the hole above
the egg pod. The eggs absorb moisture from the surrounding soil. The
incubation period before the eggs hatch may be two weeks or much longer,
depending on the temperature. There are several generations per year.
EGGS
Eggs are laid in pods in moist sandy soil at a depth of about 10 cms at an
interval of 7 – 10 days by thrusting the ovipositor. The ovipositor is used to
make a hole in the sand, about 10 cm deep. Gregarious female usually lay 2-3
egg pods having 60-80 eggs in average. Eggs are laid in a frothy mass which
hardens to form a tubular egg pod. Solitarious female mostly lay 3-4 times
having 150-200 eggs in average. Fecundity is 4-5 egg pods per female or 500-
1000 eggs per female. Each egg is 1.2-1.5 mm long and 0.7-0.8 mm wide and
whitish in colour. Eggs are rice shaped. The rate of development of eggs
depends on soil moisture and temperature. No development takes place below
15°C. Eggs are incubated by the sun rays heating the sandy soil. The
incubation period is 10-12 days when the optimum temperature is between 32-
35°C.Depending on the temperature, the development of the eggs will take
average two weeks or longer.
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Nymphs / Hoppers
After incubation is complete, the eggs hatch and nymphs (young ones) emerge.
The first worm like nymph finds its way through the egg pod to the soil surface.
There it molts and becomes a "hopper". There are 5 instars in gregarious and 5-
6 instars in solitarious population. In each instar there is a growth and change
in characteristic coloration.
Ist Instar Newly hatched are white but turns black in 1-2 hours.
IInd Instar Head is larger and pale colour pattern is conspicuous.
IIIrd Instar Two pairs of wing buds projects on each side of
thorax
IVth Instar Colour is conspicuously black and yellow.
Vth Instar Colour is bright yellow with black pattern.
The rate of development in hopper depends on temperature. It takes 22 days

when the mean air temperature is hot say about 37°C and may be delayed up to
70 days when the mean temperature is below 22°C.
Adult
The fifth Instar nymph moults into adult stage. This change is called fledging
and the young adult is called fledgling or immature adult means they are
sexually immature. The period of sexual maturity varies. In suitable condition
the adult may mature in 3 weeks and under cool and dry condition it may take 8
months. During this stage, the adults fly for search of favourable breeding
condition and may cover thousands of kilometers. Young immature adults are
pink in color but old ones become dark red or brown in cold condition. On
maturation the adults become bright yellow. Males matures faster than females.
Oviposition commences within two days of copulation.
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The desert locust lives a solitary life until it rains. Rain causes vegetation
growth and allows the female to lay eggs in the sandy soil. The new vegetation
provides food for the newly hatched locusts and provides them with shelter as
they develop into winged adults. During quiet periods, called recessions, desert
locusts are confined to a 16-million-square-kilometer belt that extends
from Mauritania through the Sahara Desert in northern Africa, across
the Arabian Peninsula, and into northwest India. Under optimal ecological and
climatic conditions, several successive generations can occur, causing swarms
to form and invade countries on all sides of the recession area, as far north
as Spain and Russia, as far south as Nigeria and Kenya, and as far east as India
and southwest Asia. Locust swarms fly with the wind at roughly the speed of
the wind. They can cover from 100 to 200 kilometers in a day, and will fly up
to about 2,000 meters above sea level. Therefore, swarms cannot cross tall
mountain ranges such as the Atlas Mountains, the Hindu Kush or
the Himalayas. They will not venture into the rain forests of Africa nor into
Central Europe.
Nature of Damage:
The desert locust can cause injury to nearly all crops, and non-crop plants like
pearl millet, maize, sorghum, barley, rice, pasture grasses, sugarcane, cotton,
fruit trees, date palms, banana plants, vegetables, citrus, corn, cotton, oats,
peanuts, rye, sugarcane, tobacco, vegetables, grasses, acacia, pines and weeds.
The plants are damaged by the locust gnawing on the leaves, and young
vegetable plants can be eaten to the ground. It is estimated that desert locusts
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consume the equivalent of their body weight (2 gm approximately) each day in

green vegetation. They are polyphagous and feed on leaves, shoots, flowers,
fruit, seeds, stems and bark. Significant damage to plants occurs when these
insects become very abundant. Abundance commonly increases with increase
in favoured foods, typically weedy grasses. This can result from weather that
favours grasses such as mild winters, increased rainfall, suppression of grazing
by livestock, or soil tillage.
Schistocerca gregaria maintain optimal temperature by climbing up and down
vegetation, and by moving to more exposed like sunny or less exposed like
shady locations. When they are abundant they may climb up screen enclosures
around pools, and up the sides of houses. They destroy their surroundings
because their mandibles are sharp even they can make holes in the fiberglass
screening.
The greatest level of damage is caused by last instar nymphs and young adults.
This corresponds to the overall greater level of activity of these stages. Nymphs
and adults feed on the leaves and soft shoots. They eat from the margin inwards
which results in irregularly shaped feeding marks. Swarms will usually
completely defoliate crops. Locust droppings are toxic, and spoil any stored
food that is left uneaten. Swarms usually defoliate the crops completely.
Damage can be destructive over a wide area.
Control
 The desert locust is a very difficult pest to control, and control measures
are further compounded by the large and often remote areas of 16-30
million km² where locusts can be found. Undeveloped basic
infrastructure in some affected countries, limited resources for locust
monitoring and control, and political turmoil within and between
affected countries further reduce the capacity of a country to undertake
the necessary monitoring and control activities.
 Farmers often try mechanical means of killing locusts, such as digging
trenches and burying hopper bands, but this is very labour intensive and
is difficult to undertake when large infestations are scattered over a wide
area. Farmers also try to scare locust swarms away from their fields by
making noise, burning tires or other methods. This tends to shift the
problem to neighbouring farms, and locust swarms can easily reinfest
previous fields.
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 At present, the primary method of controlling desert locust infestations

is with insecticides applied in small concentrated doses by vehicle-
mounted and aerial sprayers at ultra-low volume rates of application.
The insecticide is acquired by the insect directly or via secondary
pickup. Control is undertaken by government agencies in locust-affected
countries or by specialized organisations.
 Natural enemies such as predatory and parasitic wasps and flies,
predatory beetle larvae, birds, and reptiles may have limited effects on
desert locusts because they can be easily overwhelmed by the sheer
magnitude of most swarms and hopper bands. On the other hand, they
may be effective in keeping solitary populations in check.
 A range of commercial controlling agents for locusts are available in
market. The most appropriate control agent is dependent on a number of
factors, including where it is to be used such as within a crop, pasture,
stock or sensitive site scenarios, withholding periods and environmental
considerations.
 Fenitrothion is registered for use against locusts on pasture and a wide
range of cereal and other crops. It is available as EC (ground control)
and as a ultra-low volume (ULV) formulation for aerial control.
 Fipronil, also a ULV formulation for aerial control, is suitable for
pasture and sorghum situations.
 Chlorpyrifos is suitable for ground control only in crop or pasture
situations.
 Metarhizium, is a biological control agent which can be used in
environmentally-sensitive areas and in areas of organic farming or
chemical sensitivity. The agent is derived from a naturally-occurring
fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) that attacks locusts. It can take 8-18
days to have an effect so should only be used to treat immature locusts,
early in their lifecycle. It is not suitable for treating adult locusts.
 Biopesticides include fungi, bacteria, neem extract and pheromones. The
effectiveness of many biopesticides equals that of conventional chemical
pesticides, but there are two distinct differences. Biopesticides in
general take longer to kill insects, plant diseases, or weeds, usually
between 2 and 10 days.
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 There are two types of biopesticides - biochemical and microbial.

Biochemical pesticides are similar to naturally occurring chemicals and
are nontoxic, such as insect pheromones used to locate mates, while
microbial biopesticides like Green Muscle come from bacteria, fungi,
algae or viruses that either occur naturally or are genetically
altered. Entomopathogenic fungi generally suppress pests by mycosis:
causing a disease that is specific to the insect.
 Guaiacol is the pheromone produced in the gut of Desert locusts by the
breakdown of plant material. This process is undertaken by the gut
bacterium Pantoea (Enterobacter) agglomerans. Guaiacol is one of the
main components of the pheromones that cause locust swarming.
Figure – Schistocerca gregaria
6.6 Locusta Migratoria (Migratory Locust)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Orthoptera
Suborder: Caelifera
Family: Acrididae
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Subfamily: Oedipodinae
Genus: Locusta
Species: migratoria(Linnaeus 1758)
The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is the most widespread locust

species, and it is the only species of the genus Locusta. These are species that
can breed rapidly under suitable conditions and subsequently become
gregarious and migratory. They form bands as nymphs and swarms as adults
both of which can travel great distances, rapidly stripping fields and
greatly damaging crops. Locusts are an edible insect and are considered a
delicacy in some countries and throughout history.
Locusta migratoria is a polyphenic species, that is, its pigmentation and size
vary according to its "phase" (gregarious or solitary form) and its age. When
population densities grow high the migratory locust appears in its smaller
gregarious form, which is yellow to orange with black spots. In contrast,
solitary form adults are brown or green, and tend to match the vegetation
around them. Locusta migratoria in large population numbers can be
economically devastating, as both larvae and adults eat huge quantities (adults
daily eat their weight in food), and adults, as strong fliers, are highly mobile
Distribution
Migratory Locust has the largest world distribution area among all locusts and
grasshoppers, comprising practically all temperate and tropical parts of the
eastern hemisphere, i.e. Europe, Africa including Madagascar, Arabian and
Indo-Pakistan peninsulas, Caucasus, Central and South-eastern Asia, Australia,
Papua New Guinea and New-Zealand. The northern limit of this huge
distribution area corresponds roughly with the southern edge of the coniferous
forest zone of Europe and Asia. Southern extension reaches New-Zealand. The
western limit corresponds to the Azores, in the Atlantic Ocean, and the eastern
one to at least the Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. The altitudinal distribution of the
species is also amazingly wide, from sea-level to mountains. Therefore, the
species is present in a wide range of habitats presenting very different climatic
and environmental conditions; this results in different biological responses
fitting with local conditions and a number of geographical subspecies. In case
of India usually it breeds during spring in Baluchistan and the resultant adults
migrate to the desert areas of India where they breed in summer.
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Host Plants
Solitary hoppers and adults can damage various vegetable crops, rice, cotton, as
well as plantations of volatile oil bearing plants in India. During years of mass
outbreaks, grain and other crops are severely damaged as well as hayfields and
pastures. It is also the case for many tree species. Gregarious hoppers and adults
of Migratory Locust can strongly harm wheat, rye, barley, oat, maize, rice,
sorghum, millet, alfalfa, clover, peas, legumes, string bean and other Fabaceous
crops, red and sugar-beet, potato, tobacco, cabbage, rutabaga, cucumbers,
watermelons, melons, and other cucurbits, sunflower, althaea, cotton, flax,
castor-oil plant, vegetable and other crops, young plants of many fruit, vines,
fruit, forest and bush trees, haylands and pastures. Damage on trees concerns
stem, fruit and branches broken by the weight of locusts.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
There are three breeding seasons for locusts
(i) Winter breeding [November to December]
(ii) Spring breeding [January to June]
(iii) Summer breeding [July to October]
India has only one locust breeding season and that is Summer breeding. The
neighboring country Pakistan has both spring and summer breeding.
Eggs
Female locusts lay eggs in batches, called pods, in the soil, usually at a depth of
2–10 cm. Each pod will contain 30–60 pale yellow banana-shaped eggs 5–
6 mm long. An individual female may lay up to four pods. Each pod is sealed
with a froth plug which protects the eggs from extreme temperature and ensures
adequate moisture is available for development. A collection of egg pods laid
by a number of locusts is termed an egg bed. Egg beds occur typically in bare
patches of compact soil, as distinct from self-mulching soils. Egg beds may
vary from a few square meters to several hundred square metres and be
scattered irregularly throughout a region.
Eggs need warmth and moisture to develop and will suspend development if
these needs are not met. In summer, eggs may hatch within 14–16 days, while
eggs laid in autumn will probably remain dormant by process of diapause
through winter and resume development and hatch the following spring. These
egg pods will normally be laid closer to the surface than summer-laid eggs
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(non-diapause).Eggs in a single egg bed may hatch together or over several

weeks if conditions for hatching are marginal. Hatching normally occurs from
spring through to autumn, with two to three generations hatching through that
period if conditions are favourable.
Green feed is required to provide fuel for flight and for egg development.
Depending on conditions an adult locust if once sufficient fuel is available for
flight they may leave or migrate from an area. If conditions are ideal, however,
the adult female may lay eggs in the same area in which she developed.
Nymph / Hopper
An immature locust is called a nymph or hopper. After hatching from the egg,
a locust goes through five growth stages called instars, moulting at each stage.
The developing wings become more noticeable at each stage until the locust
becomes a fledgling adult and then a mature adult capable of sustained flight.
Normally, the nymphs take 4–8 weeks to complete this development.
Locusta shows different phases in its life cycle. Usually it is in the solitary
phase, in which body colour is from brown to green. The thorax is slightly
domed above the head and crested. A dark stripe starts at the antenna, goes up
through the eye at a 45 degree angle and becomes horizontal before fading into
the thorax, which has a small but prominent dark spot. Rear femur has two
oblique darker bands. The other phase is gregarious phase in which body colour
is red to orange with very contrasting darker to almost black markings. The
thorax is not domed but saddle-shaped and even lower than the head. A dark
stripe starts at the antennae, goes up through the eye at a 45 degree angle and
becomes horizontal as it continues across the thorax. In later instars this
becomes a prominent stripe along the entire body.
Adult
After the final moult, the adult locust emerges with fully formed wings. At first
the body and wings of the locust are still soft and they can't sustain flight for
about a week until the wings harden. After full development the body length
varies from 35 to 50 mm for males and from 45 to 55 mm for females. Adults
are slightly smaller than the desert locust. Though the female and the male look
alike, they can be distinguished by looking at the end of their abdomens. The
head is slightly lower than the thorax but both are raised above the line of the
wings. The thorax has a central ridge which is partly lost in the swarm phase.
The mouth is dark. The male has a boat-shaped tip, while the female has two
serrated valves that can be either apart or kept together. These valves aid in the
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digging of the hole in which an egg pod is deposited. Mandibles are blue in
colour. Elytra are shining and long, exceeding clearly the abdominal extremity.
Wings are colourless with smoky tint and black veins. The bottom of internal
side of hind femora is brownish, bluish to black. The length of hind femur is of
22.0-26.0 mm in males and 20.0-32.0 mm in females. There is a dense pilosity
of the inferior face of thorax. The colour can vary but is usually green, brown,
yellowish-green or grey. The pronotum is curved for solitary adults and saddle-
shaped for gregarious ones, with convex or straight to slightly concave median
keel respectively. The transversal furrow is well marked for gregarious
individuals. The hoppers also differ, being green in solitary phase but grey in
the 1st instar, then darkening and becoming orange and black in the later instars
when gregarizing.
Polyphenism
The migratory locust is polyphenic. It transitions between two main phenotypes
in response to population density; the solitary phase and the gregarious phase.
As the density of the population increases the locust transforms progressively
from the solitary phase towards the gregarious phase with intermediate phases-
Solitaire = solitary phase → transienscongregans (intermediate form) →
gregarious phase → transiensdissocians (intermediate form) → solitaire =
solitary phase.
A few differences between solitary and gregarious phase are as under:
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Characterist Solitary phase Gregarious phase

ics
-Do not form groups or -Form persistent and cohesive
swarms groups, bands and swarm
Behavior -Roost, bask, feed and move -Roost, bask, feed and move
as individuals together
-Hoppers move short distance, -Very mobile, fly as swarms by
adults fly as individuals at day. Hoppers move in band.
night
-Hoppers uniformly green in -Hoppers have black pattern on
early instars but may be yellow or orange background
brown in last two instars. -Adults rosy pink on fledging,
-Adult pale grayish brown, darkens with age to grayish or
buffer peach coloured. Males brownish red then to yellow on
Colour change to pale yellow on sexual maturation. Males are
sexual maturation. brighter.
-Female show no colour
change on maturation at low
density.
6.7 Nature of Damage
Locusts have probably been an enemy of man ever since he began to grow
crops. Locusts are still a great enemy of the farmer and in some countries they
are the determining factor between sufficient food for the people and starvation.
Damage is sometimes diffuse and not very obvious, but it can be very severe in
many more restricted areas. This depends on whether the swarms are moving
about quickly or whether they stay for several days in one area. An adult locust
can consume its own weight (about 2 grams) in fresh food per day. For every
million locusts, one ton of food is eaten.
Sugarcane, palms, pineapple and less frequently pigeon pea, cabbage, carrot,
cassava, coffee, cotton, groundnut, kidney bean, hyacinth bean, lettuce, Lima
bean, pea, potato, turnip etc are badly affected by locust attack. Bulrush millet
(Pennisetum americanum) is a staple grain crop along the southern edge of the
Sahara and in the Indo-Pakistan desert. It is much liked by the Locusta
migratoria as a food plant and since it is grown extensively in areas which are
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highly frequented by this locust for breeding, considerable damage is caused;

both leaves and ripe grain are destroyed.
Wheat and barley are the staple food crops in the spring breeding areas of the
Locust where they can be severely damaged, especially when they are
approaching harvest. At this stage locusts bite through the last remaining moist
part of the plant, the section of stem just below the ear, causing complete loss of
grain, often without attacking the ear itself.In case of rice crop comparatively
little damage is done to irrigated rice even in areas highly frequented by the
Locust, probably because the artificially wet conditions in which it is grown are
not liked by this locust. The effect of damage varies according to the stage of
sugarcane growth and the variety.
Cotton crop can be severely attacked. The effect of damage on yield is great if
it occurs just before flowering but less if it occurs afterwards. In the Locust
summer-breeding zone the start of cotton flowering generally coincides with
the fledging of adult locusts and as the young adult is the stage at which most
feeding takes place, this increases the danger to cotton in these areas. Fruit trees
are particularly vulnerable to attack by immature swarms which have a
preference for roosting in trees. Serious damage has occurred on oranges,
lemons, pawpaw, dates and grapevines. Once damaged by locusts, the trees are
liable to have their fruit yield affected for more than one year.
The Migratory Locust feeds on grasses also. During recessions it feeds on wild
grasses and cereal crops in and around the flood plains of the Middle Niger that
form its main outbreak area.
Control
 The chief aim of locust control is to destroy the locust in all its’ stages.
 For destruction of eggs first the egg laid areas are located, then trench them
round, so as to entrap the young hoppers as they move out after hatching.
Even actual destruction of eggs on organised scale may be carried out by
ploughing, harrowing and hand digging.
 For Hopper Control the mechanical methods included entrapping making
hopper bands in 2’ x 2’ trenches and burrying. The chemical method
includes use of poison baits and dusting of insecticides.
 Various types of poison baits can be used like 5% BHC or pairs green or
sodium fluosilicate & 2 Dusting 5 to 10% BHC against hoppers 25 to
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30kg/ha has seen found to bring a complete control of the pests. Aldrin 4%
dust can also be effectively use.
 In order to control of adults or winged locust swarms 5% or 10% BHC or 4%
aldrin may be used to achieve better control when swarms are resting on the
bare ground at night or in early morning can be beaten or swept up and
destroyed. If they are resting on bushes or hedges, they can be easily burnt
with help of flame throwers. When flying locusts are about to descend in
large swarms in cultivated areas, the best way to tackle them is to prevent
then alighting by all possible methods, such as waving a white cloth, or
creating a cloud of smoke, by burning refuse, etc., spraying with neem kernel
suspension as a deterrent to the crop, has also been tried with success.
 Recently with the introduction of aerial application of insecticide like aldrin,
the control of locust swarms has become easier. Once locusts have fledged or
are 'flying', aerial spraying of agricultural chemicals is the only efficient
method of control.
 Natural enemies of locusts are birds, mammals and insects.
Locusta migratoria
6.8 Comparison Account of Locust and Grasshoppers

Grasshopper
 Locusts and grasshoppers are the same in appearance but differ in the
way they behave.
 The grasshopper belongs to the order Orthoptera and suborder Caelifera.
 This insect contains 28 families.
 It is usually referred to as the short-horned grasshopper so as to
distinguish it from crickets.
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 They are equipped with short ovipositors and antennae which are shorter
compared to their bodies.
 They usually have wings, and the females are larger than the males.
 They have long back legs used for leaping.
 Their mandibles are very strong.
 The adults have two wings in the front and two membranous wings in
the back which are all fully developed.
 The females have short ovipositors and two pairs of valves which are
used to dig in sand when egg laying, and these are located at the end of
the abdomen.
 The males have one plate at the end of the abdomen which is not paired.
Locust
 On the other hand, locusts are a species of the grasshopper but change
behavior and color at high population densities.
 The locust belongs to the order Orthoptera and suborder Acrididae.
 This insect has one family only.
 They are the swarming phase of the grasshoppers.
 In suitable conditions, they breed rapidly and become migratory and
gregarious.
 When they form swarms, they can travel at high speeds, and they are
responsible for most of the damage to crops as they rapidly strip them.
 The causes of the behavioral changes are not fully understood
 The locust is a type of a grasshopper which is short horned. The
grasshopper is not a type of a locust.
Comparison
 Both belong to the order Orthoptera.
 The grasshopper belongs to the suborder known as Caelifera while the
locust belongs to the suborder Acrididae.
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 The grasshopper has 28 distinct families while the locust has only 1
family.
 Both are short horned and have short ovipositors, two, short antennae,
long back legs used for leaping, and mandibles are strong.
 Both adults of the locusts and grasshoppers have two wings in the front
and two membranous wings in the back which are all fully developed.
 Both are regarded as delicacies in certain parts of the world.
 Locusts can exist in two different behavioral states which are migratory
and gregarious while grasshoppers do not.
 Locusts may change their body shape and color, fertility, and survival
behavior while grasshoppers generally do not.
 Locusts can form dense swarms and bands while grasshoppers generally
do not.
 Locusts can migrate over large distances while grasshoppers cannot.
6.9 Locust Warning Organisation (LWO)
In India, the scheme Locust Control and Research is responsible for control of
Desert Locust and is being implemented through Organisation known as
“Locust Warning Organisation (LWO)” established in 1939 and later
amalgamated with the Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage in
1946. Locust Warning organization is responsible to monitor and control the
locust situation in Scheduled Desert Area mainly in the States of Rajasthan and
Gujarat while partly in the States of Punjab and Haryana by way of intensive
survey , surveillance, monitoring and control operations where required.
Locust Warning Organisation is aimed to detect the local breeding in Scheduled
Desert Areas and incursion of exotic locust swarms into India. LWO keeps
itself abreast with the prevailing locust situation at National and International
level through monthly Desert Locust Bulletins of FAO issued by the Desert
Locust Information Service, AGP Division Rome, Italy. Survey data are
collected by the field functionaries from the fields which are transmitted to
LWO circle offices, field HQ Jodhpur and Central HQ Faridabad where these
are compiled and analyzed to forewarn the probability of locust outbreak and
upsurges. The locust situation is appraised to the State Governments of
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Rajasthan and Gujarat with the advice to gear up their field functionaries to
keep a constant vigil on locust situation in their areas and intimate the same to
nearest LWO offices for taking necessary action at their end.
6.10 Hieroglyphus Spp. (Rice Grasshopper)
Systematic Position
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta
Order – Orthoptera
Suborder- Caelifera
Family – Acridiidae
Genus – Hieroglyphus
Distribution
In India different species of Hieroglyphus are widely distributed and is
considered to be a major pest of paddy. They are polyphagous pests.
Hierogiyphus banian is sporadic pest of rice and other kharif cereals in the
Punjab, another species, Oxya nitidula Walker, which is smaller, also appears in
pest proportions on the paddy crop in certain years. The other important species
in northern India are Aelopus tumulus and Acrida exaltata Walker.
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6.12 Host Plants

They are polyphagus and feed on leaves of rice, maize, millets, sugarcane,
grasses, sunn hemp, arhar, etc. and minor pest of millets and fodder crops. H.
banian is a sporadic pest of rice and other kharif cereals in Punjab.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The Hieroglyphus spp. have one generation in a year and pass the winter and
dry part of summer in the egg stage. The female starts laying eggs by inserting
her abdomen in the soil. The eggs are laid 5-8 cm deep, in pods, each
containing 30-40 eggs. The eggs are found in the soil and they hatch in June or
in early July, a few days after the first shower of the monsoon. On emergence,
the nymphs or hoppers start feeding actively and complete their development in
seven stages, within 3 weeks. The gregarious form of the fifth- and sixth-instar
hoppers are generally an orange-brown colour with a black facial mask and
antennae and black spots all over the thorax, pronotum and legs; the abdomen is
yellow on top with a black stripe each side, brown on the sides with darker
brown spots and black underneath. They measures about 5 cms in length.
There is also a black stripe on the hind femora. Their fledging occurs from
August to November. Gregarisation occurs at high population densities. They
feed on the leaves of paddy or the grasses on the bundh.
The hoppers take 70 days in case of male and 80 days in case of females to
become sexually mature. The adults are somewhat like locusts but are smaller.
The adults are 40-50 mm long and are shining greenish yellow, having three
black lines running across the pronotum. The adults are seen feeding
voraciously during August and September. When they are two months old, they
mate. The adult Rice Grasshoppers shows Polymorphism, usually they occur in
two forms: a fully winged form and a flightless form with much reduced wings.
Under normal circumstances, the flightless form is more common, but in
upsurges more flying types occur-flight being an aid to dispersal. Heiroglyphus
banian and H. nigrorepletus are somewhat like locusts but are smaller.
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Nature of Damage
The greatest amount of damage is caused during August – September when
both adults and nymphs feed on paddy and other crops, causing defoliation.
They also cut off the ear heads. In certain years, they cause extensive damage,
moving from field to field over large areas. Milky stage of rice crop specially
attracts the surface grasshoppers. On cereal crops, feeding damage is generally
concentrated near field margins as the hatchlings are not very mobile. The
enormous loss to the crop is done by chewing and cutting various plant portion
like leaves, flowers and grains. They completely defoliate the plants leaving
only the mid ribs and the plant growth is affected. Their feeding damage
includes leaf notching and stripping, but as they mature they can consume an
entire plant. They can fly and move around easily in search of a wide variety of
food sources
Control
Cultural Control
 Grasses and weeds in the fields, bunds and surrounding areas should be
removed and cleaned area should be maintained.
 Proper ploughing of the fields in the beginning of summer to check the
emergence of hoppers, and scrap bunds to destroy the eggs .
 Flood the stubbles, shave bunds, sweep along the bunds and pick adults
directly from the foliage at night when they are sluggish.
Mechanical Control
 In early stages of infection, bagging and netting of the hoppers can be
done to check their population.
 Half grown nymphs and hoppers are driven to one corner of the field
and are beaten to death.
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Biological Control
 Encourage biological control agents: scelionid wasps, parasitic flies,
nematodes, and fungal pathogens, birds, frogs, and web-spinning
spiders, and a certain species of an entomophthoralean fungus; and
platystomatid fly and mite (eggs of oriental migratory locust), ants,
birds, bats, field rats, mice, wild pigs, dogs, millipedes, fish, amphibia,
reptiles, and monkeys.
 The egg masses are destroyed by ploughing the field and exposing them
to birds.
Chemical Control
 Dusting the crop with to 10% BHC or 5% Aldrin is very much effective.
 Poison baiting is useful both against nymphs and adults.
 Dust the crop with 5-10% BHC (or) methyl parathion 2% or lindane 2 D
25-30 kg/ha (or) malathion 5 D 20 kg/ha
 Spray dichlorvos 76 EC 500 ml/ha (or) malathion 50 EC 2.5 lit/ha.
Termites
Systematic Position
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Infraclass: Neoptera
Superorder: Dictyoptera
Order: Blattodea
Infraorder: Isoptera
Termites are a group of eusocial insects which is recently kept in

the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera but are now accepted as the infra
order Isoptera, of the cockroach order Blattodea.
There are mainly two groups of harmful termites that causes structural damage
to wood inside buildings. These two groups are subterranean and drywood
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termites, and are so named because of their mode of nesting. These two groups
comprise many species altogether, and both groups feed on wood, but they are
fundamentally different as far as nest building is concerned. This is but one of
the major characteristics that set them apart.
Subterranean termites live in the ground and are the most commonly
observed termite. Most instances of termite damage are due to subterranean
termites. They construct nests below the soil surface and tunnel their way from
the soil into nearby homes and houses. The ones that cause massive structural
damage can build nests that number into the millions of individuals and affect
more than one building. Many kinds of subterranean termites usually constructs
mud covered shelter tubes. The mud covered tubes is a characteristic sign of
presence of subterranean termites.
Drywood termites constructs nest in wood and their nests are only a fraction of
the size of the more notorious subterranean termites. Drywood termites do not
cause as much damage as subterranean termites because they are usually
present in small colony size. Drywood termites frequently produce and send out
tiny winged future kings and queens to form new nests. They are abundant in
coastal areas.
The key differences between subterranean termites and drywood termites are as
follows.
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6.12 Distribution
The termites are found all over the world and popularly known as white ants.
Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) is widely distributed in, India, Bangladesh and
Pakistan.
In India, termites are widely distributed in red, sandy loams, lateritic and red
loam soils. In Gujarat and Rajasthan there is need of study on the isopteran
fauna over certain types of diverse ecosystems varying from the arid region in
the east up to the salty marsh land of Rann of Kutch in the west and over and
above, the Aravallis. About 253 species under 54 genera of seven families have
been documented from the Indian region and about 35 species have been
reported to damage agricultural crops and timber in buildings. Most are soil
inhabiting, either as mound builders or as sub-terranean nest builders.
Major mound-building species in India are:
a) Odontotermes obesus
b) O. redemanni
c) O. wallonensis
Major sub-terranean species in India include:
a) Heterotermes indicola
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b) Coptotermes ceylonicus
c) C. heimi
d) Odontotermes homi
e) Microtermes obesi
f) M. beesoni
g) Trinervitermes biformis
6.13 Host Plants
The main host plants of termites are cotton, sugarcane, upland rice, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soyabean, coffee, wheat, barley, sugarcane, pea,
sorghum, pearl millet, maize, groundnut., tea, cocoa, rubber, oil palm, coconut,
kapok, some vegetables, some fruit trees like; mango, papaya, citrus, nutmeg,
etc.
Insect Biology
Termites shows division of labor among castes, produce overlapping
generations and take care of young collectively like ants, bees and wasps.
As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from
several hundred to several million individuals. Colonies use decentralised, self-
organised systems of activity guided by swarm intelligence which exploit food
sources and environments unavailable to any single insect acting alone. A
typical colony contains nymphs (semimature young), workers, soldiers, and
reproductive individuals of both sexes, sometimes containing several egg-
laying queens.
Life Cycle
In a new established colony, 7-10 days after nuptial flight the female lays the
first batch of eggs numbering 25-100. These eggs hatch in 40-42 days
depending on the climatic conditions. The female termite then swells to become
queen and lays upto 3000 eggs per day. When these hatched, the infants are fed
by the gastric juices of the queen. As the colony expands, the eggs are laid
singly or in double rows of 16 - 24 eggs glued together by a gelatinous
secretion, depending on the species. The larva undergoes seven nymphal instars
but this again varies according to the species and the environmental conditions.
These are fed and cared for by the workers. They mature over a period of 2 - 6
months, depending on their species Adult termites are small, 4 -15 mm long,
and vary in color from white to tan and even black, depending on the species.
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Termites can be identified according to the caste they belong. There are four
castes in the colony namely; the queen, king, soldier, and the worker. The
queen is the largest termite in the colony. Her role is to lay eggs to increase the
size of the colony. She can lay a thousand of eggs in a day. The king is always
beside her ready to mate her. The soldiers have large onion-like heads and
powerful jaws. They emit liquid when disturbed. The workers are the majority
in a termite colony. They gather the food, feed the queen, take care of and feed
the larvae, as well as build and maintain the nest. Unlike ants, the male and
female termites can be workers. The nymphs with fully developed wings will
be the future kings or queens
Nature and Damage
Of about 2,858 described species of termites, fewer than 185 are considered
pests. They are known primarily for their destruction of wooden structures;
termites can also be agricultural pests. Termites are known to damage major
field crops such as wheat, maize, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, pulses, and
forest plantation trees such as eucalyptus, silver oak, and all kinds of timber in
buildings. Termites attack the roots of crops at all stages of plant development,
seed sets, newly planted seedlings, tree trunks and also wooden logs. Termite
damage starts soon after sowing and continues till the growing stage. The
leaves of damaged plants becomes wither and dry and later on drop down. Such
plants are easily uprooted.
Termites mostly feed on dead plant material, surface debris such as twigs, bark
fragments, dry leaves and grasses, soil, or animal dung, and about 10% of the
estimated 3,000 species are economically significant as pests that can cause
serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests.
In natural ecosystems, termites feed an organic matter too. They are responsible
for reducing soil fertility by removing both plant and animal debris and locking
them in their underground nests, thus making them unavailable for plant
growth. They are also litter consumers in forest ecosystems and contribute to
the breakdown of dead wood and decomposition of organic matter on the forest
floor. Losses due to termites run to several millions of rupees in agricultural
crops alone. About 10-25 per cent loss is estimated in most field and forest
crops. Severe losses due to termites have been recorded on wheat and sugarcane
in northern India, maize, groundnuts, sunflower and sugarcane in southern
India, tea in north-eastern India and cotton in western India.
In general, damage by termites is greater in rain-fed than irrigated crops, during
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dry periods than periods of regular rainfall, in lowland rather than highland
areas, and in plants under stress like lack of moisture, disease or physical
damage, than in healthy and vigorous plants. In particular, exotic crops are
more susceptible to termite attacks than indigenous crops. The extent of termite
damage to agricultural crops, the nature of loss they cause, and the plant species
they infest, are very much related to the geographic region.
The food of termites is primarily cellulose and it can be obtained from both
living and dead wood vegetation. The termites, however, are not self-sufficient
in digesting this cellulose because they are not able to synthesize cellulase, the
enzyme that breaks down cellulose into oligosaccharides or monosaccharides.
They are dependent for the digestion of cellulose on the microscopic fauna,
which inhabit their intestines. The fauna exhibit a symbiotic association with
the termites, and consist of microscopic protozoa: flagellates or protozoans with
whip-like appendages, amoebae, spirochaetes, and fungi. Some of these
protozoans contain enzymes, which digest the cellulose present in the wood, for
termites. Thus, the termites and the protozoans have symbiotic relationship and
they cannot survive without each other.
CONTROL
Non chemical Control (Cultural &Mechanical Control)
Termite control still relies heavily on chemical control. Alternative control
measures to control an active infestation are limited. Long term, non-chemical
approaches to termite to termites focuses on prevention. Some non-chemical
approaches that may eliminate, an active termite infestation
 Mud Tube Removal -Removing mud tubes helps to assess the
effectiveness of a termite treatment and reappearance of termite
infestation. The tubes are an indication that termites are active around
the house.
 Debris Removal - Reduction of food resources by removing cellulose
debris is a direct control measures implemented when termites are found
infesting the house.
 If the moisture is completely removed than termites can't live.
 Replace old, rotted wood with fresh timbers.
 Heating & Extreme cold will also kill termites.
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Biological Control
 Various pathogenic organisms can be used to control termites. Termites
live in an environment that is filled with microorganisms, including
many that are pathogenic to the insects. One pathogenic fungus,
Metarhizium anisopliae has been developed commercially into a product
called Bioblast. Nematode-containing products have been used for many
years against a variety of other pests, most notably in turf against soil-
inhabiting white grubs and some caterpillars.
Chemical Control
 Where the pest is of regular occurrence the soil should be mixed with
endosulfan 4D or quinolphos1.5 D or chlorpyriphos 5 D BHC or 10 D
@ 35 kg/ha at the time of sowing.
 If the incidence of pest is noticed in standing crop dilute 2.5 L of
endosulphan35 EC or chlorpyriphos 20EC in 5 L of water and mix it
with 50 kg of soil and broabcast even in 1 ha followed by light irrigation
 Fumigation can also be applied to kill all the termites.
Odontotermes obesus
The Odontotermes genus belongs to subfamily Macrotermitinae and there are
many species of Odontotermes, which are either subterranean or mound
building. The Odontotermes range from Africa to Asia. They are so named
from a small characteristic “tooth” which appears as a crenulation on the
soldier’s left mandible. In some species, this “tooth” is rather prominent, but in
other species quite obscure, only visible when the soldier opens its mandibles.
A particular species, Odontotermes obesus, happens to be one of the species of
termites is a subterranean species, also it is one of the largest Odontotermes
termite, the soldier is approximately 12 mm in length, from the mandibles to the
rear of the abdomen.
Odontotermes consumes wood left in the open and favors dead tree stumps or
fallen branches and are quite common in urban areas, but quite rare in forested
areas. This particular species, can be readily found in public parks where there
are many old trees and subsequently, fallen branches that it can feed on. Its
alates typically fly after dusk, although they do not form dense swarms and the
flights are short-lived. As a whole, Odontotermes are very important
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decomposers of wood in tropical forests, and there are many species in

existence.
Microtermes obesus
Microtermes is a genus of subfamily Macrotermitinae that is so named because
it is the opposite of Macrotermes, being pretty small in size, but still
recognizably one of the Macrotermitinae, as can be inferred from the
appearance of the workers. There is a wide ranging of Microtermes species
found in India. They are highly common in agricultural estates.
They nest in wherever is convenient for them, and this includes other termite
mounds or their own improvised little hillocks usually at the base of trees,
stumps, logs and bushes. When they nest in other termite mounds, they will
excavate their nests within the walls of the mound itself. The extremely hard
and thick walls of the mounds of Macrotermes obesus provide an ideal nesting
habitat for Microtermes obesus, allowing them to hollow out chambers and
construct their fungus gardens within them.
Generally, Microtermes species constructs beautiful fungus combs . Workers
are dimorphic, but soldiers may or may not be, depending on species.
Microtermes obesus has dimorphic soldiers, although it is hard to tell the small
sized soldiers apart at first glance. Usually workers are larger than the soldiers.
6.14 Role of Termites in ecosystem
 Termites are major detritivores, particularly in
the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and other
plant matter is of considerable ecological importance.
 Termites contribute significantly to most of the world’s ecosystems. They
help to recycle the woody and other plant material. Their tunnelling action
helps to aerate soils. Termite activity causes patchy changes that improve
the soil composition and fertility. Compacted and encrusted soils cannot
absorb water and hence can no longer support plant life. Termite
tunnelling helps to reclaim greatly damaged soils, which has been
successfully demonstrated in the African Sahel zone. Termites also
contribute significantly to atmospheric gases.
 It has been recently investigated that a fungus cultivated by some
harvester termites has cultured an antibiotic producing bacterium. This
finding may provide new insight into the identification, production and
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use of new antibiotics.

Amsacta moorei Butler (The Hairy Caterpillars, The Red Hair Caterpillar)
Phylum- Arthropoda
Class- Insecta
Order- Lepidoptera
Superfamily- Noctuoidea
Family- Arctiidae
Genus- Amsacta
Species- moorei
Distribution
Host Plants
It is a polyphagous insect and feeds practically on all kinds of vegetation
growing during the kharif season. Its attack is particularly serious on
Groundnut, Pigeon Pea, Watermelon, Sunn Hemp, Melons, Cucumbers, Guar,
Finger Millet, Soyabean, Cotton, Pearl Millet, Castor Bean, Sesame, Sorghum,
Moth Beans, Black Gram, Mung Bean, Cowpea, Maize etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
This pest is active from mid-June to the end of August and passes rest of the
year in pupal stage in the soil Moths, from these pupae, appear usually with the
first shower of the monsoon. They are nocturnal in habit and lay light-yellow
spherical eggs in clusters of 700-850 each on the under surface of the leaves of
host plants. A single female may lay up to 1,500 eggs, which hatch in 2-3 days.
The young caterpillars feed gregariously and, as they grow older, they march in
bands destroying field after field of various kharif crops. The caterpillars grow
through six stages and complete their development in 15-23 days. They enter
the soil, shed their hair, and make earthen cocoons at a depth of about 23 cm.
Here they pupate and remain in this stage for many months till they emerge
next year from the cocoons. In a given populations, probably more than one
generation is completed in a year. The moths are stoutly built and have white
wings with black spots. The outer margins of the fore wings, the anterior
margin of the thorax and the entire abdomen are scarlet red. There are black
bands and dots on the abdomen.
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Nature of Damage
The young kutra caterpillars prefer to eat the growing-points of plants. The
older ones feed voraciously on all vegetation resulting in severe crop damage
finally resulting into disaster. The insects eat away entire foliage of plants
leaving skeleton only. Field after field is infested by the moving army of
caterpillars. In the years of severe infestation, there may be a complete failure
of the kharif crops. Crop losses caused by A. moorei during different years vary
from minor damage to complete crop failure in the endemic. Arctiidae is a
family which apparently reacts according to climatic influences, pest outbreaks,
and hence heavy crop losses, are likely to occur in years of substantial and
frequent or intermittent rains during the first 25-30 days after start of moth
emergence, i.e. from end June to July.
Control
Cultural & Mechanical Control
Some cultural methods, such as deep ploughing after harvest or destruction of
weeds growing on embankments, fence lines and on nearby uncultivated land,
may help in reducing some pest damage. Marching bands of caterpillars can be
destroyed by digging trenches around the fields and burying them.
Additionally, collection and destruction of egg masses and young larvae in the
gregarious phase of the pest have been recommended. Young larvae are
gregarious. They can be destroyed by pulling out the infested plants and bury
them under-ground.
The moths are nocturnal in behaviour and are strongly attracted to artificial
light. So, light traps of electric or petromax lamps placed just above a broad flat
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basin full of kerosenized water, should be put up on the night following

throughout the period of emergence for about one month.
Biological Control
Some bio-agents such as Trichogramma and nuclear polyhedrosis virus,
Entomopoxvirus of A. moorei, which is infectious to the Lepidopteran insects,
are used as a biological insecticide.
Chemical Control
The grown up caterpillars can be controlled by spraying in one acre ½ litre of
Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos) or 1 litre of Anatox
80 EC (toxaphen) or 200 ml of Nuvan 100 (dichlorvos) in 100-200 litres of
water or by dusting 15 kg of 5 percent Aldrin Diptrex per acre.
6.15 Pests of Maize and Millets
Maize (Zea mays L.) occupies an important place in world agriculture. More
than half the maize of India is produced in four states : Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan. It is estimated that by the year 2020,
demand for maize in developing countries will surpass demand for both wheat
and rice. Maize in India ranks fifth in total area and third in total production and
productivity. This level of production has to be substantially raised to meet
growing demand of maize for human food, animal and poultry feed, as well as
industrial processing by the wet and dry millers to produce value added
products. Maize can be successfully grown in rainy (kharif), winter (rabi) and
summer spring (zaid) crop seasons. Because of its divergent types, it is grown
over a wide range of climatic conditions, ranging from near sea-level to several
thousand meters above sea-level (2,700 m msl). Maize can be grown in tropical,
subtropical and temperate climates, however tropical and sub-tropical occupy a
higher percentage of corn production. It can also be grown in all types of soils
ranging from sandy to heavy clay. Deep heavy soils are considered more
suitable in view of their better water holding capacity. Saline and alkaline soils
should be avoided since these adversely affect crop growth and development.
The requirement of fertilizers depends upon the status of the soil, previous
cropping history and duration of the variety to be grown. However, a balanced
application of 60-120 kg N, 40-60 kg P and 40 kg K is recommended for
various ecosystems. A population of 65,000-70,000 plants/ha is optimum for
realizing high maximum yield.
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Among the factors adversely affecting productivity, ubiquitous prevalence of

diseases and insect pests in the pre harvest stage are prominent. The total
economic loss of the crop in India due to insect pests and diseases has been
estimated to be of the order of 13.2%. Since there is practically no possibility of
increasing maize area, the productivity can only be raised by providing seed of
improved cultivars, better agronomic practices and protection against diseases
and pests. Hence, this document aimed to provide comprehensive integrated
pest management practices to reduce crop losses caused by diseases and insect
pests of maize.
Millets
The term "millet" is applied to various grass crops whose seeds are harvested
for human food or animal feed. Sorghum is called millet in many parts of Asia
and Africa, and broomcorn is called broom millet in Australia. Compared to
other cereal grains, millets are generally suited to less fertile soils and poorer
growing conditions, such as intense heat and low rainfall. In addition, they
require shorter growing seasons. Millets are generally considered minor crops
except in parts of Asia, Africa, China, and the Soviet Union. The millets are
considered to have been cultivated in India from pre-historic times. Their
importance as an article of human food can be realized from the fact that about
30 million acres in India fall under millets. As a group, millets are used for both
forage and grain. Millets are generally grown as mixed crops in regions of low
rainfall, the other crop grown with them being usually one of the legumes. Most
of the millets grown in our country are of short duration, taking, three to four
months from sowing to harvesting. Some of India are sorghum pearl millet and
finger millet.
Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa specially
in India, Nigeria, and Niger with 97% of millet production in developing
countries. It is grown and consumed in Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Goa. Millets are a group of highly variable small
seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for
fodder and human food. The crop is favored due to its productivity and short
growing season under dry, high temperature conditions.
Millet is very famous, rich in iron, phytochemicals that lower cholesterol,
folate, magnesium, copper, zinc, and vitamins E and B-complex. It packs an
additional punch since it contains all 13 essential amino acids. It is good for
bones and has higher energy content than other flours. It is also rich in calcium
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and unsaturated fats which are good for the body. It is low in saturated fat, very
low in sodium, no sugar, high in manganese and can prevent heart failure if it is
eaten daily.
Stem borer, earworm and millet midge are the most problematic pests, but the
crop may also be attacked by various species of grasshoppers, locusts, white
grubs and various butterflies.
6.16 Chilo Zonellus (Swinhoe) / Chilopartellus (Swinhoe,

1885)
The Spotted Stemborer
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Genus: Chilo
Species: partellus
Distribution
The spotted stem borer is found in India, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Lesotho,
Madagascar, Malawi, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and on Mayotte.
It is native to Asia where it is a pest of maize and sorghum. It was first reported
from Africa in the 1930s and became established in East Africa in the 1950s.
After arriving in Africa, it has spread to nearly all countries in Eastern and
Southern Africa, and it is assumed that it is spreading to Western Africa. C.
zonellus is indigenous to Asia and became established in Eastern Africa in the
early 1930s. It occurs in low to mid-altitude areas. It was described by Swinhoe
in 1885.
Chilo zonellus has rapidly spread over a wide geographical range and due to
this expansion they have proven to be a very efficient colonizer and devastating
pest wherever they may occur. In general, C. zonellus occurs in low to high
latitudes and warmer areas.
Host Plants
The main host plants of Chilo zonellus are Maize, Sorghum, Bulrush millet,
Sugarcane, Rice. It is a major pest of Maize, Sorghum and minor pest of
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Wheat. It is a generalist herbivore that feeds on several species of cultivated

and wild plants. The spotted stemborer attacks several wild grass species as
alternative pest. Wild hosts include many species of wild grasses such as:
elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), reeds (Phragmites species) and vossia
(Vossia cuspidate).
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The whole life cycle takes about 3-4 weeks, varying according to temperature
and other factors. Five or more successive generations may develop in
favourable conditions. In regions where there is sufficient water and an
abundance of host plants, the spotted stemborer can reproduce and develop all
year-round.
When larvae are fully grown, they pupate and remain inside the maize stem.
After 7-14 days adults emerge from pupae and come out of the stem. They mate
and lay eggs on maize plants again and continue damaging the crop. During the
dry season, larvae may enter a state of suspended development (diapause ) for
several months and will only pupate with the onset of rains. Adults emerge
from pupae in the late afternoon or early evening. They are active at night and
rest on plants and plant debris during the day. They are rarely seen, during the
day unless they are disturbed.
Eggs
The eggs are laid on the underside of a leaf near the midrib in 3-5 rows, in
groups of 50-100. They are flattened, ovoid, scale-like, creamy-white and about
0.8 mm long. Eggs are laid in overlapping batches of 10-80 eggs on the upper
and underside leaf surfaces, mainly near the midribs. Hatching takes place after
7-10 days.
6.17 Larvae (Caterpillar)
In general appearance the spotted stem borer larvae are creamy-white to
yellowish-brown in colour, with four purple-brown longitudinal stripes and
usually with very conspicuous dark-brown spots along the back, which give the
larvae a spotted appearance. When fully grown the larva has a prominent
reddish-brown head. It has a prothoracic shield which is reddish-brown to dark-
brown and shiny. The head capsule is brown. When mature they are about 25
mm long. The caterpillars can be distinguished from the presence of hooks on
its prolegs. In C. zonellus these hooks are arranged in a complete circle. Young
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caterpillars initially feed in the leaf whorl. Older caterpillars tunnel into stems,
eating out extensive galleries, within which they feed and the larval period
takes 28-35 days to grow.
Pupa
During dry seasons, larvae may enter a state of diapause or a period suspended
development for several months and will pupate once it the dry season is over
and there is an onset of rain. Pupation takes place in a small chamber in the
stem. Pupa is up to 15 mm long, slender, shiny and light yellow-brown to dark
red-brown in colour. The pupal period takes 7 10 days.
Adult
Adult moths have a wingspan of 20-30 mm. Males are smaller and darker than
females. The forewings of males are pale brown. The forewings of the females
are much paler and the hind wings are almost white.
Nature and Damage
Larvae (caterpillars) eat through leaves when young and as they grow older,
eventually bore into the stem causing it to break or die resulting in a condition
called 'deadheart'. Vegetative stage or before harvest the younger plants less
than two months old are more often attacked than older plants. Younger larvae
usually feeds in leaf whorls. Older larvae tunnel into the stem, and may also eat
into the cob in older plants. Yield losses are variable across regions, seasons,
plant species and varieties and management regime on farms. Yield losses may
exceed 20% on maize and 50% on sorghum.
The Damage caused by Chilo zonellus occurs as a series of small holes in lines
in younger leaves and patches of transparent leaf epidermis in older leaves.
Sometimes the early stages mine in the leaves, causing yellow streaks. The
larvae forms tunnel into the stem can result in holes, broken stems or drying
and eventual death of the growing point of the maize called as deadheart.
In young plants the shoot can be killed, causing a "dead heart". In older plants
the upper part of the stem usually dies as a result of the boring of the
caterpillars.
Control
Detection methods
Spotted Stemborer infestations may be detected by walking through young
crops looking for characteristic feeding marks on funnel leaves, the presence of
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dead hearts and holes in tunnelled stems. Samples of affected stems can be cut
open to find caterpillars and pupae. It is best to rear them until they reach the
adult stage to identify the species as it is very difficult to identify the species
from the larvae and pupae. Spotted stemborers may be detected in older crops
and in crop residues by taking random samples of stems to dissect to find
caterpillars and pupae.
Cultural practices
Intercropping maize with non-hosts crops like cassava or legumes like cowpea
can reduce spotted stemborer damage. Alternatively, maize can be intercropped
with a repellent plant such as silver leaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum)
and a trap plant, such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), molasses grass
(Melinis minutiflora) as a border crop around this intercrop to protect maize
from stemborers. The trap plant draws the adult female away from the crop.
More eggs are laid on the trap plant than on the crop but the larvae develop
poorly or not at all on the trap plant. This practice is known as "push-pull".
Good crop hygiene through the destruction of maize residues by burning to get
rid of the larvae and pupae within the stems, and removal of volunteer crop
plants and/or alternative hosts, prevents carry-over populations. This helps in
limiting the initial establishment of stemborers that would infest the next crop.
Early slashing of maize stubble and laying it out on the ground where the sun's
heat destroys the larvae and pupae within can also be utilised.
Biological control
Biological control by two parasitic wasps, Cotesia flavipes and Xanthopim
plastemmator, that attack the spotted stemborer, has shown good results.
Cotesia flavipes locates the stemborers while they are feeding inside the plant
stems. The wasp lays about 40 eggs into a stemborer. Upon hatching the larvae
of the parasitic wasp feed internally in the stemborer, and then exits and spin
cocoons. Xanthopim plastemmator operates similarly but attacks the pupae.
Habitat management practices that conserve these parasitoids and predators like
ants and earwigs can help in the control of the spotted stemborer.
Chemical control
Chemical control can be achieved by applications of granules or dusts to the
leaf whorl early in crop growth to kill early larval instars. This method has
limited effectiveness once the larvae bore into the stem. Neem products
(powder from ground neem seeds) are reportedly effective and may be applied
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to the leaf whorl in a 1:1 mixture with dry clay or sawdust. Pesticides are
poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels.Furadan 3G
proved significantly more effective in the reduction of per cent dead hearts, pest
infestation and in increase of stalk and cobs weight, average number of
cobs/plant and grain yield followed by Ripcord 100g/l EC and Tamaron SL
600. High dose of all the three insecticides gave better control of maize stem
borer than medium and low doses. However, medium and low doses of
insecticides were also found significantly better compared to the check.
Sesamia inferens (The Pink Stem borer)

Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Sesamia
Species: inferens
Distribution
The Asiatic pink stem borer, Gramineous stem borer, Pink borer, Pink rice
borer, Pink rice stem borer, Pink stem borer, Pink stem borer, Purple
borer, Purple stem borer or Purplish stem borer (Sesamia inferens) is a moth of
the Noctuidae family. It is found from Pakistan to Japan and the Solomon
Islands. This pest is found all over Asia, from western Iran to China, Japan,
Burma, Taiwan, Malaysia, Solomon Is. and New Guinea. Indo-Australian
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tropics to Solomons. The species is found from the lowlands to about 1700m,
but is commoner in the former, particularly in disturbed and open habitats.
Host Plants
This is a polyphagous pest that attacks oats, citronella grass, goose grass,
barley, rice, pearl millet, finger millet, sugarcane, sorghum, wheat, maize,
maize and several wild grasses. The larvae mostly feed on Gramineae species
including Coix, Echinochloa, Oryza, Panicum,Saccharum,Setaria, Triticum,
Zea and Zizania. Many of the food plants are of economic importance.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The pink stem borer breeds throughout the year and has no period of suspended
development i.e. diapause. However, it is less abundant during the dry season
when it is limited to mature grasses elephant grass, Setaria species and
itchgrass among others, as a food source. Life cycle is completed in about 40-
70 days, depending upon the climatic conditions. There are 4-6 generations in a
year.
Eggs
The eggs are laid in clusters in several rows within the cover of the leave
sheath. The eggs are hemispherical, about 1 mm in diameter and slightly
flattened with radial ridges. They are creamy-white when laid but darken as
they develop. Eggs are inserted between the lower leaf sheaths and the stem in
batches of 10-40 and arranged in two to four contiguous rows. On average, each
female lays around 300 eggs in a period of five days. Eggs are laid usually
when plants are two weeks old until flowering. The most serious damage,
however, occurs at early plant stages.
Larvae
The larva of the African pink stalkborer looks smooth and shiny and lack
obvious hairs or markings. Their colour is variable but they are usually creamy-
white with a distinctive pink suffusion. The head and prothoracic shield are
brown; the dorsal part of the last abdominal segment bearing the anus is yellow-
brown. Setae are present on small, inconspicuous pinacula which is hardened or
sclerotized area that indicate points of muscle attachment and the spiracles are
elongated oval with black surrounds. The crochets of the larval abdominal
prolegs are arranged in lines as is the case for noctuid stem borers. This
contrasts with pyralid borers whose crochets are arranged in circles. Mature
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larvae are between 30-40 mm long, pink with buff and pink dorsal markings
and a brown head .
Most larvae penetrate the stem shortly after they emerge from their eggs.
Larval feeding might result in dead hearts and the tunnelling and girdling
activity of the larvae often results in stalk breakage. During the ear filling
period, the majority of the larvae occur in the ears. Development of the larvae
takes four to six weeks. Most larvae pupate within the stem or cobs.
Pupae
Pupation normally takes place inside the stem and sometimes outside in hidden
places such as between leaf sheath and stem. There is no cocoon formation.
Pupa is 18 mm long, dark brown with purple tinge on the head region with
a wrinkle. The frontal region and a terminal tail is with four large and two small
spines.
Adult
Adult moths are strong, fast flying insects. They are straw coloured with hairy
body The wingspan in females of the pink stem borer is 20-30 mm and in males
a little less. The forewings are pale-brownish, with variable but generally
inconspicuous darker markings along the margin and an overall silky
appearance. Hind wings are white.
This species superficially resembles Mythimna species but has smooth, rather
than hairy, eyes. The forewing is much less striate than in Mythimna, with a
diffusely darker central streak, and darker brown at the margin. The hindwings
are almost pure creamy white.
Nature and Damage

S. inferens is extreme polyphagous in nature. It is the least destructive borer
pest among the rice stem borers. Outbreaks in rice usually result from a
population overspill from adjacent sugarcane fields or other alternative hosts.
Its incidence in rice seems to have decreased with the intensification of rice
cultivation during the past 30-40 years. S. inferens is generally more prevalent
in areas where its alternative hosts are cropped such as surrounding sugarcane
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or maize or in rotation with wheat. It also generally attacks the rice crop during
its intermediate or late growth phases.
Stem borers are ubiquitous in rice fields. S. inferens is usually most often found
in association with other stem borers attacking a rice crop. It belongs to a
different family than other pyralid stem borers and is larger in size. Wider
stemmed rices favour Chilo species and S. inferens.
All the stem borer species attacking a crop must be considered together and
their damage as additive, as there is little or no difference in damage potential
between species. Larva bores into the stem and hollows it out which results in
dead heart. White heads are a greater contributor than deadhearts to yield loss.
Hybrid or other high-tillering rices can tolerate high infestation rates if the crop
is well managed and there is a lack of other stresses. The tunnelling caused by
the larvae severs the vascular tissue but there are many conduits in a stem and
reduction in nutrient and assimilate flow can normally be shunted to
undamaged vascular bundles unless the stem is completely severed. Stem borer
tunnelling has a greater impact on yield loss than defoliation and damage can
act synergistically with other stresses.
Control
Cultural Control
The community-wide cultural practices act to prevent colonization and build-
up, and have the greatest potential to minimize S. inferens infestation. These
include planting cultivars each season with the same maturity class and planting
synchronously between fields. Rice cropping intensity is limited to two crops
per year over the area and if irrigation allows a third crop it should be a non-
host species such as field legume. Harvesting has a devastating effect on stem
borers particularly if the straw is destroyed and the remaining stubble ploughed
under.
Early planting within a contiguous area such as an irrigation turnout generally
escapes damage. Increasing plant density allows maximum compensation from
damage. Using well timed and optimal levels of nitrogen and balanced fertilizer
also helps a crop to compensate from damage even though it may increase the
overall stem borer density. Good crop husbandry such as thorough land
preparation, prompt weeding, and vigilant water management ensure vigorous
crop growth and ability to tolerate stem borer damage.
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6.18 Mechanical and Physical Control

The traditional and more labour intensive practices used against stem borers are
not particularly effective against S. inferens. Hand picking of egg masses is
conceivable if labour is cheap, against Scirpophaga rice borers which lay egg
masses in the open but is impractical against S. inferens which oviposits behind
leaf sheaths. Roguing deadhearts is time consuming and often the larvae have
already left the affected tiller.
Biological Control
All life stages of S. inferens is vulnerable to attack by natural enemies. Once the
eggs have been laid behind the leaf sheaths, the factors that will most reduce the
stem borer population are natural enemies. Because of their fecundity, S.
inferens populations will increase even if 90% of the population dies during the
crop season. For a population to decline, more than 99% of the eggs laid must
fail to reach the reproductive stage.
Classical biocontrol has been carried out in Taiwan and the Philippines with the
introduction of the tachinid parasitoid Sturmiopsis inferens from India. Even
though the species became established, this method has not been highly
successful as studies have shown that there are already many natural enemies of
S. inferens in paddy fields and the effect of one more, even as effective as
Sturmiopsis, will not be noticed against this indigenous pest.
6.19 Host-Plant Resistance
The type of plant can have a broad effect on all stem borers. Short-stature, high
tillering, early-maturing (110-125 days) plant types offer the greatest reduction
to population build-up and damage. The levels of resistance, however, are only
quantitative and high levels of resistance have not been found. Short-stature
cultivars reduce the highly susceptible periods of tiller and panicle elongation.
Deepwater rice cultivars which elongate several meters are therefore highly
susceptible. First-instar larvae need to bore into tillers and panicles in order to
survive and they have the greatest chance during elongation when silica, the
plant's natural defence, is less densely packed. The longer it takes first-instar
larvae to bore into a tiller the more chance natural enemies have in finding it.
The larvae may also die of starvation if it cannot enter. First-instar larvae of S.
inferens are a little larger than other stem borers and therefore take a shorter
time to bore into a tiller. If one panicle is severed, the assimilate can be diverted
to other panicles which still have unfilled grains.
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Recent advances in biotechnology have raised hopes for the development of a

highly resistant transgenic rice variety against stem borers. The incorporation of
an insecticidal proteinase inhibitor gene into rice plants has been used for this
purpose. The fifth generation of transgenic japonica rice plants containing the
potato proteinase inhibitor II gene showed increased resistance against S.
inferens.
Chemical Control
 Seed treatment with Carbofuran 35 ST having 1/3 a.i.
 Seed treatment with Carbofuran (40F) 5% W/W @ 2.5g/kg of seed was also
found effective against S. inferens.
 1st Foliar application of Endosulfan 0.1% 15 days after sowing
 2nd application of 4% granules al 15 kg/ha a fortnight
IPM
Management of S. inferens and other rice stem borers should first address
preventative measures. These include a combination of cultural practices and
selection of a tolerant plant type which will have the greatest effect in
bolstering the crop's ability to tolerate normal levels of damage. A vigorously
growing rice crop planted to a high tillering variety has been shown to tolerate
up to 20% dead hearts and 10% whiteheads with no yield loss. Stressing non-
chemical preventative measures also ensures conservation of natural enemies
which will further protect the crop. Chemical control is costly and disruptive to
parasitoids and predators and should be contemplated as a last resort.
6.20 Summary
A pest is any living organism which is invasive or prolific, detrimental,
troublesome, noxious, destructive, a nuisance to either plants or animals, human
or human concerns, livestock, human structures, wild ecosystems etc. Pest
refers to any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people or their animals,
crops, or possessions, even if it only causes annoyance.
India is facing crop losses and problem of food security as agricultural pests,
such as insects, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and weeds are spreading. Pests belong
to a broad spectrum of organism which causes annoyance, harm or damage to
people, animals, crops or possessions. In India there is a need of raising
awareness for management of the vast range of pest that threaten agricultural
crops. The causes of pest outbreaks and crop losses are due to different factors
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creating changes in the agricultural ecosystem. The most direct economic

impact of agricultural pest is the reduced efficiency of agricultural production
may it be crops or animals, which reduces farmers’ income. The efforts are
broadly classified as integrated pest management, low external input
sustainable agriculture and organic agriculture. Integrated Pest Management is
the most commonly recommended and widely adopted.
1. Define pest with some examples of insect pests.
2. Describe the life cycle of termites.
3. What do you mean by monophagous, oligophagous and polyphagous pests?
Give suitable examples.
4. What are the main host plants of Locusts?
5. What are the control measures for Desert Locust?
6. Explain the life cycle of Locusta migratoria in details.
7. Differentiate between the solitary phase and gregarious phase of Locusta
migratoria.
8. Write an essay on Pests of maize and millets.
9. Give a comparison account of locust and grasshoppers
10. What is LWO (Locust Warning Organisation)? Where it is located in
Rajasthan?
11. Explain the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Hieroglyphus
?
12. Describe the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Chilo
zonellus.
13. Explain the caste differentiation in social insects - termites.
14. Differentiate between subterranean termites and drywood termites
15. Define Polyphenism
6.22 References
 Agricultural Pests of India and South-East Asia - A. S. Atwal, Publisher-
Kalyani Publishers, 1986, ISBN-817096475X, 978817096475
 Forest Entomology - William Ciesla, Publisher- John Wiley & Sons,
2011, ISBN- 1444397877, 9781444397871
 Destruction and Useful Insect, Their Hanits and Control, C. L. Metcalf,
W. P. Flint and R. I. Metcalf, Mc Grow I Ill Co. New York.
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 Agriculture Entomology, H. S. Dennis, Timber Press Inc.

 Hemsingh Pruthi : A Text Book of Agricultural Entomology
 Elements of Entomology- Rajendra Singh- Rastogi Publications.
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Unit 7
Agricultural Pests – II
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Pests of Pulses
7.3 Importance of Pulse Crops in India
6.4 Biopesticides and Natural Plant Products
6.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
7.6 Oil Seed Crops
7.7 Pests of Cotton (Fibre Crops)
7.9 Common Cotton Pests
7.10 Summary
7.12 References
7.1 Objectives
 Brief idea about pulses crops and its importance
 Biology, nature of damage and control of Pests of Pulses -
Heliothis armigera / Helicoverpa armigera (The Gram Pod
Borer), Agrotis ipsilon (The black cutworm), Prodenia litura /
Spodoptera litura (Oriental leaf worm moth)
 Brief idea about Oil seed crops
 Biology, nature of damage and control of - Lipaphis
erysimi (Mustard Aphid/ Turnip Aphid), Athalia lugens
proxima (The Mustard Sawfly), Bagrada cruciferarum
(The painted Bug), Holotrichia (Lachnosterna)
consanguinea (White Grub), Achaea janata (The Castor
Semilooper), Euproctis lumata (Castor hairy caterpillar)
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 Brief idea about cotton crop and its importance in India.

 Biology, Life Cycle, Nature of Damage and different types
of control measures of Pests of Cotton crops - Earias insulana
(Spotted Boll-worms), Pectinophora gossypiella (Pink
ballworm), Oxycarenus laetus (Dusky Cotton Bug), Dysdercus
koenigii (Cotton Stainer), Utetheisa pulchella (Sunnhemp
Hairy Caterpillar)
7.2 Pests of Pulses
Pulses Crops
The term “pulse” comes from the Latin word “puls,” which means a thick soup.
Pulses are the edible seeds of legumes which includes peas, beans, lentils, and
chickpeas. These pulse crop species are a part of the larger plant family known
as the Fabaceae or legume family. The Fabaceae family includes about 600
genera and 13,000 species, making it the third largest family within the plant
kingdom.
Pulses are considered environmentally friendly because of their reduced
dependence on fossil fuels. Instead of requiring fertilizer applications, they are
able to obtain much of their nitrogen requirement from the atmosphere by
forming a symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria in the soil. Low crop
residues and low carbon-to-nitrogen ratios of pulse crops eliminates the need
for burning and make rotating to the next crop using reduced tillage very easy.
7.3 Importance of Pulse Crops in India
Pulses are rich in proteins and found to be main source of protein to vegetarian
people of India. It is second important constituent of Indian diet after cereals.
They can be grown on all types of soil and climatic conditions. They give ready
cash to farmer. Pulses being legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil.
They play important role in crop rotation, mixed and intercropping, as they help
maintaining the soil fertility. They add organic matter into the soil in the form
of leaf mould. Pulses are generally not manured or requires less manuring.
They are helpful for checking the soil erosion as they have more leafy growth
and close spacing. They supply additional fodder for cattle. Some pulses are
turned into soil as green manure crops. Majority pulses crops are short
durational so that second crop may be taken on same land in a year. They
provide raw material to various industries.
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Insects pests can be a serious problem on pulses crops. These insects pests can
damage crops by reducing their yielding and having a negative impact on their
quality. Farmers use synthetic pesticides to combat pests. Besides being
hazardous to the farm workers’ health and leaving toxic residues on crops, the
uses of these pesticides have other negative consequences.
Heliothis armigera, Hubner / Helicoverpa armigera, Hubner (The Gram
Pod Borer)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Helicoverpa
Species: armigera
Nearly 60 insect pestspecies are known to feed on different pulses crops, of

which the pod borers Helicoverpa armigera is one of the major pests. It is a
major pest of pulses crops in Asia, Africa, and Australia. Helicoverpa causes
losses to legume crops in the semi-arid tropics are estimated at over US $328
million annually. Pod borers rarely become a serious pest on lentil. Worldwide,
losses due to Heliothis/Helicoverpa in cotton, legumes, vegetables, cereals, etc.,
exceed $2 billion, and the cost of insecticides used to control these pests is over
$1 billion annually. There are several common names for pod-borers, namely
cotton bollworm, corn earworm, African cotton bollworm, native budworm, old
world bollworm, legume pod borers, gram pod borer, and tomato fruit worm.
Distribution
Helicoverpa armigera is widely distributed in Asia, Africa, Australia, and the
Mediterranean Europe, Additionally, there are reports of H. armigera outbreaks
in Hungary, Italy, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the
United Kingdom also.
Host Plants
Helicoverpa armigera is a major pest of cotton, pigeonpea, chickpea,
sunflower, tomato, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, okra, Phaseolus spp.,
vegetables, tobacco, linseed, a number of fruits (Prunus, Citrus, etc.), and forest
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trees. In recent years, H. armigera damage has been reported in carnation,

grapevine, apple, strawberries, finger millet, etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Egg
The oviposition period lasts for 5 to 24 days, and a female may lay up to 3,000
eggs, mainly at night on leaves, flowers, and pods. The spherical eggs are 0.5
mm in diameter. They are first yellow, later turning brown. The egg incubation
period depends on temperature, and varies between 2 to 5 days, usually 3 days.
Larva
The colour of the larvae is greenish or brown, but colouration is very variable.
The body has longitudinal dark and pale bands. Head, prothoracic plate, and
legs are brownish. Spiracles are black. The length of a fully grown caterpillar is
40 mm. There are 6 larval instars. The total larval period is usually 14 to 24
days, but up to 50 days at low temperatures. Excreta may be seen on the plant
or under it. On maize the caterpillars are feeding with the forepart of the body
inside the ear while the hind part remains outside. A similar behaviour is
observed on pulses. Duration of larval development depends not only on the
temperature, but also on the nature and quality of the host plant, and varies
between 15.2 days on maize to 23.8 days on tomato.
Pupa
The shiny brown pupa is about 16 mm long. Pupation takes place in the soil.
The pre-pupal period lasts for 1 to 4 days. The larvae spin a loose web of silk
before pupation. In non-diapausing pupae, the pupal period ranges from about 6
days at 35°C to over 30 days at 15°C. The diapausing period for pupae may last
several months. The pupal period takes 2-4 weeks according to the temperature.
Adult
A stout bodied light brown nocturnal moths with a wingspan of 32-40 mm are
produced from pupae when exposed to temperatures exceeding 30°C. The
body length is 16-18 mm. The forewings are yellowish brown or greyish to
brown, with a broad slightly darker band and a small dark spot. The hind wings
are pale with a broad dark grey or brown marginal band with two lighter spots
on it. In captivity, longevity varies from 1 to 23 days for males and 5 to 28 days
for females.
Helicoverpa armigera exhibits a facultative diapause, which enables it to
survive adverse weather conditions in both winter and summer. The winter
diapause is induced by exposure of the larvae to short photoperiods and low
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temperatures. In China and India, H. armigera populations are comprised of

tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate ecotypes. In subtropical areas, H. armigera
undergoes diapause during winters when the temperatures are low. High
temperatures can also induce diapause. It enters a true summer diapause when
the larvae are exposed to very high temperatures (43°C for 8 h daily), although
the proportion of females entering diapause is nearly half compared to that of
males. At these temperatures, non-diapausing males are sterile.
Figure: Life cycle of Helicoverpa armigera

Nature of Damage
Caterpillars cause a variety of damage to different crops. They feed on leaves
and tender shoots and bore into the fruits. In pulses, they bore into the pod to
feed on seeds, sometimes half of the body remains outside the pod if the pod is
small. Fungus and other diseases follow in the damaged fruits. One larva may
feed on several fruits before completing development. Helicoverpa females lay
eggs singly on leaves, flowers, and young pods. The larvae initially feed on the
foliage in legume crops, but mostly on flowers and flower buds in cotton,
pigeon pea, etc. The young seedlings of legume plants may be destroyed
completely, particularly under tropical climates in southern India. Larger larvae
bore into pods/bolls and consume the developing seeds inside the pod.
Control
Monitoring of Helicoverpa populations is necessary to determine if threshold
has been exceeded and control measures are required. Action thresholds based
on egg numbers have been used to make control decisions. One larva per meter
row in chickpea causes economic loss. A simple rule of thumb based on
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monsoon rains and November rainfall has been developed to forecast H.

armigera populations in India. Mainly three crops, cotton, tomato and maize,
have high risk levels of Helicoverpa attack and require multiple sprays of
pesticides.
Cultural Methods
A number of cultural practices such as time of sowing, spacing, fertilizer
application, deep ploughing, interculture, and flooding have been reported to
reduce the survival and damage by Helicoverpa species. Inter-cropping or strip-
cropping with marigold, sunflower, linseed, mustard, or coriander can minimize
the extent of damage to the main crop. Strip-cropping also increases the
efficiency of chemical control. Hand-picking of large larvae can reduce
Helicoverpa damage. However, the adoption of cultural practices depends on
the crop husbandry practices in a particular agro-ecosystem. The chickpea trap
crop is planted after the commercial crops to attract H. armigera emerging from
winter diapause. The trap crops are destroyed before larvae commence
pupation. As a result, the overall H. armigera pressure on summer crops is
reduced, resulting in greater opportunity for adoption of soft control options,
reduced insecticide use, and greater activity of the natural enemies.
Natural Enemies
The importance of biotic and abiotic factors on the seasonal abundance of H.
armigera is poorly understood. Trichogramma egg parasitoids are seldom
present in high numbers in legume crops in India. The ichneumonid wasp,
Campoletis chlorideae is an important larval parasitoid of H. armigera on
chickpea in India. The dipteran parasitoids Carcelia illota, Goniophthalmus
halli, and Palexorista laxa have been reported to parasitize up to 54% of the
larvae on chickpea. Predators such as Chrysopa spp., Chrysoperla spp., Nabis
spp., Geocoris spp., Orius spp., and Polistes spp. are common in India.
Provision of bird perches or planting of tall crops that serve as resting sites for
insectivorous birds such as Myna (Acridotheris tritis) and Drongo (Dicrurus
macrocercus) helps to reduce the numbers of H. armigera larvae.
6.4 Biopesticides and Natural Plant Products
The use of microbial pathogens such as H. armigera nuclear polyhedrosis virus
(HaNPV), entomopathogenic fungi, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), nematodes, and
natural plant products such as neem, custard apple, and karanj (Pongamia
pinnata) kernel extracts have shown some potential to control H. armigera.
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HaNPV has been reported to be a viable option to control H. armigera in

chickpea in India. The entomopathogenic fungus Nomuraea rileyi (106 spores
per ml) resulted in 90 to 100% mortality of the larvae. Another
entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana (2.68 x 107 spores per ml)
resulted in 10% reduction in damage by H. armigera over the control plants. Bt
formulations are also used as sprays to control Helicoverpa. Spraying Bt
formulations in the evening results in better control than spraying at other times
of the day.
Chemical Control
Management of Helicoverpa in India in legume crops and other high-value
crops relies heavily on insecticides. Different types of insecticides like
Endosulfan, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, methomyl, thiodicarb, profenophos,
spinosad, and indoxacarb have been found to be effective for controlling H.
armigera. Spray initiation at 50% flowering has been found to be most
effective. Development of resistance to insecticides is a major problem in H.
armigera. Helicoverpa armigera populations in several regions have developed
resistance to pyrethroids, carbamates, and organophosphates. Introduction of
new compounds such as thiodicarb, indoxacarb, and spinosad has helped in
overcoming development of resistance in H. armigera to conventional
insecticides.
6.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Crop cultivars with resistance to Helicoverpa produced through conventional
plant breeding or biotechnological approaches can play an important role in its
control. Cultural practices such as deep ploughing, interculture, flooding, and
intercropping could potentially reduce the intensity of Helicoverpa. Although
the role of natural enemies as biological control agents is unclear, their impact
could be improved by reducing pesticide applications, and adopting cropping
practices that encourage their activity. Most studies have shown that insecticide
applications are more effective than neem kernel extracts, Bt, HaNPV, or
augmentative releases of natural enemies. However, biopesticides and synthetic
insecticides, applied alone, together, or in rotation, are effective for
Helicoverpa control in chickpea. Moreover, scouting for eggs and young larvae
is critical for initiating timely control measures. Insecticides with ovicidal
action, and/or systemic action are effective against Helicoverpa during the
flowering stage. The development of transgenic plants with different
insecticidal genes, molecular marker assisted selection, and exploitation of the
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wild relatives of Cicer and Lens species are very much effective for
Helicoverpa management on chickpeas and lentils.
Host Plant Resistance
The development of crop cultivars resistant or tolerant to H. armigera has
considerable potential for use in integrated pest management, particularly under
subsistence farming conditions in developing countries. Several chickpea
germplasm accessions (ICC 506EB, ICC 10667, ICC 10619, ICC 4935, ICC
10243, ICCV 95992, and ICC 10817) with resistance to H. armigera have been
identified, and varieties such as ICCV 7, ICCV 10, and ICCL 86103 with
moderate levels of resistance have been released for cultivation.
Genetically Modified Crops
In recent years, genetic engineering has enabled the introgression of genes from
distantly related organisms (i.e., Bacillus thuringiensis) into crops such as
cotton, corn, pigeonpea, and chickpea. Chickpea cultivars ICCV 1 and ICCV 6
have been transformed with cry IAc gene. Insect feeding assays indicated that
the expression level of the cry IAc gene was inhibitory to the development and
feeding by H. armigera. Efforts are underway to develop transgenic legume
crops for resistance to pod borer.
Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (The black cutworm)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Agrotis
Species: ipsilon
Distribution
The origin of Agrotis ipsilon (black cutworm) is uncertain, though it is now
found in many regions of the world, being absent principally from some
tropical regions and cold areas. Agrotis ipsilon is widely distributed world over
in Europe, North Africa, Syria, Japan, China, Indonesia, Australia, New
Zealand, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and India. In Europe, it is found in
almost all countries extending from Ireland and Portugal in the west to Bulgaria
and Romania in the east, and from Norway and Finland in the north to Sicily in
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the south. It is widespread, and more damaging in the northern hemisphere than
in the southern hemisphere. It annually reinvades temperate areas,
overwintering in warmer or subtropical regions. Long distance dispersal of
adults has long been suspected in Europe, China, and North America. These are
the pests of several crops in different agro-ecosystems.
Main Host Plants
The black cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon, has a wide host range, feeding on nearly all
vegetables and many important grains. Black cutworm has a wide host range.
Nearly all vegetables can be consumed, and this species also feeds on alfalfa,
clover, cotton, rice, sorghum, strawberry, sugarbeet, tobacco, and sometimes
grains and grasses. In the mid western USA it is considered to be a serious corn
pest. Among the weeds suitable for larval development are bluegrass, Poa
pratensis; curled dock, Rumex crispus; lambs quarters, Chenopodium album;
yellow rocket, Barbarea vulgaris; and redroot pigweed, Amaranthus
retroflexus. The black cutworm prefers for weeds sometimes and crops will be
attacked only after the weeds are consumed. Adults feed on nectar from
flowers. Deciduous trees and shrub such as linden, wild plum, crabapple, and
lilac are especially attractive to moths.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Egg
The egg is white in color initially, but turns brown with age. It measures 0.43 to
0.50 mm high and 0.51 to 0.58 mm wide and is nearly spherical in shape, with a
slightly flattened base. The egg bears 35 to 40 ribs that radiate from the apex;
the ribs are alternately long and short. The eggs normally are deposited in
clusters on foliage. Females may deposit 1200 to 1900 eggs. Duration of the
egg stage is three to six days.
Larva
There are five to nine instars, with a total of six to seven instars most common.
Head capsule widths are about 0.26-0.35, 0.45-0.53, 0.61-0.72, 0.90-1.60, 2.1-
2.8, 3.2-3.5, 3.6-4.3, and 3.7-4.1 mm for instars one through eight, respectively.
Head capsule widths are very similar for instars one through four, but thereafter
those individuals that display eight or nine instars show only small increments
in width at each molt and eventually attain head capsule sizes no larger than
those displaying only six or seven instars.
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Larval body length is reported to be 3.5, 5.3-6.2, 7, 10, 20-30, 30-45, 50, and 50
mm for instars one through eight, respectively. Duration of the larval stage is
normally 20 to 40 days. Mean duration of instars one through six was reported
to be 6.0, 5.0, 4.6, 4.3, 5.6, 4.0 days, respectively, at 22°C. Larval development
is strongly influenced by temperature, with the optimal temperature about 27°C.
Humidity is less important, but instars one through five thrive best at higher
humidity.
In appearance, the larva is rather uniformly colored on the dorsal and lateral
surfaces, ranging from light gray or gray-brown to nearly black. On some
individuals, the dorsal region is slightly lighter or brownish in color, but the
larva lacks a distinct dorsal band. Ventrally, the larva tends to be lighter in
color. Close examination of the larval epidermis reveals that this species bears
numerous dark, coarse granules over most of its body. The head is brownish
with numerous dark spots. Larvae usually remain on the plant until the fourth
instar, when they become photo-negative and hide in the soil during the
daylight hours. In these latter instars they also tend to sever plants at the soil
surface, pulling the plant tissue below ground. Larvae tend to be cannibalistic.
Pupa
Pupation occurs below ground at a depth of 3 to 12 cm. The pupa is 17 to 22
mm long and 5 to 6 mm wide, and dark brown. Duration of the pupal stage is
normally 12 to 20 days.
Adult
The adult cutworm is large in size, with a wingspan of 40 to 55 mm. The
forewing, especially the proximal two-thirds, is uniformly dark brown. The
distal area is marked with a lighter irregular band, and a small but distinct black
dash extends distally from the bean-shaped wing spot. The hind wings are
whitish to gray, and the veins marked with darker scales. The adult
preoviposition period is about seven to 10 days. Moths select low-growing
broad leaf plants preferentially for oviposition, but lacking these will deposit
eggs on dead plant material. Soil is an unsuitable oviposition site.
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Figure : Life cycle of Agrotis ipsilon

Nature Of Damage
 The larvae feed on leaves, stems, and roots of many field crops.
Approximately up to 10% plant damage has been recorded at 40 days
after crop emergence. The older larvae cut the plant above the root
crown. Most of the plant is not consumed after cutting, and larvae move
to another plant leaving the earlier one to wither and dry. Some species
feed on the upper leaves before moving to the soil surface. Heavy
damage of cutworms occurs in areas that remain flooded during the
rainy season. The caterpillars can migrate over short distances. The
moths have a flight range of 1.5 km during a period of 4 hours
overnight, facilitating dispersion and oviposition on different hosts.
They can accordingly fly quite long distances.
 This species occurs normally in many crops and is one of the best-
known cutworms. Black cutworm is not considered to be a climbing
cutworm, most of the feeding occurring at soil level. However, larvae
will feed above ground until about the fourth instar. Larvae can consume
over 400 sq cm of foliage during their development, but over 80%
occurs during the terminal instar, and about 10% in the instar
immediately preceding the last. Thus, little foliage loss occurs during the
early stages of development. Once the fourth instar is attained, larvae
can do considerable damage by severing young plants, and a larva may
cut several plants in a single night. Plants tend to outgrow their
susceptibility to injury. Corn at the one-leaf stage is very susceptible to
damage, but that by the 4 or 5-leaf stage plant yield was not reduced by
larval feeding. Leaf feeding and cutting above the soil line are less
damaging to corn than cutting at the soil surface. Subterranean damage
is very injurious.
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Control
Cultural and Mechanical.
 Black cutworm larvae feeds readily on weeds, and destruction of weeds
can force larvae to feed exclusively on crop plants, causing severe crop
damage. Thus, it is often advised that weeds not be tilled or treated with
herbicide until larvae have matured. Timing is important, however,
because prolonged competition between crop and weed plants can
reduce crop yield. Presence of flowering weeds also can be beneficial by
supporting prolonged survival of parasitoids.
 Black cutworm populations is generally high in wet or flooded areas of
fields. Black cutworm has been known, at times, as "overflow worm,"
due to its tendency to be abundant and damaging in fields that have been
flooded by overflowing rivers.
Trapping.
 Adult cutworms populations can be trapped with both black light and
sex pheromone traps. Light traps are most effective in the summer and
autumn, but the late season generations generally pose little threat to
crops. Pheromone traps are more effective during the spring flight, when
larvae present the greatest threat to young plants. Trap color affects
moth capture rate, with white and yellow traps capturing more than
green traps.
Chemical Control
 Persistent insecticides are commonly applied to plants and soil for black
cutworm suppression, but surface rather than subsurface soil
applications are desirable. Larvae readily accept insecticide-treated bran
and other baits Application of systemic insecticides to seeds also
provides some protection against larval injury. Bacillus thuringiensis is
not usually recommended for cutworm control.
 As cutworms tend to be primarily nocturnal, insecticide application may
be applied in the evening to maximize exposure to the cutworms and to
minimize effects on beneficial insects. Commonly used insecticides are
Pyrethroids, Pyrinex; Nufos; Organophosphates, Chlorpyrifos etc.
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Biological Control
Natural Enemies
 Numerous natural enemies species of cutworms have a significant
control on cutworm populations. Among the wasps known to attack this
cutworm are Apanteles marginiventris (Cresson), Microplitis feltiae
Muesebeck, Microplitis kewleyi Muesebeck, Meteorus autographae
Muesebeck, Meterorus leviventris (Wesmael) (all Hymenoptera:
Braconidae); Campoletis argentifrons (Cresson), Campoletis
flavicincta (Ashmead) , Hyposoter annulipes (Cresson), and Ophion
flavidus Brulle (all Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Larvae parasitized
by Meteorus leviventris (Wesmael) consume about 24% less foliage and
cut about 36% fewer seedlings, so considerable benefit is derived from
parasitism in addition to the eventual death of the host larva.
 Other parasitoids known from black cutworm include flies often
associated with other ground-dwelling noctuids, including Archytas
cirphis Curran, Bonnetia comta (Fallen), Carcelia formosa (Aldrich and
Webber), Chaetogaedia monticola (Bigot), Eucelatoria armigera
(Coquillett), Euphorocera claripennis (Macquart), Gonia longipulvilli
Tothill, G. sequax Williston, Lespesia archippivora (Riley), Madremyia
saundersii (Williston), Sisyropa eudryae (Townsend) and Tachinomyia
panaetius (Walker) (all Diptera: Tachinidae).
 Predatory ground-dwelling insects such as ground beetles (Coleoptera:
Carabidae) apparently consume numerous larvae.
 According to recent researches it was observed that 75 to 80% of
cutworms can be killed by a granulosis virus, there is surprisingly little
information on epidemiology and of natural pathogens. Rather, such
pathogens as viruses, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa from other insects
have been evaluated for black cutworm susceptibility; in most cases
only relatively weak pathogens have been identified.
 An entomopathogenic nematode, Hexamermis arvalis (Nematoda:
Mermithidae), is known to parasitize up to 60% of larvae.
Entomopathogenic nematodes (Nematoda: Steinernematidae and
Heterorhabditidae) will infect and kill black cutworm larvae, but their
populations normally need to be supplemented to realize high levels of
parasitism. Their effectiveness is related to soil moisture conditions.
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Prodenia litura / Spodoptera litura (Oriental leaf worm moth)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Prodenia (Spodoptera)
Species: litura
Distribution
Spodoptera litura is one of the most important insect pests of agricultural crops
in the Asian tropics. It is widely distributed throughout tropical and temperate
Asia, Australasia and the Pacific Islands. It is found in the Indo-Australian
tropics. It is also established on most Polynesian islands, where it occurs in a
variety of island forms. Spodoptera litura, the Oriental leaf worm moth, is a
noctuid moth which is also known as the cluster caterpillar, cotton leafworm,
tobacco cutworm, Taro caterpillar, Tobacco budworm, Rice cutworm, and
Cotton Cutworm and tropical armyworm.
Main Host Plants
It is a major pest of many crops. The host range of S. litura covers at least 120
species. The larvae feed on a wide range of plants. It has a very wide host range
including: lettuce, cabbage, beetroot, peanuts, geranium, cotton, banana,
fuchsias, acacia, African oil palm, amaranth, alfalfa, strawberry, sorghum,
sugarcane, tomatoes, asparagus, apple, eggplant, beet, beans, broccoli,
elephants ear, horsetail she oak, corn, flax, lantana, papaya, orange, mango,
leek, among many others.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Eggs
S. litura eggs are laid in clusters of several hundreds, usually on the upper
surface of the leaves. Females lay spherical, somewhat flattened eggs in
masses of 200 to 300 eggs that are approximately 4-7 mm in diameter and
cream to golden brown in color. Egg masses are usually covered with body hair
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scales and laid on the underside of the host plant leaf. Eggs usually hatch
between three to four days.
Larva
The larva is hairless, variable in colour, young larval stages are light green, the
later instars are dark green to brown on their backs, lighter underneath, sides of
body with dark and light longitudinal bands; dorsal side with two dark
semilunar spots laterally on each segment, except for the prothorax; spots on
the first and eighth abdominal segments larger than others, interrupting the
lateral lines on the first segment. Though the markings are variable, a bright-
yellow stripe along the length of the dorsal surface is characteristic of S. litura
larvae. Larval instars can also be distinguished on the basis of head capsule
width, ranging from 2.7 to 25 mm. Body length ranges from 2.3 to 32 mm.
Feeding is initially by skeletonizing, or leaving the outline of the leave veins on
the plant. As growth continues, caterpillars eat entire leaves, and even flowers
and fruits.
Pupa
The Caterpillar burrows into the soil several centimeters deep and then pupates
without a cocoon. While pupating, it produces large amounts of fluid. The pupa
is 15-20 mm long, red-brown; tip of abdomen with two small spines. The pupal
stage lasts either a few weeks or several months depending upon climatic
conditions of year.
Adult
Adult moths measure between 15-20 mm in length and have a wingspan of 30-
38 mm. Forewings are gray to reddish-brown, with a complex pattern of
creamy streaks and paler lines along the veins. Hind wings are grayish-white
with grayish-brown margins. Males have a blue-grey band from the apex to the
inner margin of each forewing.
Nature Of Damage
It is believed to have potentially high economic impact in terms of its direct
pest damage and trade implications.
Control
 Pheromone traps can be used to detect the presence of armyworm adults.
Regular monitoring of crops is recommended because adult moths
frequently invade the crops from adjacent crops and weeds. Pheromones
can also be used to disrupt mating and inhibit or eliminate reproduction.
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Sweep-netting of larvae will establish the presence of larvae in

agricultural crops and a sex attractant for trapping male could potentially
be used to monitor male flights in legume crops.
Chemical Control
 In the recent years populations of many pests including S. litura have
developed resistance to many commercially available pesticides. It has
been observed that the S. litura is developing resistance against
cypermethrin, fenvalerate and quinalphos, by 197-, 121-, 29- and 362-
fold, respectively. The control of arthropod pests is therefore becoming
increasingly difficult and it is vital that all biological alternatives to
insecticides need to be given greater priority, both in research and
application.
 New insecticides have been tested to deal with resistant strains of this
moth and some promising results are coming forward. Neem oil
microemulsion proved significantly superior than macroemulsion.
 New molecules such as chlorantraniliprole, spinosad and emamectin
benzoate have shown promising results against S. litura
 Plant oils and insecticides mixtures (synthetic pyrethroids) gave a higher
mortality rate on 8-day-old larvae of S. litura than the synthethic
pyrethroids alone.
Biological Control
 Egg parasitoids - Chelonus heliopae, T. remus, etc.
 Larval parasitoids- Six parasitoid species, Apanteles ruficrus, Cotesia
marginiventris, Apanteles kazak, Campoletes chloridae, Hyposoter
didymator and T. remus etc.
 Predators- Canthoconidia furcellata, Conocephalus sp.etc.
 Pathogens - Serratia marcescens, Bacillus thuringiensis, green
muscardine fungus Nomuraea rileyi, egg parasitoid, Telenomus preditor,
entophytic fungi (Khuskia oryzae and Cladosporium uredinicola),
nuclear polyhedrosis, SpltMNPV etc.
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Integrated Pest Management

 Recently the use of several combinations of chemicals as an integrated
approach is developed which is based on cultural and biocontrol with
efficient monitoring using pheromones has been developed. The IPM
technology that has been developed and implemented in irrigated
groundnut where S. Litura is endemic has the following components:
 Clean cultivation to expose Spodoptera pupae to natural enemies and
weather-related factors
 Sunflower, taro and castor like plants that can attract Spodoptera must to
be sown as trap crops both around and within fields
 Pheromone traps to predict Spodoptera egg laying
 Mechanical collection of egg masses and larvae from trap plants on
alternate days following the 'warning' from the pheromone traps
 Application of fungicide (chlorothalonil) at the appearance of the first
leaf spot lesions, and again after 10 days
 An application of neem kernel extract during the early stages of crop
growth if necessary
 Pongamia glabra oil treatment on tomato plants gave significant
reductions on the populations of S. Litura while no adverse effects
againsts it natural enemies
 Application of nuclear polyhedrosis virus at 500 larval equivalents per
hectare in the evening if needed.
7.6 Oil Seed Crops
Oilseeds constitute a very important group of commercial crops in India. India
has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Major Indian oil
seeds crops are groundnut, sesamum, rapeseed, mustard, linseed, soyabean,
castor seed, cotton seed, sunflower, safflower and nigerseed. The oil extracted
from oilseeds form an important item of our diet and are used as raw materials
for manufacturing large number of items like paints, varnishes, hydrogenated
oil, soaps, perfumery, lubricants, etc. Oil-cake which is the residue after the oil
is extracted from the oilseeds, forms an important cattle-feed and manure.
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Recently it was noted that the production of oilseeds has always fallen short of
our demand and there has always been a need to import oilseeds or their
products for meeting the demand of our ever-growing population. With limited
scope of bringing additional area under oilseeds, increase in oilseed production
will have to come primarily from pest management, land saving to technologies
highlighting a combination of high yield plant type, standard crop management
practices and balanced crop nutrition.
Insects pests are the serious problem on oilseeds crops. These insects pests can
damage crops by reducing their yielding and having a negative impact on their
quality. There have been large scale regional variations in area, production and
productivity changes in oilseeds. Only a few states like Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal increased their oilseed production both
through area expansion and productivity improvement. States like Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh increased their oilseed output mainly
through productivity improvement. In some states like Orissa, area productivity
and production is not satisfactory.
Pests Of Oil Seeds
Lipaphis erysimi (Mustard Aphid/ Turnip Aphid)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Superfamily: Aphidoidea Latreille, 1802
Families: Aphididae
Genus: Lipaphis
Species: erysimi Kaltenbach, 1843
There are over 400 species and varieties of aphids but around 250 species are
serious pests for agriculture and forestry as well as an annoyance for gardeners.
Aphids are known as plant lice, greenflies, blackflies, or whiteflies, (not
jumping plant lice or true whiteflies). These are small sap-sucking insects and
are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in tropical,
subtropical to temperate regions. The damage they do to plants has made them
enemies of farmers and gardeners the world over. From a zoological standpoint
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they are a highly successful group of organisms. Their success is due in part to
the asexual parthenogenetic reproductive capability.
Lipaphis erysimi has an incomplete metamorphosis, there being no pupal stage
but a series of moults in which the nymph gradually becomes a mature adult.
Distribution
Aphids are distributed worldwide, but are most common in tropics and sub
tropics. In contrast to many taxa, aphid species diversity is much higher in the
tropics than in the temperate zones. Aphid are with a complex lifecycle found
widespread throughout cold, temperate, and warm climates across Europe,
Asia, Africa and the American continents. They can migrate great distances,
mainly through passive dispersal by riding on winds. Aphids have also been
spread by human transportation of infested plant materials.
Main Host Plants
Lipaphis erysimi attacks on several crops like Crucifer (Brassica),Watercress,
carrot, kohlrabi, lettuce, tomato ,Rape seed, broccoli, cabbage, Chinese
broccoli, Chinese cabbage, daikon, mustard, cabbage, radish and zucchini.
Insect Biology
 Mustard aphids have soft bodies, generally pale greenish in colour.
Aphids have antennae with as many as six segments. The mouth parts of
Lipaphis erysimi are modified to form piercing and sucking tubes, the
insects obtaining their food by sucking plant juices. Aphids feed
themselves through sucking mouthparts called stylets, enclosed in a
sheath called a rostrum, which is formed from modifications of the
mandible and maxilla of the insect mouthparts. They have long, thin
legs and two-jointed, two-clawed tarsi
 L. erysimi have a pair of cornicles or "siphunculi", abdominal tubes
through which they exude droplets of a quick-hardening defensive fluid
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containing triacylglycerols, called cornicle wax. Other defensive

compounds can also be produced by some types of aphids. They have
two compound eyes, and an ocular tubercle behind and above each eye,
made up of three lenses called as triommatidia.
 When host plant quality becomes poor or conditions become crowded,
some aphid species produce winged offspring, "alates” that can disperse
to other food sources. The mouthparts or eyes are smaller or missing in
some species and forms.
Life Cycle
 Mustard aphid has two modes of reproduction: fertilization of females
by males resulting in the production of eggs by sexual reproduction, and
the birthing of live female nymphs by adult females without fertilization
by males by process of parthenogenesis. Reproduction through
parthenogenesis seems to be the norm as males are very rare and
females are almost exclusively viviparous throughout the year and males
have only been observed in the cooler months.
 Temperature is a crucial factor in the longevity of the turnip aphid.
Within the viable temperature ranges, high temperatures shorten the life
span and cooler temperatures increase longevity. Adults live for 15 - 18
days during the summer while lifespan is considerable longer at winter
temperatures and varied from 31 - 61 days. The number of nymphs
produced is also influenced by temperature. On different rape and
mustard species, fecundity is influenced by the species and variety of the
host plant.
Eggs
 Eggs are laid along the veins of leaves. In October the females lay eggs
usually on the stems of trees or shrubs. The eggs are black, with thick
shells and can withstand extremes of temperature. It is in the egg form
only that aphids pass the winter.
Nymphs
 There are four nymph instars stages. The general appearance of each
stage is similar except for increase in size during subsequent instars. The
first, second, third and fourth nymphal stages last 1-2, 2, 2, and 3 days
respectfully, giving the nymphal stage a length of 8-9 days total. Minor
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variations in these durations occur between winged and wingless forms

when raised on cabbage, cauliflower, mustard and radish.
Figure – Aphids : (Apterae) Wingless and (Alate) Winged form

Adults
 Wingless, female, aphids called apterae are yellowish green, gray green
or olive green with a white waxy bloom covering the body. The waxy
coating is denser under humid conditions. The winged, female, adult
aphids called alate have a dusky green abdomen with dark lateral stripes
separating the body segments and dusky wing veins. Antennae are dark
in color except at the base. The apterae females are about 3/50-1/10 inch
long and the alate forms are about 3/50-1/12 inch long.
 After emerging from the last moult, 1-2 days pass before the adult
females begin producing young. They continue producing young for 13-
20 days followed by a 2-3 day post reproductive stage. The total
duration of the adult stage is 26-37 days. Wingless females produce 70-
87 young in their lifetime, while winged females produce 31-40 young.
 Male aphids are olive-green to brown in color. They are considerably
smaller than the females and measure approximately 3/50 inch in length.
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Figure – Generalized Life cycle of Mustard Aphid

Nature of Damage
 Mustard aphid lives on the undersides of leaves, young shoots,
inflorescences, growing points and rhizomes, causing rolling, chlorosis,
yellowing and patches on young leaves, shortening of the internodes of
young shoots, distortion, lesions on growing points and inflorescences,
and dwarfing of whole plants. Often L. erysimi prevents Chinese
cabbages and wild cabbages from hearting up or causes gall formation;
oil-seed crops, vegetables and Chinese herbal medicine plants cannot
normally head, bloom or bear seeds.
 The L. erysimi can cause economic damage to plant crops as a result of
its direct feeding activity. In high enough densities it can remove plant
nutrients which can potentially cause a reduction in the number of
heads, the number of grains per head, and a reduced seed weight. It may
cause yellowing to upper leaves and ears, symptoms which are common
to many aphid species and plant pathogens. Indirect damage can be
caused by excretion of honeydew, and as a vector for viruses. It is found
on many widely cropped species throughout the world.
 L. erysimi is a major pest of brassica crops in areas with sub-tropic and
tropic climates. Aphids feed by sucking sap from their host-plants.
Large colonies form on the under-sides of leaves, leading to leaf curling,
shrivelling and yellowing. In severe infestations, both sides of the leaf
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are infested, along with inflorescences. Large aphid populations can

affect leaf size and yield.
 L. erysimi is a serious pest of mustard in India. Infestations of L. erysimi
on Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) were responsible for reductions in
plant height, number of branches per plant, siliqua per plant, grains per
siliqua, seed yield, oil content, and oil yield. The aphid damages the
crop from the seedling stage through to maturity, with the highest
populations occurring during the flowering and podding stages. On rape,
L. erysimi caused direct injury to leaves and stems, and reduced yield by
between 2 and 39%
 The development of L. erysimi on various plant parts and growth stages
of toria was studied in the laboratory. On the basis of duration of the
various stages of the pest, pest fecundity and number of individuals
reaching the adult stage, the pod was the most favourable part for the
development of L. erysimi, followed by the stalk and tender leaves.
Hard leaves were the least favourable part.
 Like other soft bodied insects such as leafhoppers, mealybugs and
scales, aphids produce honeydew. This sweet and watery excrement is
fed on by bees, wasps, ants and other insects. The honeydew serves as a
medium on which a sooty fungus, called sooty mold, grows. Honeydew
gives cabbage plants a dirty appearance that reduces their market value.
 Aphids vector many plant diseases that cause greater losses than caused
by direct feeding injury. This is often the greatest impact of an aphid
infestation. The turnip aphid is a vector of about 10 non-persistent plant
viruses, including cabbage black ring spot and mosaic diseases of
cauliflower, radish and turnip
Control
Non-Chemical Control
 In India, the turnip aphid is preyed upon by three species of lady-bird
beetles and their grubs and parsatized by two wasp parasites (a Chalcid
and an Ichneumonid) . Natural enemies include predatory ladybirds,
hoverfly larvae, parasitic wasps, aphid midge larvae, crab spiders,
lacewings and entomopathogenic fungi .
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 There are many plant extracts and plant products that are eco-friendly
and control aphids as effectively as chemical insecticides. Use of neem
products and lantana products to protect plants against aphids. Integrated
pest management of various species of aphids can be achieved using
biological insecticides based on fungi such as Lecanicillium lecanii or
Beauveria bassiana or Paecilomyces fumosoroseus. Synthesized
neuropeptide analogues are another form of biological control
Neuropeptides are chemical signals that regulate and control body
functions such as digestion, respiration and water intake.
Chemical Control
 There are various chemical insecticides that can be used to control
mustard aphids. The chemical treatments with methamidophos and
quinalphos offered the best protection against the turnip aphid on
cabbage. It was also found that endosulfan, ethiofencarb and pirimicarb
are also significantly effective against this pest. However, their tests
were inconclusive in regard to the efficacy of synthetic pyrethroids,
fenvalerate and permethrin.
Athalia lugens proxima (The Mustard Sawfly)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Families: Tenthredinidae
Genus: Athalia
Species: lugens proxima (Klug)
Distribution
The mustard sawfly is widely distributed in Indonesia, Formosa, Burma,
Myanmar and the Indian Subcontinent. The taxonomy of sawflies has been
studied in the Asian region. A. proxima occur only sporadically on vegetable
crops and do not cause economic losses.
Main Host Plants
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This is winter season pest which feeds on various cruciferous plants like
mustard, toria (Brassica compestris), rapeseed, cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol,
turnip, radish, etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The mustard sawfly breeds from October to March and the larvae rest in their
pupal cocoons in the ground during summer. The adults emerge from these
cocoons early in October. They live for 2-8 days and lay 30-35 eggs singly, in
slits made with saw-like ovipositors along the underside of the leaf margins.
The eggs hatch in 4-8 days and the larvae feed exposed in groups of 3-6 on the
leaves during morning and evening. The larva is dark green and has eight pairs
of abdominal prolegs. The full grown larva measures 16-18 mm in length.
There are five black stripes on the back, and the body has a wrinkled
appearance. They remain hidden during the day-time and when disturbed, fall
to the ground and pretend to be dead. They pass through seven stages and are
full-grown in 16-35 days. The full-fed larvae descend the plant and enter the
soil to a depth of 25-30 mm. There, they pupate in water-proof oval cocoons
made of silk and emerge as adults in 11-31 days. Thus, the life-cycle is
completed in 31-74 days. The pest completes 2-3 generations from October to
March. The adults are small orange yellow insects with black markings on the
body and have smoky wings with black veins.
Figure –Life cycle of mustard saw fly
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Nature of Damage
The larvae, alone, are destructive. The major damage is done by them . They
bite holes into leaves, preferring the young growth, and skeletonise the leaves
completely. Sometimes, even the epidermis of the shoot is eaten up. Larval
feeding cause the edges of older leaves to become frayed and with holes. The
Larvae are generally crepuscular .
A. proxima in large numbers causes serious damage to the crop. It has a great
potential to defoliate the crop at seedling stage. Adults inflict damage by act of
laying eggs with the help of their saw like ovipositor.
Control
 Hand picking of larvae and their destruction.
 First irrigation 3-4 weeks after sowing as it reduces the bug population
significantly because flooded condition by irrigation results in drowning
of the larvae.
 Use of neem is also effective.
 Bt formulations @ 0.05- 0.2 per cent exhibits excellent control
 Application of quinalphos (0.025%) or malathion (0.05%) or dichlorvos
(0.05%) or 625 ml of endosulfan 35 EC once in October and again in
March-April is effective in controlling this pest.
 Conserve larval parasitoid Perilissus cingulator Morby (Ichneumonidae)
and the bacterium, Serratia marcescens Bizio (Enterobacteriaceae)
parasitizes the larvae.
Bagrada cruciferarum Kirkaldy (The painted Bug)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Families: Pentatomidae
Genus: Bagrada
Species: cruciferarum Kirkaldy
Distribution
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The painted bug is a serious pest of cruciferous crops and is widely distributed
in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Burma, Sri Lanka, India, Iraq, Arabia, South East
Asia and East Africa.
Main Host Plants
The painted bugs are important pests of cruciferous crops at flowering and
podding stage. Besides cruciferous crops, it has also been observed feeding on
Maize, Bajra, Black gram, Vigna mungo, rice, sugarcane, indigo and coffee etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The Bagrada cruciferarum shows their peak activity from March to December
and during this period all the stages can be seen. It passes the winter months of
January and February in the adult stage under heaps of dried oilseed plants
lying in the fields. These bugs lay oval, pale-yellow eggs singly or in groups of
3-8 on leaves, stalks, pods and sometimes on the soil. Eggs may be laid during
day or night.
A female bug may lay 37-102 eggs in its life-span of 3-4 weeks. The eggs hatch
in 3-5 days during summer and in 20 days during December. The nymphs
develop fully in five stages. The full-grown nymphs are about 4 mm long and
2.66 mm broad. They have their dorsum with a number of brown makings.
Nymphs transform themselves into adults in 16-22 days during the summer and
in 25-34 days during the winter. The adult bugs are 3.71 mm long and 3.33 mm
broad. They are sub-ovate, black and have a number of orange or brownish
spots. Mating is started immediately after final nymphal moult. The incidence is
negatively correlated with RH and positively correlated with temperature. The
entire life-cycle is completed in 19-54 days and it passes through 9 generations
in a year.
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Figure –Life cycle of Bagrada cruciferarum

Nature of Damage
Both nymphs as well as adults stages are harmful. Nymphs and adults suck cell-
sap from the leaves and developing pods, which gradually wilt and dry up. The
nymphs and adult bugs also excrete a sort of resinous material which spoils the
pods. On leaves palish or whitish markings appear and later on these leaves turn
brown. In case of severe infestation, the seed formation is reduced.
Control
Cultural Control
 Removal of weed hosts in and near planting areas. Bagrada bug adults,
eggs, and nymphs in the soil or container media can be controlled by
steam or chemical treatment before planting. Removal of plant residue
after harvest can reduce carryover between crops.
 In gardens where the Bagrada bug is present in very high densities, it
may be advisable to remove very attractive host plants Sweet alyssum
can attract bugs into the garden and also serve as a source of infestation
for other plants in the garden or landscape.
Mechanical Control
 Hand picking of the bugs from plants is only feasible if pest populations
are very low. When infestations are heavy, it may be possible to vacuum
the bugs with a portable vacuum cleaner. It is often easier to tap the
plant onto a sheet and collect or vacuum the bugs rather than removing
them individually.
 Pyramid traps baited with crushed sweet alyssum, inside polypropylene
bags, can also be used to catch and destroy bugs, particularly when
numbers are high. These traps are available commercially as stink bug
traps.
Biological Control
 Research is in process to evaluate the efficacy of entomopathogenic
fungi against the bagrada bug. Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium
anisopliae, and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus are examples of
entomopathogenic fungi that attack different types of insects, and are
being evaluated for use against the bagrada bug.
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 General natural enemies or predators including spiders may attack

bagrada bugs. Parasitoids that attack the eggs of bagrada bug include
flies (Families: Sarcophagidae and Tachinidae) and wasps (Family:
Scelionidae).
Chemical Control
 In case of Bagrada bugs contact foliar insecticides applications are the
most effective during the afternoon and early evening during the height
of insect activity on plants Field trials in India demonstrated that sowing
imidacloprid-treated seed provided higher productivity and reduced
plant damage. Further bio-efficacy evaluations in India gave positive
results using pyrethroids, pyrethrins, neonicotinoids, and
organophosphate insecticides to control bagrada bugs and increase
yields
 If insecticides are used, check the pesticide label to make sure the
product is registered for use on home gardens and landscape plants.
 Pyrethrum may suppress adults while azadirachtin and insecticidal soaps
may reduce populations of nymphs.
Holotrichia (Lachnosterna) Consanguinea (White Grub)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Subfamily: Melolonthinae
Genus: Holotrichia (Lachnosterna)
Species: consanguinea
Distribution
Holotrichia consanguinea is the most serious scarab pest in India, well known
as white-grubs for their white larvae that are found under the soil where they
feed on the roots of plants.. It finds loose, sandy well drained soil to be quite
suitable for its survival and multiplication. It is a dominant whitegrub species in
the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, U.P. and Bihar. It feeds on all
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kharif crops but the damage is more evident on plants having tap roots and so in
many parts of the country, it is the main constraint in groundnut cultivation.
The beetles of Holotrichia consanguinea emerge from the soil during dusk after
good pre monsoon or monsoon rain in mid May or later, Any rain received
prior to mid-May does not initiate emergence of beetles as they are not sexually
mature. If there is good premonsoon rain, two peaks of beetle emergence are
observed, Once active, the beetles follow the daily rhythm of emergence,
congregation on host trees at dusk, and return to soil, at dawn. Particularly well
known species include Holotrichia serrata which is a serious problem in
sugarcane cultivation and Holotrichia consanguinea which is a problem in
groundnut cultivation
Main Host Plants
The beetles are polyphagous in nature, they feed on the foliage of a wide
variety of host trees and bushes found in the close vicinity. Jujube (ber),
Prosopis cineraria (khejri) neem, Cluster Fig (gular), jambolana (Jamun) and
drumstick (sainjana). In some situations, large number of beetles settles on a
non-host tree, only for mating and just after, shift for feeding to nearby
preferred hosts. The host preference depends on the combination of hosts
available in a particular locality.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
After emergence, Holotrichia consanguinea usually do not fly long distances in
the evening but try to avail the short twilight hour for mating and selecting a
suitable host as they are unable to see clearly in dark. First female beetle comes
out of soil and settle down on a host. After this it secretes a pheromone which
attracts the male for mating. If a female fails to mate in first 10 to 15 minutes of
setting on the host tree, she tries mating next evening. The process of
congregation of beetles on host continues every evening for a period of about
three weeks to ensure mating of all females. After mating females return to soil
in early morning and start egg laying within 2 to 3 days of mating. The female
prefer light sandy soil for egg-laying. The longevity of the emerged beetles
varies from 35 to 49 days, during the period daily host visits are made for
feeding.
20 eggs are laid by female beetles in instalments, starting from third day after
mating. The eggs are laid inside the soil at the depth of 6 to 10 cm. Freshly laid
eggs are white, elliptic, about 3.2 mm in length and 1-2 mm in width. Before
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hatching the eggs become brownish black and globular, and measure about 3.27
mm in length and 2.73 mm in width. The incubation period under laboratory
conditions ranges from 7 to 13 days. The newly hatched grubs are creamy white
in colour and may feed on organic matter for some time till they come in
contact with living roots. On an average, the first instar grub measures 15.1 mm
in length; while, the head length and width are 4 mm and 3 mm, respectively.
The average duration of first instar grub is 16 days. The average duration of
second instar grub is 32 days. The average duration of third instar is 49.5 days.
Total grub duration ranges from 82 to 113 days. For feeding, the grub makes
chamber by compressing the surrounding soil particles and then eats the rootlets
exposed into the chamber; thereafter it moves vertically, a little, to eat more of
the same root. After this, the grub moves horizontally making chambers and
feeding on the exposed roots. The grubs continue active feeding from July to
mid - October.
Pupation starts by the beginning of November. Before pupation the grubs enter
deep into the soil to the depth of 40 to 70 cm or more in search of suitable
moisture Zone. The average pupal length and width is 27.3 mm and 14.2 mm,
respectively. A short prepupal period is spent before entering into pupation,
during which, the grub prepares and earthen chamber for pupation. The average
pupal period is 14.2 days.
The freshly emerged adult is whitish in appearance but with the lapse of time it
becomes dull brown with light brown abdomen and dark brown legs. The
average beetle length and width is 21.3 mm and 11.8 mm, respectively. The
beetles remain in the soil in inactive state upto middle of May at a depth of
about one meter. The average duration of one life cycle is 122 days and there is
only one generation in a year.
Figure –Life cycle of Holotrichia consanguinea
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Nature of Damage
The white grubs cuts roots of standing crops and as a result several plants die. It
bores
and damages groundnut pods. White grubs are pests of national importance in
India and are a serious constraint to production of kharif crops. It causes 100%
losses in sorghum, sugarcane, paddy, groundnut, chillies, tobacco, bajra etc.
The damage to groundnut ranges from 20 to 100%; in groundnut the presence
of one grub per m2 may cause mortality of 80 to 100%.
Control
Prevention and control
Entomologists all over the world have made attempts to control white grubs by
adopting mechanical, biological, cultural and chemical control methods. Some
of them are as follows-
Cultural control
By means of different cultural practices, such as ploughing, harrowing, hoeing,
flooding and fallowing of fields, trap cropping and crop rotation, flooding for a
long period to obtain some control on white grub. Crop rotation with
sugarcane-paddy-sugarcane in endemic areas as a means of control. Fallowing
of land for 2 years consecutively helped in reducing the pest. Raising of
resistant crops such as sunflower also checks the build-up of grub populations.
Sowing of trap crops such as sorghum, maize, onion etc. to reduce white grub
infestation. The soil should be ploughed twice during May and June at or before
sowing to expose white grubs in the soil to harsh weather.
Mechanical control
Hand collection of beetles after emergence is one of the cheapest, simplest and
best control method to control the white grub population. Beetles from host
trees can be collected by hand picking or the host trees, which can bee jerked
with the help of a hooked bamboo pole. The beetles that fall on the ground are
picked up in the petromax light and put into a kerosene-water mixture to be
killed. The time of collection should be between 8.30 and 11.20 PM in night.
Mechanical collection should be done for 4-7 days, depending on the beetle
population after each day's emergence. Uprooting and destruction of infected
plant is also one of the mechanical control method for white grubs.
Chemical control
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White grubs are subterranean in habit and therefore it is very difficult to

control. Different chemical substances are used for their control. Soil
application of insecticides such as quinalphos dust before sowing kharif crops
gave satisfactory control of the pest. Soil drenching with chlorpyriphos
effective for control of the pest. Spraying of carbaryl and fenitrothion on host
trees for the control of beetles. Heptachlor emulsion can be applied at the base
of young shoots also.
Biological control
A number of biocontrol agents, viz. parasites, predators and the micro-
organisms of this pest, have been reported by various workers None of them,
however, could bring down grub populations to non-pest levels in a short time.
Achaea janata Linnaeus (The Castor Semilooper)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Achaea
Species: janata Linnaeus
Distribution
This is a serious pest of castor which is distributed in the whole of Indian
subcontinent and Pakistan and has also been reported from Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia. The caterpillars are termed 'semi-loopers'
due to their specific mode of locomotion. Due to its uniqueness, the pest has
been often confused with others and given a variety of names, viz. Ophius
melicerta, Noctria tigrina, Achaea catella, Catocala traversa.
Main Host Plants
A. janata is a pest of Arachis hypogaea (groundnut), orchorus (jutes),
Dalbergia sissoo, Glycine max (soyabean), Lagenaria siceraria (bottle gourd),
Punica granatum (pomegranate), Ricinus communis (castor bean), Rosa
chinensis (China rose), Solanum lycopersicum (tomato), Tamarindus indica
(Indian tamarind), Theobroma cacao (cocoa), Vigna mungo (black gram),
Ziziphus mauritiana (jujube), Euphorbia, Tridax, Cardiospermum, Ficus,
mango etc.
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Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Detailed studies on the morphology of A. janata have been carried out by John
and Muraleedharan (1989) and John (1991).
Eggs
The eggs of castor semilooper are small, spherical of 0.85-0.95 mm diameter,
with a greenish colour, convex on the dorsal side with ridges and furrows on
the surface radiating from a circular depression at the apex and concave on the
ventral side. They are deposited in a scattered manner, singly and in clusters, on
the undersurface of small tender leaves.
Larva
First-instar larva
The first-instar larvae are thread-like, having a feeble brown colour with a
transparent integument, through which the green contents of the alimentary
canal are visible. Distinct black dots are seen on the transparent body in a
longitudinal row on either side of the midline and laterally. Brown, bristle-like
hairs are seen scattered on the body. The larva is 0.48-0.67 cm long, 0.49-0.67
mm wide. The first two pairs of prolegs are undeveloped, hence they have the
gait of a looping caterpillar. The third and fourth pairs of prolegs are well
developed. On the XIth segment, two black spots, which later became tubercles,
are seen, and behind it lie two other black dots which gave rise to the black
patches in the subsequent instars.
Second-instar larva
The body becomes spongy and the larvae slowly change in colour to grey with
a whitish bloom. Black dots are seen on the mid-dorsal line as well as laterally
on each segment from this instar onwards. The second pair of prolegs now
develop but the first pair still remains as a stump. From this instar onwards, the
head capsule appears in a black and white design. The second-instar larva is 1-
1.2 cm long, 1.16-1.34 mm wide. Two black small tubercles and two black
patches are seen on the anal end.
Third-instar larva
The larvae grow, become evidently longer and greyish-white. The second pair
of prolegs are small and the first still remains as a stump, hence they retain the
semiloop gait. At the anal end, the two black tubercles and black patches
become larger. The larvae are 1.7-2.1 cm long, 1.95-2.07 mm wide.
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Fourth-instar larva
These larvae are larger than the third-instar larvae of length of 2.8-3.6 cm, 3.05-
3.66 mm width. They have a black streak running longitudinally along the mid-
dorsal line of the body. Two conspicuous, white spots become evident on the
tergum of the Vth segment of the body, lying on the longitudinal white streak
on either side. The first pair of prolegs remain as a stump and the second pair
are smaller. Prolegs are seen on the VIth segment, but are very small, so the
mid-ventral sternum with its white coloration appears like an inverted 'V' form.
The two larger, tubercle-like projections on the XIth segment are black, behind
these are two black patches. On each segment, black spots are seen on the mid-
black streak.
Fifth-instar larva
The fifth-instar larvae are fairly large: 5.5-6.1 cm long, 4.94-5.06 mm wide.
The body has a spectacular, beautiful, velvety, appearance with a mid-dorsal
black streak running longitudinally on a black background with noticeable anal
tubercles. On either side of the mid-black streak, two narrow, yellow and
orange streaks run longitudinally. On the tergum of the Vth segment, two white
spots on the midline with an orange base can be recognized flanked by two
white patches on the longitudinal orange streak. Just above the patches on the
VIth segment are two white dots. On the tergum of the VIth segment on the
midline are two small orange patches. At the intersegmental area of the
sternum, short, vertical, white bars can be distinguished running longitudinally
to the end of the body. On the first and IV-XIth segments, laterally placed oval-
shaped, light-orange stigmata can be seen. On the dorsal side of the XIth
segment, there are two prominent, red, tubular projections, each with a hair on
them. The thoracic legs are chitinous and horny.
Prepupa
The feeding phase of the fifth-instar larva is followed by a non-feeding
prepupal stage. The larva shrinks, turns black and the body wall becomes
thicker (3.8-4.8 cm long, 5-6.5 mm wide). The body gradually forms a comma-
shape and enters the prepupal stage. They remain in the comma-shape for 1
day.
Pupa
The pupa is whitish-green. The body is very soft, gradually tanned to a dark
brown, with a hard cuticle coated with white dust. Pupae are spindle-shaped,
with a tapering posterior end armed with cremastral setae of four different sizes,
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in pairs numbering eight in both the sexes, which are twisted firmly into the
strands of silk. The pupa is 2-2.5 cm long, 5-7 mm wide and weighs 706 mg.
During the entire pupal lifespan (8-10 days), the weight decreases gradually,
with a sudden decrease at adult emergence.
Adult
Wet imago stage emerges out of the pupa. The soft, crumpled wings become
dry after a period of rest, and they start fluttering. Adult moths are light brown,
with characteristic black and white patterns in the posterior region of the hind
wings and dry brown scales all over the body. The length of the forewing is
1.65-2.75 cm and that of the hindwing is 1.23-2.25 cm. The moth is 1.8-2.3 cm
long, 5-6.5 mm wide. An increase in weight is seen on the second day and
thereafter declines as mating and egg laying starts.
Figure –Life cycle of Achaea janata
Nature of Damage
The caterpillars feed voraciously on castor leaves, starting from the edges
inwards and leaving behind only the midribs and the stalks. Damage is
maximum in August-September, with the excessive loss of foliage, the seed
yield is reduced considerably. Although the semilooper feeds on a variety of
plants, it seems to prefer castor.
Larvae defoliate plants quickly by feeding gregariously and voraciously.
Midribs and veins are left intact and other parts of the leaves eaten up. Being
larger in size, their capacity to cause damage is enormous. Young plants cannot
sustain damage and die.
CONTROL
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 Sudden outbreaks of A. janata on castor (Ricinus comunis) or other

hosts often make it difficult to apply natural control methods. However,
hand picking of larvae is effective to a certain extent. The construction
of open spaces around and across fields attracts birds, which attack the
larvae when they attempt to cross the open spaces.
 Chemical control can be achieved by spraying endrin 0.02%, parathion
0.025% or by spraying 0.02% of diazinon, toxaphen, carbaryl,
endosulfan and methyl parathion.
 Biological control involves conservation of the following parasitoids:
Egg parasites: Trichogramma evanescens. Larval parasite: Apanteles
sundanus, A. ruidus, Microplitis maculipennis, M. ensirus, M. similes,
Euplectus leucostomus, Paniscus ocellaris, Zamesochorus orientalis,
Tetrastichus ophiusae, Rogas percurrens and Enicospilus sp.
Euproctis lunata Walker (Castor hairy caterpillar)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Lymantriidae
Genus: Euproctis
Species: lunata Walker, 1855
Distribution
Euproctis lunata is widely distributed in different regions all over India,
Pakistan, Australia, Burma, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, the Malay Peninsula
and Malaysia. A lymantriid, Euproctis is a serious pest in India and is
occasionally sporadic . Among several species of Euproctis, the most injurious
is E. lunata Walk. are of considerable economic importance in the Punjab,
where the castor-bean is an important crop.
Main Host Plants
Host range: Lagerstomia indica, Punica granatum, Hibiscus rosasinensis,
Castor, linseed, groundnut, pigeonpea, grapevine, cotton, mango, coffee, pear
and rose.
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Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The adult Euproctis lunata moth is yellowish with pale transverse lines on fore
wings. It lays egg in groups on lower surface of the leaves. The female moth
lays its eggs in clusters on the under-sides of leaves and covers them with pale
brown hairs. The egg period is 4-10 days. The newly hatched larvae feed
gregariously and after a few days feed on the leaves independently. The
caterpillar possesses red head with body covered with long dense, reddish
brown hair arising on warts, anteriorly and posteriorly black broad bands
enclosed a reddish area in the middle and a long pre- anal tuft. There are six
larval instars. The larval periods last for 13-29 days. It pupates in a silken
cocoon in leaf folds for 9-25 days. The larva over-winters during winter season.
The pupal period is about 7 to 20 days. The pest is active throughout the year
and several generations have been observed. The peak period of activity is
August-September.
Figure – Life cycle stages of Euproctis lunata

Nature Of Damage
Young Euproctis lunata larvae eat the leaf margins of the host plants. After its
full growth the larvae starts feeding on the entire leaf lamina. The caterpillars of
this pest cause serious damage to the crop by completely defoliating the leaves
during the kharif season. Defoliation of leaves is the main symptom and in
heavy infestation even it consume the small twigs and green cell layers of the
stems. The pest is active throughout the year but its activity is reduced in
winter. Major damage is caused by migrating caterpillars. Usually there is
more destruction caused to young crop. When the soft foliage has been
exhausted, they even turn to the bark to satisfy their insatiate appetite.
Control
Cultural control
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 By use of light traps of approximately 250 watts mercury bulbs on

community basis with the first monsoon rains to attract the moths and
kill them.
 By sowing cucumber along with castor and by placing the twigs of
Ipomoea, Jatropha and Calotropis to attract the migrating caterpillars
and kill them mechanically.
Biological control
 One scelionid egg parasite, Aholcus euproctiscidis and two larval
parasites, Apanteles enproctisiphagus, Helicospilus merdarius, H.
horsefieldi, Disophrys sp. and Glyptomorpha deesae have been
recorded. Heavy infestation is controlled by Apanteles and this parasite
population should be conserved in the field.
Chemical control
 Dust the infested crop with parathion 2 D @ 20-25 kg per ha
or malathion 5 D 25-30 kg/ha (or) carbaryl 10 D @ 20 kg/ha.
 Trenching around the field 2ml and dusting with endosulphan 4% or
Methylparathian 2% or Quinolphos 1.5% to control migrating larvae.
 Spray monocrotophos 1.6ml or fenvalerate (0.02%), Quinalphos 2ml, or
Methyl Parathion (0.02%) or Dimethoate 2ml
7.7 Pests of Cotton (Fibre Crops)
Cotton Crop
Cotton is one of the principle crop in India. It plays a vital role in the Indian
Economy by providing employment to substantial number of countrymen.
Cotton provides direct employment to 60 Lakh farmers of the country and
provides indirect employment in cotton related industry to around 4-5 Crore
People. India has the distinction of having the largest area under cotton
cultivation at around 9 million hectares and constitutes around 25% of the total
area under Cotton Cultivation in the world. The main cotton producing states of
India are Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Orissa etc.
Cotton is one of the largest foreign exchange earner commodities for India.
Apart from providing one of the basic necessities of life, the textile industry
also plays a pivotal role through its contribution to industrial output,
employment generation and the export earnings of the country. It contributes
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about 14% to the industrial production, 4% to the GDP and 14.42% to the
country’s export earnings.
7.8 Importance of Cotton Crop
The cotton plant is unique among major agricultural crops. It is a woody
perennial that has been adapted and bred to react as an annual. Cotton
production requires some soil management practices typically by means of
physical adjustments, fertilization, and crop rotation with a culture of
leguminous plant and one of cereal. Seedling emergence can occur between
one week and a month after planting. During this phase (germination,
emergence and seedling growth), the plant needs warm temperature and much
moisture. Flowering generally starts one month and a half to two months after
the crop is planted. Blooming will continue regularly for several weeks, even
months. After flowering, the inner part of the bloom gradually develops into a
fruit called as cotton boll. Cotton bolls keep growing until full size of
approximately 2 to 3 cm width. It will take about two months between the
blooming of the flower and the first opening of the bolls. Cotton bolls burst
open upon maturity, revealing soft masses of fibres which is commercially used
as cotton.
7.9 Common Cotton Pests
Cotton pests are the principal cause of yield losses of about 15% of world
annual production. More than 1300 different species of insect pests attack the
crop. Among the most common and endogenous pest species found in cotton
fields are: Cutworms, Thrips, Plant Bugs, Cotton Fleahoppers, Clouded Plant
Bugs, Cotton Aphids, Cabbage Loopers, Armyworms, Whiteflies, Boll
Weevils, Bollworms, Tobacco Budworms
Earias insulana. Boisduval 1833 (Egyptian stemborer, Egyptian bollworm,
spiny bollworm or Spotted Boll-worms)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Arctiidae
Genus: Earias
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Species: insulana Boisduval 1833

Distribution
Earias insulana boll-worms are the serious pests of cotton which are widely
distributed in North Africa, India, Pakistan and other countries like Algeria,
Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar,
Malawi, Mauritius, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South
Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe etc.
Main Host Plants
Earias insulana causes heavy damage mainly to Gossypium (cotton), okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L.) and Hibiscus (rosemallows) but also damages
other crops like Abutilon (Indian mallow), Oryza sativa (rice), Saccharum
officinarum (sugarcane), Sida, Zea mays (maize), Malva parviflora (sonchal),
and some other malvaceous plants.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The Earias insulana usually breed throughout the year but during the winter
only the pupae are found hiding in plant debris. The moths that appear in April
live for 8-22 days and lay 200-400 eggs at night, singly on flower-buds,
brackets and tender leaves of okra or cotton plants. The hairy parts of the plants
are preferred for oviposition. In warm weather, the eggs hatch in 3-4 days and
the caterpillars pass through six stages, becoming full-grown in 10-16 days.
The full-grown dull-green caterpillars are 20 mm long having tiny stout bristles
and a series of longitudinal black spots on the body. They pupate either on the
plants or on the ground among fallen leaves and the moths emerge in 4-9 days.
The life-cycle is completed in 17-29 days during the summer. In winter, the
eggs hatch in about one week and the pupal stage is greatly prolonged, taking 6
to 12 weeks. Several overlapping generations are completed in a year. The roots
of cotton plants sprouting in early spring and the fruits of neglected okra left in
the field, are the two important sources of early infestation and multiplication of
this pest. After pupation adults emerge. The adult moths are yellow green and
measure about 25 mm across the wings.
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Figure: Life cycle of Earias insulana

Nature of Damage
Cotton infestation by Earias spp. generally starts with shoot boring in the
young crop. Earias insulana enters the terminal bud of the vegetative shoot and
make channels downwards from the growing point, or directly penetrates the
internode. Only soft growing tissue is attacked. Extensive tunnelling results in
wilting of the top leaves and the collapse of the apex of the main stem. The
whole apex turns blackish-brown and dies. The result is bunched growth in
young plants and death of the growing point in the mature plant.
As the buds and flowers appear they wither and are shed; they usually have a
conspicuous hole where the larva has entered. The shedding of minute buds is
often blamed on mirids but may be caused by very young Earias. The bolls are
also attacked, but only when they are unripe. The larvae usually bore deeply,
filling the tunnel opening with excrement. The tunnel often enters the bolls
from below, at a slight angle to the peduncle. Small bolls, up to 1 week old,
turn brown, rot and drop. Larger bolls, 2-4 weeks old, may not drop, but open
prematurely and may be so badly damaged they cannot be harvested. The
infested bolls open prematurely and produce poor lint, resulting in lower market
value.
Secondary invasion by fungi and bacteria may conceal the E. insulana
infestation. Earias spp. can transmit Xanthomonas malvacearum, causing
bacterial blight of cotton or black fungus infection which is caused by Rhizopus
nigricans present in a cotton crop. Young bolls or those without larval feeding
holes rarely became infected.
Control
Cultural Control
Eradication of alternative host plants may be helpful in control of Earias.
Cotton crop should be inspected regularly and all wilted shoots should be
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removed, thus removing the larvae of Earias. Some farmers allow livestock to
graze cotton during the vegetative stage with the same effect. The benefits of
topping are controversial, although it is claimed that the removal of the topmost
few centimeters of the cotton plant at the beginning of the season reduced
infestation and encouraged lateral branches, increasing the yield, without
affecting the quality of the fibre.
Other suggested practices are deep ploughing and close spacing of plants. High
doses of nitrogen fertilizers have been found to increase infestation. Earlier
sowings helps to reduce bollworm infestation.
Host-Plant Resistance
Considerable resistance to Earias has been recorded in several wild species of
Gossypium. Numerous trials have tested the resistance of various cultivars and
reduced susceptibility has been found in many of them. Those with high levels
of tannin and gossypol, frego-bract and okra-leaf characters and red
pigmentation have been found to be less susceptible than many commercial
cultivars. Tall plants with larger top leaves and bolls in clusters carried more
bollworm attack. Conversely, dwarf varieties with early flowering habits have
been found to escape the damage of spotted bollworm.
Biological Control
A number of parasitoids have the potential against Earias spp.
Bracon greeni, is efficient as a biological control agent. The rains, by lowering
the temperature and enhancing relative humidity, benefited B. greeni at the
expense of Earias and enabled the parasitoid to keep the host under check.
Trichogramma australicum and B. greeni, T. brasiliensis also increased the
cotton yield. The use of natural enemies could be incorporated into an
integrated control programme for Earias like cotton pests but the excessive use
of pesticides reduced the numbers of predators, resulting in a reduction in seed
cotton yields.
Bacillus thuringiensis has been used with some success. Trichogramma
chitonis Ishii (Hymenoptera; Trichogrammatidae) an egg parasite,
Trichogramma bresiliensis Ashmead (Hymenoptera; Trichogrammatidae), the
exotic parasitoid is being used as biological control agent in many cotton
growing areas. Brachymeria nephantidis Gahan (Hymenoptera; Chalcididae)
has been recorded recently parasite against pupae of Earias sp.
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Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders (The Pink Boll Worm)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Gelechiidae
Genus: Pectinophora
Species: gossypiella Saunders, 1844
Distribution
The pink boll-worm is one of the most destructive pests of cotton in the world
and is found in America, Africa, Australia, Europe and the former USSR,
Oceania and Asia. It is highly destructive in the Punjab, Haryana and Pakistan.
The most severe infestations of Pectinophora gossypiella have occurred in
Africa and India, it has been recorded in nearly all cotton-producing countries
and is a key pest in many of these areas.
Main Host Plants
The main host plants of pink boll worm are Gossypium (cotton), Gossypium
arboreum (cotton, tree), Gossypium herbaceum (short staple cotton),
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra), Abutilon (Indian mallow), Abutilon indicum
(country mallow), Althaea (hollyhocks), Hibiscus (rosemallows), Hibiscus
cannabinus (kenaf), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Jamaica sorrel),Malvaceae,
Medicago sativa (lucerne) etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The yearly life-cycle begins with the emergence of moths in the summer. The
emergence takes place at two distinct times- in May-June, and then in July-
August.
Egg
The females lay whitish flat eggs singly on the underside of the young leaves
on new shoots, on flower-buds and on the young green bolls singly or more
commonly in small groups. Eggs are white when first laid but then turn orange,
and later the larval head capsule is visible prior to hatching. The eggs are small
and difficult to see without some magnification. Eggs hatch in about three to
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four days after they are laid. Eggs of the first field generation in the spring are
often laid on vegetative cotton plants near cotton squares and sometimes on
squares. Second and subsequent generation eggs are usually laid under the
calyx of bolls.
Larva
The eggs hatch in one week and the caterpillars grow older. Soon after
emergence, the larvae enter the flower-buds, the flowers, or the bolls. After
hatching larvae immediately begin to bore into squares or bolls. In squares,
larvae complete most of their development before blossoming occurs and often
cause rosetted blooms. While moving from seed to seed, the larva causes
damage by cutting through the lint with its mouth parts. Lint is also damages as
the larva tunnels out of the boll. Larvae are white with a brown head when they
hatch. They have four instar stages during development and finally begin to
turn pink in the fourth instar. The holes of entry close down, but the larvae
continue feeding inside the seed kernels. Final development is completed in the
blossom. They become full-grown (8-10 mm) in about two weeks They
generally require 12-15 days to complete development and come out of the
holes for pupation on the ground, among fallen leaves, debris, etc.
Pupa
It is in pupation that the pink boll worm makes the drastic transformation from
a larva to an adult moth. Most pupation occurs in the top layer of soil beneath
cotton plants. The pupa is brown and approximately one half inch long. It does
not feed or move about during the pupal period of seven to eight days.
Adult
Adult pink bollworms are mottled brown to gray moths and are about one half
inch long. They emerge from pupae in an approximately 1:1 male to female
ratio. There is a time period of two to three days after emergence during which
the female mates and prepares to lay eggs. After this preoviposition period the
female lays most of her eggs in about ten days. Both male and female adults
feed primarily on nectarines located on the bottom of cotton leaves and may
live for one to two months. The female produces a sex pheromone that aids the
male in locating her for mating purposes.
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Figure: Life cycle of pink boll worm

Nature of Damage
The pink bollworm withdraws nutrients from the inside of the cottonseed and
may cause serious yield losses. The damage is caused in different modes.
There is excessive shedding of the fruiting-bodies. Of the total shedding 52.4 to
88.8 per cent is caused by all the boll-worms collectively, one-half may be due
to the attack of pink boll-worm. The attacked bolls fall off prematurely and
those which do mature do not contain good lint. The damaged seed-cotton gives
a lower ginning percentage, lower oil extraction and inferior spinning quality. It
is considered that by controlling the pink and spotted boll-worms the cotton
yield can be increased up to 50 per cent. The destruction of off-season cotton-
sprouts, alternative host plants or the burning of plant debris from cotton fields,
minimize the incidence of this pest.
The damage is caused by the caterpillars only. They are pink and are found
inside flower-buds, panicles and the bolls of cotton or the fruits of okra and
other allied plants. In the adult stage, the insect is a deep-brown moth,
measuring 8-9 mm across the spread wings. There are blackish spots on the fore
wings, and the margins of the hind wings are deeply fringed.
Control
Cultural Control
 The use of Bt cotton will help prevent damage by pink bollworm. A
recently developed transgenic cotton, Bollguard II, offers suppression of
cotton bollworm, along with beet armyworms, pink bollworm, and
tobacco budworm.
 By cutting off irrigation the food supply for pink bollworm can be
eliminated early enough to stop production of green bolls by early
September. When the crop is terminated, immediate shred of the cotton
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plants following harvest can destroys some larvae directly and promotes
rapid drying of unharvested bolls.
 Populations can be reduced by winter irrigations which can reduce
overwintering pink bollworms by as much as 50 to 70%; flooding in
December is more effective than flooding in November or January. Take
advantage of pink bollworm mortality afforded by winter irrigations and
rotate to small grains or newly seeded alfalfa.
 In spring, irrigations of the crop should be done to prevent even slight
moisture stress and to promote maximum emergence of moths in
advance of susceptible squares.
 Deep ploughing with alfurrow turning plough by the end of February is
also helpful in reducing the carryover of this pest to the next season.
Infestations may be reduced by the heating of cottonseeds at about
55°C, as well as by other management tactics, including plantation
treatment and destruction of the infested crop.
 Combinations of biological and chemical controls have also proved
successful. Combine application of Trichogramma brasiliense in
combination with chemical insecticides gave a good control of pink
bollworm in India, and Bacillus thuringiensis has been found to be
effective in combination with chemical insecticides also.
 The release of sterile insects, cultural controls, intensive monitoring
with pheromone baited traps for adult males and boll sampling,
pheromone applications for mating disruption, very limited use of
pesticides and the widespread use of genetically engineered cotton.
Chemical Control

Beta-cyfluthrin, Chlorpyrifos, Esfenvalerate, Gamma-cyhalothrin,
Lambda-cyhalothrin, Zeta-cypermethrin, Zeta-cypermethrin, bifenthrin
etc chemicals can be used to control pink boll worm.
Biological Control
 Parasitoids like Bracon kirkpatricki can be used as biological control
agents for P. gossypiella. Biological control agents were first obtained
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from India, in the belief that it was the origin of the pest. Recently
nematodes have been used also as control agents Trichogramma
achaeae Nagaraja and Nagarkatti Hymenoptera (Trichogrammatidae)
parasitizes the eggs of this pest throughout India. Apanteles angaleti
Muesebeck (Hymenoptera; Braconidae) parasitizes 1-17 per cent of the
larvae of the host. It is widely distributed in India and the parasitoid is
associated with the host throughout the year.
 The other hymenopterous parasitoids associated with larvae of the pink
boll-worm are Bracon greeni Ashmead (Braconidae) Chelonus
pectinophorae Cushman (Braconidae), Elasmus johnstoni Ferriere
(Elasmidae), Goniozus sp. (Bethylidae), Rogas aligharensis
(Braconidae) etc. The anthocorid bug Triphles tantilus Motsch.
(Hemipt., Anthocoridae) also feeds on eggs and first instar larvae.
Oxycarenus laetus Kirby (The Dusky Cotton Bug)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Lygaeidae
Genus: Oxycarenus
Species: laetus Kirby
Distribution
Oxycarenus laetus is distributed all over the Indian subcontinent as a minor pest
of cotton.
Main Host Plants
The Dusky Cotton Bug is a minor pest of cotton in India and its chief
importance lies in the fact that the adults and nymphs get crushed at the time of
ginning, thus staining the lint and lowering the market value of cotton. Besides
cottons, it also feeds on okra, hollyhock and other malvaceous weeds.
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Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The insect is active practically throughout the year, but during winter, only
adults are found in the unginned cotton. The cigar-shaped eggs are laid in the
spring on Hibiscus and then on okra and finally on cotton during the monsoon.
Initially, they are whitish turning pale and finally becoming light pink before
hatching. The eggs are usually laid in the lint of half-opened bolls, either singly
or in small clusters of 3 to 18 each. The egg stage lasts for 5-10 days and the
nymphs, on emerging, pass through seven stages, completing the development
in 31-40 days. The young nymphs have a rotund abdomen and, as they grow
older, they resemble the adults, except for being smaller and having prominent
wing pads instead of wings. The life-cycle lasts 36-50 days and a number of
generations are completed in a year.
The body of dusky cotton bug is dark brown and have dirty white transparent
wings. and is very small insect of about 4-5 mm in length, legs are deep brown
and wings are faded transparent with black spots. The adults are picked up with
picking of seed cotton and crushed during ginning resulted in stained lint and
also produce bad smell.
Figure: Life cycle of Oxycarenus laetus

Nature of Damage
The nymphs and adults suck the sap from immature seeds, whereupon these
seeds may not ripen, may lose colour and may remain light in weight. The
adults found in the cotton are crushed in the ginning-factories, thus staining the
lint and lowering its market value.
Control
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Triphleps tantilus Motsch (Hemipters; Anthocoridae) feeds on the nymphs of

this bug and no other parasitoids are known.
* Other control measures same as above cotton pests
Dysdercus koenigii Fabricius (Cotton Stainer)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Pyrrhocoridae
Genus: Dysdercus
Species: koenigii , Fabricius
Distribution
Dysdercus koenigii is distributed all over Asia, Australia, Central and South
America, and Africa as a major pest of fibre crops. This insect is widely
distributed in India and is a minor pest of cotton in the Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh.
Main Host Plants
This Cotton Stainer bug is present throughout the year on the cotton crops and
it also feeds on okra, hollyhock, kapok, sorghum, millet, jute and other
malvaceous plants. The alternate hosts are falsa, rohan and eggplant. This insect
also has been a severe pest of oranges on occasions. Some other hosts of
Dysdercus include tangerines, okra pods, ripe fruit of papaya, pods and
blossoms of oleander, eggplant, nightshade, and guava.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Eggs
Dysdercus eggs are pale yellow, small, and are laid singly or in small, loose
clusters in sand, debris, or decaying vegetable matter or under soil and plant
debris, or in the cotton plant in batches of about 7-100 eggs. Incubation period
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is about 4-13 days depending upon the temperature and the species. Dysdercus
eggs look very much like microscopic hens' eggs.
Nymphs
There are five nymphal stages or instars. The nymphs are generally red. The
first usually is spent underground. They hatch in 7-8 days and the young
nymphs have a flabby abdomens, but, as they grow older, they become more
slender and develop black markings on the body. The duration of each of the
first four stages typically averages four to five days during midsummer, but the
fifth stage commonly takes about twice as long. Nymphs are found together in
the area where the eggs had been laid and later disperse to look for food. Then
they tend to meet again while feeding on seeds and while resting. They look
similar to their adult counterparts but without wings. All five stages require
from 21 to 35 days to complete. The fourth and fifth instars have dark wing
pads, and the dividing lines between abdominal segments become very distinct
as maturity is approached. Their development stages depend upon the
temperature and their nutrition.
Adult
The adult cotton stainers are true bugs with piercing and sucking mouthparts.
Their colors vary from bright red, yellow, and orange depending on the species.
They are about 1-1.5 cm long. This adult is long legged, has a bright red thorax,
and brown wings crossed with yellow. Adults can tolerate a wide range of
climatic conditions and can disperse and fly up to 15 km. There are several
generations a year. The life cycle can vary from about a month to three and a
half months, depending primarily upon temperature differences. The various
species are attracted to lights.
Figure: Developmental stages of Dysdercus koenigii
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Nature of Damage
The cotton stainer is the most destructive cotton pest. Cotton stainers feed both
on immature and mature seeds. Cotton stainers generally attacks on maturing
cotton bolls and seeds. Feeding by puncturing flower buds or young cotton
bolls usually causes reduction in size, or the fruiting body may abort and drop
to the ground. Their penetrations into the developing cotton bolls transmit fungi
on the immature lint and seed, which latter on stain the lint with typical yellow
color, hence the name 'cotton stainers'. Heavy infestations on the seeds affect
the crop mass, oil content, and the marketability of the crop. The feeding
activities of cotton stainers on cotton produce a stain on the lint which reduces
its value. A few researchers have reported that the stain comes from excrement
of the bugs. However, most says that the stain primarily is a result of the bug
puncturing the seeds in the developing bolls causing a juice to exude that leaves
an indelible stain.
Control
• No cotton or cotton seed or other host plant debris that could serve as
breeding material should be left on the ground.
• For small infestations, colonies of cotton stainers on plants can be
shaken into a bucket of soapy water. Then the insects can be killed with
a spray of soapy or scalding hot water.
• Small heaps of seeds, fruits, or bits of sugarcane can be used as baits to
attract cotton stainers.
• The predacious bugs like Antilochus cocqueberti F. (Hemiptera;
Reduviidae) feed on nymphs and adults.
Utethesia pulchella Linnaeus, 1758 (The Sunnhemp Hairy Caterpillar)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Arctiidae
Genus: Utethesia
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Species: pulchella Linnaeus, 1758

Distribution
The Sunnhemp Hairy Caterpillar is found as a common pest of fibre crops in
Africa, Southern Europe, Central & Southern Asia, Australia Algeria, Angola,
Burundi, Chad, DRCongo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, La
Reunion, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria,
Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe etc.
This insect is the most important pest of sunnhemp in Tamil Nadu.
Main Host Plants
The main host plants of Utethesia pulchella are Gossypium, Heliotropium
indicum, Lithospermum, Musa paradisiaca, Myosotis, Cystostemon,
Trichodesma zeylanicum and some grass species.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The moths lay small whitish eggs on the tender leaves and shoots. On
emergence from the eggs, the larvae feed on leaves. As the crops mature and
pods appear, the caterpillars feed by thrusting the head in and leaving the rest of
the body exposed. The full-grown caterpillar is about 3-8 mm in length and has
red, dark and white markings on its body and a brownish head. Pupation takes
place either in the leaf folds or in the soil. The adult moth is pale, whitish with
red black spots on the upper wings and black marginal blotches on the lower
wings. The life-cycle is completed in about 5 weeks and a number of
generations are completed in a year.
Figure: Life cycle of Utethesia pulchella

Nature Of Damage
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The caterpillars feed voraciously on host plant leaves and bore into the capsules
and severe infestation can also cause the defoliation of the crop. As a result
there is a decrease in seed production.
Control
It can be suppressed by hand packing and killing the caterpillars as well as by
collecting the moths with nets during the daytime.
7.10 Summary
Insect pests can be a serious problem on pulses, oil seeds and cotton crops. The
above insect pests can damage different parts of crops by reducing their yield
and having a negative impact on their quality. Unaware and illiterate farmers
are using synthetic pesticides to combat pests. Besides being hazardous to the
farm workers’ health and leaving toxic residues on crops.
1. Define pest with some examples of insect pests.
2. What are the main host plants of Helicompera armigera?
3. What are the control measures for cotton stainer?
4. Explain the life cycle of Lipaphis erysimi in details.
5. Write an essay on Pests of cotton crops.
6. Give a zoological name of following common insect pests names
i. The painted Bug
ii. White Grub
iii. Castor Semilooper
iv. Spotted Boll-worms
v. Pink Boll worm
vi. Dusky Cotton Bug
vii. Cotton Stainer
viii. Sunnhemp Hairy Caterpillar
7. Explain the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of
Agrotis ipsilon?
8. Describe the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of
Dysdercus koenigii.
7.12 References
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 Agricultural Pests of India and South-East Asia - A. S. Atwal, Publisher-

Kalyani Publishers, 1986, ISBN-817096475X, 978817096475
2011, ISBN- 1444397877, 9781444397871
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Unit - 8
Pests of Agricultural importance – III
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Paddy crops
8.3 Importance of Paddy crops
8.4 Sugarcane Crop
8.5 Sorghum Crop
8.6 Wheat crop
8.7 Fruit Crops
8.8 Summary
8.9 Self-Assessment Questions
8.10 Reference Books
8.1 Objectives
 Brief idea about paddy crop and its importance
o Biology, nature of damage and control of Pests of Paddy crop -
Leptocorisa varicornis Fabricius (Rice Gandhi Bug), Hispa
(Dicladispa) armigera Olivier [Rice Hispa, Spiny Leaf Beetle],
Spodoptera exempta Walker, 1857 (African Army Worm,
Nutgrass, Armyworm)
 Brief idea about Sugarcane Crop and its importance
o Biology, nature of damage and control of Pests of Sugarcane
crop - Scirpophaga nivella Fabricius, 1794 (Sugarcane Top
Borer), Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Sugarcane Leafhopper),
Emmalocera depressella (Swinhoe) Aleurolobus barodensis,
Maskell, 1896 (Sugarcane whitefly, Mealy wing)
 Brief idea about Sorghum crop and its importance.
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o Biology, Life Cycle, Nature of Damage and different types of

control measures of Pests of Sorghum crop - Atherigona varia
Rondani (Sorghum Shoot Fly, Stem Fly), Calocoris angustatus
(Sorghum ear head bug)
 Brief idea about Wheat crop and its importance.
control measures of Pests of Wheat crop - Mythimna separate
Walker, 1865(The Northern armyworm, Oriental armyworm),
Macrosiphum miscanthi /Sitobion avenae (Wheat Aphid, Grain
aphid)
 Brief idea about Fruit Crops
control measures of Pests of Fruit crops- Ophideres fullonia
Clerck, 1764 ( Fruit sucking moth), Papilio demoleus Linnaeus,
1758 (swallowtail butterfly ,lemon butterfly )
8.2 Paddy crops

India is one of the world's largest producers of white rice and brown rice,
accounting for 20% of all world rice production. Rice is India's pre-eminent
crop, and is the staple food of the people of the eastern and southern parts of the
country. Rice is one of the chief grains of India. Moreover, this country has the
largest area under rice cultivation, as it is one of the principal food crops. It is in
fact the dominant crop of the country. India is one of the leading producers of
this crop. Rice is the basic food crop and being a tropical plant, it flourishes
comfortably in hot and humid climate. Rice is mainly grown in rain fed areas
that receive heavy annual rainfall. That is why it is fundamentally a kharif crop
in India. It demands temperature of around 25 degree Celsius and above and
rainfall of more than 100 cm.
The major rice-growing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh, which together contribute
about 72% of the total rice area and 75% of total rice production in the country.
The three largest rice-producing states are West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and
Uttar Pradesh. These states contributed about 43% of the country’s rice
production in 2008-09. Some of the main rice crop pests are Rice hispa, Case
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worm, Leaf folder, Plant Hoppers, Stem borer, Swarming caterpillar or army
worm etc. Farmers lose an estimated average of 37% of their rice crop to pests
and diseases every year. In addition to good crop management, timely and
accurate diagnosis and pest management can significantly reduce losses.
8.3 Importance of Paddy crops
Rice is the staple food crop for more than 60% of the world people. In other
countries attractive ready to eat products, which have, long shelf life inform of
popped and puffed rice, instant or rice flakes, canned rice and fermented
products are produced. Protein is present in aleuron and endosperm 6 to 9% and
average is 7.5%. Rice straw is used as cattle feed, used for thatching roof and in
cottage industry for preparation of hats, mats, ropes, sound absorbing straw
board and used as litter material. Rice husk is used as animal feed, for paper
making, as fuel source. Rice bran is used in cattle and poultry feed, defatted
bran,which is rich in protein and can be used in the preparation of biscuits and
cattle feed. Rice bran oil is used in soap industry. Refined oil can be used as a
cooling medium like cotton seed oil / corn oil. Rice bran wax, a byproduct of
rice bran oil is used in industries. Rice is associated with prosperity and with
the Hindu goddess of wealth, Lakshmi. Rice is a symbol of life and fertility,
which is why rice was traditionally thrown at weddings.
PESTS OF PADDY CROPS
Leptocorisa varicornis Fabricius (Rice Gandhi Bug)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Alydidae
Genus: Leptocorisa
Species: varicornis Fabricius
Distribution
Rice Gandhi Bug is generally distributed throughout India but is more prevalent
in Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and southern states. Commonly it is called as
“Gundhi Kira”. Rice bugs are found in all rice environments. They are more
common in rainfed and upland rice and prefer the flowering to milky stages of
the rice crop.
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Main Host Plants

The main host plants of Leptocorisa varicornis are Oryza sativa (rice),
Digitaria ciliaris (southern crabgrass), Eleusine indica (goose grass), Paspalum
conjugatum (sour paspalum), Phaseolus (beans), Senna tora (sicklepod), Vigna
(cowpea).
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The population of the rice bug increases at the end of the rainy season. Adults
are active during the late afternoon and early morning. Under bright sunlight,
they hide in grassy areas. They are less active during the dry season. In cooler
areas, the adults undergo a prolonged development in grasses. They feed on
wild hosts for one to two generations before migrating into the rice fields at the
flowering stages.
After copulation female lay eggs symmetrically, into two or three rows. Eggs
are dark coloured, oval in outline and flattened at the top. Eggs hatch in about a
week. The young nymphs have slender green body and longer legs. These
nymphs generally take about twenty days to attain full maturity. The nymphs
are found on the rice plant where they blend with the foliage. There, they are
often left unnoticed. When disturbed, the nymphs drop to the lower part of the
plants and the adults fly within a short distance.
All the stages of developing bug clusters round the ripening ears and suck out
the juice. This pest is more common during July to November. During winter
their breeding rate is lowered much and the adults manage to tide over the cold
on several species of grasses. On paddy it has five broods during the season.
It is grey green adults measure 15 mm in length and can be identified by their
smell. Both the adults and the young ones suck the milky grains leaving dull
whitish spots on the grains.
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Figure - Life cycle of Leptocorisa varicornis

High rice bug populations depends upon factors such as nearby woodlands,
extensive weedy areas near rice fields, wild grasses near canals, and staggered
rice planting. The insect also becomes active when the monsoonal rains begin.
Warm weather, overcast skies, and frequent drizzles favor its population
buildup.
Nature of Damage
Rice bugs damage rice by sucking out the contents of developing grains from
pre-flowering spikelets to soft dough stage, therefore causing unfilled or empty
grains and discoloration. The main symptom associated with damage is the
presence of unfilled grains. Rice bug adults and nymphs have piercing-sucking
mouthparts. With their sucking mouth parts they suck out the milk from the
newly formed grains which soon shrivel. The stalk remains quite sound but
without grains and sometimes reduce yield by as much as 30%. Feeding
enzymes and micro-organisms enhance feeding damage. Damaged florets may
drop. Grain in the milk stage is preferred. Damaged grains are discoloured or
'pecky'. Pecky grains may break during milling. Both the adults and the young
pests suck the milky grains leaving dull whitish spots one the grains. The grains
remain unfilled. The field bunds should be kept free of weeds. When there are
one or more bugs per hill spray neem based insecticide.
Control
Cultural Method:
Removal of host grasses from field on which rice bugs feed and breed,
especially during the offseason, and field bundhs help in reducing the pest
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population. Draining out the water from infested field for three to four days is
also helpful. Crop rotation is advisable.
Chemical Method
The choice of insecticide depends on many factors such as the application
equipment available, cost of the insecticide, experience of the applicator, or
presence of fish. The benefits of using an insecticide must be weighed against
the risks to health and the environment.
As soon as the pest is observed in the field dusting with 5% BHC at the rate of
15 kg/ha. Malathion and Methylparathion dust is also effective. Spraying of
0.25% DDT or BHC or 0.04% Endrin atleast two weeks before harvesting.
Mechanical Control:
Collection of the bugs with a hand net and their destruction is a useful
mechanical method.
Biological Control:
Cicendala six punctata prey upon the nymph and adults of Leptocorisa. A
number of natural enemies including parasites and predators are known to
attack the rice bug at various stages. The assassin bug Nabis stenoferus Hsiao is
a common natural enemy of this bug.
Small scelionid wasps Gryon nixoni (Masner) parasitize the eggs of
Leptocorisa spp. Several species of parasitic wasps attack stink bugs. The
meadow grasshopper Conocephalus longipennis (Haan) preys on rice bug eggs;
several species of spiders, e.g., Neoscona theisi (Walckenaer), Argiope
catenulate (Doleschall) and Tetragnatha javana (Thorell) prey on nymphs and
adults. Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin, a fungus, attacks both
nymphs and adults.
Hispa (Dicladispa) armigera, Olivier [Rice Hispa, Spiny Leaf Beetle]
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coeleoptera
Family: Chrysomelidae
Genus: Hispa (Dicladispa)
Species: armigera, Olivier, 1808
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Distribution
Spiny Leaf Beetle is found all over rice tracts of world, in India it is ranked as
major pest of paddy. It has been observed in South and North India, that when
the paddy is grown as the third crop, it suffers badly. In Bihar it is locally
known as “Babhani”. Rice hispa scrapes the upper surface of leaf blades
leaving only the lower epidermis. It also tunnels through the leaf tissues. When
damage is severe, plants become less vigorous.
Main Host Plants
The main host plants of Rice hispa are Oryza sativa (rice), Saccharum
officinarum (sugarcane), Triticum aestivum (wheat), Zea mays (maize), Zizania
aquatica (annual wild rice), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), Cyperus
rotundus (purple nutsedge), Dactyloctenium aegyptium (crowfoot grass),
Echinochloa colona (jungle rice), Oryza rufipogon (wild rice), Panicum repens
(torpedo grass) , Paspalum distichum (knot grass),
Insect Biology
The presence of grassy weeds nearby rice fields as alternate hosts and
encourage the pest to develop. Heavily fertilized field also encourages the
damage. Heavy rains, especially in premonsoon or earliest monsoon periods,
followed by abnormally low precipitation, minimum day-night temperature
differential for a number of days, and high relative humidity are favorable for
the insect’s abundance. The rice hispa is common in rainfed and irrigated
wetland environments and is more abundant during the rainy season.
Life Cycle
The adult is blue-black and very shiny. Adult is a small bluish-black beetle
fringed with numerous short spines over the body. Its wings have many spines.
It is 5.5 mm long. Within 3- 4 days, just after emergence the female beetle
starts laying eggs and continues to do so for a month. A small dark substance
secreted by the female covers each egg. A female lays upto 300 eggs. Fresh egg
is white. It is small and oval. It measures 1-1.5 mm long. With age, it turns
yellow. Eggs are pushed inside the leaf tissues singly close to the leaf tips. They
hatch in about 5-7 days. The grubs start feeding on the mesophyll portion of the
leaf and become fully grown in about 15 days. The larva or grub is white to
pale yellow. A younger grub measures 2.5 mm long and a mature larva is about
5.5 mm long.
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Pupation takes place inside the tunnels formed by larvae which lasts for nearly
5 days. The pupa is brown and round. It is about 4.6 mm long.
The total life cycle is completed in about 20-25 days. The maximum life span
for adults is about 80 days. Generally six life cycles are completed by the insect
in one year. In the absence of rice the insect keep themselves alive on
graminaceous weeds.
Figure - Life cycle of Hispa armigera

Nature of Damage
The adults as well as the grubs feed upon the leaves of paddy and give rise to
blisters or blotches. Adult H. armigera feed externally on leaf tissue. The larvae
mine into the leaf. The adult eats away the green matter resulting in withering
and drying of leaves. Rice hispa scrapes the upper surface of leaf blades leaving
only the lower epidermis. It also tunnels through the leaf tissues. The presence
of characteristic parallel white lines on the leaf surface is an indication of the
attack of this beetle. The average loss by this pest to the paddy crop varies
between 5-60%.scraping of the upper surface of the leaf blade leaving only the
lower epidermis as white streaks parallel to the midrib. Severely infested leaves
dry up, and present a white, dried-up appearance in the field. From a distance,
severely damaged fields look burnt.
Adult Damage Symptoms
Adult H. armigera scrape the chlorophyll from areas between the veins giving
the characteristic appearance of white, parallel streaks along the main axis of
the leaf. After indiscriminate feeding, where even the veins are affected, white
blotches appear on the leaves. Adults are often present on the damaged leaves.
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Larval Damage Symptoms

The grubs of H. armigera feed on the green tissue between the epidermal
membrane of the leaf, tunnelling downwards, and producing irregular white
patches. The larva or pupa can be seen by holding the damaged leaf against the
light, and can be detected by passing the fingers along the tunnel.
Control
Control of Rice Hispa is necessary during outbreaks or when the beetle is in
high abundance in order to prevent high yield losses. The integration of
cultural, mechanical and chemical methods is essential to control a high
abundance of H. armigera; collective and simultaneous action is necessary.
Control of the overwintering populations of H. armigera in areas of India,
where the pest is endemic, effectively reduces migration and pest abundance in
the following rice crop.
Mechanical Control
When rice leaves are heavily infested by the eggs and grubs of H. armigera at
the vegetative stage, the leaf tips can be removed to reduce the abundance of
the pest. Leaf clipping controls 75-92% of grubs; the excised leaf tips can be
buried, burnt or fed to cattle. During outbreaks or high abundance of H.
armigera, the collection and destruction of adult beetles by a sweeping net is
also effective. Sweeping in the morning, when beetles are less mobile, is more
effective than sweeping later in the day. In an outbreak area, sweeping must be
practised, collectively and simultaneously, until the adult population is
controlled.
Cultural Practices
Damage to rice crops caused by Hispa can be avoided, or limited, by growing
the crop earlier in the season. The avoidance of top-dressing the rice crop with
high rates of nitrogen fertilizer during high incidence of the pest also reduces
damage; this practice makes the rice crop more susceptible to the pest.
However, after the pest has been successfully controlled, top-dressing with
nitrogenous fertilizer may enhance recovery from damage. Deep and thorough
ploughing of the field, Crop rotation, grasses around the paddy field should be
destroyed before the paddy transplantation.
Biological Control
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The role of natural enemies in suppressing the population of H. armigera has

not been fully evaluated. Exotic natural enemies of H. armigera have not yet
been introduced. The highly active larval parasitoid, Eulophus femoralis, has
been introduced from Indonesia to Bangladesh and India and may reduce the
Hispa problem in these areas. Conservation and the utilization of indigenous
natural enemies may also play an important role in the management of this pest.
Chemical Control
 Methyl Parathion 50EC, 0.5ml Fenitrothion 100EC, 0.9ml Diazinon
60EC, Monocrotophos 36SL, Chloropyriphos 20 EC, Fenthoate 50EC,
Phasalone 35EC, Endosulfon 35EC,Quinolphos 25EC.
 Transplanted field require 225-230 liter/acre spraying chemical or
Carbofuron 3% @7.6kg/acre granules can be used.
Spodoptera exempta, Walker, 1857 / Laphygma exempta, Walker –

(African Army Worm, Nutgrass, Armyworm)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuiidae
Genus: Spodoptera (Laphygma)
Species: exempta Walker, 1857
Distribution
The main distribution areas of the Spodoptera is eastern Africa, (including
Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda) and central and southern Africa
(Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and
Zimbabwe). Populations are also found in West Africa and the Indian Ocean
Islands.
The armyworm is a migratory pest, which, in eastern and southern Africa,
displays a distinct migratory pattern. The insect apparently starts breeding along
the coast of East Africa and Mozambique further south. A progression of
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outbreaks then follows two directions: one northerly, from Tanzania to Ethiopia
and across into Yemen, and the other to the south towards South Africa.
However, there are indications that initial breeding might also take place in
Angola leading to outbreaks spreading into Zambia and further south into
Botswana and Zimbabwe.
Main Host Plants
The African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta Walker is a serious and often
devastating pest of cereal crops such as maize, sorghum, millet, wheat, barley,
rice and forage grasses. Its impact is particularly remarkable in maize, the
staple food in most of Africa, including Zambia. The larvae feed on all types of
grasses, early stages of cereal crops (e.g., corn, rice, wheat, millet, sorghum),
sugar cane, and occasionally on coconut.
Insect Biology
Spodoptera exempta is a very deleterious pest, capable of destroying entire
crops in a matter of weeks. The armyworm gets its name from its habit of
"marching" in large numbers from grasslands into crops. African army worms
tend to occur at very high densities during the rainy season, especially after
periods of prolonged drought. During the long dry season. African armyworm
population densities are very low. Because outbreaks are never observed during
the dry season, it is called as "off-season". Spodoptera exempta moths live for
about 10 days.
Life Cycle
Eggs
The eggs are laid by female Spodoptera in groups of 100-400 in single or multi
layers on the leaves.. A female lays several egg masses until a total of up to
1000 eggs. They are covered with black hair scales. When they are laid, the
colour of the eggs is yellowish. Just before hatching they turn black. The
diameter of the eggs is about 0.5 mm. Hatching takes place after 2-4 days.
Larvae
Caterpillars occur in two morphologically distinct forms: a "gregarious" form,
which is black with yellow stripes, and a solitary form, which is green or
brown. It is the "gregarious" forms of African army worms that cause
outbreaks. There are six larval instars. On hatching the larvae are colourless or
whitish. They have black heads. As they feed the colour becomes green. During
the first three instars the caterpillars remain green. After this they turn black
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when there are many caterpillars together (gregarious form) or they will remain
in various shades of green or brown when there are only few caterpillars
together (solitary form). The caterpillars do not have obvious hairs. The head is
shiny black and shows a V shaped white mark. The upper side of the first
segment behind the head is black and has three narrow white stripes. A full
grown caterpillar is 25 - 35 mm long. The larval stage takes 14 - 21 days.
Generally, these pests are not noticed by farmers until the caterpillars are 10
days old and change from green to black. The mature caterpillars burrow into
the soil. The pupa is brown or black in colour. It is about 17 mm long. In the
last instar, larvae burrow 2–3 cm into the ground in chambers to pupate. Adults
emerge in 7 to 10 days. The moths migrate over tens, and probably over
hundreds, of kilometers between their emergence sites and their oviposition
sites.
Pupa
The mature caterpillars burrow into the soil. They pupate in chambers 2 3 cm
below the surface. The pupa is brown or black in colour. It is about 17 mm
long. The pupal period ranges 7- 12 days.
Adult
The adult is a grey brown night flying moth. The wingspan is 20 - 35 mm for
males and 22 - 37 mm for females. The hind wings are pale white with dark
veins. The forewings are dull grey brown. They have two spots. The inner
(orbicular) spot is elongate and pale. The outer (reniform) spot is kidney shaped
and more clearly visible in males than in females. The moths are attracted by
lights at night.
Life Cycle of Spodoptera exempta
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Nature of Damage
Damage caused by African Army Worms to cereal crops is mainly from direct
attack on young plants by larvae hatching or dispersing into the crop as first
instars, and by invasion of the crop by older larvae from adjacent wild grasses.
The caterpillars feed on the leaves eating them down to the midrib. Where these
invasions are caused by late-instar larvae moving from heavily infested
grasslands, even maturing crops can be totally destroyed. If drought conditions
follow an outbreak, plants may not recover from defoliation and replanting may
fail to produce a crop. Yield reduction caused by defoliation and is almost
directly proportional to the percentage of leaf area available to the larvae at the
time of attack. Reported losses range from 9% in plants attacked at the early
whorl (four leaves) stage to 100% in those damaged at the pre-tassel stage.
Damage is always serious if the apical meristem is affected.
Control
Cultural Practices
 To monitor the presence of armyworm, conduct visual inspection by
going around all your fields. Armyworms feed at night and hide under
debris during the day. Solitary forms are usually sparsely distributed and
difficult to find. However, they can be monitored in late evening or early
morning as they may still be actively feeding. Some caterpillars may be
seen feeding on overcast days, especially during a severe outbreak.
Hand-pick the caterpillars and feed these to chickens and ducks
 Avoid burning and overgrazing of grasslands, which are the natural
habitat and food store of the caterpillars. Burning often causes outbreaks
because as soon as temperatures rise, eggs are laid in large quantities on
the fresh new grass. No oviposition occurs at temperatures less than
20°C. Also if their natural habitat and food is unavailable they will
attack other crops.
Mechanical Methods
 Make a deep ditch and fill it with water. This method is helpful, when
caterpillars are found to be moving towards your field from the adjacent
fields.
 Another method is by making pitfall traps, first dig a deep ditch with
vertical sides to trap the caterpillars and prevent them from crawling out.
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Dig a hole, a diameter of a fence post, in every 10 meters within the

ditch. Caterpillars are lured to congregate in the holes. Collect and
properly dispose the trapped caterpillars.
 Use light traps to attract nocturnal pest. They can provide useful
information about the population of moths and therefore of caterpillars.
Light traps help to predict if there is going to be an outbreak. Use of
light traps is primarily a tool in monitoring. In addition, a wooden tripod
with a kerosene lantern is a ''light trap'' locally improvised.
 A tripod made of wooden poles (bamboo) is constructed with a lantern
(kerosene) hanging in the middle over a bowl of water.
 Hand picking of caterpillars. This is only practicable in very small plots.
Biological Pest Control

Natural Enemies
 Natural enemies should be encouraged by maintaining natural
surroundings with plenty of breeding places for them, including trees
and shrubs.
Many birds, toads, lizards, small mammals, insects and spiders prey on
the African armyworm at different stages of its life cycle. Lacewings,
predatory wasps, parasitic wasps, flies, and spiders attack armyworm
caterpillars, Night birds and bats feed on the African armyworm moths.
Birds (storks and crows) may decimate small outbreaks but have little
influence on larger ones.
Biopesticides
 Biopesticides (including botanicals/plant extracts and microbials) such
as Neem, Pyrethrum and Bt should be applied if larvae are at or above
threshold levels and preferably when caterpillars are approximately 12
to 20 mm long, namely before most damage has occurred. Biopesticides
should be applied in the evening since armyworms prefer to feed at
night. Trials carried out showed that both neem seed and leaf extracts
could be used to kill armyworms. Even though neem extracts are as
effective as Spex NPV and synthetic pesticides, their use is only
practicable in small holdings. The high bulk of neem needed and high
transport costs means it is not feasible to use it on a large scale.
Pyrethrum powder, Pyrethrum liquid, Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis).
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8.4 Sugarcane Crop

Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum L., is a perennial grass in the family
Poaceae grown for its stem (cane) which is primarily used to produce sucrose.
Sugarcane has a thick, tillering stem which is clearly divided into nodes and
internodes. The leaves of the plant grow from the nodes of the stem, arranged in
two rows on either side of the stem. The leaves are tubular and blade-like,
thicker in the centres than at the margins and encircle the stem.
Sugarcane can reach a height of up to 6 m and once harvested, the stalk will re-
grow allowing the plant to live for between 8 and 12 years. A sugarcane crop is
sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control,
varieties, and the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70
tonnes per hectare per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180
tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach
used in sugarcane cultivation.
Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum L., an old energy source for human beings
and, more recently, a replacement of fossil fuel for motor vehicles, was first
grown in South East Asia and Western India. Sugarcane is a renewable, natural
agricultural resource because it provides sugar, besides biofuel, fibre and
fertilizer. Sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder.
Sugarcane is the world’s largest crop by production quantity. In 2012, FAO
estimates it was cultivated on about 26.0 million hectares, in more than 90
countries, with a worldwide harvest of 1.83 billion tons. Brazil was the largest
producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in
decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan and
Mexico. In India about 527 working sugar factories with total installed annual
sugar production capacity of about 242 lakh tonnes are located in the country
during 2010-11. Broadly there are two distinct agro-climatic regions of
sugarcane cultivation in India, viz., tropical (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Pondicherry and
Kerala.) and subtropical (U.P, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab). However, five agro-
climatic zones have been identified mainly for the purpose of varietal
development. They are (i) North Western Zone (ii) North Central Zone (iii)
North Eastern Zone (iv) Peninsular Zone (v) Coastal Zone.
Maharashtra is the largest producer of sugar contribute about 34% of sugar in
the country followed by Uttar Pradesh. The world demand for sugar is the
primary driver of sugarcane agriculture. Cane accounts for 80% of sugar
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produced. Other than sugar, products derived from sugarcane include falernum,
molasses, rum, cachaça (a traditional spirit from Brazil), bagasse and ethanol.
In some regions, people use sugarcane reeds to make pens, mats, screens, and
thatch.
Sugar cane crop is damaged by a number of pests in different stages of its
growth. The main destructive pests of sugarcane are Borers, Leafhoppers,
White flies, Termites etc.
Pests Of Sugar Cane
Scirpophaga nivella, Fabricius, 1794/ Trporyza novella (Sugarcane Top
Borer)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Genus: Scirpophaga
Species: novella Fabricius, 1794
Distribution
Sugarcane Top Borer is a widely distributed species all over the Indian
subcontinent and also occurs in China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines,
Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, on the Andaman Islands, Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, western Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
Timor, Aru, New Guinea, Australia, New Caledonia and Fiji.
Main Host Plants
Scirpophaga nivella is a major pest of sugar cane (Saccharum species)but
sometimes it can also found as minor pest on Oryza sativa, Scirpus, Cyperus,
Eleocharis (including Eleocharis dulcis) and Calidum articulatum and wild
grasses etc.
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Insect Biology
Life Cycle
 Generally the pest Scirpophaga nivella is very active from March to
November.
 Moths are silvery white in appearance, male body size is smaller than
females.
 Females are about 25-40 mm across the wings when spread & provided
with a tuft of yellow, orange or brownish silken hairs over the tip of the
anal segment.
 The caterpillar is creamy white in color and rather sluggish.
 Female moth lays approximately 500 elongated & oval eggs in clusters
of 30-60 eggs. These eggs are covered with brown tuft of hairs.
 After 5-7 days, eggs hatch into caterpillars which are about 2 mm in
length & are black headed.
 They feed voraciously up to 10-15 cm & destroy growing buds which
results into deadhearts. They attain full grown stage through five stages
after 30-40 days of larval period.
 The full grown larva is about 30 mm in length, sluggish & creamy white
in color.
 Four to five over lapping generations have been recorded in one year.
 It is interesting to notice that the caterpillars of the last generation do not
pupate & undergo hibernation inside the tops of cane for the whole
winter season in northern India.
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Figure - Life cycle of Scirpophaga nivella
Nature of Damage
The attacks of this pest causes reduction in the cane crop & the quality of sugar
is also affected. Damage is caused by caterpillar which is generally found in top
portion of a cane. Young larvae eat through rolled leaves, then usually penetrate
along the midrib of the leaf into the heart of the plant. They then tunnel in the
midrib, emerging through the upper epidermis. The first two broods of this pest
attack young plants before the formation of canes. These plants are killed and
are a total loss. In subsequent broods, the pest attacks the terminal portions of
the canes, causing bunchy tops. Damage by the 3rd and 4th broods may result
in more than 25% reduction in weight and a decrease in the quality of the juice.
Control
 The infested top shoot of sugarcane should be destroyed.
 Ratoon cropping should be avoided.
 Adult moth can be trapped by using light traps placing far from the field
& destroyed.
 Parasite booster (egg parasitoid) with Trichogramma sp. or ichneumonid
wasp (female)@ 125/ha should be used.
 Spray infested field with Sumithion 50EC or Diazinon 60EC@1lb/acre
in 50 gallons of water or Carbofuran 5G@ 40Kg/ha.
 Spraying of 0.02% endrin at the time of egg hatching is quite effective
to kill the eggs & young larvae.
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Pyrilla perpusilla Walker (Sugarcane Leafhopper)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Homoptera
Family: Fulgoridae
Genus: Pyrilla
Species: perpusilla
Distribution
The pest is found throughout the Indian subcontinent from Afghanistan to
Burma and Thailand. It is distributed all over India but is more prevalent in
U.P. and Bihar. Usually great loss is recorded from Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh & Maharashtra.
Main Host Plants
Although Pyrilla perpusilla is a major pest of sugar cane yet it can also
sometimes attacks on Maize, Wheat, Baru, Kahi, Jowar, oats, sorghum, bajra
and wild grasses etc.
Insect Biology
Adult sugarcane leaf hoppers are straw coloured to brownish insect pests with a
pointed snout having piercing and sucking types of mouthparts. They are found
gregariously and jump off readily when disturbed. The Adult leafhoppers are
active fliers, migrating from one crop to another and breed throughout the year.
The increase in population of leafhoppers is favoured by high humidity and
luxuriant plant growth as in heavily manured and irrigated field or in rainy
season. The pest prefers soft varieties of canes having broad succulent &
drooping leaves with loose leaf sheaths.
Life Cycle
Egg
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Eggs are light yellowish in colour, oval, one mm long and laid on the underside
of leaves & inside leaf sheaths in groups of about 20 eggs. A single female lays
about 150 eggs. Eggs are laid by the female in large clusters, covered with
large fluffy filaments. The incubation period is about 7 days depending on
temperature.
Nymph
The freshly hatched nymphs are cream coloured, with growing age they turn
into pale brown & are wingless and with a pair of anal filaments covered with
whitish fluffy waxy material with a pair of characteristics anal filaments. They
starts sucking the sap of the canes & change into adults after 5-6 instars of
variable duration. There is great mortality during the hot weather. The nymphs
which survive develop into adult by the first week of July. The total life history
during the hot weather takes about 60 days & much longer during winter which
is mostly passed in the nymphal stage.
Adult
The adults is an active straw colored bug, have a body length of about 8-10
mm. The head of pest is prolonged anteriorly and modified into a snout like
structure & has prominent red eyes. They have 2 pairs of wings folded roof
shaped on the back & the head extended like a pointed beak. The rostrum
encloses the stylets. Tarsi are two jointed and there is a pair of elongated,
twisted anal process. The two pairs of wings generally remains folded over the
back. The females can be distinguished from the males by the presence of a pair
of pads on the posterior end of the body. Prominent bundles of white waxy
threads develop over these pads during the egg-laying period.
Figure - Life cycle of Pyrilla perpusilla
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Nature Of Damage
The sugarcane leafhopper is found gregariously on the under surface of the
leaves where they suck up plant sap that causes yellowing and eventually
drying of leaves. Both nymphs & adults suck the cell sap of leaves of sugar
cane by their rostrum. In case of low infestation yellow patches appear on the
leaves, photosynthetic rate is affected. Resulting in the reduction of sucrose
content of the juice by up to 30%. Hoppers secrete a sweet substance called
honey dew that coats the leaves and attracts a blackish fungus, which also
reduces photosynthesis resulting in the poor quality & quantity of sugar and
yield loss. In case of severe infestation the sugar recovery may fall to as low as
75% than the normal.
Control
Mechanical Method:
 After harvesting, all thrash of sugarcane crop should be burnt, in an
infected field.
 Removal of the leaves bearing egg-clusters in October planted crop
during March-April.
 Uprooting and destruction of seriously infected plants.
Chemical Method:
 Dusting the infected crop with 10% BHC, 10% Toxaphane and 10%
Carbaryl or 5% Malathione @ 20-40 kg/ha.
 Spraying with Endrin, Endosulfan Trithione, Phosphamedon,
Malathione or Formothione @ 0.5 – 1.0 kg/ha.
 The pest can be controlled by spraying 0.05% of parathion, thiodon,
fenitrothion or rogor.
 Dusting the plants with 10% Aldrin or dieldrin also helps.
Biological Method:
 Introduction of hyper parasites like Tetrastychus pyrillae & Ooencyrtus
spp parasitize the eggs of this pest whereas nymphs are parasitized by
Dryinus pyrillae, Pseudogonatopus pyrillae etc. Caterpillars of
Epipyrops melanoleuca are predacious on nymphs and adults of leaf
borer.
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 Conservation of the following natural enemies helps in containing the

pest:
o Egg parasitoids: Tetrastichus pyrillae, Cheiloneurus pyrillae,
Ooencyrtus pyrillae, O. pipilionus, Agoniaspis pyrillae.
o Nymphal parasitoid: Lestodryinus pyrillae, Pyrilloxenos
ompactus, Chlorodryinus pallidus.
o Predators: Coccinella septempunctata, C. undecimpunctata,
Chilomenes sexmaculata, Brumus suturalis.
o Egg-predators: Nimboa basipunctata, Goniopteryx pusana.
Chemical Control
 Spraying -0.25% endosulfan / 0.025% fenitrothion.
 Spraying -0.01% endrin emulsion at a rate of 500 liter per acre.
Emmalocera depressella (Swinhoe)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralidae
Genus: Emmalocera
Species: depressella
Distribution
Although pest Emmalocera depressella is distributed throughout India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, they are more common in northern regions. This species
was first recorded in 1885 in sugarcane in India, however, it received attention
as a key pest only recently. E. depressella is currently considered a major pest
of sugarcane in some parts of India and Pakistan. A recent outbreak of E.
depressella was recorded during 2005-2006 in the West Nimar Valley of
Madhya Pradesh in Central India.
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Main Host Plants

Sugarcane is the main host of Emmalocera depressella but also recorded as
feeding on Sorghum bicolor, Sorghum halepense, Erianthus munja,
Sclerostachya fusca and Pennisetum purpureum etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The adult moth, Emmalocera depressella measures about 25 mm in wing span.
Fully grown caterpillars are white in colour, relatively active and measures 2-5
cms in length. The moths are pale yellow-brown and have white hindwings.
Hind wings are larger in width than forewings. It has a dark lengthwise strip on
each wing. Abdomen of male tapering but cylindrical in female.
The female moth has a pre oviposition period of about five days. Females lays
eggs singly on the leaves or on the stem or in the soil. The number of eggs laid
by a female varies between 180-280. In the climatic conditions of Punjab it
completes five broods during active period (April-November).
The larva of the fifth brood hibernates in the stubble of the sugar cane plants.
The larval period lasts for 4-7 days but during the crop season it may extend
upto 28-32 days. A hibernating larva may survive for 200 or more days. The
larva enters the plant at the base of the cane and grows in size feeding on the
plant’s internal tissues. Pupation occurs inside the stem, at or below the soil
surface, generally in the early stages of plant growth. Before pupation the
pupating larva makes an exit hole in the stem. Larva constructs a tube of silk
leading to soil surface and pupates 4 cms below the ground level. High
temperature and low humidity accelerates the multiplication rate of the pest.
The life span of male moth is 3-10 days and that of female is 10-15 days.
Figure - Life cycle of Emmalocera depressella
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Nature of Damage
The damage caused to cane crop is mainly done by the immature caterpillar
stages of this pest. Caterpillars after hatching, crawl down the plant and enter
the soil to bore into the plant tissue below the soil surface. Drying up of inner
whorl of leaves and formation of dead hearts are the common symptoms of the
attack of this pest. On an average 5-15% of the cane crop is attacked by this
pest. It causes reduction in weight by 10%. The sucrose content is also lowered
by only about 0.5%. They are called as root borers, but they rarely bore into the
root, only that part of the stem which is below the ground level is attacked by
this pest. Studies from India report on varying levels of productivity loss
ranging between 1.3-10% due to E. depressella infestation. A reduction of up to
66.2% and 73.0% of cane length and weight, respectively, has been recorded.
Control
 Destruction of weeds in and around cane field as weeds are the host of
the pest
 Removal of dry leaves from the canes.
 Deep ploughing of field before plantation.
 Removal and destruction of late shoots at the time of harvesting.
 Infested free setts should be planted and infested plant should be
uprooted and destroyed.
 Ratoon cropping should be avoided.
 Crop rotation should be followed.
 Collecting egg masses and destroy them properly.
 Adult moth can be trapped by using light placing far from the field.
 After harvesting field should be burnt.
 Destruction of weeds in and around cane field as weeds harbour the pest.
 Removal of dry leaves from the canes.
 Deep ploughing of field before plantation.
 Removal and destruction of late shoots at the time of harvesting.
 Spray infested field with Endosulfan@ 30Kg/ha or Carbofuran 5G@
40Kg/ha in the soil between two rows of canes or spraying of Endrin
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fortnightly during July to September is quite effective in controlling this

pest.
 Spraying of Endrin fortnightly during July to September is quite
effective in controlling this pest.
 Spraying of crop with Monocrotophus.
Aleurolobus barodensis, Maskell, 1896 (Sugarcane whitefly, Cane White-fly
Mealy wing)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Superfamily: Aleyrodoidea
Family: Aleyrodidae
Genus: Aleurolobus
Species: barodensis Maskell, 1896
Distribution
The sugarcane whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis is noticed in serious
proportions on sugarcane in growing areas all over the India, Indonesia (Jawa),
Malaya, Philippines, Pakistan, Taiwan,etc. In India it is one of the serious
sucking pests on sugarcane in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
Main Host Plants
Saccharum officinarum L. (Poales, Poaceae), other related species like
Erianthus aurundanaceum (Poales, Poaceae), Miscanthus sp. (Poales, Poaceae),
etc.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The pale yellow or whitish adult female of A. barodensis lays about 80 eggs in
straight rows, usually on the underside of leaves. Fresh unopened leaves in the
central whorl are preferred for egg laying. The average number of eggs laid
varies with the season. The eggs are fixed firmly on the leaf tissue by a stalk or
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pedicel at one end and the incubation period varies from 8 - 31 days. The eggs
are generally pyriform or ovoid. The pedicel is a peglike extension of the
chorion, and it has been suggested that, in addition to providing a means of
attachment, it serves as a guide for spermatozoa during fertilization.
The freshly hatched nymphs are creamy pale and slowly change colour to a
shiny black hue. They develop fringes of wax and a waxy deposit on the body
and the three nymphal instars last for respectively 4 - 7, 3 - 7 and 3 - 8 days.
After each moult, the nymphs change colour from pale to blackish. Most 2nd
and 3rd instar nymphs have an oval or elongate-oval body, and have shallow
breathing folds in the ventral body wall, two thoracic and one caudal. These
form a passage to the spiracles and may assist in the conduction of air.
The first instar larvae (crawlers) are mobile and can crawl short distances to
reach suitable feeding sites. After the first moult, the remaining three larval
instars are sessile. The fourth instar is often referred to as a pupa. However, it is
not a true pupa as feeding occurs during the first stage and transformation into
an adult takes place in the last stage without any pupal moult. The legs and
antennae of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th nymphal instars are atrophied, making these
instars sessile.
The adults copulate immediately after emergence. The life-cycle is completed
in 32 - 44 days. Adults of Aleurolobus barodensis are small, fly-like and often
dull white in colour. There is a presence of powdery wax on their membranous
wings which give the alternative name 'mealy wing'. Adult body length is 1 - 3
mm approximately.
The conditions favouring A. barodensis populations are drought, nitrogen
deficiency, waterlogging (high humidity and temperatures conducive to
multiplication of this pest), heavy rains, rationing of canes and soil alkalinity.
Figure - Life cycle of Aleurolobus barodensis
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Nature of Damage
The Sugarcane whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis is an important pest of
sugarcane in regions where this insect occurs. Sugarcane whiteflies suck sap
from the leaves and the affected crop appears pale and sickly. Attack in the
early stages of crop development results in a serious setback to the crop and at
the later stages causes deterioration in juice quality.
The nymphs are responsible for most of the damage to plants. The nymphs of
white flies suck the sap from the under surface of leaves which turn yellow and
pinkish in severe cases and gradually dry up. They feed via stylet mouthparts
with which they pierce plant tissues and suck phloem sap. Heavy infested
leaves are covered by the sooty mould caused by the fungus, which adversely
affects photosynthesis.
The sap drainage by nymphs result in the leaf gradually turning yellow and
pinkish and ultimately the leaf dries up. These insects often produce large
amounts of sugar-rich excreta, whilst extracting sufficient protein-building
amino acids from the sap to facilitate body growth. The excreta, termed
'honeydew' may support the growth of sooty mould on affected plants, which
interferes with the photosynthetic activities of the leaves. Whitefly has been
reported to breed well on neglected ratoons, especially in waterlogged areas,
which are generally poor in nitrogen content.
The nymphs excrete large quantities of honey dew which accumulates on the
affected leaves and the leaves appear black due to development of sooty mould,
Capnodium spp. interfering with photosynthesis. High infestation causes
stunted crop growth and reduces juice quality. Severe whitefly infestation may
result in reduction in cane yield up to 65%. As the nymphs grow, they become
covered with a white waxy meal which helps protect them from the action of
insecticides. Whiteflies are distinctive in that all life stages, except the egg, can
produce extracuticular waxes that cover the body, which protects them from
insecticide applications.
Control
Whitefly control is difficult and complex, as whiteflies rapidly gain resistance
to chemical pesticides. We should try for an integrated program that focuses on
prevention and relies on cultural and biological control methods when possible.
While an initial pesticide application may be necessary to control heavy
infestations, repeated applications may lead to strains of whiteflies that are
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resistant to pesticides, so only use of selective insecticides is advised. Care

should be taken to ensure that the insecticide used will not kill the natural
predators of whiteflies. For effective use of biological method after application
of pesticide, plant washing is advised prior to release of predators or
parasitoids.
Chemical Control
Pesticides used for whitefly control usually contain neonicotinoid compounds
as active ingredients: clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid and
thiamethoxam, Neonicotinoids can be harmful if ingested. Rotation of
insecticides from different families may be effective at preventing the building
of tolerance to the product. Clothianidin and dinotefuran are of the same family.
Spraying the leaves using insecticidal soap is another, environmentally friendly,
method for its control.
Non Chemical Control
Biological methods have also been proposed to control whitefly infestation, and
may be paired with chemical methods. Washing the plant, especially the
undersides of leaves, may help reduce the number of the pests on the plants and
make their management by other methods more effective. Whiteflies are also
attracted by the color yellow, so yellow sticky paper can serve as traps to
monitor infestations. Dead leaves or leaves that have been mostly eaten by
whiteflies can be removed and burned or carefully placed in closed bins to
avoid reinfestation and spreading of the disease.
Several predators and parasitoids may be effective in controlling whitefly
infestations, including green lacewings, ladybirds, minute pirate bugs, big-eyed
bugs, damsel bugs, and phytoseiid mites. Integrated management of whiteflies
can as well be done using biopesticides based on microbials such as Beauveria
bassiana (effective on nymphs and adults) or Isaria fumosorosea, Ablerus
aligarhensis, Ablerus delhiensis, Encarsia isaaci , Encarsia macroptera,
Encarsia muliyali, Encarsia udaipuriensis, Euderomphale secunda , Amitus
aleurolobi etc.
8.5 Sorghum Crop
SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) CROP
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is the world’s fifth major cereal in
terms of production and acreage. It is a staple food crop for millions of the
poorest and most food-insecure people in the semi-arid tropics of Africa, Asia
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and Central America. The crop is well adapted to hot and dry agro-ecologies
where it is difficult to grow other food grains. In 2010, the USA was the
world’s largest producer of sorghum (8.8 million metric tons annually),
followed by India (7.0), Mexico (6.9), Nigeria (4.8) and Argentina (3.6).
Sorghum is a multipurpose crop that gives food, feed, fodder and fuel without
significant trade-offs in grain production. Currently research work is going on
the use of sweet sorghum for ethanol production technology. Sorghum has the
potential for high levels of iron and zinc in the grain. Therefore sorghum
biofortification (genetic enhancement) of grain iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) contents
is targeted to complement other methods to reduce micronutrient malnutrition
globally.
Pests Of Sorghum
Atherigona varia Rondani (Sorghum Shoot Fly, Stem Fly)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Anthomyiidae
Genus: Atherigona
Species: varia
Distribution
Sorghum Shoot Fly is distributed world widely in Southern Europe, North and
East Africa, India and the Middle East. In India it is more serious pest in
southern parts.
Main Host Plants
The main host of Sorghum Shoot Fly is Sorghum. It also infests maize, wheat,
broom corn, small millets, grasses and various Gramineae (Poaceae).
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
The female shoot fly is about 3-3.5 mm in length. The body is grey-brown in
colour, abdomen and legs yellow, the abdomen with dark spots. Larva size is
about 6.5 mm long and with 2 posterior black spiracular lobs. Generally the
female fly lays its eggs singly on the lower surface of leaf blades. Each female
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deposited close to 240 eggs and lived for about 30 days. The eggs are elongate,
flattened and somewhat boat shaped and are provided with 2 wing like lateral
projections. The eggs hatch in 1-2 days and tiny maggots creep out and reach in
the between the sheath and axis and bore into the stem. The maggots feed on
the plant’s growing point. They feed inside the main shoot for 6-10 days and
when fully grown, they may pupate either inside the stem or come out and
pupate in the soil. The pupal period in the summer last about a week. A life-
cycle may be completed in 3-6 weeks, and annually the pest can complete up to
10 generations.
Figure - Life cycle of Atherigona varia

Nature of Damage
This pest is considered to be one of the most important and destructive sorghum
pest, whenever plants are attacked at the seedling stage, especially in the semi-
arid tropics. The maggots starts feeding on the plant’s growing point which may
kill the central stem, causing “deadheart” disease. This symptom of infestation
is evident within 2-3 days after attack. It causes damage to seedling as well as
to the early stages of the crop. The young plants show typical dead heart
symptoms when the attacked plants are somewhat older, tillers are produced
which mature latter than the main crop. The total loss in the yield is more than
60%
Control
 Yellow sticky traps are used for monitoring the pest.
 One another method is counting the number of infested “hearts” in
young sorghum plants.
 Such sorghum varieties are used which are strongly resistant to the pest.
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 Seeds coating with a neonicotinoid moderately reduce the pest damage.

 Several Eulophidae, namely Tetrastichus nyemitawus Rohwer and
Tetrastichus spp. attack the pest in India. The parasitism of
Neotrichoporoides nyemitawus Rohwer in India was greater (up to 30%)
in a sorghum-cowpea intercrop than where sorghum was the sole crop.
The eggs of A. soccata are parasitized by species of Trichogramma and
killed by spiders. All of them are biological controlling agents.
Calocoris angustatus (Sorghum ear head bug)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Miridae
Genus: Calocoris
Species: angustatus
Distribution
It is most destructive pests of sorghum widely distributed in southern India,
China, the Middle East and Europe. Both nymphs and adults stages feed on
the green ear heads.
Main Host Plants
Insect Biology
The adult is small, slender, greenish, yellow bug, measuring 5-8mm in length
and 1mm in width. It mostly feeds on number of cereals, millets and grasses. Its
breeding is mainly restricted to sorghum on which it assumes the status of a
pest.
Life Cycle
The adult appears on sorghum crop as soon as the ears emerge from the leaf
sheaths. The female bugs lays eggs under the glumes or in between anthers of
florets by inserting its ovipositor. The female lays 150-200 eggs, which are
cigar shaped and measure about 1.5mm. The eggs hatch in 5-7 days and the
nymphs starts feeding on developing grains in the milk stage. The nymphs pass
through five instars and develop into adult in about 3 weeks. The adults of the
second generation are again ready to oviposit in the ears having developing
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grains which might be available on the same crop. As soon as the grains are
ripe, the bugs stop multiplying on that crop. The insect completes its life cycle
in about one month and produces a number of generations in a year.
Figure – Developmental stages of Calocoris angustatus

Nature of Damage
Head bug, Calocoris angustatus nymphs and adults suck sap from the
developing grains. Large number of nymphs and adults are seen on the ear
head. The damage starts as soon as the panicle emerges from the boot leaf. Bug
damaged grain shows distinct red-brown feeding punctures. High levels of bug
damage lead to tanning and shrivelling of the grain. Head bug damage reduces
grain yield, quality, and renders the food unfit for human consumption. Such
grains also show poor seed germination. As a result of feeding by the bugs the
grains remain chaffy or shrivelled. When a large army of tiny nymphs feeds, the
whole ear becomes blackened at first and may eventually dry up, producing no
grains. Nymphs and adult suck the juice from within the grains when they are in
the milky stage.
Control
Insect pests can be a major limiting factor in grain sorghum production in India.
Growers must be prepared to scout and prevent injury from insects. However, a
proper insect pest management program will minimize losses to insects and
ensure appropriate insecticide use.
 Crop Rotation will help to minimize the growth of sorghum pests in
the same field.
 Selection of such plant varieties which are well-adapted, vigorous,
high-yielding hybrids with good disease resistance and standability.
 Periodically soil tests and fertilizer and lime application to maintain
the proper soil fertility.
 Early plantation often escapes major insect damage. Sorghum head
bug pest, do not usually reach damaging population levels until after
early plantings are mature.
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 In conventional-tillage, bury previous-crop residue and keep free of

weeds for at least 2 weeks before planting. This practice helps
reduce the incidence of damage from insects which may establish
infestations on weeds, volunteer grasses or grass sod.
 Timely harvesting also helps to prevent seed damage by pests and
birds.
 Apply any one of the following chemicals on 3rd and 18th day after
panicle emergence :
 Carbaryl 10 D 25 kg/ha
 Malathion 5 D 25 kg/ha
 Neem seed kernel extract 5%
 Spray twice with Malathion 50 EC 500 ml/ha. in 500 lit of water
at
10% heading and 9 days after.
8.6 Wheat crop

Wheat is the most important food-grain of India next to Rice and is the staple
food of millions of Indians, particularly in the northern and north-western parts
of the country.
It is rich in proteins, vitamins and carbohydrates and provides balanced food.
India is the fourth largest producer of wheat in the world after Russia, the USA
and China and accounts for 8.7 per cent of the world’s total production of
wheat.
Conditions of Growth
Conditions of growth for wheat are more flexible than that of rice. In contrast to
rice, wheat is a rabi crop which is sown in the beginning of winter and is
harvested in the beginning of summer. The time of sowing and harvesting
differs in different regions due to climatic variation.
The sowing of wheat crop normally begins in the September-October in
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal;
October-November in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and
Nov.-Dec. In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The harvesting is done
in Jan.- Feb. in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, M.P., and in West Bengal; March-
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April in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and Rajasthan and in April-May in Himachal

Pradesh and J&K. The growing period is variable from one agro climatic zone
to an other that effects the vegetative and reproductive period leading to
differences in potential yield. The important factors affecting the productivity
are seeding time and methodology, crop establishment and climatic conditions
during the growing season.
Wheat is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grasslands and requires a cool climate
with moderate rainfall. The ideal wheat climate has winter temperature 10° to
15°C and summer temperature varying from 21°C to 26°C. The temperature
should be low at the time of sowing but as the harvesting time approaches
higher temperatures are required for proper ripening of the crop. But sudden
rise in temperature at the time of maturity is harmful.
WHEAT (Triticum aestivum) CROP
Wheat is the world's most favored staple food. Wheat is the staple food of most
Indian population. Wheat grains are grounded into flour (atta) and soft wheat is
used for making chapatee, bread, cake, biscuits, pastry and other bakery
products. Hard wheat is used for manufacturing rawa, suji and sewaya. In areas
where rice is a staple food grain, wheat is eaten in the form of puri and uppuma.
It is also used for making flakes and sweet meats like kheer, shira, etc. Wheat
grain is used for preparing starch. Wheat straw is used as fodder, padding
material and mulching material.
Mythimna separata Walker,1865 /Leucania consimilis (The Northern
armyworm, Oriental armyworm or Rice ear-cutting caterpillar)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: ` Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Mythimna (Pseudaletia)
Species: separata (Walker, 1865)
Distribution
The term “Armyworm” is used for Mythimna separata because of their habit to
spread out in a line across a lawn or pasture, and slowly “marching” forward,
meanwhile consuming the foliage they encounter. It is distributed in India,
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China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania, in the south of

Uzbekistan, New Zealand, and some Pacific Islands. In India these are
prevalent in U.P, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Punjab as pests of wheat, especially in
the seedling stage.
Main Host Plants
Mythimna separata is polyphagous in nature, its main host plants are Triticum
aestivum (wheat), Avena sativa (oats), Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera
(sugarbeet), Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Chinese cabbage), Brassica rapa
subsp. rapa (turnip), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Cannabis sativa (hemp),
Eleusine coracana (finger millet), Eleusine indica (goose grass),Glycine max
(soyabean),Hordeum vulgare (barley),Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), Oryza
sativa (rice), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Phaseolus (beans), Pisum
sativum (pea), Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane), Secale cereale (rye),
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Urochloa mutica (para grass), Zea mays (maize)
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Size and coloration of Mythimna separata varies insignificantly. Sexual
dimorphism is not clearly observed. Adult body size with wing span is 38-48
mm. Forewings are grayish-yellow, with dark-gray or reddish-yellow tint.
Round and reniform spots are light or yellowish with indistinct edges; reniform
spot with white point at lower margin. External wing margin blackened
obliquely from top backward, with dark stroke and with a row of dark points.
Hindwings are grey in colour having dark external margin. Antennae are
thread-like.
Female fertility varies from 300 to 1600 eggs. Moth life span is about 2-3
weeks. Usually eggs are laid in cluster, consisting of approximately 500 eggs.
Eggs have spherical form (0.5-0.6 mm in diameter), milky-white; their surface
is thinly reticulate. The young caterpillars hatch from the eggs in 4-5 days.
After hatching the caterpillars starts feeding on the leaves of the seedlings.
Generally the caterpillars move in swarm from one field to the other. The
caterpillars are fully grown in about 15 days and measures 3-5 cm in length.
After attainment of full size the larva pupates inside the soil and remains in this
condition for about 15 days. Thus, the life cycle is completed in about 30-35
days which is repeated several times each year.
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Figure - Life cycle of Mythimna separata

Nature of Damage
The major damage to the seedlings is caused by caterpillars which move in
swarm. After destroying crop of one field, they move to the other crop. The
caterpillars feed upon the leaves of the seedlings and devour the ear heads as a
result further growth of the plant ceases. Economic threshold of harmfulness on
agricultural lands as a whole is 10 larvae /sq.m. for the 1st noctuid generation,
and 20 larvae /sq. m. for the 2nd generation. Control measures include weeding,
interrow cultivations, removal of crop residues from fields after harvesting,
deep autumn plowing, optimal dates of early sowing, cultivation of resistant
varieties, insecticide treatments of crops, release of such entomophages as
Trichogramma spp. Monitoring is possible with use of sex pheromone traps.
During the vegetative stage of rice, M. separata damage is evident as massive
leaf removal, often including leaf veins. They may also eat the lemma and palea
of the developing grains as well as the anthers of flowers. Large angular
notches can be cut away from young seedlings in a seedbed, giving an irregular
appearance. Damage is often localized to one part of a field. During outbreaks
many fields can be affected at the same time. A characteristic peculiar to M.
separata occurs during the grain filling stage when the mature larva cuts off
panicles at their base causing some to bend while others are completely severed
and fall to the ground.
Control
Cultural Control
A number of cultural control measures are available. When armyworms attack a
seedbed the water level can be raised to drown the larvae. In endemic areas,
farmers should avoid rotating host crops such as wheat or maize after rice. The
rice-wheat cropping pattern is popular in temperate regions of China, Pakistan,
India, Nepal, and Bangladesh but encourages build up of M. separate. Farmers
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should keep weeds (particularly Gramineae) in check as they are also

alternative hosts. Nitrogen fertilizer should be used with care as the improved
nutrition causes greater armyworm fecundity and more larval feeding and
survival. The water level can be raised when the population is in the pupal stage
to drown them. Flooding also limits plant to plant dispersal of M. separata
larvae.
Mechanical and Physical Control
Different types of barriers can be constructed to divert migrating M. separata
larvae. Water moats can protect a seedbed or kerosene can be poured in M.
separata's path. Egg masses or larvae can be hand-picked from seedbeds .
Biocontrol
Ducks are often raised in rice areas and can be herded into damaged fields to
feed on M. separata larvae. Ducks can locate M. separata larvae hiding in the
soil or at the base of plants. Perching in the fields can increase predation by
insect-predatory birds.Parasitism of M. separata greatly increased (from 50-
55% to over 80%) and the numbers of larvae in the crops have significantly
declined. Of even greater importance is that parasitized larvae have weaker
appetites. A high rate of control has been evident despite high rates of
hyperparasitism by the pteromalid Eupteromalus parnarae [Trichomalopsis
apanteloctena] which normally ranges from 41-97%. The hyperparasite became
abundant after the armyworm was under control.
Chemical Control
Greater care should be taken in opting for selective insecticides during the early
crop-growth stages when natural enemy populations are increasing. Less care
would be needed during the panicle stage as the crop is about to be harvested.
Selective materials include poisoned bait made from rice- or wheat-bran that
can be placed along field borders or in the field if it is dry for control of larvae.
Microbial insecticides with nuclear polyhedrosis virus are highly selective but
should be applied sooner than conventional chemicals as they are slower acting.
Farmers themselves can re-use the virus by collecting infected larvae from the
field, macerating them, and straining the body mass directly into sprayers.
The management strategy for M. separata is based on early detection. High-risk
areas can be identified based on the history of past outbreaks and vigilance can
be intensified during seasons of expected occurrence. Early-warning systems
have been developed in Japan and China to detect immigrating moths.
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Preventative measures can be taken such as planting a high-tillering cultivar

and carrying out good crop management. The rice crop is then monitored for
larval build-up on a weekly basis. Scouting should be done throughout the
entire field area as populations are often highly aggregated. Control decisions
should be made before the population attains the last larval stage which not
only causes more damage, but is more difficult to control due to its large body-
size. Larvae can be collected from the field and reared to determine the
incidence of parasitoids. If parasitoid activity is low, corrective actions such as
the use of ducks and perches in the field can be practiced before larval
population reach the economic threshold, while or a microbial pesticide can be
taken when the larval population reach the economic threshold.
Macrosiphum miscanthi / Sitobion avenae (Wheat Aphid, Grain aphid, Bird
cherry aphid, Rose grain aphid )
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Subfamily: Aphidinae
Tribe: Macrosiphini
Genus: Macrosiphum (Sitobion)
Species: miscanthi (avenae)
Distribution
Macrosiphum miscanthi is a monoecious aphid with a complex lifecycle found
widespread throughout cold, temperate, and warm climates across Europe,
Asia, Africa and the American continents. Wheat Aphid is widespread
throughout the world, with a preference for temperate climates.
Main Host Plants

Macrosiphum miscanthi occurs on all cereal species including rice and maize
and can develop on most cultivated or wild Poaceae, as well as on some
Juncaeae and Cyperaceae. Wheat Aphid show differences in host range and
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preferences, some of the host plants are as follows- Triticum aestivum (wheat),
Agropyron (wheatgrass), Avena sativa (oats), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda
grass), Eleusine coracana (finger millet), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Oryza
sativa (rice), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Poaceae (grasses), Saccharum
officinarum (sugarcane), Secale cereale (rye), Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), Zea
mays (maize) etc.
Figure: External morphology of Macrosiphum miscanthi
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Eggs
Macrosiphum miscanthi eggs are small, ovoid, and either green or black. Eggs
are overwintering, being laid in autumn and hatching the following spring,
generally diapausing for 2-3 months during a cold winter. A high humidity is
required for egg survival, especially prior to hatching, which can usually be
found in the cold, wet climatic conditions found where its sexual reproduction
occurs.
Nymphs
Wheat aphid passes through 4 nymphal instars, which have roughly the same
colouration as adults but do not show the developed morphological features
required for their precise identification. First and second instar nymphs can be
acknowledged by their 5-segmented antennae, while the third and fourth instar
nymph's antennae are 6-segmented. Male nymphs can sometimes be recognised
by their bright red- brown or orange colouration which is carried on into adult
form.
Adult
The adult wingless form is 1.3 - 3.3mm long, and broadly spindle-shaped. It
ranges from yellowish green to a dirty reddish brown. It has black antennae and
two black tubes called as siphunculi at the rear end, which are a little longer
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than the pale rather pointed tail called as cauda or cornicles or horney tubes .
The winged form is 1.6 - 2.9 mm long and similarly coloured, with distinct dark
intersegmental markings on the upper surface of the abdomen.
Figure - Life cycle of Macrosiphum miscanthi

Nature Of Damage
The species can cause economic damage to plant crops as a result of its
direct feeding activity. In high enough densities it can remove plant
nutrients which can potentially cause a reduction in the number of heads,
the number of grains per head, and a reduced seed weight. It may cause
yellowing to upper leaves and ears, symptoms which are common to many
aphid species and plant pathogens. Indirect damage can be caused by
excretion of honeydew, and as a vector for viruses, most notably two strains
of the Luteovirus Barley Yellow Dwarf Viruses. Sitobion avenae causes
direct damage by feeding on leaves, stalks and ears, and indirect damage by
excreting honeydew and the transmission of viruses. The main impacts are
reduced yields caused by the removal of plant nutrients and reduced
photosynthesis as caused by honeydew accumulations. Other damage to
wheat aphids can also cause reduced number of heads, reduced number of
grains per head, and reduced grain or seed weight. Wheat yields can be
reduced by around 20-30% during outbreaks. Wheat aphids causes
maximum yield loss on wheat between ear emergence and flowering.
During direct feeding, nutrients, amino acids and carbohydrates are

extracted from leaves and earheads, while some plant physiological
processes may be disrupted. Honeydew and sooty moulds interfere with
light capturing by green tissues and reduce photosynthetic efficiency.
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Damage is dependent on the number of tillers infested, the number of

aphids per tiller and the duration of infestation. The resulting yield loss can
be quantified in terms of a reduced number of earheads, reduced number of
grains per head or reduced seed weight. Maximum yield losses in cereals
are most likely to occur because of attack between ear emergence and
flowering. S. miscanthi feeds on leaves, moving to the earheads as they
develop.
Control
Natural enemies:
Ladybirds are the best known predators of aphids. Among other enemies are
flower flies, ground beetles, green lacewings, bugs, parasitic wasps and
parasitic fungi. The natural enemies can reduce the aphid population
significantly but often do not appear in high numbers until late in the
growing season. Late cultivars are more exposed to attack than early
cultivars. High levels of nitrogen promote aphid development. Fungus
control is favourable to the aphid as this keeps the plant material fresh and
green for a longer period.
Chemical control:
The specific insecticides should be used against aphids because they
destroys the beneficial animals also. Very severe attacks can be difficult to
control through pyrethroids. In case of treatment with pyrethroids
application must take place outside the spray from 9 p.m. to 3 a.m. In wheat
the aphids are easy to control as they sit in the ears.
Host-plant Resistance
The use of resistant varieties of wheat and other cereals can reduce aphid
infestations and yield loss. Most of the work on host-plant resistance in
cereals has concentrated on other aphid species, such as Schizaphis
graminum and Sitobion avenae, rather than S. miscanthi. However, resistant
varieties are often effective against cereal aphid species complexes .
Biological Control
Native parasitoids and predators may play an important role in controlling
outbreaks of S. miscanthi in cereals. The parasitoid Aphidius uzbekistanicus
has potential as a biological control agent.
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Pests of Fruits
India is the second largest producer of Fruits after China, with a production of
44.04 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 3.72 million hectares. A large
variety of fruits are grown in India , of which mango, banana, citrus, guava,
grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like
papaya, sapota, annona, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub-
tropical group and peach, pear, almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the
temperate group are also grown in a sizeable area. Although fruit is grown
throughout the country, the major fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,Uttrakhand ,Punjab
,J&K and Gujarat. Fruit have a great demand in the international market.
Therefore, they are one of the potential earners of foreign exchange.
Pests in fruits can have a negative economic impact on individual commercial
producers and on the entire fruit industry. In addition to indigenous species and
strains, there is a threat from the spread of foreign pests and diseases that could
impact on the Indian fruit production industry. Many insect attacks on fruit
crops or trees in India. Although some affect production in nearly all locations,
many others are of only local significance. Relatively few species cause
significant crop loss in their own right, and are only a problem when the
population exceeds damaging thresholds. The less important species may at
times require special attention, especially if their natural enemies have been
disrupted by chemical sprays.There are a few pests affecting leaves, flowers
and fruit, and some others causing fruit crops deaths or decline. Some of the
main pests of fruits are Fruit borers like Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley, Fruit-
piercing moths such as Eudocima (Othreis) fullonia (Clerck), Eudocima
salaminia (Cramer) and Eudocima jordani (Holland), Leaf-feeding caterpillars
like Oxyodes scrobiculata F. and Oxyodes tricolor Guen., Leafrollers like
Olethreutes perdulata Meyr., Platypeplus aprobola (Meyrick), Adoxophyes
cyrtosema Meyr., Homona coffearia Nietne, Beetle borers such as The
longicorn beetle, Aristobia testudo (Voet), Uracanthus cryptophagus, Scarab
beetles like The elephant beetle, Xylotrupes gideon (Linnaeus), Soft scales like
Pulvinaria (Chlorpulvinaria) psidii (Maskell), Fruit flies, Gall flies. It is very
important that we can recognise early signs of pests and diseases in our crops in
order to deal with the problem.
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Ophideres fullonia/ Eudocima fullonia, (Clerck, 1764) / Othreis fullonia /

Fruit sucking moth
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Genus: Ophideres (Eudocima)
Species: fullonia Clerck, 1764
Distribution
This Fruit sucking moth is native to the Indo-Malaysian region, and found in
large parts of the tropics. It is widespread throughout the Pacific basin, Asia,
and Africa. It is not recorded in the Americas. Some countries where it is found
include Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Papua New
Guinea and Thailand. It was also reported in Kauai, Hawaii, Maui, Molokai,
New Zealand and the Society Islands.
Main Host Plants
The Ophideres fullonia attacks many fruit and vegetable crops. Fruit crops
infested by this moth includes Actinidia chinensis (Chinese gooseberry),
Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut), Ananas comosus (pineapple), Annona
squamosa (sugar apple), Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit), Artocarpus
heterophyllus (jackfruit), Averrhoa carambola (carambola), Capsicum annuum
(bell pepper), Carica papaya (pawpaw), Casimiroa edulis (white sapote),
Chrysophyllum cainito (caimito), Citrus limon (lemon), Citrus reticulata
(mandarin), Citrus sinensis (navel orange), Citrus x paradisi (grapefruit),
Coffea arabica (arabica coffee), Cucumis melo (melon), Dimocarpus longan
(longan tree), Erythrina variegata (Indian coral tree), Ficus carica (fig)fruits,
Litchi chinensis (lichi), Malus sylvestris (crab-apple tree), Mangifera indica
(mango), Musa (banana), Opuntia (Pricklypear), Prunus americana (American
plum), Prunus domestica (plum), Prunus persica (peach), Prunus salicina
(Japanese plum), Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), Psidium guajava
(guava), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Solanum lycopersicum (tomato),
Vitis vinifera (grapevine), apricots, bananas, kiwifruit and star fruit. Vegetable
crops attacked include tomatoes and melons. The fruit sucking moth larvae
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develop on plants belonging to the Menispermaceae family, especially the

creepers belonging to the Tinospora, Tiliacora, Triclisia, and the Stephania
genuses.
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Eudocima phalonia is a fruit piercing moth. The adult is considered an
agricultural pest, causing damage to many fruit crops by piercing it with its
strong proboscis in order to suck the juice. The duration of the life cycle from
egg to egg-laying adult female was 35 to 49 days in colder conditions and 30 to
33 days in the warmer conditions. Their generations are continuous throughout
the year.
Eggs
The moth have small hemispherical eggs are about 1/25 inch (1 mm) in
diameter and are colored yellowish green. When moth populations are low, a
single female moth lays her eggs in batches of up to 100. When moth
populations are high, eggs are laid in batches of several hundred eggs by
individual females. Eggs are generally laid on the underside of leaves but may
be found on the bark or on other plants nearby. Eggs hatch in 3 to 4 days.
Larvae
This moth has 5 larval instars, separated by 4 molts. After each molt, the
discarded skins are eaten by the newly emerged caterpillars. Caterpillars are
cylindrical in shape and are 1/5 to 1/3 inch long during the first larval stage.
They reach up to two inches in length when fully grown. Like other caterpillars
belonging to the Noctuidae family, they have eight pairs of legs - three pairs
under the thorax, four pairs in the middle portion of the abdomen. The first pair
of leg is rudimentary), and the last pair at the end of the abdomen. The last
segment (the 11th) is considerably humped, a feature that develops during the
second instar. They are either dark green to black or pale green to yellow. The
dark coloration occurs when larval densities are high, and the light colored
larvae are found with isolated larvae. On the second and third abdominal
segments, there are paired, lateral markings resembling eyes. On the upper
surface of the body, they have numerous small creamy-white spots and bars
edged with black that tend to coalesce in some places.
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Pupae
Matured larvae of fruit sucking moth pupates within a cocoon spun between
leaves and woven together with silk. The leaves containing the cocoon may
remain on the host plant or dry and fall to the ground. Pupae are very dark
brown with a purplish cast and about 1-1/8 inch (28 mm) long. Pupation lasts
for 14 to 21 days. If pupation occurs under very dry conditions the adult may
not be able to emerge successfully.
Adults
The adult moth is large and robust. It has a wingspan of almost 4 inches (10
cm) and a stout body, about 2 inches (5 cm) long that does not extend, or
slightly extend beyond the hindwings. The eyes are large. The area behind the
head of the moth, the thorax, is pale to purple-brown and the abdomen is pale
brown at the base brightening to yellow-orange at the tip. The forewings
resemble a leaf by being olive to purple-brown and may have white and green
colored flecks. Usually the colored flecks are more common on females. This
leaf-like appearance of the forewings makes this moth protective and it is
difficult to see when it is at rest, especially, because the bright hindwings are
not visible. The outer edges of the female's forewings are scalloped or toothed
where those of the male's are evenly curved. The hind wings are bright orange,
have a black comma-shaped mark and are fringed by a black border with white
dots. After emerging from the pupa, females have a preoviposition period of 4
to 8 days before she begins to lay her eggs. Each female may lay up to 750 eggs
during her lifetime. Females live for 27 to 30 days and males 26 to 28 days.
Figure: Life cycle of Ophiders fullonia
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Nature of Damage
In case of most moth and butterfly pests, the damaging stage is usually
caterpillar stage but the Ophiders fullonia differs in this aspect because it is the
adult moth that is the damaging stage, and the larvae are essentially not
harmful. The mouth parts of the moth are about an inch long and strong enough
to penetrate through tough-skinned fruit. Once the moth has punctured the skin
of the fruit, a process that usually takes a few seconds, it feeds upon the juices
of the fruit. Feeding occurs at night and the fruit does not have to be ripe to be
fed upon by this moth. Fruit flesh damaged by this moth becomes soft and
mushy differing from fruit damaged by fruit flies which is more liquid.
Fruits are damaged not only a result of the direct feeding of this moth but also
by the secondary infection which is fungal and bacterial infections that develop
at the wound site. This moth is a known vector of Oospora citri, a fungus that
rots the fruit and has a penetrating odor that attracts this moth. Other
microorganisms that gain entrance into the fruit and cause rotting include
Fusarium sp., Colletotrichum sp., and several types of bacteria. When moths
are abundant green fruit is attacked, causing premature ripening and dropping
of fruits. On oranges, a green fruit turns yellow at the site of the piercing and
fungi soon develop within the wound. On tomatoes, the puncture of the tomato
skin causes the fruit to turn white and quickly rot.
Incidence of damage by this moth is normally low, however when outbreaks
occur, most of the crop is affected. Caterpillars mostly feed between 5:00 PM
and 10:00 AM, but may feed at any time. They are usually located beneath or
on the edges of leaves. Young larvae drop to the ground at any sign of danger,
while the older larvae take an aggressive attitude by hanging on to the food
plant with their hind legs and swaying the rest of their body from side to side.
Although their flight is slow and heavy adult moths are very strong fliers and
can travel great distances from their breeding grounds in search of food. Adults
fly mainly between the hours of dusk and 11:00 PM. They are not usually
attracted to light. When disturbed, the moth flares its forewings, exposing its
conspicuous hindwings.
Control
Cultural and mechanical Control
 Once the moth has begun to feed, it is not easily disturbed so it can be
captured easily by fruit netting and killing of moths is possible. This is
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best accomplished an hour after sunset when there is sufficient darkness

with the aid of torches or a strong flashlight. This method is most
feasible when fruit are easily accessible and populations of this moth are
small. This method is not very effective once a large population of this
moth exists.
 This fruit sucking moth is negative towards light and it usually avoids
light, therefore the illumination of orchards was tested as a possible
means of preventing fruit-piercing moth attack.
 By mechanical protection of fruit against moth attack was achieved by
covering the fruit with brown paper or transparent oil paper bags. Brown
paper bags last for about a month in the field and the transparent oil
paper bags may be used for up to two seasons if the weather is not very
wet. This method is most practical when each individual fruit is of
significant value or when fruits are easily accessible and are of large size
or relatively compact bunches. Although this method is labor intensive,
it is especially good if regular attention cannot be given to the crop or it
is desired to have the fruits fully ripen on the trees.
 By smoking of the Orchard the moth can be confused from of the the
odor of the smoke with the odor of mature and ripening fruit that attracts
the moth. Containers full of inflammable material, oil, tar and some
green plant trimmings to enhance the smoke were placed within the
orchard at a rate of 2 to 4 per acre. The smoking process was started a
half an hour before dusk and continued for 2 to 3 hours after nightfall.
This period represents the time in which the moths are seeking their
night time feeding grounds.
 Orchard Sanitation method can be applied, this involves the regular
collection and proper disposal of all attacked and spoiled fruits. Both
fallen fruit and attacked fruit on the tree should be collected, buried
deeply or boiled in water for 10 minutes then broken up for compost.
These procedures dissipate the odor emanating from the spoiled fruit so
they cannot serve as an attractant for the moths.
 When severe infestations are predicted, infestation may be avoided by
forced harvesting the entire crop as soon as signs of fruit ripening is
observed. This should be done only when revenue loss from premature
harvesting is less than that from possible damage.
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Chemical Control
 The chemical baits are effective in control of fruit sucking moths.
Repellents like taste repellents or odor repellents are also effective.
Odour is the initial attractant for getting the moths to the host sight,
control methods using repellent sprays focus on odour repellents.
Citronella oil sometimes is also effective against these moths.
Biological Control
 The low incidence of damage by this pest is attributed to the
effectiveness of its natural enemies throughout most of the world. The
common parasites of the Ophiders fullonia are Trichogramma chilonis
(Trichogrammatidae) and Euplectrus plathypenae (Eulophidae).
Papilio demoleus, Linnaeus, 1758 (swallowtail butterfly , lemon butterfly,

citrus swallowtail)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Papilionidae
Genus: Papilio
Species: demoleus Linnaeus, 1758
Papilio demoleus is a common pest and invasive species from the Old World. It
is commonly known as the lime butterfly, lemon butterfly, lime swallowtail,
small citrus butterfly, chequered swallowtail, dingy swallowtail and citrus
swallowtail. These common names refer to their usual host citrus plants. Unlike
most swallowtail butterflies, it does not have a prominent tail.
Distribution
The lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, is widely distributed and is
an extremely successful invader. This species is found throughout tropical and
subtropical regions of southern Asia, ranging from Saudi Arabia, Iran and the
Middle East to India, Nepal, southern China, Taiwan, and Japan. It is also
found in Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, and Australia. In recent years,
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Papilio demoleus has been recorded in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico,
and Jamaica also.
Main Host Plants
Papilio demoleus feeds on plants of the Rutaceae family. It is known to feed on
virtually all species and varieties of citrus plants like Citrus limon, Glycosmis
pentaphylla (Jamaica mandarin orange), Ruta graveolens (common rue), Aegle
marmelos (golden apple), Murraya koenigii (curry-leaf tree), and Chloroxylon
swietenia (East Indian satinwood). Papilio demoleus has been observed
ovipositing on Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) and Citrus aurantifola
The Australian and New Guinean populations feed on Fabaceae. They have
been observed on species of Cullen australasicum (tall verbine), Cullen
badocanum, Cullen balsamicum, Cullen cinereum, Cullen patens (spreading
scurf-pea), Cullen pustulatum, Cullen tenax (tough scurf-pea), and Cullen
leucanthum. They are also found on Soralea pinnata (fountain bush), and
Microcitrus australis (Australian lime). They are known to oviposit on
Rutaceae: Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) and Citrus aurantifola (Key lime).
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Papilio demoleus is capable of producing multiple generations per year
depending on temperature constraints. Nine generations may be seen near
equatorial region. The average length of a generation varies from 26 to 59 days.
In colder climates, pupae may overwinter.
Eggs: Usually females lay eggs singly near the edges of the host citrus plant
leaves. The eggs are pale yellow in colour of nearly spherical shape, about 1.5
mm, basally flattened, and smooth.
Larvae: In Papilio five instars are observed during its life cycle. First instar
stage is black with a black head, with two sub-dorsal rows of short fleshy
spines. Second, third, and fourth instars stages have a dark brown, glossy head
capsule. The anterior, middle, and posterior parts have broad transverse off-
white bands, giving larvae a bird dropping like camouflage pattern. There is an
additional row of paired fleshy spines on the thorax. The head is brown, smooth
and glossy, with short hairs. In fifth instar stage there is a cylindrically shaped
and tapered anteriorly. Two pairs of fleshy spines are located posteriorly and
again immediately behind the head. These spines are very short, and gradually
change from yellowish-orange to green. They have rows of orange or pink
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spots edged with black laterally and subdorsally with black transverse markings
located anteriorly, with more scattered black markings laterally and at the rear
end. There is a white sub-lateral line along the abdominal area just above the
legs. The fleshy spines are orange. The head is large and brown with a dull
orange inverted V mark. The osmeterium is yellow at the base to orange at the
tips. This fleshy, forked structure is located on the head of the larvae of
swallowtail butterflies. It is normally hidden but can be everted when the
caterpillar feels threatened. It emits smelly compounds that prevent some
predators.
Pupae: The pupae are stout, wrinkled and about 30 mm long. They are attached
to the thicker stems of the host plant, or to adjacent sticks and rocks. The colour
is dimorphic, typical for many swallowtails, being either pale green or pink-
brown with other variable cryptic markings. The green form is usually marked
dorsally with yellow. The colour pattern imitates the dominant surrounding
color to which the pupa is attached. The pupal duration for development is
variable, it is about 30 days in spring, while 18 days in summer, but often those
pupae formed in captivity in lab conditions during autumn will not produce
adults until the following spring, or even longer.
Adults: The adults butterfly size ranges in wingspan from 80-100 mm. The
hindwing is devoid of tail. The upper portion of the forewing is largely black
and the outer wing margin has a series of irregular yellow spots. Two yellow
spots are present at the upper end of the discal cell with several scattered yellow
spots in the apical region. The upper hindwing has a red tornal spot and the
discal black band is dusted with yellow scales. The underside is paler yellow
with the black areas more heavily dusted with yellow. The adults fly in every
month but are more abundant after monsoons.
This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its
wings held wide open on tufts of grass, herbs and generally keeps within a
metre above the ground, even on cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for
escape. It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a number of modes of flight. In
the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an edible and
unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In
the hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it
will remain motionless, except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not
disturbed. It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a
preference for flowers of smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the
ubiquitous Lantana with its plentiful blooms. It was found that emerged
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imagines of Papilio demoleus shows preference while feeding for blue and
purple colours while the yellow, yellowish-green, green and blue-green colours
are completely neglected.
Figure - Life cycle of Papilo demoleus
Nature of Damage
The New World arrival of this easily movable lepidopteran pest is a potential
threat to the citrus industries in the India. The larvae are a serious pest of citrus
nursery stock trees and other young citrus trees in Asia and the Middle East,
where they are capable of defoliating entire nursery groves. Larvae may utilize
young leaf flush on more mature trees. Larvae are voracious feeders of tender
leaves and defoliate the trees. They eat leaves from margin inwards, leaving the
larger veins intact. Papilio infestation can cause defoliation and death of
younger plants.
Control
Mechanical control-
The Papilio larvae is prominently visible on the leaves so it is easily hand
picked and destroyed but this practice requires intensive labor if butterfly
infestation is high.
Chemical control-
Dusting the trees with sodium fluosilicate or BHC 5% or spraying malathion,
endosulfan, parathion, fentrothion 0.02% or lead arsenate 0.25% effectively
controls the pests orchards. Severe infestations are generally controlled by
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applying chemical pesticides or plant extracts to the foliage, e.g. carbaryl,

phosalone, acephate, pirimiphos-methyl, fenitrothion, permethrin, etc.
Biological control-
The different concentrations of the biopesticides like spores of Bacillus
thuringiensis and Beauveria bassiana, as well as of neem seed kernel extract,
neem oil and azadirachtin can be used against P. demoleus. Spraying of B.
thuringiensis can control the 100 % pest population after 5 days of application.
The egg-parasites, Trichogramma evanescens, Petromalus luzonensis and
Telenomus sp. destroy large number of eggs. The larval parasites, Erycia
nymphalidaephaga, Charops sp. and Brachymeria sp. have also been recorded
on this pest. The other parasitoids known for parasitizing Papilio demoleus
larvae in India are Apanteles (=Ooencyrtus) papilionis, Apanteles sp., Bracon
hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Egg parasites like Ooencyrtus malayensis
Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera:
Eulophidae), larval parasites, Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera:
Tachinidae), pupal parasites - Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) and
Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Other natural
enemies of larvae are predatory pentatomid bug, Cantheconidea furcellata
(Wolff), reduviid bugs, spiders, sphecids, chameleons, and birds.
8.7 Summary
Insect pests can be a serious problem on paddy, sugarcane, sorghum, wheat and
fruits crops. These insect pests can damage different parts of crops by
reducing their yield and having a negative impact on their quality. Unaware
and illiterate farmers are using synthetic pesticides to combat pests. Besides
being hazardous to the farm workers’ health and leaving toxic residues on
crops.
8.8 Self-Assessment Questions
1. Define pest.
2. What are the main host plants of Papilio demoleus?
3. What are the control measures for Macrosiphum miscanthi?
4. Explain the life cycle of Sciropophaga nivella in details.
5. Write an essay on Pests of sugarcane crops.
6. Give a zoological name of following common insect pests names
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a) Rice Gandhi Bug

b) White Sugarcane fly
c) African Army Worm
d) Sugarcane Top Borer
e) Spiny Leaf Beetle
f) Sorghum Shoot Fly
g) Oriental armyworm
h) Wheat Aphid
8 Explain the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Ophideres
fullonia?
9 Describe the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Pyrilla
perpusilla.
8.9 Reference Books
 Agricultural Pests of India and South-East Asia - A. S. Atwal,
Publisher- Kalyani Publishers, 1986, ISBN-817096475X,
978817096475
2011, ISBN- 1444397877, 9781444397871
 Destruction and Useful Insect, Their Habits and Control, C. L. Metcalf,
W. P. Flint and R. L. Metcalf, Mc Grow Hill Co. New York.
 Agriculture Entomology, H. S. Dennis, Timber Press, Inc.
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Unit- 9
Storage products Pests and Pests of
medical and veterinary importance
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Pests of Stored Grains
9.4 Pests of Medical And Veterinary Importance
9.5 Musca domestica Linnaeus, 1758 (House Fly)
9.6 Tabanus atratus (Horse Fly)
9.7 Stomoxys calcitrans, Linnaeus, 1758 (Stable Fly, biting flies)
9.8 Xenopsylla cheopis, Rothschild, 1903 (The Oriental Rat-Flea / Black
Death)
9.9 Hypoderma lineatum Devillers (The Bot / Warble Flies / Heel Flies,
Gadflies)
9.10 Pediculus sps. (Human Louse and Head Louse)
9.11 Summary
9.13 References
9.1 Objectives
By the end of the chapter, the student would acquaint himself with- Storage
Products Loss, Primary and secondary grain pests, Stored Products Pests -
Systematic Position, Distribution, Food, Description, Life Cycle, Nature of
Damage of Sitophilus oryzae Linnaeus, 1763 (The Rice Weevil), Rhyzopertha
dominica, Fabricius, 1792 (Lesser Grain Borer, Grain weevil), Trogoderma
granarium, Everts, 1898 (The Khapra Beetle), Sitotroga cerealella, Olivier,
1789 (The Angoumois Grain Moth), Callosobruchus chinensis, Linnaeus, 1758
(Pulse beetle), Stored Products Pest Management (Control)
The various Pests of Medical & Veterinary Importance - Systematic Position,
Distribution, Hosts, Description, Life Cycle, Nature of Damage, Medical
Importance (Diseases), Control of Mosquito (Anopheles, Culex, / Aedes),
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Musca domestica Linnaeus, 1758 (House Fly),Tabanus atratus (Horse

Fly),Stomoxys calcitrans, Linnaeus, 1758 (Stable Fly, biting flies),Xenopsylla
cheopis, Rothschild, 1903 (The Oriental Rat-Flea / Black Death), Hypoderma
lineatum Devillers (The Bot / Warble Flies / Heel Flies, Gadflies), Pediculus
sps. (Human Louse and Head Louse)
9.2 Introduction
Storage Products Loss
According to report by UN March, 2013 present world population is expected
to reach 10.5 billion by 2050, further adding to global food security concerns.
This increase translates into 33% more human mouths to feed, with the greatest
demand growth in the poor communities of the world. In order to fulfil food
demand in2050, food supplies would need to increase by 60%. This will be
only possible by increasing production, improving distribution, and reducing
the losses. Thus, reduction of post-harvest food losses is a critical component of
ensuring future global food security.
Every year approximately one quarter and one third of the world grain crop is
lost during storage by insect pests. The main reason behind this is improper
storage management, in India, unscientific storing, rodents, insects and
microorganisms accounts for nearly 10% wastage of food grains, a quantity
good enough to feed at least fifty million people. Food storage continues to be
an important problem from the time man learned to grow crops. Millions of
tons of food-grains are either damaged or lost for want of adequate scientific
knowledge and methods of storage. The loss is not merely in terms of quantity
but also in quality of the food-grains. The qualitative loss is attributed to change
in the various essential chemical constituents who retard the nutritive
significance of the grains. Grain quality is severely reduced by insect damage.
Many grain pests preferentially eat out grain embryos, thereby reducing the
protein content of feed grain and lowering the percentage of seeds which
germinate. Many stored grain pests include the lesser grain borer, rice weevil
and rust red flour beetle causes both quantitative and qualitative losses. Stored-
grain pests attack, consume, contaminate and make the grains unfit, either as
food or as seed.
Insect pests also increase costs to grain growers both directly through the
expense of control on the farm, and indirectly through the costs incurred by
grain handling authorities in controlling weevils in bulk storages.
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Grain insect pests may be divided into primary and secondary pests. Primary
grain insects have the ability to attack whole, unbroken grains, while secondary
pests attack only damaged grain, dust and milled products.
Primary grain pests
Insects considered as primary pests of stored products cause damage to stored
grains by directly feeding on the grain at some point in their lifecycle. Primary
pests will attack grains that are intact and stable. Whole sound grain is stable
when its temperature and moisture content are below the levels needed for
germination. Primary pest species often develop and reproduce very quickly
when the conditions are optimal. This allows for large populations and,
therefore, considerable damage to ensue within a matter of a few months.
Some examples of primary grain pests are
 Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica)
 Granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius)
 Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae)
 Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella)
Secondary grain pests
Secondary pests generally feed on grain that is damaged or is going out of
condition. Damaged grain kernels have exposed endosperm that is accessible
food for insects and fungi. The presence of secondary insect pests often
indicates that the grain is not at optimal condition and that measures should be
implemented to protect the grain from a further decline in quality.
Some examples of secondary grain pests are
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 Rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum)

 Confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum)
 Saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis)
 Flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes spp.)
 Warehouse moth (Ephestia spp.)
 Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella)
 Warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variable)
On the basis of feeding behaviour stored grain pests are categorised as follows:
Paddy: Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus))
Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella (OIivier))
Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius))
Siamese grain beetle (Lophocateres pusillus (Klug))
Flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes pusillus (Schonherr))
Rice: Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky)
Rice weevil (S. oryzae (Linnaeus))
Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst))
Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica Stainton)
Saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis

(Linnaeus))
Flat grain beetle (Cryptolestes pusillus (Schonherr))
Maize & Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky)

sorghum:
Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst))
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Corn-sap beetle (Carpophilus dimidiatus (Fabricius))
Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica Stainton)
Tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella (Walker))
Pulses: Cowpea beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius))
Southern cowpea beetle (C. chinensis (Linnaeus))
Tropical warehouse moth (Ephestia cautella (Walker))
Cassava: Coffee bean weevil (Araecurus fasciculatus (Degeer))
Lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius))
Cigarette beetle (Lasioderrna serricorne (Fabricius))
9.3 Pests of Stored Grains

Sitophilus oryzae Linnaeus, 1763 (The Rice Weevil)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Curculionidae
Genus: Sitophilus
Species: oryzae, Linnaeus, 1763
DISTRIBUTION
The Rice Weevil is found quite abundantly throughout the warmer parts of the
world, extending up to Baluchistan in Europe and Japan in the east. It is the
commonest and, perhaps, the most destructive pest of stored grain throughout
the world. The pest is found throughout India. These pests are carried all over
the world in grain shipments and can establish themselves wherever there is
food and where grain moisture and temperature are favourable.
FOOD
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Rice weevils are usually found in grain storage facilities or processing plants,
infesting wide variety of grains with preference for wheat, other food of rice
weevil are oats, rye, barley, nuts, rice, and corn. They are sometimes found
infesting beans, birdseed, sunflower seeds, dried corn, and flour products. It is
also observed on processed cereal products such as pasta, macaroni and
spaghetti etc. Rice weevils do not bite, nor do they damage wood or furniture.
DESCRIPTION
Adult weevils are about 3/32 to 1/8 inch long. The adult rice weevil is a dull
reddish-brown to black with round or irregularly shaped pits (round
depressions) on the thorax and four light reddish or yellowish spots on the
elytra. The adult is with a cylindrical body and a long, slender, curved rostrum.
It can fly and is attracted to lights.
In Palaearctic region the species is replaced by Sitophilus granarium. It is
distinct from another allied species, the grain weevil, Sitophilus granarium,
which is wingless with punctuate prothorax and elytra but without four yellow
spots on elytra. Both the species are similar in size and appearance and are
found together feeding upon rice, wheat, maize and other grains. The rice
weevil may, however, be found in the paddy fields as well.
LIFE CYCLE
The rice weevil breeds from April to October and hibernates in winter as an
adult inside cracks and crevices or under wheat bags in the godowns. During
the active season, the females lay eggs on the grain by making a depression
with the help of their mandibles. After an egg has been laid, the hole is sealed
with a gelatinous secretion. The adult female rice weevil lays an average of 4
eggs per day and may live for four to five months. Female produces 250-400
eggs. A single generation can be completed in around 28 days. The eggs hatch
in 6-7 days and the young larvae bore directly into grain, where they feed and
grow to maturity. Then, they pupate inside the grain. The pupa, at first, is dirty
white, but later on becomes dark brown. The full-grown larva is 5 mm in
length, and is plump, fleshy legless creature, having a white body and a yellow-
brown head and is humpbacked. The larvae feed inside the grain kernel for an
average of 18 days. The pupal stage lasts an average of 5-16 days range. The
new adult will remain in the seed for 3 to 4 days while it’s cuticle hardens and
matures. On emergence, the adult weevil cuts its way out of the grain and lives
for about 4-5 months. At least 3-4 generations are completed in a year.
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Figure: Life cycle of Sitophilus oryzae
NATURE OF DAMAGE
The rice weevils destroy more than what they eat. Heavy damage is caused by
this pest to wheat, rice, maize and sorghum grains, particularly in the monsoon.
It has also been reported feeding on oats, barley, cotton-seed, linseed and
cocoa. Both (grubs) larva as well as the adult cause damage to grains. Larvae
feed inside the seed and make in hollow and exit by making a circular hole on
the surface. Adults can damage several seeds by cutting an irregularly lined
circular hole, through which they feed on the kernel.
Rhyzopertha dominica, Fabricius, 1792 (Lesser Grain Borer, Grain weevil)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Bostrichidae
Genus: Rhyzopertha
Species: dominica, Fabricius, 1792
DISTRIBUTION
The lesser grain borer is thought to be originate from the Indian subcontinent
but it now has a cosmopolitan distribution. The lesser grain borer is found
throughout the tropical and also in temperate countries. It is a serious pest of
dried stored products and most likely spread as a result of the international
trade in food products combined with its strong flying ability.
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FOOD
The lesser grain borer feeds mainly on maize, oats, barley, rice, millet,
sorghum, wheat, durum wheat, chilli, coriander, turmeric, cassava, beans,
ginger, wheat flour, and a variety of dried stored products. The lesser grain
borer can be found mainly in cereal stores, buildings, shipping containers and
food and animal feed processing industries.
DESCRIPTION
The adult R. dominica is 2-3mm long, reddish-brown in colour with a
slim cylindrical shape. The elytra, which cover membranous hind wings, have
regular rows of coarse punctures, finer at sides covered with curved setae. The
front edge of the pronotum (plate-like covering of front segment of the thorax)
has a saw-toothed appearance. The head is not visible when viewed from above
and its antennae end in a distinctive 3-segmented club-shape.
LIFE CYCLE
R. dominica females lay between 200 and 500 eggs in their lifetime. The eggs
are laid outside grains either singly or in clusters of up to about 20. The eggs
are ovoid in shape, 0.6 mm in length, 0.2 mm in diameter, laid loosely in
grains. They are white when first laid, and turn rose to brown before hatching.
The larvae are white to cream coloured, with biting mouthparts and three pairs
of legs. There are usually four larval instars. The larvae are scarabaeiform, the
first two instars are not recurved, the third and fourth instars have the head and
thorax recurved towards the abdomen. The widths of the head from the first to
the fourth instar are 0.13, 0.17, 0.26 and 0.41 mm, and the lengths of the larvae
are 0.78, 1.08, 2.04 and 3.07 mm, respectively. The young larvae are mobile in
grain bulks but become immobile and gradually more C-shaped as they
complete their development concealed within grain or flour. The pupae are 3.91
mm in length, with 0.7 mm between the eyes. At the end of the abdomen, the
male pupae have a pair of 2-segmented papillae fused to the abdomen for their
entire length, whereas female papillae are 3-segmented and project from the
abdomen. Adults are emerged out by chewing through the outer grain layers.
Adults are 2-3 mm in length, reddish-brown and cylindrical. The elytra are
parallel-sided, the head is not visible from above, and the pronotum has rasp-
like teeth at the front. They can live up to 240 days.
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Figure: Life cycle of Rhyzopertha dominica

NATURE OF DAMAGE
The lesser grain borer is a serious pest of stored grain and cereal products. Both
adult and larva damage the grain by boring or feeding the grains internally. The
pest hollows previously undamaged grains, eating the starch. The holes are
characteristic with an even edge. They feed on the entire grain apart from the
bran leaving behind empty husks and flour.
Trogoderma granarium, Everts, 1898 (The Khapra Beetle)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Dermestidae
Genus: Trogoderma
Species: granarium, Everts, 1898
DISTRIBUTION
The khapra beetle is now found in almost all continents where grain and grain
products are stored. Although a native of India, khapra beetle has gone abroad
and has been reported from England, Germany, Israel and the USA. In the
Indian Subcontinent, it is a very destructive pest of wheat and other grains,
particularly in the north-western dry regions of Pakistan, Rajasthan, Haryana
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and Punjab. It has been described as one of the 100 worst invasive species
worldwide.
FOOD
It is considered an important pest of Arachis hypogaea (groundnut), Cicer
arietinum (chickpea), Gossypium (cotton), Helianthus annuus (sunflower),
Hordeum vulgare (barley), Oryza sativa (rice), Panicum miliaceum (millet),
Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Sesamum indicum (sesame), Sorghum
bicolor (sorghum), Triticum aestivum (wheat), Vicia faba (faba bean), Vigna
unguiculata (cowpea), Zea mays (maize). Apart from above, the insect has also
been recorded on poppy (Papaver somniferum), pulses, pistachio, walnut and
other dried stored products.
DESCRIPTION
The adults are oblong-oval beetles, approximately 1.6 to 3.0 mm long and 0.9
to 1.7 mm wide. Males are brown to black with indistinct reddish brown
markings on their elytra. The head is small, retractile and deflexed with short
11-segmented clubbed antennae. The antennae have a club of three to five
segments, which fit into a groove in the side of the pronotum. The adults are
covered with hairs. The males are distinguished from females by being smaller
usually half the size of the females and darker, with more elongated terminal
points of the antennae.
LIFE CYCLE
Adult khapra beetles have wings, but apparently do not fly and feed very little.
Mated females live from four to seven days, unmated females from 20 to 30
days, and males from seven to 12 days. The insect breeds from April to October
and hibernates in the larval stage from November to March in cracks and
crevices of walls and floors or in other sheltered places. Copulation takes place
2-3 days after emergence, a male being capable of fertilizing more than one
female. One to three days after copulation, the female begins to lay, on the
grains, white translucent eggs, singly or sometimes in clusters of 2-5. The eggs
are rather cylindrical, rounded at one end and narrow at the other. A female
may lay 13-35 eggs in 1-7 days at the rate of 1-26 eggs per day, the largest
number being laid on the first day. The incubation period varies from 3-5 days
in June to 6-10 days in October. The viability of the eggs varies from 86 per
cent in September to 58 per cent in October. A newly emerged yellowish-white
larva is about 1.5mm long and has a brownish head. When full-grown, it is
about 4mm in length and is brownish, with yellow-brown transverse bands
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across the body which has long hairy bristles. The integument between the
segments and the ventral surface of the body is plate yellow. The male larva is
full-fed in 20-30 days and the female larva in 24-40 days. Pupation takes place
in the last larval skin among the grains. This stage lasts 4-6 days. The adults are
incapable of flying. There are 4-5 generations in year.
NATURE OF DAMAGE
The adult beetle does not bore into host material but only young larvae feed on
damaged seed and older larvae on whole grains. The greatest damage is done in
summer from July to October. Only the larvae cause damage. The grubs eat the
grain near the embryo or at any other weak point and from there proceed
inwards. They usually confine themselves to the upper 50 cm layer of grains in
a heap or to the periphery in a sack of grains. Since the larvae are positively
thigmotactic, they can be collected by merely placing gunny bags on a heap of
grain. Damage can be severe with weight losses of between 5-30% and in
extreme cases 70%.
Figure: Life cycle of Trogoderma granarium
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Sitotroga cerealella, Olivier, 1789 (The Angoumois Grain Moth)

SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Gelechiidae
Genus: Sitotroga
Species: cerealella, Olivier, 1789
DISTRIBUTION
It is commonly called as “Angoumois grain moth” because it was first
described in 1736 from Angoumois province of France. This pest is found in
almost all parts of the world and is one of the most destructive to the unmilled
grains. In America it is commonly called “Fly Weevil”. In Bengal it is known
as ‘Survi’. In the Indian Subcontinent, the pest is more abundant in the
mountainous areas or where the climate is rather mild.
FOOD
It is considered an important pest of stored grain, such as Triticum aestivum
(wheat), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Zea mays (maize), Sorghum bicolor
(sorghum), Arachis hypogaea (groundnut), Cicer arietinum (chickpea),
Gossypium (cotton), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Hordeum vulgare (barley),
Oryza sativa (rice), Panicum miliaceum (millet), Pennisetum glaucum (pearl
millet), Sesamum indicum (sesame), etc.
DESCRIPTION
The adult is a buff, grey-yellow, brown or straw-coloured moth, measuring
about 10-12mm in wing-expanse. The head, thorax and filiform antennae are
pale brown; labial palpi are long, slender, sharply pointed and upcurved, pale
brown with dark tips, terminal segment longer than second, second segment
rough-scaled beneath. The forewing is elongate, pale brown or ochreous-brown,
with a few black scales at the base of the dorsum and a concentration of black
scales towards the apex. The hind wing is greyish-brown, apex greatly
produced and abdomen is brownish in appearance. It can be distinguished from
other common moths by the presence the narrow pointed wings fringed with
long hair, most prominent along the posterior margin.
LIFE CYCLE
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Generally breeding in the Angoumois Grain Moth takes place from April to
October. After emergence, moths mate within 24 hours and the females start
laying eggs singly or in batches on or near the grain. The eggs are small and
white, when freshly laid, turning reddish later on. The egg is oval with the
anterior (micropylar) end truncate and bearing longitudinal ridges and weaker
transverse ridges. A single female lays on an average 150 eggs, usually within a
week after mating. The eggs are laid singly or in clumps of variable numbers.
The newly emerged larvae bore into the grain where they will complete their
development. The larva is rarely seen, because it completes its development
within a single grain. The tiny caterpillar crawls about and penetrates the grain,
effecting entrance generally through a crack or abrasion in the pericarp. The
head is small and yellowish-brown and retracted into the thorax. The body of
the larva is stout and yellowish-white, the peritreme of spiracles is brown. The
prothoracic and anal plates are weakly developed and concolorous with the
integument. The abdominal prolegs are weakly developed, each with no more
than three crotchets. The anal comb is absent. It feeds on the kernel and remains
there for the rest of its life. The full grown caterpillar is about 5.0 mm long. The
rate of development is dependent on temperature, humidity and the host. The
incubation period is about 4-8 days in summer. A silken cocoon is spun, inside
which reddish-brown pupa is formed. The larval stage lasts for 2-3 weeks.
The final-instar larva spins a silken cocoon and changes to a reddish-brown
pupa. The abdominal spiracles are slightly raised and the pupal cremaster has
one dorsal and two lateral, short, stout spines. Later, the adult emerges, by
pushing aside the seed-coat that covers the exit. After one week of the pupation
period, the young moth emerges through the thin seed-coat left by the
caterpillar.
The newly emerged adult comes out through the window of the seed coat,
leaving a small, but characteristic, round hole, usually in the crown end of the
grain. Adults are strong fliers and can disperse easily. However, they are not
strong and are can only infest the outermost layers of stored grain if it is closely
packed. Several generations are completed in a year.
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Figure: Life cycle of Sitotroga cerealella

NATURE OF DAMAGE
Only whole cereals are attacked, greatest damage occurs in the upper layer
grains in bags, bins etc. The damage is maximum during the monsoon.
Infestation starts in the field itself as damp grain is preferred for oviposition.
The initial infestation takes place when the young grain is in or passing through
the ‘milk stage’ in the field and usually a small percentage of grain kernels are
infested in the beginning. Larvae is the main damage causing stage. The larva
bores its way into the grain. Due to the small size of larva the hole made in
grain is difficult to detect. It is often noticed that after the larva enters into the
grain, it turns about and spins a silken web over the opening through which it
has entered, thus making it even more difficult to locate the entrance hole once
it is inside the grain, the larva eats out the kernel. The infected grains are
hollowed out by the larvae and replaced by their excrement and webbing.
The larva bores into the grain and feeds on its contents. As it grows, it extends
the hole which partly gets filled with pellets of excreta. Usually, about 30-50
per cent of the contents are consumed, but some-times the larva finishes off the
entire grain. With infestation the grains give out an unpleasant smell and
present an unhealthy appearance, each grain being covered with scales shed
from the moths. In a heap of grain, it is the upper layers that are most severely
affected.
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Callosobruchus chinensis, Linnaeus, 1758 (Pulse beetle)

SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Chrysomelidae (Bruchidae)
Genus: Callosobruchus
Species: chinensis, Linnaeus, 1758
DISTRIBUTION
C. chinensis displays a cosmopolitan distribution pattern and has been spotted
in most countries due to the commercial export of beans. The pulse beetle is
distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia, and their population has grown
extensively since the cultivation and distribution of legumes. Their distribution
is heavily influenced by human production and they only live by legumes that
are suitable for them to mate on and their larvae to feed on. Both the larvae and
the adults feed on the legume.
FOOD
C. chinensis is a major pest of chickpeas, lentils, green gram, broad beans,
soybean, adzuki bean and cowpeas in various tropical regions. It also attacks
other pulses on occasions, but appears to be incapable of developing on
common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). It prefers cowpea (Vigna catjang) but it
also infest the seeds of different pulses such as red gram, arhar, lentil, pea,
small pea, mung, urid, moth, soyabean, khesari etc. It also causes damage to
seeds in pods of red gram in the field.
DESCRIPTION
C. chinensis adults are 2.0-3.5 mm long. The antennae are pectinate in the male,
and serrate in the female. The elytra are pale brown, with small median dark
marks and larger posterior dark patches, which may merge to make the entire
posterior part of the elytra dark in colour. The side margins of the abdomen
have distinct patches of coarse white setae. In common with other species of
Callosobruchus, C. chinensis has a pair of distinct ridges (inner and outer) on
the ventral side of each hind femur, and each ridge has a tooth near the apical
end. The inner tooth is slender, rather parallel-sided, and equal to (or slightly
longer than) the outer tooth.
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LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of the most economically important species of bruchid is
relatively short. Under optimal conditions complete development takes place in
as little as 22-25 days. The optimum temperature for oviposition is 23°C. As
the eggs are laid, they are firmly glued to the surface of the host seed, smooth-
seeded varieties being more suitable for oviposition than rough-seeded
varieties. The eggs are domed structures with oval, flat bases. When newly laid
they are small, translucent grey and inconspicuous. Eggs hatch within 5-6 days
of oviposition. Upon hatching, the larva bites through the base of the egg,
through the testa of the seed and into the cotyledons. Detritus produced during
this period is packed into the empty egg as the insect hatches, turning the egg
white and making it clearly visible to the naked eye.
The developing larva feeds entirely within a single seed, excavating a chamber
as it grows. The larvae chew tunnels through the bean until it is ready to pupate.
Mature adults emerge from the bean, biting a neat circular exit from the pod as
soon as 25 days after hatching. The adult beetles live up to two weeks after
emerging from the pupa. The optimum development conditions for C. chinensis
are around 32°C and 90% RH. The minimum development period is 22-23 days
for C. chinensis, pupation taking place within the seed 26 days after
oviposition.
Figure: Life cycle of Callosobruchus chinensis
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NATURE OF DAMAGE
Callosobruchus chinensis is a very serious primary stored pest, causing
enormous damage to almost all kind of pulse grains. Infestation may start in the
pods before harvest and carry over into storage where substantial losses may
occur. Levels of infestation may be high. Damage to the pulse grain is mainly
caused by the developing larvae. Just after hatching young larvae bores into the
grain, feed upon the contents of the grain making them almost hollow and
empty.
STORED PRODUCTS PEST MANAGEMENT (CONTROL)
Physical control
Physical control of stored grain pests involves the manipulation of the
temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric composition (air gases
composition), sanitation, ionizing radiation and the removal of adult
insects from the grain either by sieving or air. All these practices may be
helpful in eliminating or reducing insect pest infestations to a tolerable
level.
Sieves
• Damaged grain can be differentiated from normal grains. The
infested grain usually give off a sweet smell. Sieving a sample of
grain is the simplest detection method but it will only detect
adults and larvae that are outside the grain. It will be difficult to
detect or isolate eggs or early larval pest instars.
• In Indian Families use of hand sieves is a very ancient and
traditional method to isolate pests from stored grains or products.
Hand sieves are commonly used for assessing the foreign matter
content of small samples of grain. Round-framed sieves or
square-framed sieves with a diameter of 300 to 310 mm are used.
Each set of sieves should be provided with a bottom receiver, for
the collection of filtered material passing through the screens,
and a lid to prevent spillage during the sieving.
• Sack sieves are used for assessing foreign matter content of grain
more accurately by screening the contents of whole sacks.
• A sack sieve should possess two essential features a hopper for
feeding grain gradually on to the screen and a screen and a
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screen that moves during the sieving operation. The slope of a

moving screen should ensure that the grain is kept in motion
towards the discharge end. Lateral movement of the screen, as in
a rotary type of sieve, is more efficient in separating out foreign
matter than the end-to-end movement of other kinds of
mechanical sieve.
Sanitation and hermetic sealing
Cleaning during grading operations, drying, cool storage and
hermetically sealed packaging can all play an effective role in
conserving the seed viability with residue free pest control.
Grain packaging in airtight structures is one of the most important
physical methods controlling pests. The structures should be pressure-
tested to confirm airtightness. Portable hermetic storage bags are also
available.
Removing insects by sieving is not equally effective for all species as
several insect species, spend most time of their life cycle remaining
inside the grain or kernel. Impacting the grain, either by moving the
grain using a pneumatic conveyer or dropping the grain onto a spinning,
studded disc, can reduce pest’s populations by over 90%. Good
sanitation, particularly the removal of spilt grain around storage
facilities, is a preliminary step in reducing insect populations that can
infest grain in storage.
Aeration and drying
One of the more effective non-chemical control methods is to cool the
grain with aeration fans, which gradually suppresses insect population
growth in the storage period. Aeration starting from harvesting, using
automatic fan controllers, allowed safe storage of grain for several
months.
A moisture content of 25% is not uncommon in newly harvested grain
in humid regions, but grains with 14% mc can be safely stored for 2-3
months. For longer storage periods, from 4-12 months, the moisture
content must be reduced further. Reducing grain moisture content
reduces the number of eggs produced and the survival of offspring and
adults. There are 3 types of drying: ambient air drying, sun drying and
mechanical drying. In ambient air drying system, air is heated and
passed through grain to produce a relatively high vapour pressure
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gradient between the moisture in the grain and the moisture in the
drying air. This gradient causes moisture to move from the grain into the
air, where it is then exhausted from the grain bulk to the outside
atmosphere. In many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America grain
drying is achieved by spreading a thin layer of grain in the sun, on the
threshing floor or on rooftops. A mechanical way to remove the water
from wet grains is by blowing (heating) air through the grain.
Mechanical drying of wheat grain is not practiced in many the
developing countries, which largely rely on sun drying.
Radiation
Radio-frequency heat treatment is increasingly used as a new thermal
method for the disinfection of post-harvest insect populations in
agricultural commodities. The application of this method leaves no
chemical residue and provides acceptable product quality with minimal
environmental impacts. More recently, a flameless catalytic infrared
emitter was used to disinfest hard red winter wheat containing different
life stages (eggs, larvae, pupae and 2-week-old adults) of R. dominica.
Airtight storages
When grains are stored in an airtight container, the oxygen content in
this container will decrease slowly due to the metabolism of the grains,
insects and microorganisms until there will not be enough oxygen for
any insect development. Airtight storage is an attractive way to protect
produce against insects without pesticides, but often the costs of
constructing suitable silos prevent their general use. For airtight storage
on a small scale, oildrums or plastic bags may be used.
Temperature Control
Since most stored product insects cannot tolerate extreme temperature,
heating and cooling are logical approaches to insect control. To some
extent it has been a common practice to superheat some commodities for
insect control. The temperatures of 55-60°C maintained for 10 to 12
hours are effective. Actually, these temperatures kill most insects very
quickly but when the grain and materials are involved, the certain
temperature must be kept for several hours to ensure complete
penetration.
Low temperature is probably the most important single factor in making
long term storage possible and economical. The insects become inactive
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and eventually die at a temperature below 12°C. Freezing quickly kills

many insects. Low temperature is also important in maintaining seed
viability.
Moisture Control
Most of the stored grain insects are unable to survive and reproduce in
grain whose moisture content is below 9 per cent. Most favorable grain
moistures for insect development ranges from 12 to 15 per cent. If, by
various means, it is possible to reduce and maintain the moisture below
than favorable for reproduction and development, then we have in
effect, controlled the insects.
All agricultural products should be well dried before storage especially
for storing in silos. A high moisture content tends to increase insect and
mould development; to bacterial deterioration, and chemical changes in
the produce. When the crop is ripe it still has a high moisture content.
Under dry weather conditions the crop is usually left in the field to dry,
but in the humid tropics artificial drying is often necessary.
Produce should not be stored at moisture contents higher than indicated
below.
Paddy 15%
Rice, Maize, Wheat, 13%

Sorghum
Millet 16%
Cowpeas, Beans 15%
Groundnuts, Cocoa Beans 7%

The manipulation of gases (nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) within storage structures has been widely studied for the
control of insect infestations. The two main approaches involve
increasing CO2 concentration and reducing oxygen in the storage
vicinity. To control the insect infestations, oxygen levels must be
maintained below 1% for 20 days, or carbon dioxide levels maintained
at 80% for 9 days, 60% for 11 days or 40% for 17 days. The storage
structures should be sealed properly before the addition of gases.
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Biological control
 There are a few parasites and predators that attack the stored grain pests
but their effectiveness in the field is uncertain. The fungus Beauveria
bassiana can be used as a biological insecticide.
 Use of different types of predators like Teretriosoma nigrescens, a
histerid beetle that is found in Central America, where it primarily feeds
on Prostephanus truncates, a species closely related to R. dominica. It is
able to feed on R. dominica. However, the ability of T. nigrescens to
significantly reduce R. dominica populations has yet to be determined.
 Xylocoris flavipes (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is a predator of many
stored product insect pest. The cadelle Tenebroides mauritanicus also
feeds on grain, mites and stored-product insect eggs, including
Rhyzopertha. The predatory mites Cheyletus eruditus and Pyemotes
ventricosus feed on a wide variety of stored product insect eggs, but
their effect on populations in the field has not been determined. Among
the four Cheyletus species found in storage structures of Central Europe,
only C. eruditus is employed for the biocontrol of stored grain insect
pests.
 Most of the parasitoids that attack the primary beetle pests are in the
families Pteromalidae and Bethylidae. These hymenopteran parasitoids
are very small, do not feed on the grain and can easily be removed from
the grains by using normal cleaning processes. Choetospila elegans is a
small pteromalid wasp that attacks R. dominica and certain other
coleopteran and lepidopeteran insect pests. The wasp normally
parasitizes larvae that are feeding inside the grain. The hymenopteran
parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae suppressed R. dominica
populations in all types of storage bag except those made of polythene.
The highest percentage (81%) suppression occurred in calico bags and
the lowest suppression (57%) occurred in polypropylene bags. The egg
parasitic mite Acarophenax lacunatus significantly reduces the
population of R. dominica.
 The use of entomopathogenic fungi has been evaluated extensively in
laboratory and field studies against different stored grain pests. The
pathogenicity of entomophaghous fungi depends upon various physical
(temperature, relative humidity, application time of fungal insecticide,
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dark and light period etc.) and biological factors (the specific host
species, host pathogen interaction etc.). Unlike other microbial control
agents, fungi possess the ability to infect the insects through cuticle.
Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota: Hyphomycetes) and Metarhizium
anisopliae (Ascomycota: Sordario) are the most extensively studies
fungal species in this regard.
 By application of different botanical insecticides there can be effective
control of various stored grain pests. Over the last 15 years, due to
environmental concerns and insect pest resistance to conventional
chemicals, interest in botanical insecticides has increased. Botanical
insecticides are naturally occurring insecticides which are derived from
plants. Compared to synthetic compounds they are less harmful to the
environment, generally less expensive, and easily processed and used by
farmers and small industries. Botanical insecticides are used in several
forms, such as powders, solvent extracts, essential oils and whole plants,
these preparations have been investigated for their insecticidal activity
including their action as repellents, anti-feedants and insect growth
regulators.
 Natural feeding inhibitors found in either wild or cultivated plants are
usually alkaloids and glycosides. The mode of action of these
compounds is complex and poorly understood, although it is found that
insects exposed to such substances usually stop feeding, resulting in a
decreased body weight or even death if the insects fail to feed for a long
period of time.
 Plant essential oils and solvent extracts are the most studied botanical
methods of controlling stored grain insect infestations. The essential oils
obtained from different plant species repel several insect pests and
possess ovicidal and larvicidal properties. Although they are considered
by some as environmentally compatible pesticides, some botanicals,
especially essential oils, are toxic to a broad range of animals, including
mammals
Chemical Control
For the protection of stored produce against the insects the following groups of
pesticides are used:
1. Insecticides
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2. Fumigants
For the protection of store products, only pesticides with low mammalian
toxicity should be used. Insecticides which are accumulated in the human body
e.g. DDT are of course completely unsuitable for use on stored produce.
Insecticides may be used for spraying wall, floors and ceilings of warehouses or
storerooms in order to kill a residual infestation. The insecticides can also be
sprayed directly on bagged produce. This may prevent or delay reinfestation of
insect-free produce. Insecticides may be mixed with the produce. This can give
complete protection for a long period and may also kill pests which have
already infested the produce. The best way however to disinfect produce,
warehouses or storerooms, is by means of fumigation. The fumigants used
penetrate into the grain or compressed products like tobacco and kill all insects.
Some fumigants kill also micro-organisms. After fumigation, reinfestation must
be prevented by insecticides or by storing the produce in an insect proof silo or
container.
1) Insecticides
During the past years a number of other insecticides have become available, the
use of few is permitted in several countries. The most important and commonly
used insecticides are the following:
 Malathion - This is a safe insecticide which can be admixed to or
sprayed on shelled (threshed) or unshelled (unthreshed) grains. On
stored produce only premium grade malathion must be used. The
product must be dry, (moisture content not higher than 13.5%)
otherwise the malathion breaks down very fast.
 Pyrethrins - are mostly admixed with a synergist to increase their
effectiveness and stability and to reduce costs. The shelf life of dust
formulations is rather short.
 Bioresmethrin
 Bromephos
 Chlorpyrifos-Methyl
 Fenitrothion
 Pirimiphos-Methyl
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 Tetrachlorvinphos
2) Fumigants
A fumigant is a chemical which at the required temperature and pressure can
exist in the gaseous state in sufficient concentration to be lethal to a given pest
organism. Many fumigants are available and several are commonly used
throughout the world. Any confined space which can be made airtight, may be
used for fumigations, e.g. silos, railway, trucks, ship holds, plastic bags, etc.
Bagged produce is mostly fumigated under gasproof sheets.
The following are commonly used fumigants-
 Methylbromide. It penetrates easily in large stacks of bagged produce
but, without a special circulation system its use in large silos is limited
because of unsatisfactory distribution of the gas in the grain bulk.
Methylbromide is highly toxic and rather sophisticated equipment such
as gas cylinders piping systems, gas masks and gas detectors are
necessary. The fumigation has to be carried out by trained personnel.
 Phosphine. This fumigant is available in the form of tablets (pellets or
sachets). Moisture absorption liberates phosphine which is very toxic to
insects. The tablets must be evenly distributed through the grain by
adding them to the grain flow when a bin is filled. The tablets can also
be inserted in or between bags which then must be covered by air-tight
sheets. Since the development of phosphine starts some hours after
application, the use of phosphine is easy, but gas masks are necessary
when aerating large stacks.
 Liquid fumigants like carbon tetrachloride or mixtures of carbon
disulphide, ethylene dibromide or ethylene dichloride and carbon
tetrachloride are easier to handle as they are less toxic to man. The
liquid is poured on the produce or left in trays to evaporate. Such a
fumigation takes several days depending on the temperature and
quantity of fumigant used.
MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY

Medical entomology, or public health entomology, is focused upon insects and
arthropods that impact human health. Medical entomology includes scientific
research on the behavior, ecology, and epidemiology of arthropod disease
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vectors, and involves a tremendous outreach to the public, including local and
state officials and other stake holders in the interest of public safety, efficient
disease control, newly budding zoonotic diseases.
Veterinary entomology deals with arthropod pests and vectors of disease agents
to livestock, poultry, pets, and wildlife. It is allied with the fields of medical
entomology, parasitology, animal sciences, veterinary medicine, and
epidemiology. The main pests of veterinary concern are sucking and biting lice,
biting flies, nonbiting muscoid flies, bot flies, fleas, and Acari (mites and ticks).
9.4 Pests of Medical and Veterinary Importance
Insects and other arthropods have a great impact on human health and welfare
directly and indirectly. These organisms have the capacity to inflict injury,
disease, discomfort, or distress. They can be a direct cause of illness, pain, and
suffering through bites and stings, infested wounds, or allergic reactions. They
feed on blood or body tissues and they may transmit deadly pathogens or
parasites. Economic losses associated with these pests are borne not only by the
affected individuals and their families, but also by human society in general.
Losses include not only the direct costs of medicine and health care, but also
indirect costs resulting from stress, absenteeism, and reduced productivity. All
of the arthropods that can pierce human skin have mouthparts that are
especially adapted for piercing, cutting, or burrowing, causing or spreading
various diseases. Some of the examples are:
1. Diptera (mosquitoes, black flies, horse flies, deer flies, stable flies, sand
flies, and various biting midges)
2. Hemiptera, (bed bugs, assassin bugs, water bugs)
3. Thysanoptera (thrips)
4. Phthiraptera (sucking lice)
5. Siphonaptera (fleas)
6. Class Arachnida (spiders, mites, and ticks).
In this unit we are going to discuss some pests of medical and veterinary
importance which are related directly or indirectly to our life.
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Mosquito (Anopheles Meigen 1818 / Culex, Linnaeus, 1758 / Aedes, Meigen,

1818)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Genus: Anopheles / Culex /
Aedes
Mosquitoes belong to the sub-order Nematocera of the order Diptera and, all
the 3,500 species described in the world so far, belong to the family Culicidae.
The mosquitoes are a family of small, midge-like flies- the Culicidae. Although
a few species are harmless or even useful to humanity, most are considered a
nuisance because they consume blood from living vertebrates,
including humans. The females of many species of mosquitoes are blood-
eating pests. In feeding on blood, some of them transmit extremely harmful
human and livestock diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever and filariasis.
There are over 3,500 species of mosquitoes in the world, and most dangerous
and common are Culex, Anopheles, and Aedes genera.
DISTRIBUTION
Mosquitoes inhabit almost all parts of the world except the polar regions. They
inhabit up to 14,000 feet altitudes in Kashmir and 3,760 feet below the sea level
in gold mines of South India. Their egg, larval and pupal stages are spent in
water and therefore, the presence of water in the environment is essential for
their breeding and existence. They commonly breed in marshy lands, near filthy
stagnant ponds, cesspools, dump cellars, and standing rain or canal waters. The
mosquitoes are among the most unwelcome biting pests because they cause
irritation and itching. In India, about 350 species of Culicinae mosquitoes are
in prevalence. Of these nearly 20 species are active in the transmission of
human diseases.
HOSTS
The feeding habits of mosquitoes are quite unique in that it is only the adult
females that bite man and other animals. The male mosquitoes feed only on
plant juices. Some female mosquitoes prefer to feed on only one type of animal
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or they can feed on a variety of animals. Female mosquitoes feed on man,

domesticated animals, such as cattle, horses, goats, etc; all types of birds
including chickens; all types of wild animals including deer, rabbits; and they
also feed on snakes, lizards, frogs, and toads. Most female mosquitoes have to
feed on an animal and get a sufficient blood meal before she can develop eggs.
If they do not get this blood meal, then they will die without laying viable eggs.
However, some species of mosquitoes have developed the means to lay viable
eggs without getting a blood meal.
DESCRIPTION
Mosquitoes are small (3-6 mm), two-winged insects belonging to the family
Culicidae of the order Diptera (two-winged flies). They are easily distinguished
from most other flies by a combination of the following characters: a long
proboscis projecting forwards from the head; the presence of scales on the wing
veins; a fringe of scales along the posterior margin of the wing; and a
characteristic wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins
being branched. Males and females can be differentiated by the form of the
antennae. In males they are very plumose, while in females they only have a
few short hairs. In most others than Anopheles species the maxillary palps in
the female are very short in contrast to the male where they are longer than the
proboscis. (In both sexes of Anopheles the maxillary palps are long, but clubbed
in the male.)
They are Holometabola with the first stage differing completely from the last
one in form, structure and habits. Most of the common and important
mosquitoes as transmitter of pathogens for animal and man belong to following
genera: Anopheles, Culex and Aedes.
Anopheles mosquitoes
They're the easiest genus to recognize because they rest with their body slanted,
unlike other genera who keep their body level. Mosquito species in this group
also breed during the warmer months. Females also deposit their eggs on the
surface of water in groups of 50 to 200. The eggs hatch and go through the
same developmental process as Culex mosquitoes. However, unlike other
mosquito larvae, Anopheles larvae do not have breathing tubes, so they must lie
parallel to the surface and breath through holes in their sides called spiracles.
While Culex mosquitoes can breed and thrive in stagnant or polluted water, the
Anopheles mosquitoes prefer clean water habitats in marshes, swamps, and rice
fields, among others. The adult females usually live about two weeks and feed
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at dusk and dawn. They tend to feed on people and cattle, rather than other
warm-blooded creatures. Anopheles mosquitoes are the carriers of the parasite
that causes malaria and transmit the bugs through their saliva when they bite.
More than one million deaths each year are attributed to malaria passed on by
Anopheles mosquitoes.
Culex mosquitoes
These mosquitoes tend to hibernate over the winter and breed during the
warmer months, laying rafts of eggs at night on the surface of standing water
anywhere it can be found. Over a period of about two weeks, the eggs hatch,
larvae emerge, develop into pupae, and then into adult mosquitoes. They
normally don’t travel more than a few hundred yards from where they hatched.
Adults feed primarily from dusk until a few hours after dark and are considered
aggressive and persistent biters, although they prefer birds to people. Females
need the protein in blood to develop eggs, which they lay about every third
night. They can live up to a month. The most prevalent is the Culex pipiens,
known as the northern house mosquito. It is the main carrier of West Nile virus.
Aedes mosquitoes
The mosquitoes in this genera are floodwater mosquitoes, meaning they lay
their eggs on moist soil or in containers that periodically catch rainfall. They
prefer to breed in tree holes, overflow ditches, and old tires. The eggs can
survive drying and hatch once flooded by water. They develop in a four-stage
process like other mosquitoes. As a predominantly tropical and subtropical
group, Aedes mosquitoes tend to breed in warm weather, although some species
can survive in colder environments. The adults feed day and night, and several
of the species are considered particularly troublesome. Aedes vexans, the inland
floodwater mosquito, is known as a fierce and painful biter. Two Aedes
mosquitoes are also carriers of dangerous disease. Aedes albopictus, the Asian
tiger mosquito, transmits dengue fever and eastern equine encephalitis, while
Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, transmits dengue and yellow fever.
LIFE CYCLE
All mosquitoes must have water in which to complete their life cycle. This
water can range in quality from melted snow water to sewage effluent and it
can be in any container imaginable. The type of water in which the mosquito
larvae is found can be an aid to the identification of which species it may be.
Also, the adult mosquitoes show a very distinct preference for the types of
sources in which to lay their eggs.
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They lay their eggs in such places such as tree holes that periodically hold
water, tide water pools in salt marshes, sewage effluent ponds, irrigated
pastures, rain water ponds, etc. Each species therefore has unique
environmental requirements for the maintenance of its life cycle.
The length of life of the adult mosquito usually depends on several factors:
temperature, humidity, sex of the mosquito and time of year. Most males live a
very short time, about a week; and females live about a month depending on the
above factors.
The mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and
they are as follows: Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be
easily recognized by their special appearance. There are three common groups
of mosquitoes. They are Aedes, Anopheles, Culex.
Egg
 Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water.
 Culex mosquitoes usually lay their eggs at night. A mosquito may lay a
raft of eggs every third night during its life span.
 Culex mosquitoes lay their eggs one at a time, sticking them together to
form a raft of from 200- 300 eggs. A raft of eggs looks like a speck of
soot floating on the water and is about 1/4 inch long and 1/8 inch wide.
 Anopheles and Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs
separately.
 Culex and Anopheles lay their eggs on water while Aedes lay their eggs
on damp soil that will be flooded by water.
 Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours.
 Culex mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of fresh or stagnant
water. The water may be in tin cans, barrels, horse troughs, ornamental
ponds, swimming pools, puddles, creeks, ditches, or marshy areas.
Mosquitoes prefer water sheltered from the wind by grass and weeds.
 Anopheles mosquitoes lay their eggs singly on the water, not in rafts.
 Aedes mosquitoes lay their eggs singly on damp soil.
 Aedes eggs hatch only when flooded with water (salt water high tides,
irrigated pastures, treeholes, flooded stream bottoms, etc.).
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Mosquito Larva
 Mosquito larvae, commonly called "wigglers" or "wrigglers", must live
in water from 7 to 14 days depending on water temperature.
 Tiny mosquito larvae emerge from the eggs within 24 hours.
 Larvae must come to the surface at frequent intervals to obtain oxygen
through a breathing tube called a siphon.
 The larva eats algae and small organisms which live in the water.
 Anopheles are unlike Culex and Aedes larvae since they do not have a
breathing tube, they must lie parallel to the water surface in order to get
a supply of oxygen through a breathing opening.
 The larva live in the water and come to the surface to breathe.
 Most larvae have siphon tubes for breathing and hang from the water
surface.
 Anopheles larvae do not have a siphon and they lay parallel to the water
surface.
 The larva feed on micro-organisms and organic matter in the water.
 During growth, the larva molts (sheds its skin) four times.
 The stages between molts are called instars. At the 4th instar, the larva
reaches a length of almost 1/2 inch.
 When the 4th instar larva molts it becomes a pupa.
Mosquito Pupa
 Mosquito pupae, commonly called "tumblers", must live in water from 1
to 4 days, depending upon species and temperature.
 The pupa is lighter than water and therefore floats at the surface.
 It takes oxygen through two breathing tubes called "trumpets".
 When it is disturbed it dives in a jerking, tumbling motion and then
floats back to the surface.
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 The pupa does not eat.

 The metamorphosis of the mosquito into an adult is completed within
the pupal case.
 The adult mosquito splits the pupal case and emerges to the surface of
the water where it rests until its body can dry and harden.
 The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage.
 This is the time the mosquito turns into an adult.
 It takes about two days before the adult is fully developed.
 When development is complete, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito
emerges as an adult.
Mosquito Adult
 Only female mosquitoes bite animals and drink blood. Male mosquitoes
do not bite, but feed on the nectar of flowers.
 Aedes mosquitoes are painful and persistent biters, attacking during
daylight hours (not at night). They do not enter dwellings, and they
prefer to bite mammals like humans. Aedes mosquitoes are strong fliers
and are known to fly many miles from their breeding sources.
 Culex mosquitoes are painful and persistent biters also, but prefer to
attack at dusk and after dark, and readily enter dwellings for blood
meals. Domestic and wild birds are preferred over man, cows, and
horses. Culex tarsalis is known to transmit encephalitis (sleeping
sickness) to man and horses. Culex are generally weak fliers and do not
move far from home, although they have been known to fly up to two
miles. Culex usually live only a few weeks during the warm summer
months. Those females which emerge in late summer search for
sheltered areas where they "hibernate" until spring. Warm weather
brings her out in search of water on which to lay her eggs.
 Anopheles mosquitoes are the only mosquito which transmits malaria to
man.
 The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short
time to allow itself to dry and all its parts to harden.
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 Also, the wings have to spread out and dry properly before it can fly.
 The egg, larvae and pupae stages depend on temperature and species
characteristics as to how long it takes for development.
 The following account show a comparative account of mosquito egg
raft, larva, pupa, and adult.
Figure – Generalized life cycle of mosquito
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Figure- Comparison of Anopheles, Culex & Aedes
MEDICAL IMPORTANCE (DISEASES)

Mosquitoes can act as vectors for many disease-causing viruses and parasites.
Infected mosquitoes carry these organisms from person to person without
exhibiting symptoms themselves.
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Mosquito-borne diseases include:

 Viral diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and chikangunya,
transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever is the most common
cause of fever in travellers returning from the Caribbean, Central
America, and South Central Asia.
 The parasitic diseases collectively called malaria, caused by various
species of Plasmodium, carried by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
 Lymphatic filariasis (the main cause of elephantiasis) which can be
spread by a wide variety of mosquito species.
 West Nile virus is a concern in the United States, but there are no
reliable statistics on worldwide cases.
 Eastern equine encephalitis virus is a concern in the eastern United
States.
 Tularemia, a bacterial disease caused by Francisella tularensis, is
variously transmitted, including by biting flies.
 Culex and Culisetaare vectors of tularemia, as well as arbovirus
infections such as West Nile virus.
 Mosquitoes as a group, transmit, in human being malaria (protozoan
pathogen), Bancroftian and Malayan filariasis (nematode infection), and
the arboviruses namely, the yellow fever virus, the breakbone or dengue
haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and the dengue shock syndrome (DSS)
viruses, the Chikun-gunya virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, the West
Nile Fever virus, etc.
 Culex pipiens fatigans is the principal intermediate host of Wuchereria
bancrofti and spreads filarial in urban areas, while the Mansonia spp.
are the intermediate hosts of Brugia malayi and spread filaria in rural
areas. Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.
CONTROL
 The most efficient method of controlling mosquitoes is by reducing
the availability of water suitable for breeding and larval and pupal
growth.
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 Large lakes, ponds, and streams that have waves, contain mosquito-
eating fish, and lack aquatic vegetation around their edges do not
contain mosquitoes; mosquitoes thrive in smaller bodies of water in
protected places.
 Dispose of unwanted tin cans and tires. Clean clogged roof gutters
and drain flat roofs. Change water in birdbaths, fountains, and
troughs twice a week.
 Clean and chlorinated swimming pools and when they are not
regularly used, they should be emptied.
 Several commercially available insecticides can be effective in
controlling larval and adult mosquitoes. These chemicals are
considered sufficiently safe for use by the public. Select a product
whose label states that the material is effective against mosquito
larvae or adults. For safe and effective use, follow the instructions
for applying the material.
 For use against adult mosquitoes, some liquid insecticides can be
mixed according to direction and sprayed lightly on building
foundations, hedges, low shrubbery, ground covers, and grasses.
 Some insecticides are available as premixed products or aerosol
cans. These devices spray the insecticide as very small aerosol
droplets that remain floating in the air and hit the flying mosquitoes.
 Various commercially available repellents can be purchased as
creams, lotions, or in pressurized cans and applied to the skin and
clothing.
 Some manufacturers also offer clothing impregnated with repellents;
coarse, repellent-bearing particles to be scattered on the ground; and
candles whose wicks can be lit to release a repellent chemical.
 The effectiveness of all repellents varies from location to location,
from person to person, and from mosquito to mosquito.
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9.5 Musca domestica Linnaeus, 1758 (House Fly)

SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
Genus: Musca
Species: domestica
DISTRIBUTION
The house fly, Musca domestica Linnaeus, is a cosmopolitan insect pest of both
outdoor and indoor area. This species is always seen in association with
humans or the activities of humans. This is believed that the common housefly
was originated on the steppes of central Asia, but now occurs on all inhabited
continents, in all climates from tropical to temperate, and in a variety of
environments ranging from rural to urban. The housefly is distributed all the
world over and it assumes alarming proportions in hot and humid climates. In
India, the common housefly belongs to main species, Musca vicina and M.
nebulo, the latter being commoner. M. domestica Linnaeus occurs only in the
temperate climate obtained in the Himalayas and other places.
HOST
Musca domestica is the most common species found in association with
humans, on hog and poultry farms, horse stables and ranches. House flies
causes a nuisance and can also transport numerous disease-causing organisms.
Excessive fly populations are not only an irritant to farm workers but, when
there are nearby human habitations, a public health problem could occur. It is
commonly associated with dead and decay matter, animal feces, but has
adapted well to feeding on garbage, so it is abundant almost anywhere people
live.
DESCRIPTION
Adult houseflies have short antennae, a grey thorax with four darker
longitudinal stripes, and a grey or yellow abdomen with a darker median line
and irregular pale yellowish spot at the anterior lateral margins. The abdomen
consists of 8 segments in males and 9 segments in females. In females, the first
5 segments are visible externally. The last 4 segments are normally retracted
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but they extend to make the ovipositor when the female lays her eggs. This
allows females to bury the eggs several mm below the surface. Females are
slightly larger than males. Like all flies (Diptera), houseflies have only one pair
of wings. The second pair is reduced to halteres, which are used for balance.
Their wings are translucent and fold back straight at rest. Houseflies are 4 to 8
mm long, and 6.35 mm long on average.
Like many other dipteran flies, mouthparts of adults are sponge-like.
Mouthparts are comprised of two fleshy, grooved lobes called the labella,
which are attached to the lower lip, known as the labium. The lower surface of
these lobes contains numerous transverse grooves that serve as liquid food
channels. Houseflies can only intake food in liquid form. The mouthparts are
suspended from the rostrum, which is a membranous projection of the lower
part of the head. The larvae have mouth hooks used to filter-feed on masses of
bacteria
The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus), superficially resembles the
house fly, but bears stiff, elongated mouthparts modified for biting animals and
people and feeding on blood. They are very persistent and usually bite around
the ankles. Their life cycle and food sources are similar to house flies, although
development is slower (20 to 25 days from egg to adult).
LIFE CYCLE
The breeding site suitable for house fly may be consists of dead and decay
matter, horse manure, human excrement, cow manure, fermenting vegetable,
and kitchen waste. It may be at place of swine, horse, sheep, cattle, and
poultry. Fruit and vegetable cull piles, partially incinerated garbage, and
incompletely composted manure also are highly favoured breeding sites.
The house fly shows a complete metamorphosis with distinct egg, larval or
maggot, pupal and adult stages. The house fly overwinters in either the larval or
pupal stage under manure piles or in other protected locations. Warm summer
conditions are generally optimum for the development of the house fly, and it
can complete its life cycle in as little as seven to ten days. However, under
suboptimal conditions the life cycle may require up to two months. As many as
10 to 12 generations may occur annually in temperate regions, while more than
20 generations may occur in subtropical and tropical regions. Copulation takes
place 24 hours after emergence and the females lay 15 to 150 small, white,
elongate eggs in batches in heaps of manure faeces or any other type of filth.
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Eggs
Each female fly can lay up to 500 eggs in several batches of 75 to 150 eggs
over a three to four day period. The number of eggs produced is a function of
female size which, itself, is principally a result of larval nutrition. Maximum
egg production occurs at intermediate temperatures, 25 to 30°C. The white egg,
about 1.2 mm in length, is laid singly but eggs are piled in small groups. Eggs
must remain moist or they will not hatch. Female flies lay numbers of eggs in
suitable larval food sources such as decomposing food in garbage, animal
excrement or other decomposing organic materials.
Maggot
The incubation period varies from 12 hours to 12 days, depending upon the
season. Eggs hatch within a day into small maggots. Early instar larvae are 3 to
9 mm long, typical creamy whitish in color, cylindrical but tapering toward the
head. The head contains one pair of dark hooks. The posterior spiracles are
slightly raised and the spiracular openings are sinuous slits which are
completely surrounded by an oval black border. The legless maggot emerges
from the egg in warm weather within eight to 20 hours. Maggots immediately
begin feeding on and developing in the material in which the egg was laid.
The larva goes through three instars and a full-grown maggot, 7 to 12 mm long,
has a greasy, cream-colored appearance. High-moisture manure favours the
survival of the house fly larva. The optimal temperature for larval development
is 35 to 38°C, though larval survival is greatest at 17 to 32°C. Larvae complete
their development in four to 13 days at optimal temperatures, but require 14 to
30 days at temperatures of 12 to 17°C.
Pupa
When the maggot is full-grown, it can crawl up to 50 feet to a dry, cool place
near breeding material and transform to the pupal stage. The pupal stage, about
8 mm long, is passed in a pupal case formed from the last larval skin which
varies in color from yellow, red, brown, to black as the pupa ages. The shape of
the pupa is quite different from the larva, being bluntly rounded at both ends.
Pupae complete their development in two to six days at 32 to 37°C, but require
17 to 27 days at about 14°C). The emerging fly escapes from the pupal case
through the use of an alternately swelling and shrinking sac, called the ptilinum,
on the front of its head which it uses like a pneumatic hammer to break through
the case.
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Adult
The house fly is 6 to 7 mm long, with the female usually larger than the male.
The female and can be distinguished from the male by the relatively wide space
between the eyes (in males, the eyes are much closed). The head of the adult fly
has reddish-eyes and sponging mouthparts. The thorax bears four narrow black
stripes and there is a sharp upward bend in the fourth longitudinal wing vein.
The abdomen is grey or yellowish with dark midline and irregular dark
markings on the sides. The underside of the male is yellowish.
Adults usually live 15 to 25 days, but may be live up for two months. Without
food, they survive only about two to three days. Longevity is enhanced by
availability of suitable food, especially sugar. Access to animal manure does
not lengthen adult life and they live longer at cooler temperatures. They require
food before they will copulate, and copulation is completed in as few as two
minutes or as long as 15 minutes. Oviposition commences four to 20 days after
copulation. Female flies need access to suitable food (protein) to allow them to
produce eggs, and manure alone is not adequate. The potential reproductive
capacity of flies is tremendous, but fortunately can never be realized. They
require food before they will copulate, and copulation is completed in as few as
two minutes or as long as 15 minutes. Oviposition commences 4-20 days after
copulation. Female flies need access to suitable food (protein) to allow them to
produce eggs, and manure alone is not adequate.
The flies are usually inactive at night, with ceilings, beams and overhead wires
within buildings, trees, and shrubs, various kinds of outdoor wires, and grasses
reported as overnight resting sites.
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Figure – Life cycle of Musca domestica

Although Musca domestica does not bite, but its control is vital to human health
and comfort in many areas of the world. The most important damage related
with this insect is the annoyance and the indirect damage produced by the
potential transmission of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
nematodes) associated with this fly. Pathogenic organisms are picked up by
flies from garbage, sewage and other sources of filth, and then transferred on
their mouthparts, through their vomitus, feces and contaminated external body
parts to human and animal food. They are capable of carrying over
100 pathogens, such as those causing food poisoning,
typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, bacillary dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax,
ophthalmia, diarrhea, shigellosis and parasitic worms. Among the pathogens
commonly transmitted by house flies are Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter,
Escherichia, Enterococcus, Chlamydia, and many other species that cause
illness.
The greatest damage done by flies is the contamination of food, resulting in the
transmission of important infectious diseases to human beings and in the
transmission of parasitic diseases to certain mammals and birds of agricultural
importance. House flies feed on liquid or semiliquid substances beside solid
material which has been softened by saliva or vomit. Because of their large
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intake of food, they deposit feces constantly, one of the factors that makes the
insect a dangerous carrier of pathogens.
It is one of the four F’s in the epidemiology of these infectious diseases :

faeces, fingers, flies and food. It also serves as an intermediate host for
Helminthes, of which 3 species of tape worms are parasitic on poultry and 3
species of nematodes are parasitic on horses, mules and donkeys.
CONTROL
The more commonly used control measures for house flies are sanitation, use of
traps, and insecticides, but in some instances integrated fly control has been
implemented. The use of biological control in fly management is still at a
relatively early stage.
Cultural control
 Cleanliness is the most important measure for housefly management.
All the breeding suitable materials on which the flies can lay eggs must
be removed, destroyed. Since the house fly can complete its life cycle in
as little as seven days, removal of wet manure at least twice a week is
necessary to break the breeding cycle. Wet straw should not be allowed
to collect inside or near the buildings.
 Killing adult flies may reduce the infestation, but elimination of
breeding areas is necessary for good management. Garbage cans and
dumpsters should have tight-fitting lids and be cleaned regularly. Dry
garbage and trash should be placed in plastic garbage bags and sealed
up. All garbage receptacles should be located as far from building
entrances as possible.
 Around homes and businesses, screening or covering of windows, doors
or air doors, and trash containers proves useful in denying access of flies
to breeding sites. Packaging household trash in plastic bags, and burying
trash under at least 15 cm of soil and in sanitary landfills also helps to
eliminate breeding. Trash cans and dumpsters should have tight-fitting
lids; failing this, slow release fumigant insecticide dispensers are
sometimes installed on the inside of the lids to reduce fly survival.
 In agricultural areas, manure can be scattered over fields so that it
quickly dries and becomes unsuitable for egg and larval survival.
Composting of manure can be effective if the compost is properly
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maintained, including regular turning. Manure can also be liquefied and

stored in lagoons anaerobically, though at some point the solids need to
be separated.
Traps
 Fly traps may be useful in both indoors and outdoors for fly control.
House flies are attracted to white surfaces and to baits that give off
odors. Indoors, ultraviolet light traps collect the flies inside an inverted
cone or kill them with an electrocuting grid. Recommended placement
areas outdoors include near building entrances, in alleyways, beneath
trees, and around animal sleeping areas and manure piles. Openings to
buildings should be tightly screened with standard window screen,
thereby denying entrance to flies.
 Traps can be baited with molasses, sugar, fruit or meat, and often are
used in combination with a device that captures the attracted flies. The
sex pheromone (Z)-9-tricosene also functions as an aggregation
pheromone, and is called muscalure. Muscalure is formulated with sugar
as a commercially-available fly bait for local population suppression, as
well as an enhancement for population monitoring.
 Ultraviolet light traps can also be used to reduce housefly population
levels.
Biological control
 Alternative house fly control strategies must be focussed with the
increasing insecticide resistant house fly populations, rising costs of
insecticides.
 Natural biological control of the house fly can be done primarily from
the actions of certain chalcidoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae),
Muscidifurax and Sphalangia spp. Ichneumonids and other parasitoids,
as well as some predatory insects (especially histerids [Coleoptera:
Histeridae] and staphylinids [Coleoptera: Staphylinidae]), etc.
 Periodic release of parasitoids during winter and spring, and following
manure removal using insectary-reared parasitoids has been quite
successful in some dairies, feedlots and poultry house situations. The
species most often released for biological suppression are M. raptor, M.
raptorellus, S. endius, and S. nigroaenea.
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 The larva of the black dump fly, Hydrotaea (=Ophyra) aenescens, is

also popular as a biological control agent for controlling house flies on
poultry farms without the use of pesticides. The adult black dump fly is
similiar in appearance to the adult house fly.
Integrated fly control
Integrated fly control programs for caged-poultry houses are based on the
following strategy:
 Selective applications of insecticides against the adult,
 Start insecticide control measures early in the spring before flies appear
and repeat as frequently as needed through the warm months.
 The manure is left undisturbed throughout the warm months when fly
breeding may occur. The manure should be removed once very early in
the spring before any flies appear.
Chemical control
 When the house fly is a major pest, the control of this insect is done by
the application of adulticides, or larvicides to directly or indirectly
suppress adult densities. Residual wall sprays can be applied where the
flies congregate. Resistance to permethrin develops more rapidly in fly
populations from farms on a continuous permethrin regime than in
farms in which permethrin and diclorvos have been alternated.
 Outdoors, the control of flies includes the use of boric acid in the bottom
of dumpsters, treatment of vertical walls adjacent to dumpsters and other
breeding sites with microencapsulated or wettable powder formulation,
and the use of fly baits near adult feeding sources.
 Indoors, the control of flies includes automatic misters, fly paper,
electrocuting and baited traps that can be used in milk rooms and other
areas of low fly numbers.
 Inside the houses, spraying the flies with DDT-5 per cent,
malathion/diazinon 2 per cent, lindane/chlordane 1 per cent, or
trichlorphon 0.5 per cent is effective in killing them.
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9.6 Tabanus atratus (Horse Fly)

SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Tabanidae
Genus: Tabanus
Species: atratus
DISTRIBUTION
Horse-flies are found all over the world except for some islands and the Polar
Regions. These flies are found in most areas of India. There are more than
2,000 species of blood sucking flies in the family Tabanidae, of which about
150 occur in India. These true flies are often large and agile in flight, and the
females bite animals, including humans, to obtain blood. They prefer to fly in
sunlight, avoiding dark and shady areas, and are inactive at night.
HOSTS
The female fly bites and sucks blood from its shoots, which include horse,
cattle, camel, elephant and sometimes man also. The females of T. atratus feed
on mammalian blood, while males, which lack mandibles, feed on nectar and
plant juices. A blood meal is necessary in order for females to nourish their
developing eggs. Horseflies are diurnal, usually feed during the day. The
mouthparts are made of six piercing organs: two mandibles, two maxillae,
hypopharynx, and a labrum-epipharynx. The mandibles and the maxillae have
sharp serrated teeth on them, which are used for puncturing the skin and
rupturing blood vessels. The labrum then functions to lap up the pool of blood
that is formed from the bite, otherwise known as telmophagy. When searching
for a host, females are attracted to large, dark, moving objects and to CO2.
Larvae feed voraciously on other insect larvae, other invertebrates and small
vertebrates. The horse flies are commonly seen more from June to August
feeding on the blood of cattle, ponies, etc. other mammals.
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DESCRIPTION
Horsefly is approximately 20-25 mm in length. These are entirely black,
including the wings, or dark brown to blackish purple. Tabanus atratus have
large compound eyes, which are dichoptic (separated) in females, and holoptic
(continuous) in males. They have prominent mouthparts, which are easily
distinguishable- The fascicle is made of six piercing organs. Starting from the
outside, there are 2 flattened, bladelike mandibles with tooth like serrations
used for cutting. Two narrow maxillae also serrated used to pierce the tissue
and blood vessels of the host, a median hypopharynx and a median labrum-
epipharynx. The hypopharynx and labrum-epipharynx make up the food canal,
while the labrum is a large sponge like organ used to lap up blood. Short stout
hairs cover the body, and wing venation is pronounced.
LIFE CYCLE
The Tabanus flies are densely populated in those areas where temperatures are
moderately high, water is easily available and vegetation is present. They are
particularly common during the monsoon when they are seen sitting on walls or
on window panes. They like the sunshine and are active during the day-time
only. Females generally attack the animals in the sun and a blood meal is
essential for the maturation of eggs which are deposited in masses on aquatic
and subaquatic vegetation as well as logs of wood near water.
Eggs are laid on stones or vegetation usually close to water. The egg masses are
attached together with a thin layer of transparent material which is waterproof.
The eggs are torpedo-shaped, 1-2 mm long and are white when freshly laid but
become darker later on. In one cluster, there may be 300-600 eggs which hatch
in 4-7 days.
On hatching, the larvae fall into water or moist earth, feeding voraciously on
invertebrates, such as snails, earthworms and other insects. It is aquatic and
feeds on small crustaceans or on the maggots of flies. Larvae can be white to
brownish in colour, having a slender, cylindrical body, measures about 3.5 mm
which tapers at the head. The larva of the black horsefly has twelve segments
and a retractable tracheal siphon used for respiration. The retractable head of
the larva has two sharp mandibles that can cause a painful bite. They pass
through 7-8 instars and may complete their development in 9 days to almost 7
months, depending upon the species, season and food supply.
On completing their development, the larvae move to drier soil on the banks of
streams to the edge of ponds or to similar aquatic habitats. The pupa is
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generally yellowish brown, finely wrinkled and has a lateral tuft of hairs on
each abdominal segment. The pupae have a series of spines sticking out from
the abdominal segments, and usually exhibit little movement. The pupal stage
lasts from 3 to 21 days and the adult flies, on emergence, have iridescent eyes.
The life-cycle is completed within 4-5 months and there are usually two
generations in a year.
Figure- Life cycle of Tabanus atratus

 Usually Tabanus atratus do not bite humans, but when it bites seldom it
is painful. This fly can also transmit bacterial, viral, and other diseases
such as surra and anthrax, to both humans and other animals through its
bite. These flies are well known vectors for some blood-borne bacterial,
viral, protozoan and worm diseases of mammals, such as the equine
infectious anaemia virus and various species of Trypanosoma which
cause diseases in animals and humans. Tabanids are also known to
transmit anthrax among cattle and sheep, and tularemia between rabbits
and humans.
 The effect of T. atratus on livestock can be a serious problem. Blood
loss and irritation from the flies can severely affect meat and milk
production, as well as grazing. Livestock usually have no way of
avoiding the painful bites, and millions of dollars have been spent trying
to control these pests.
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 Adult flies may pass a number of disease agents, nematode parasites to

animals. Equine infectious anemia (EIA), or swamp fever, is
mechanically transmitted to horses and other equines by horse fly bites.
The other symptoms in animals include lethargy, weight loss and
sometimes death.
 Anaplasmosis disease is found among cattle which causes symptoms of
anemia, fever, weight loss and mortality.
 Localized swelling and an itchy red area around the Tabanus bite.
Persistent itching and scratching of bite wounds that can cause
secondary bacterial infections if the bite is not kept clean and
disinfected. Since horse flies inject anticoagulant-containing saliva
during blood feeding, some serious reactions may occur in people that
are highly allergic to the anticoagulant compounds. Symptoms may
include a rash on the body, wheezing, swelling around the eyes,
swelling of the lips and dizziness or weakness.
Figure- Life cycle of Horsefly

CONTROL
 Use of traps
o Light traps- The lights on these traps are especially chosen to
attract unwanted insects. When the insect lands on the light, it is
either trapped on glue cards or zapped and killed instantly.
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o Flypaper- This paper contains an adhesive that both attracts and

traps house flies and horse flies.
o Flies-be-Gone fly trap. This trap holds fly food in a plastic bag
for bait. The fly must enter the bag through funnel. Once inside
the bag, the fly cannot escape.
o Horse Pal fly trap- These large traps have a target specifically
designed to attract primarily visual hunters such as horse and
deer flies. When the flies approach the target and see that it is not
prey, they get trapped in the metal portion of the trap and die
from the heat of the sun on the trap.
 Chemical control - Certain chemicals are used to control hourse flies
o Pyrethroids (cypermethrin, fenvalerate, permethrin, resmethrin,
tetramethrin, s-bioallethrin, sumithrin)
o Organophosphates (coumaphos, dichlorvos, malathion,
tetrachlorvinphos)
o Organochlorines (lindane, methoxychlor)
 Use of aircraft, loggers, hydraulic sprayer or mist blowers to dispense
the chemicals pesticides.
 Keep the animal areas clean by removing manure, old bedding and
spilled feed. If needed, we can spray manure pile with insecticide to
keep larvae from developing.
 There should be proper drainage systems in order to eliminate standing
water.
 Horse flies can find a suitably moist and cool breeding ground in tall
grasses and weeds. To avoid this, keep grasses trimmed and weed on a
regular basis, especially along ditches.
 A barn, stable or doghouse should be shaded and windows and doors
should be screened to prevent horse flies from entering.
 Use of ear nets, face masks and repellant tags or tapes for domestic
animals.
 There are no effective biological control programs for controlling
tabanids. There are native beneficial insects that target tabanids. Eggs
are parasitizied by such Hymenoptera families as Trichogrammatidae,
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Scelionidae and Chalcididae. Diapriidae and Pteromalidae

(Hymenoptera) and Bombyliidae and Tachinidae (Diptera) parasitize the
larvae and pupa. Tabanid adults are used as provisions for nest building
wasps. Cattle egrets and killdeer are also tabanid feeders.
9.7 Stomoxys calcitrans, Linnaeus, 1758 (Stable Fly, biting

flies)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
Genus: Stomoxys
Species: calcitrans, Linnaeus, 1758
DISTRIBUTION
Stomoxys calcitrans is a cosmopolitan insect, it can be found worldwide as long
as suitable food and weather conditions can be met. Stable flies are worldwide
pests of livestock and man. Stomoxys calcitrans is presently distributed
worldwide and present in mostly all regions of India. The habitat of the stable
fly, as its common name indicates that it is almost anywhere that horses, cattle,
and other agricultural animals can be found especially inside barns and stables.
Stable flies are active during the summertime and are the most important pests
of dairy and feedlot cattle in the state. Stable flies prefer to feed outdoors and
rarely are found feeding or resting indoors. These flies are strong fliers and
dispersion from one livestock facility to the next is common. Remain active
into October, but the larval development slows as autumn temperatures
decrease. At temperatures near freezing, larvae survive and continue to develop
slowly in habitats such as piled silage or manure where fermentation generates
heat.
HOST
The main host animals of stable flies are large mammals like cattle, horses,
donkeys, dogs, swine, sheep, goats and camels, and other zoo animals. Stable
flies also known as "biting flies" can deliver a painful bite. They bite people,
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livestock, pets and other mammals. The bites may feel like a needle stab and
typically occur around the ankles and lower parts of the legs. Stable flies are
very persistent when searching for a blood meal. They require the blood meal
for reproduction. Stable flies overwinter in breeding sites and emerge the
following spring as adults.
DESCRIPTION
The stable fly closely resembles the common housefly (Musca domestica).
Unlike the common housefly, Stomoxys calcitrans have a broader abdomen.
Adult stable flies average 8 mm in length, have a gray body, and can be
identified by four characteristic longitudinal stripes across the thorax as well as
several dark spots on top of the abdomen. On the vertex and frons there are
three ocelli and two large compound eyes. Sexual dimorphism is clearly visible
in this species, and there is more distance between the compound eyes in
females.
Figure – Comparison of House fly and Stable fly

The house fly and stable fly are similar in size, color and general appearance
and they are often referred to as barnyard flies. On closer observation, these
two flies are quite distinct in appearance, feeding habits and in the ways they
annoy livestock, people, and pets. A distinguishing feature, visible to the naked
eye that separates the two species is the distinct stiletto-like proboscis of the
stable fly which extends forward beyond the head. This sharply pointed beak is
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used to pierce the skin and draw blood. The house fly cannot bite since it has
sponging mouthparts. The proboscis of the stable fly is black, long, and thin,
protruding from the front of the head. Its other mouthparts are modified, with
the labellum having rows of teeth in order to pierce the skin of its host. The
palps are one third of the length of the proboscis.
Stable flies are painful biting filth flies that resemble the house fly in
appearance but just a tad bit smaller in size of approximately 5-7 mm long. The
adults have a piercing and sucking proboscis that is used to extract a blood meal
and seven circular black spots on a grey abdomen. Adult stable flies (Both the
male and female) take one bloodmeal a day from the legs, sides, back and belly
of large animals and the legs, head and ears of small animals. They are only in
contact with the host for 2-5 minutes and then rest on surrounding buildings or
vegetation.
LIFE CYCLE
After the mating, at least 3 complete feedings are required before egg laying
can occur. Feeding requires 2 to 5 minutes, but since the flies are easily
disturbed, several "bites" may be necessary to complete one feeding. Stable
flies are capable of long flights in search of a blood meal. The early morning
and late afternoon hours are commonly peak feeding times. Peak activity
usually occurs during warm periods following rainfall.
Eggs are deposited in wet, organic materials such as straw, litter, manure mixed
with straw or other bedding, vegetable or fruit matter, marine grasses on shore,
grass clippings, waste silage or feed in feedlots or compost heaps. The female
deposits 35 to 80 eggs at one time deep in the material, often in pairs or small
clusters. Ten or 11 egg-laying periods occur during the life of 4 to 6 weeks of
the stable fly.
Stable fly eggs hatch after 1 to 3 days into yellowish-white maggots. The eggs
hatch in 1 to 3 days, and the young maggots immediately begin to feed,
completing development in 14 to 26 days and grow beneath the surface of the
breeding material. As in the house fly life cycle, the third-stage larvae seek
drier environments for pupation, which lasts 5 to 26 days. Mature larvae are
yellowish white maggots, and are a cylindrical shape that tapers anteriorly. The
chestnut brown pupae have a reddish-to-dark brown exterior and are 4 to 7 mm
long. The posterior spiracles on the puparia are black with three S-shaped
yellow slits, and are lightly sclerotized.
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Within an hour after emerging from pupa, the adult can fly and is ready to feed
and mate soon afterwards. Females usually begin laying eggs 5 to 10 days after
emergence. Total time of development from egg to adult averages from 21 to
25 days and several generations occur each year.
Figure – Life Cycle of Stomoxys calcitrans

MEDICAL IMPORTANCE
Stable flies are nuisance flies which inflict irritating bites. They can weaken
livestock by their blood sucking activities. They also interrupt cattle's normal
feeding and resting activities, which in turn reduces weight and milk
production. Besides being vicious biters, stable flies may transmit animal
diseases such as hog cholera. Cattle heavily infested with stable flies have been
noted to become anemic and milking cows have been observed to show lower
milk production. The stable fly bites humans at rest in the outdoors; generally
the bite is almost painless. In many parts of the world, the species is a carrier of
typanosomid parasites. Some of the reported parasites and diseases of which the
stable fly might be a vector of include Trypanosoma evansi (the agent
of Surra), Trypanosoma brucei, brucellosis, Equine infectious anemia, African
horse sickness (AHS), and fowlpox. Stable flies are a developmental vector for
Habronema microstoma, a spiruid nematode, which causes gastric and
cutaneous forms of habronemiasis in horses throughout the world.
Stomoxys calcitrans is a daytime feeder. The adults of both sexes feed on
blood. Although they feed mainly on the blood of cattle and horses but there is
low host specificity. Adults locate a host by sight, and feeding is usually
completed in two to five minutes. Stable flies like to feed on the lower parts of
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the hosts such as the legs and belly of horses and cattle. Cattle, horses, and
people are typically bitten on the legs while dogs and swine are bitten on the
ears. Even though, the female requires a blood meal in order to lay eggs, both
male and female feed on blood.
After feeding the stable fly is sluggish, and remains motionless near the host.
The stable fly will generally feed from many hosts before it is replete. Studies
show that there is a rise in feeding during warm weather, whereas there is a
decrease in feeding rates during rain. After hatching, the larvae begin feeding
on local microbial flora and fauna.
CONTROL
 Trap can be used for control of stable fly adults. A Olson biting fly trap
has a unique design that consists of a special fiberglass panel wrapped in
a cylinder and attached to a stake 3-4 feet high. This trap is one of the
only effective ways to collect stable flies when the sticky sleeve film is
place around it. This trap are without pesticides for control measure of
stable flies.
 Housing of domestic animals should be designed in such a way that
there should be easy removal of manure and cleaning of stalls
frequently. Waste should be disposed of properly by either burial,
spreading in a thin layer on open fields, submersion in water, or aerobic
composting.
 Use of baits, electric grids and traps may have some limited use for
house fly control but are ineffective for the blood-feeding stable fly.
 Applications of different types of larvicides provide control against
developing larvae. Products sprayed directly to the infested breeding
sites can be utilized. Many of the larvicides on the market are known as
IGR, insect growth regulators, and were developed specifically for horn
flies and other filth flies developing in the manure, these do not affect
stable fly larvae due to the fact that stable fly larvae do not grow in
manure.
 Use of various Adulticides are very minimal and typically ineffective
against stable flies. Due to the short amount of time spent on the animal
and the location (legs), no products have a long enough residual to be
effective when sprayed directly onto the animal. It is also difficult to
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control stable flies by spraying building and vegetation, residual is low

and without direct contact mortality is low.
 Knock-down sprays are effective in killing adult flies present at the time
of application. The chemicals used for these applications are short
residual insecticides having a quick knock-down and high contact
toxicity. Several types of spray or fogging apparatus may be used for
these applications. This method requires less time for application but has
the disadvantage that it will only kill flies present at application.
 Beneficial organisms such as predators, parasites and natural
competitors occur naturally in similar breeding locations of the stable
fly larvae. These organisms kill the eggs, larvae and pupae of the stable
flies providing assistance to the cause. Predatory mites, beetles, and
other fly larvae feast on the developing stable fly larvae. Parasitic
wasps, referred to as parasitoids, are particularly effective against horn
flies and house flies but have shown poor results with stable flies thus
far. Dry breeding grounds will encourage beneficial insect and mite
development. Some parasitoid wasps can be purchased commercially to
enhance the number of wasps present on your property.
9.8 Xenopsylla cheopis, Rothschild, 1903 (The Oriental
Rat-Flea / Black Death)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Siphonaptera
Family: Pulicidae
Genus: Xenopsylla
Species: cheopis , Rothschild, 1903
Fleas are the insects that constitute the order Siphonaptera. Fleas are wingless,
with mouthparts adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood. Fleas are
ectoparasites, living by hematophagy off the blood of mammals and birds.
There are thousands of different species of fleas throughout the world, here are
the most common ones. These creatures attack both pets and humans and
inhabit their furs, our hair, and homes. Some of the main flea species are:
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 Cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis)

 Dog flea (Ctenocephalides canis)
 Human flea (Pulex irritans)
 Moorhen flea (Dasypsyllus gallinulae)
 Northern rat flea (Nosopsyllus fasciatus)
 Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis)
In this unit we will discuss in detail about the various aspects of oriental rat
flea.
DISTRIBUTION
Xenopsylla cheopis is found worldwide in association with its primary hosts,
Rattus spp. Xenopsylla cheopis usually inhabits tropical and subtropical
habitats, although it has been reported in the temperate zone as well. The
oriental rat flea is rarely found in cold areas since it requires a tropical or
subtropical climate to pupate. Fleas are prevalent in many major cities. Species
of Rattus typically found in city sewer systems and other human related habitats
are excellent hosts for X. cheopis. Seaports and other rat-infested areas are also
common habitats for X. cheopis.
Fleas are nidiculous parasites; they live in the host's nest. Clothing, beds and
couches make perfect homes for many of these fleas. Fleas only attach to the
host during sucking blood while at other times they are free-living in the host's
nest.
HOST
Both male and female adults of Xenopsylla cheopis feed on blood. They bite
Rattus rattus (Black Rat) and other mammals, including humans. Xenopsylla
cheopis obtains the host's blood through a set of external mouthparts, which
consist of the following maxillary lacunae and an epipharynx. The purpose of
each structure is to aid in the sucking up of blood. After biting, the fleas suck
blood from a pool (telmophagy), unlike some other insects like mosquitoes that
feed directly from the blood vessel (solenophagy).
Piercing of the host's skin is achieved by the back and fourth action of the
maxillary laciniae. After the skin is cut the epipharynx enters the wound and
injects salvia. Saliva contains special chemicals, which prevents the host's
blood from coagulating. A canal formed by the maxillary laciniae and the
epipharnyx then sucks up blood. Further down the gut a specialized organ
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called the proventriclus then breaks down blood cells enabling the X. cheopis to
digest the blood meal. The average capacity of Xenopsylla cheopis is 0.5 cubic
millimeters.
The larvae of X. cheopis have mandibles, which they use to feed on detritus and
the feces of the adult fleas, which are found in the nests of hosts.
DESCRIPTION
The flea's body is only about one tenth of an inch long, about 2.5 mm and have
a laterally compressed body. Adults vary from light brown to dark brown in
order to camouflage themselves in the host's fur. A flea's body is constructed to
make it easier to jump long distances. The flea's body consists of three regions:
head, thorax, and abdomen. The head and the thorax have rows of bristles
(called combs) and the abdomen consists of eight visible segments. A flea's
mouth has two functions: one for squirting saliva or partly digested blood into
the bite, and one for sucking up blood from the host. This process mechanically
transmits pathogens that may cause diseases the flea might have. Fleas smell
exhaled carbon dioxide from humans and animals and jump rapidly to the
source to feed on the newly found host. A flea is wingless so it cannot fly, but it
can jump long distances with the help of small powerful legs. A flea's leg
consists of four parts. The part that is closest to the body is the coxa. Next is the
femur, tibia and tarsus. A flea can use its legs to jump up to 200 times of its
own body length approximately about 20 in or 50 cm.
Males and females are sexually dimorphic. Females have dark-colored
spermatheca that resemble small sacs, a distinguishing characteristic of this
species. Males have complex genitalia that are easily distinguishable from the
females. Larvae of rat flea are 4.5 mm long and resemble worms; they are
slender, white, eyeless, and legless. Each has fourteen bristled segments.
During the last larval instar, they moult and form cocoons that are silky and
covered in debris from surroundings
LIFE CYCLE
Fleas are holometabolous, which means they go through four life-cycle stages:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult (imago). Breeding takes place throughout the year as
long as the temperature and humidity are favourable for egg-laying but it is
somewhat slowed down in cold weather. The eggs are either deposited in dust,
dirt or bedding of the human host or laid while the female is on an animal.
Xenopsylla cheopis is distinct from other fleas in that it has a very large egg,
eggs obtain extra nutrients from their mother, hence explaining the abnormally
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large egg. Once eggs are laid, however, they receive no further support from
their parents. The eggs lie loosely on the hairs and usually slip into the ground
where they incubate for 2-14 days. They are short, ovoid, relatively large and
are laid in small numbers, although the total egg production by a single female
may be several hundreds.
The young larvae are legless, eyeless and very slender and are whitish. With
their chewing mouthparts, they feed on the excreta of adult fleas or on that of
mice, rats and other rodents. Xenopsylla cheopis passes through three molts
during the larval stage, which usually lasts about nine to fifteen days, but can
last up to 200 days in unfavorable conditions.
The full-grown larva spins a small, oval, silky cocoon where it remains until it
is finished pupating. During the pupal stage the flea's development rate is
greatly affected by its surroundings. Changes in temperature and humidity
outside the cocoon can inhibit emerging for up to a full year. From cocoon it
emerges as an adult after 1-5 weeks, although it may pass the entire winter in
the pupal stage. It has been observed that it may take 2 weeks to 2 years for a
generation of fleas to complete its development under different conditions.
After copulating with a male the female is ready to lay her eggs. She does this
at frequent intervals while feeding. Xenopsylla cheopis prefers temperatures of
65 to 80°F with about 70% humidity for egg laying. Higher or lower
temperatures inhibit females from laying their eggs. Eggs usually do not hatch
on the hosts, rather on their nests since fleas are nidiculous parasites which
means parasites which lives on host's nests.
Figure- Life cycle of Xenopsylla cheopis
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The adult fleas, which feed only on blood, cause damage to human beings in 2
ways :
1) By piercing skin bites which cause irritating and itchy skin
lesions, especially on the extremities.
2) The principal vectors in the transmission of certain important
infectious diseases of man, such as the bubonic plague and
murine endemic typhus.
This species can act as a vector for plague, Yersinia pestis, Rickettsia typhi and
also act as a host for tapeworms Hymenolepis diminuta and Hymenolepis nana
(dog tapeworm and rodent tapeworm). Xenopsylla cheopis is a parasite of many
mammalian species, including Rattus and humans. Because of its parasitic
nature, Xenopsylla cheopis is a vector for pathogens such as plague bacilli,
Yersina pestis, and murine typhus, Rickettsia typhi. Transmission of the
pathogen occurs as bacteria enter the flea's gut and multiply rapidly. Soon the
flea's proventriculus is blocked by a mass of bacteria and it cannot fill its
stomach, causing the flea to search for a new host. After biting the host, the
blood of an uninfected host mixes with bacteria in the flea's stomach; the flea
expels infected blood back into the wound consequently, infecting a new host.
Xenopsylla cheopis goes from host to host infecting the uninfected. Hosts may
also become infected either from consuming fecal matter or dead remnants of
an infected X. cheopis. Diseases can be transmitted from one generation of fleas
to the next through the eggs. All diseases are a threat to humans and other
animals that encounter them.
CONTROL
 By regular vacuuming which can remove 60% flea eggs, 27% larvae
and definite number of flea adults or by cleaning of carpets, upholstered
furniture and floorings, removing clutters underneath beds and other
furniture, frequent cleaning and changing of pet bedding; and filling up
cracks and crevices of buildings.
 The houses should be kept rat-free by keeping cats or by frequent poison
baiting.
 The houses should also be kept clean, well swept and ventilated, with
occasional spraying of floors with insecticides.
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o DDT is the most commonly used insecticide against rat fleas. It

is sprayed as powder form in areas frequented by rats and their
burrows. Spraying should be done on the floor and on the
walls up to a height of 1 foot. The DDT powder gets adhered to
the fur coat of rats and kill the fleas.
o In areas where plague is endemic, fleas have acquired resistance
to DDT and BHC. In these areas, malathion or carbaryl can also
be used. Other host animals like cats and dogs and their premises
should also be treated with insecticide dusts or sprays
 According to safety and environmental factors, suitable insecticide
formulations such as solution, dust or fogging mist must be used to
eradicate the fleas.
 By use of Repellants
o Diethyl toluamide is a good flea repellent. Clothes treated with it
repel fleas up to 1 week.
o Benzyl benzoate can also be used as repellent
9.9 Hypoderma lineatum Devillers (The Bot / Warble Flies

/ Heel Flies, Gadflies)
Hypoderma lineatum Devillers (The Bot / Warble Flies / Heel Flies,
Gadflies)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Oestridae
Genus: Hypoderma
Species: lineatum
DISTRIBUTION
The common bot fly occurs naturally in cattle in at least 50 countries in Africa,
Asia, Europe and North America, but principally in the region of 25 and 60
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degrees latitude in the Northern Hemisphere. The southern limit is reached in

the Punjab of India, Libya, northern Mexico and Hawaii.
The sheep or goat-bot fly, Oestrusovis, is distributed throughout the Indian
Subcontinent and its larva is the familiar, head maggot of the two domestic
animals. The larva of Rhinoestrus purpureus has been recorded from the nasal
passages of horses in the Punjab. Hypoderma lineatum is the well-known
warble fly on cattle, which is occasionally found on goat also. It attacks the skin
and is responsible for deterioration in quality of the hide. There are instance
when larvae of Hypoderma and Gasterophilus have been collected from the
skin of man and are known to cause ‘creeping myiasis’.
HOST
The typical hosts of bot flies are cattle and old World deer. They can parasitize
horses and humans. It is also reported from American bison. Goats and sheep
are occasional hosts, but full development is not completed in these hosts. The
bot flies in the larval stage act as parasites on the flesh of various domestic
animals. They attack cattle, horse, sheep, goat, elephant, rhinoceros, etc., and
feed in the alimentary tract, the nasal and pharyngeal cavities and in
subcutaneous tumours formed by their bites.
DESCRIPTION AND LIFE CYCLE
botfly, common name for several families of hairy flies whose larvae live as
parasites within the bodies of mammals. The horse botfly secretes an irritating
substance that is used to attach its eggs to the body hairs of a horse, mule, or
donkey. When the animal licks off the irritant, the larvae are carried into the
host's mouth and later migrate to the stomach. They attach themselves to the
lining, where they feed until ready to pupate, and then drop to the ground with
the feces. The larvae, which may cause serious damage to the digestive tract
and weaken the animal, can be eliminated by a veterinarian. Sheep botflies lay
their eggs in the nostrils of the host without alighting. The larvae work their
way up into the head cavities causing fits of vertigo known as blind staggers;
failure to eat because of irritability may result in death. Old World species of
this family attack camels, elephants, horses, mules, donkeys, and deer. The
warble flies, also called heel flies, or bomb flies, parasitize cattle and other
animals. The larvae, called cattle grubs or cattle maggots, penetrate the skin of
the host immediately after hatching; they migrate through the flesh, causing
irritability, loss of weight, and decreased milk production, and then settle under
the skin of the back, producing cysts, or warbles. Breathing holes made in the
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warbles by the larvae damage the hide. A species of human botfly found in
Central and South America attaches its eggs to a bloodsucking mosquito that it
captures and then releases. When the mosquito comes in contact with humans
or other warm-blooded animals, the fly eggs hatch and the larvae fasten to the
mammal's skin. The larvae bore into muscle tissue; infestation is called myiasis.
For control methods, see bulletins of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. The botflies
are classified in the phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, order Diptera. Horse
botflies are classified in the family Gasterophilidae; sheep botflies and warble
flies are classified in the family Oestridae; the human botfly is classified in the
family Cuterebridae.
The parasitic forms of bot flies which live in the alimentary canal of animals
deposit their eggs among the body hair, from where their larvae are swallowed
through licking. The larvae of the forms that parasitize the naso-pharynx are
deposited in the nostrils. Those found in the skin lay their eggs on the legs of
host. On emergence from eggs, the larvae penetrate inside and after passing
through various tissues reach the back of the host.
The warble fly, Hypoderma lineatum, is common in the western parts of India
and causes tumours in the skin of cattle and buffaloes, thus spoiling the hide.
The adult fly is 12-14 mm long and has a wing expanse of 23-25 mm. The body
is black, banded with yellowish and orange hairs. Legs are well covered with
hairs of black and orange colour. The wing veins are black. The dull-yellowish-
white eggs, which have a smooth shining surface and are about three quarters of
a millimetre in length, are deposited on the body hair in groups of 5-12. The
total number of eggs laid by a female fly varies from 200 to 500.
The eggs hatch in 4-5 days, and the young larvae penetrate the skin through
hair follicles. Within 2-3 months, they reach the wall of the oesophagous and
later on by way of the thoracic cavity they reach the back where characteristic
warbles are produced in about 7 months. There are three larval instars. The
final instar larva cuts a small hole in the skin covering the warble for breathing
air from outside. This results in damage to the hide. The mature light brown
larva wriggles, out of the warbles through a hole and drops on the ground to
pupate in soil. After a pupal period of 6-8 days the adult fly emerges. It lives
only for a few days for mating and reproducing. In the plains of north-west
India, the egg-laying season of ox-warble-fly extends from March to June.
Warbles appear on the back of the cattle from October to January. There is only
one generation of this fly in a year.
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Adults: The adults are about 13 mm in length. The flies are hairy, with no
functional mouthparts, and must mate and reproduce solely on the energy
derived from stored reserves. Adults live three to five days. The hairs on the
head and the anterior part of the thorax are yellowish-white. The abdomen is
covered with light yellow hairs anteriorly, followed by a band of dark hairs, and
the posterior portion bears orange-yellow hairs. Eggs: The eggs are about 1 mm
long and are fixed to the hairs of the host by means of small terminal clasps.
Eggs are found on the host animal's legs and sometimes on the body. Females
deposit a row of six or more eggs per hair. The flies are very persistent in
approaching host animals, and one female may lay 800 eggs on one individual.
Larvae: The eggs hatch in four to seven days and the larvae crawl down the
hair to the skin, which they then penetrate. In doing so, they cause considerable
irritation. They wander in the subcutaneous connective tissue, usually up the
leg and then forward to the diaphragm, gradually increasing in size. The larvae
find their way into the esophageal wall, where they come to lie in the
submucous connective tissue for the rest of the summer and autumn, growing to
about 12 mm in length. Eventually, during January and February, they travel
towards the dorsal aspect of the body and reach the subcutaneous tissue of the
back.
When the parasites arrive under the skin of the back, swellings begin to form,
measuring about 3 cm in diameter. The skin over each swelling becomes
perforated, and the larvae then lay with the posterior stigmal plate directed
towards the pore for the purpose of respiration. Here the larvae molt, and this
stage lasts about 30 days. The younger larvae are almost white, changing to
yellow and then to light brown as they grow older, and finally almost black.
Two molts occur during the development of the larvae, producing a total of
three instars. Full-grown larvae are 25 mm long. Flat tubercles and small spines
are present on all segments but the last.
Pupae: In spring, the mature larvae wriggle out of the cysts and fall on the
ground, Â where they penetrate the soil and pupate. Pupation is almost
immediate. The insect will not mature if the moisture content is higher than 10
percent. The pupal case is black and the fly emerges from it after 35 to 60 days
by pushing open an operculum at the anterior end. The total duration of the life
cycle is approximately a year, with the major portion of this time being spent in
the body of the host. The timing of appearance of the grubs in the host’s back,
emergence of the mature larvae and pupation in the ground, and adult
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emergence are a response to varying weather conditions. However, the time

when these occur will tend to be similar from year to year for a given region.
The adult flies occur in summer, especially in June and July. They are most
active on warm days, when they seek cattle to lay their eggs.
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When the flies approach to lay eggs the cattle become nervous and attempt to
escape the attack by running away, and will even go into water. Because the
flies are persistent, the animals are constantly irritated and do not feed properly,
which results in an appreciable loss of weight and decrease of milk yield. The
animals may also hurt themselves severely, or at least become wounded and
damage their skins.
The larvae irritate the tissues around them, causing the flesh to become
greenish-yellow and infiltrated, especially along the tracks where the larvae
have wandered, and thus depreciated in value. The penetration of the larvae into
skin causes irritation and later on hypodermal rashes are produced. The flesh
around the mature larva gets inflammed and becomes unfit for consumption.
The larva lies in a cyst, which also contains a yellow purulent fluid. Calves and
young cattle are more frequently and more severely infected than older animals.
It is possible that cattle develop a certain degree of resistance to the larvae.
However, older animals may become sensitized during earlier infections
through the absorption of body fluids of larvae that die, and these animals may
show anaphylactic reactions when subsequent larvae die or are broken during
extraction. Even abortions have been noted in such cases.
The losses produced are:
1. Reduction of milk secretion, which is estimated at from 10 to 20 percent
of the normal yield
2. Loss of weight due to the increased activity by the animals attempting to
escape from the flies and the irritating larvae
3. Depreciation of the value of the carcass, which becomes greenish yellow
and jelly-like in appearance at the points where the grubs are located
and unfit for consumption
4. Injury produced to the hide which becomes "grubby" or full of holes
where the grubs emerged.
CONTROL
 Mechanical removal of larvae. Mature larvae may be squeezed out of
the warble swelling. This is more successful when the larvae are mature.
Rupture of the larvae during extraction may lead to a localized
inflammation and abscess formation.
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 Insecticide treatment. The advent of systemic organophosphorous

insecticides in the 1950's gave cattle producers the first opportunity to
control cattle grubs on a large scale at a reasonable cost. The use of
systemic insecticides allows control of larvae while they are in the early
stages of migration and before they reach the backs of the animals. The
insecticides are used during the autumn and early winter with the aim of
killing the younger larval stages. The compounds may be given orally,
or in dips, sprays, drench or bolous form, but one of the more
convenient methods is "pour on" dressings in which a small volume of
concentrated insecticide is poured along the animal's back. Enough
insecticide is absorbed through the skin to kill the larvae. These
compounds should be avoided in January and February because severe
reactions may occur due to the death of larvae in the wall of the
esophagus or spinal canal.
 Drinking water treatments of insect growth regulators generally do not
prevent cattle grub larvae from reaching backs of cattle, but may prevent
adults from eclosing from pupae, thus preventing reproduction.
Insecticide-impregnated plastic strips applied to legs of cattle during the
heel fly season prevented the appearance of cattle grub larvae in backs
of treated cattle.
 Perhaps the most promising control technology for use in suppression of
Hypoderma spp. has been the development of avermectins (a chemically
modified form of a fermentation product of Streptomyces avermitilis). In
the early 1980s this antiparasitic compound was established as one of
the most effective materials ever developed for systemic use against
cattle grubs. This product possesses unique characteristics not seen in
organophosphorus systemics. The first of these is an ability to kill
migrating larvae, but unlike systemics, it is also highly efficacious
against second- and third-instar larvae in warbles at extremely low
dosages. The latter activity permits use of this material as a late-season
or pour-on treatment for grub-infested cattle that is not possible with
traditional systemic insecticides, which are not effective, once the larvae
are inside their warbles.
 Vaccines. Generally, fewer Hypoderma spp. larvae appear in the back
of older cattle than in calves or yearlings, which implies the
development of some type of immunity with age. Initial investigations,
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using extracts of Hypoderma spp. larvae as candidate vaccines, have led

to concerted attempts toward the development of a defined vaccine
against cattle-grub infestations using the hypodermin A (one of the three
enzymes which are secreted by the first instar larvae during its
migration). The advantages of a vaccine over chemical control are great:
less damage to the environment, complete and lifetime conversion of
susceptible animals to resistant status, and use in animals such as dairy
cattle for which systemic insecticide application is prohibited during
lactation. The immunization with hypodermin A, associated with
various adjuvants, could provide protective immunity for calves when
challenged with natural grub infestation. However, these experimental
vaccines have not been widely field-tested against naturally occurring
populations of Hypoderma spp.
 Integrated management. The first attempt at integrated management
of Hypoderma spp. resulted from the suggestion to adapt the sterile
male-release technology that was developed for eradication of the
screwworm from North America and Mexico. The results of a
preliminary trial in Alberta, Canada were very encouraging, and
consequently, the Joint US-Canada Cattle Grub Project was initiated in
1982. The chemical reduction phase proved to be very successful using
readily available systemic insecticides combined with 100% producer
cooperation. However, the sterile fly component was less succesful
because there was no efficient technique for large-scale in vitro rearing
of Hypoderma spp.
 Smoke bombs and anti mosquito sprays in stables are effective.
9.10 Pediculus sps. (Human Louse and Head Louse)
SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Anoplura
Family: Pediculidae
Genus: Pediculus
Species: humanus
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DISTRIBUTION
Human and head lice may occur in any part of the world inhabited by man.
Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis DeGeer ) and Human Lice (Pediculus
humanus humanus Linnaeus) are tiny, wingless parasitic insects that live in
human hair and feed on the human blood. The body louse tends to be less
common in the tropics, however, probably because of the lesser amount of
clothing due to higher temperatures. Unlike body lice, head lice are not a health
hazard, a sign of uncleanliness or a cause of disease. This pest is almost world-
wide, especially in over-crowded slum tenements, military barracks, prisons,
orphanages, etc. The habitat of the human louse is solely on the human body or
in the clothes whereas the infestation of head lice is commonly encountered in
hairs of pediatric population in the age group of 6 - 12 years. In rural areas,
prevalence rate ranges from in the age group of 3 - 13 years, ranges varies from
13.3% to 49%. Girls are 2 to 4 times more frequently infested than boys,
especially in rural and developing areas owing to their hair length.
HOST
Apes and monkeys in captivity become infested with these lice, man is the
primary host. Human lice have been found on people of all socioeconomic
levels. There are mainly three kinds of lice which are parasitic on man:
Pedicules humanus capitis, the head louse, living on the skin and hair on the
scalp, Pediculus humanus corporis deGeer, the body louse living on garments
adjacent to the body and the Phthirus pubis Linnaeus, the crab louse which
infests human hair in the pubic region.
Head lice (Pedicules humanus capitis)
The head louse is a grey-white animal about 2 mm-3 mm in length
approximately about the size of a sesame seed. The life span of the female
louse is about one month. During this time, she will produce between seven to
10 "nits" per day and attach them firmly to the hair shaft region close to the
scalp or body. These nits, which resemble dandruff, are attached with a glue
like, water-insoluble substance that makes them difficult to remove. After six to
10 days, the nits hatch as nymphs and become adults in 10 days. Head lice are
the most common form of lice infestation.
Body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis)
The body louse is slightly larger than the head louse but has the same general
appearance. Unlike the head louse, which lives on its human host, the body
louse lives in clothing and then transfers to the human host to feed. The life
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cycle of the head louse and the body louse are similar in character and duration.
An important difference, however, is the ability of the body louse to survive for
up to 30 days away from its human host. Body-lice infestation is a prominent
public-health problem in communities with large populations dealing with
poverty, overcrowding, and poor personal hygiene. Reused mattresses and bed
linens as well as communal beds are risk factors.
Pubic lice (Phthirus pubis)
The pubic louse or "crab louse" is distinct morphologically, it is rounded with
three pairs of legs on either side of the body from which it takes its descriptive
name from the head and body louse. The female life span is slightly shorter she
produces fewer eggs per day (three) . The eggs attach to the base of the pubic
hair shaft for approximately six to eight days before hatching.
In adults, pubic lice is transmitted by direct sexual contact; children generally
contact the infection via nonsexual transmission from their parents. Intense
itching of the pubic area is characteristic. Axillary regions, eyelashes, and even
the scalp may be involved. Nighttime symptoms are may be more intense. After
being bitten, a bluish-colored sore may develop in the involved areas. The
diagnosis is established by demonstration of crab-shaped lice attached to the
hair shaft
FOOD HABITS
Lice are obligate ectoparasites. They live off of the blood of humans. They
have specially designed mouth parts for piercing the skin of humans and
retrieving the blood that is present. The human lice are blood-sucking insects
which cause irritating skin lesions and are important in the transmission of
certain rickettsial diseases, notably typhus fever.
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DESCRIPTION
Pediculus humanus is a small insect with a large abdomen and legs equipped
with sharp claws for holding onto hair and clothing fibers. The head of the
louse is slightly narrower than the body. These wingless insects have short, 5-
segmented antennae and have piercing mouthparts for digging into the skin and
draining out the blood. These insects also have heavy legs with a single, sharp,
hooked claw. Head lice and body lice are two races of the same species. The
head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, is normally 1-2 mm long, while the
body louse, Pediculus humanus humanus, also known as the "cootie" is usually
slightly larger, 2-4 mm.
LIFE CYCLE
The female of the head louse lays its eggs attached to the hairs on the head
behind the ears or on the back of the neck, whereas the body louse lays her eggs
hidden on the clothing. Breeding phase usually goes on throughout the year in
over-crowded, poorly ventilated and comparatively warm dwellings. A female
lays 8-10 eggs daily until 50-100 are laid by the head louse and 200-300 by the
body louse. The "nits," or eggs are oval, whitish, about 1 mm in length and
have a distinct pebbled lid at one end. Both types of eggs (head and hair lice)
hatch in about one week. Lice nymphs feed two to six times per day for 1 to 4
weeks. During this time, they molt three times and develop through three
instars before becoming adults. The young lice are often called "red backs," due
to the red color they are because of the blood in them. They turn a grey color
once digestion takes place, and is where they get the name "gray back". The
adults live for about one month or more.
All life stages may be present during any season of the year. Unfed body lice
rarely survive beyond 10 days. Body lice that have fed may survive for 30 to 40
days away from a host in moist clothing. Body lice are spread by contact
among persons or clothing. The incidence of this species has declined in recent
years because people no longer wear the same clothing for prolonged periods of
time.
P. humanus species are transmitted from one person to another by direct
contact, by clothes or a brush, or by fallen hair. Any object that has a nit or a
female on it will transmit the infestation. The bites of body and head lice are
irritating, and scratching may cause infection or the irritating itchy skin lesions,
in the area of the bite. These bites have relatively little direct effect on its hosts.
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Bites itch, but do not generally cause other harm. However, lice can be vectors
for important diseases. The three most important diseases they can carry are
typhus, trench fever (both caused by bacteria in the genus Rickettsia), and
relapsing fever (caused by another bacteria species Borrelia recurrentis). These
bacterial diseases can now be treated successfully with antibiotics, but in the
past, they caused the death of millions of people. Major epidemics strongly
affected the political and economic history of Europe and Asia, and lice were
the main agents in the spread of these diseases.
FIGURE: Life cycle of Pediculus humanus

CONTROL
The following are steps that can be taken to help prevent and control the spread
of head and body lice:
 Head-to-head / hair-to-hair contact must be avoided during play and
other activities at home, school, and other activities like sports activities,
playground, slumber parties, camp.
 Clothing such as hats, scarves, coats, sports uniforms, hair ribbons, or
barrettes should not be shared with each other.
 Combs, brushes, or towels should be kept only for personal use. In order
to disinfest combs and brushes used by an infested person soak them in
hot water (at least 130°F) for 5–10 minutes.
 Do not lie on beds, couches, pillows, carpets, or stuffed animals that
have recently been in contact with an infested person.
 Machine wash and dry clothing, bed linens, and other items that an
infested person wore or used during the 2 days before treatment using
the hot water (130°F) laundry cycle and the high heat drying cycle.
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Clothing and items that are not washable can be dry-cleaned OR sealed
in a plastic bag and stored for 2 weeks.
 Vacuum the floor and furniture, particularly where the infested person
sat or lay. However, spending much time and money on housecleaning
activities is not necessary to avoid reinfestation by lice or nits that may
have fallen off the head or crawled onto furniture or clothing.
 Do not use fumigant sprays or fogs; they are not necessary to control
head lice and can be toxic if inhaled or absorbed through the skin.
 A powder containing malathion 2 per cent or lindane 1 per cent is useful
as a delousing treatment. For the control of infested head or body, the
applications of malathion 5 per cent dust two times at 10 days intervals
or the use of lindane 0.2 per cent mixed with hair oil is very effective.
Personal cleanliness is essential for obtaining constant relief.
 To control a head lice outbreak in a community, school, or camp,
children should be made aware to avoid activities that may spread head
lice.
9.11 Summary
Due to improper storage management, in India, unscientific storing, rodents,
insects and microorganisms accounts every year a big loss is caused to stored
products. Food storage continues to be an important problem from the time man
learned to grow crops. Millions of tons of food-grains are either damaged or
lost for want of adequate scientific knowledge and methods of storage. The loss
is not merely in terms of quantity but also in quality of the food-grains. The
qualitative loss is attributed to change in the various essential chemical
constituents who retard the nutritive significance of the grains. Grain quality is
severely reduced by insect damage. Stored-grain pests attack, consume,
contaminate and make the grains unfit, either as food or as seed.
Insect pests also increase costs to grain growers both directly through the
expense of control on the farm, and indirectly through the costs incurred by
grain handling authorities in controlling weevils in bulk storages.
Insects have a great impact on human and domestic animals health and welfare
directly and indirectly. These organisms have the capacity to inflict injury,
disease, discomfort, or distress. They can be a direct cause of illness, pain, and
suffering through bites and stings, infested wounds, or allergic reactions. They
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feed on blood or body tissues and they may transmit deadly pathogens or
parasites.
1. Write a short note on stored product pests management.
2. Describe the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Sitophilus
oryzae
3. Describe the Biology, nature, extent of damage and control of Lesser Grain
Borer
4. What do you mean by pests of medical & veterinary importance?
5. Explain the details of different species of Mosquitos?
6. Describe the different measures for stored grain pest control.
Describe the distribution, hosts, description, life cycle, nature of damage,
medical importance and control of human louse and head louse.
7. Describe the distribution, hosts, description, life cycle, nature of damage,
medical importance and control of Xenopsylla cheopis.
medical importance and control of Horse Fly.
diseases and control of Musca domestica.
medical importance and control of Stomoxys calcitrans.
9.13 References
 Agricultural Pests of India and South-East Asia - A. S. Atwal,
Publisher- Kalyani Publishers, 1986, ISBN-817096475X,
978817096475
 Ray, D.N. and A.W.A. Brown : Entomology Medical & Veterinary
 Medical Entomology for Students - Mike Service (Author),
Publisher: Cambridge University Press; 4 edition,ISBN-
10: 0521709288, ISBN-13: 978-0521709286
 Handbook of Medical Entomology- William A. Riley, Publisher- Dyson
Press, 2009, ISBN- 1444653644, 9781444653649
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 Medical Entomology: A Textbook on Public Health and Veterinary

Problems Caused by Arthropods- B.F. Eldridge, J.D. Edman, Publisher-
Springer, 2003, ISBN- 1402017944, 9781402017940
 Handbook of Medical Entomology- O. A. 1870-1961
Johannsen, William Albert Riley, Publisher- BiblioBazaar, 2011, ISBN-
1176019996, 9781176019997
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Unit - 10
Beneficial insects
Structure of the Unit:
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Lac Culture
10.4 Apiculture
10.5 Megachile spp (leafcutting bees)
10.6 Insect Pollinators
10.7 Biocontrol agents of weeds
10.8 Soil fertility improving agents
10.9 Scavanger Insects
10.10 Use of Insects and Insect Products in Medicines
10.11 Insects as Food (Entomophagy)
10.12 Summary
10.14 References
10.1 Objectives
By the end of the chapter, the student will be able to understand about
 The different types of beneficial insect- Biology, habit and habitats,
Host trees of Laccifera lacca, pruning, inoculation, lac cropping
techniques and harvesting, different types of enemies of lac insect and
their control.
 Economic importance, behaviour, habit and habitats of different
Indian species of Honey bee of genus Apis; Bee keeping techniques,
bee pasturage, Artificial bee hives and equipments related to
Apiculture, different types of bee enemies, including diseases and
their control, Megachile spp.
 Different aspects of Sericulture and its management, Life cycle of
silkworm Bombyx mori, different types of silkworm species, their
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systematic position and salient features, Rearing techniques of

Mulberry, Muga, Eri and Tassar silkworms, Rearing house and
appliances related to sericulture, silkworm breeds, Seed production and
its economies, Different types of enemies and diseases of silkworms and
their management.
 Different types of Insects Pollinators, the role of insects in controlling
weeds, soil fertility improving insects, different recycling insect
scavengers. Medicinal uses of insects and insect products.
Entomophagy – use of different insects as food.
10.2 Introduction
Beneficial insects
Insects are crucial components of many ecosystems, where they perform many
important functions. Insects can be found in every environment on Earth.
Insects have adapted to a broad range of habitats, successfully finding their own
niche, because they will eat almost any substance that has nutritional value.
They aerate the soil, pollinate blossoms, and control insect and plant pests.
Insects have tremendous economic importance. Many insects, especially
beetles, are scavengers, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, thereby
recycling nutrients back into the soil. As decomposers, insects help create
humus, top soil, the nutrient-rich layer of soil that helps plants grow. These
insects are important for soil formation, destroyers of fallen leaves, dead wood,
dung etc. Burrowing bugs, ants and beetles, dig tunnels that provide channels
for water, benefiting plants. Bees, wasps, butterflies, and ants pollinate
flowering plants. The big-eyed bug and praying mantis plays an important role
in biocontrol of certain insect populations, such as aphids and caterpillars,
which feed on new plant growth. Finally, all insects fertilize the soil with the
nutrients from their droppings.
Some insects produce useful substances, such as honey, wax, lacquer, and silk.
Honeybees have been raised by humans for thousands of years for honey. The
silkworm greatly affected human history. When the Chinese used worms to
develop silk, the silk trade connected China to the rest of the world. Adult
insects, such as crickets, as well as insect larvae, are also commonly used as
fishing bait. Honeybees, silkworm moths and Chinese oak silk moths, Indian
lac insects and cochineal insects these are examples of semi-domesticated
insects, bred by man for the sake of products obtained from them. A very
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valuable product shellac is produced by Indian lac insects living on certain

kinds of trees in South East Asia. Wax-like substances secreted by them have
very good insulating qualities and are widely used in radio engineering. Some
insects also plays a very important esthetical role of butterflies, moths,
dragonflies, and other insects that beautify our nature.
10.3 Lac Culture
Laccifera lacca
Introduction
Lac is one of the most valuable secretion of a tiny insect, Laccifer lacca to
man. It is also unique material in as much as it is the only resin of animal
origin. The English word lac derived from the Sanskrit word Laksh meaning a
lakh or hundred thousand. . Since Vedic period, it has been in use in India, its
earliest reference is found in Atherva Veda. There, the insect is termed as
‘Laksha’, and its habit and behaviour are described. The great Indian epic
‘Mahabharata’ also mentions a ‘Laksha Griha’, an inflammable house of lac,
cunningly constructed by ‘Kauravas’ through their architect ‘Purocha’ for the
purpose of burning their great enemy ‘Pandavas’ alive. As it is obtained from
numerous insects therefore it is termed as Laksh or Lakh. Since ancient times,
Greeks and Romans were also using lac. The cultivation of lac insects has a
long history in Asia, it is as old as 4000 years in China where its cultivation
accompanied the development of the silk industry.
Lac is Nature’s gift to mankind and the only known commercial resin of
animal origin. It is the hardened resin secreted by tiny lac insects belonging to
a bug family. To produce 1 kg of lac resin, approximately 300,000 insects are
killed. The lac insects yields resin, lac dye and lac wax. Lac resin, dye etc. still
find extensive use in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine.
Lac culture is a source of livelihood of tribal and poor inhabiting forest and
sub-forest areas. With increasing universal environment awareness, the
importance of lac has assumed special relevance in the present age, being an
eco-friendly, biodegradable and self-sustaining natural material. Since lac
insects are cultured on host trees which are growing primarily in wasteland
areas, promotion of lac and its culture can help in eco-system development as
well as reasonably high economic returns.
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Systematic Position
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Insecta
Order Hemiptera
Suborder Homoptera
Super family Coccoidea
Family Lacciferidae
Genus Laccifer
Species lacca
Lac insect belongs to group of scale insects in super family Coccoidea. These
insects attach themselves in great numbers to plants. The mouth part of these
insects is piercing and sucking type. They can be very destructive to tree-
stunting or killing twigs and branches by draining the sap. Mainly there are six
genera of lac insects, but only five can secrete lac, and commercial lac can be
secreted by only one, i.e. Laccifer. The commonest and most widely occurring
species of lac insect in India is Laccifer lacca (Kerr) which produces the bulk
of commercial lac. Lac insect of South East Asia is referred to as Kerria
chinensis.
First time scientific account of the lac insect was given by J. Kerr in 1782 which
was published in Philosophical Transaction of Royal Society of London. The
first scientific name given to it was Tachardia lacca following the name of
French Missionary Father ‘Tachardia’. It was later changed to Laccifer lacca
Kerr. The other name given to it has been Kerria Lac Kerr.
Habit and Habitats
The lac insects can flourish and feed on certain species of the tropical trees, it is
found distributed in South-East Asian countries. Lac is currently produced in
India, Thailand, Malaya, Lao Myanmar, and Yuan province of China. India and
Thailand are main areas in the world, while India has prime position in relation
to lac production. Lac cultivation is introduced into Thailand from India.
In India over 90% of lac produced comes from the states of Bihar, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Eastern Maharashtra and northern
Orissa. Some pockets of lac cultivation also exist in Andhra Pradesh, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Mysore, Gujarat, and Mirzapur and Sonebhadra districts of Uttar
Pradesh.
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Figure – Laccifer lacca Nymph and Adult winged stage
Lac insect is a minute crawling hemipteran scale insect which grows and
secretes resinous lac from the body. Its own body gets covered with structure
called as Cell made up of resinous substance lac. It is a means for protection
from enemies.
Lac Insect is reddish in appearance and male insect body length is from 1.2 -
1.5mm. It has reduced eyes and antennae. Thorax bears a pair of hyaline wings.
Female appears larger than male, and length is from 4-5 mm and has a pyriform
body. The head, thorax and abdomen are not clearly distinct. The antennae and
legs are in degenerated form, and wings are absent.
Biology (Life Cycle)
The lac insect completes its life cycle in about six months. The main stages are
egg, nymph instars, pupa and adult. The lac insects have an ovoviviparous
reproduction. Female lays 200-500 eggs which are ready to hatch means that the
embryos are already fully grown in eggs when these are laid. Eggs hatch within
a few hours of laying, and a crimson-red first instar nymph come out. These are
called as called crawlers. The crawler measures 0.6 x .25 mm in size. The
process of emergence of nymph is called as swarming, and it lasts for 5 weeks.
The nymphs crawl on branches and after reaching on succulent twigs, the
nymphs settle down close together in groups of 200-300 insects per square inch.
At this stage, both male and female nymphs live on the sap of the trees. They
insert their suctorial proboscis into plant tissue and suck the sap. After a day or
so of settling, the nymphs start secreting resin from the glands distributed under
the cuticle throughout the body, except mouth parts, breathing spiracles and
anus. As soon as the resin comes in contact of air it becomes semi-solid and
hardens to make a protective covering. The nymphs moult thrice inside the cells
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before reaching maturity. The time period of each instar is dependent on

different factors, like temperature, humidity and host plant etc.
Figure – Life cycle of Laccifer lacca

After the first moult, both male and female nymphs lose their appendages, eye
and become degenerate. While still inside their cells, the nymphs cast off their
second and third moult and mature into adult. Approximately in eight weeks
both the male and female larvae become sexually mature. Only the male one
undergoes a complete metamorphosis or transformation into another form; it
loses its proboscis and develops antennae, legs and a single pair of wings. It is
contained in a brood cell somewhat slipper like with a round trap door
(operculum) through which it emerges. The adult male is winged and moves to
the other females to fertilize them.
The female brood cell is bigger and round in shape which remains fixed to the
twig. The female retains her mouth parts but fails to develop any wings, eyes or
appendages. During development female becomes completely an immobile
organism with little resemblance to an insect.
The female rises in size to house her growing number of eggs. Lac resin is
secreted at a faster rate, and a continuous layer grows into one body. After
fourteen weeks, the female contracts in size allowing light to pass into the cell
and the space for the eggs. At this stage two yellow spots appear at the rear end
of the cell. The spots enlarge and become orange coloured. The space in which
the female oviposit a large number of eggs is called as Ovisac. The ovisac
appears orange due to crimson fluid called lac dye which resembles cochineal.
It indicates that the eggs will hatch in a week time. When the eggs hatch, larvae
emerge and the whole process begins all over again
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Figure- Loss of vegetative parts in an adult female lac insect

After the cycle has been completed and around the time when the next
generation begin to emerge, the resin encrusted branches are harvested. They
are scraped off, dried and processed for various lac products. A portion of brood
lac is retained from the previous crop for the purpose of inoculation to new
trees.
Host plants
Lac insects flourish on twigs of certain plant species, feeds on the plant sap, and
grow all the while secreting lac resin from their bodies. These plants are called
host plants. Although lac insect is a natural pest on host plant but they are not
considered as pest. This is because they yield a useful product, the host plants
are economically not so important and the insects cause only temporary and
recoverable damage to the host plants. Although there are numerous host plants
of lac insect but some of the common host plants in India are Butea
monosperma (Palash), Zizyphus spp (Ber), Schleichera oleosa (Kusum), Acacia
catechu (Khair), Acacia arabica (Babul), Acacia auriculiformis (Akashmani),
Zizyphus xylopyrus (Khatber- grown in part of M.P. & U.P.), Shorea talura (Sal
grown in Mysore), Cajanus cajan (Pigeon-pea or Arhar), Grewia teliaefolia
(Dhaman preferred in Assam), Albizzia lebbek (Siris/Gulwang), Flemingia
macrophylla (Bholia), Ficus benghalensis (Bargad), Ficus religiosa (Peepal)etc.
Palas, Kusum, Ber and Khair are of major host plants, while others are of
regional and minor importance. The quality of lac depends on the host plant and
to the strain of lac insects. The Kusumi lac is better and fetches higher price in
market. The ber tree, siris (Albizzia sp.), Prosopis julifloraare identified as good
host for kusumi brood lac. These three hosts viz., ber, siris, semialata are
expected to enhance kusumi lac cultivation.
Strains of lac insect
In India, mainly there are two distinct strains of Lac insect: kusumi and
rangeeni. The kusumi strain is grown on kusum or on other host plants using
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kusumi brood. The rageeni strain thrives on host plants other than kusum. The
life cycle of lac insects take about six months, hence, two crops a year can be
obtained.
In case of kusumi strain, two crops are:
i) Jethwi (June / July)
ii) Aghani (Jan. / Feb).
In case of rangeeni, tow crops are:
i). Karrtiki (Oct. / Nov.)
ii). Baisakhi (May / June).
The crops have been named after Hindi months during which these are
harvested. The lac of rangeeni crops is harvested while it is still immature.
Aghani and baisakhi of rangeeni strain are the main corps contributing about
90% of lac production, remaining 10% is contributed by kusumi crops.
However, the kusumi crop lac is considered superior resin, because of the
lighter colour of resin, and it fetches better price.
Pruning, Inoculation, Lac Cropping Techniques and Harvesting
Method of cultivation
Lac cultivation is a simple process and very limited labour is required for this,
the yield is fairly remunerative to the cultivators. Cultivators should have
complete, systematic, scientific knowledge for success.
The main steps involved in the cultivation of lac are:
d) Pruning,
e) Inoculation,
f) Harvesting and
g) Proper care for elimination of the enemy insects.
Pruning
In this stage the Palas tree is mature and ready for the production of lac at anage
of eight to ten years.Proper pruning is extremely important as it helps the
growth of new and short shoots suitable for settlement of lac insects. Old and
hard branches can never give a satisfactory production. The following points
should be borne in mind during the pruning
 There should be no excessive pruning in order to maintain the good health
and strength of the tree.
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 Proper cutting should be done in such a way that there should be a good
shape of the tree for plenty of space for the growth of new shoots.
 Branches exceeding 2”in diameter should not be cut. The most satisfactory
results are obtained by cutting at a thickness of 1-2” in diameter and the
thin branches under ½” diameter should be cut.
 Dead and diseased branches should be removed and split or broken
branches should be cut below the split or break.
Normally, the time of pruning is January-February, for inoculation in June-July,

and April-May, for inoculation in October-November.
Inoculation
Infection or inoculation is the method by which the lac insects are introduced
on to ahost plant. Inoculation should be done on trees which are being prepared
for such purpose by pruning in due time. For Palas trees. The quantity of
broodlac required for a tree depends upon the kind of tree and the size and
number of suitable branches. Approximate weights of broodlac required for
inoculating one medium sized tree of the following hosts are: Palas – 0.5-1.0
kg; ber – 1-2 kg; khair – 1-2 kg; kusum – 5-10 kg.
The general time period for the inoculation of lac insect is June-July --
Inoculation of Palas trees from the Bysacky brood to produce Katki Crop,
October-November -- Inoculation of Palas trees from the Katki brood for
production of Bysacky Crop
During inoculating, the following points should be carefully followed by the
cultivators:
(1) Fully matured and healthy broodlac, free from enemy insects should be
used. This will ensure maximum infection of the trees and also reduce
enemy infestation of the ensuing crop.
(2) Broodlac for inoculation cannot be kept long and should be used
immediately after cutting. Usually most of the lac larvae emerge from
the brood within a week or ten days from the time of first emergence
and to get best result inoculation should not be delayed beyond 2-3 days
of noting larval emergence from the broodlac.
(3) Usually self-infection should be avoided unless forced by
circumstances. If there is scarcity of labour in June-July, or there is a
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very hot localities, self-infection of trees should be done.

(4) While carrying out artificial infection, fully mature and healthy brood
lac, free from enemy insect infestation should alone be used. This will
ensure maximum infection of the trees and also reduce enemy
infestation of the ensuing crop
(5) Brood lac meant for infection cannot be kept long and should,
preferably, be used immediately after crop cutting. Ordinarily, most of
the lac larvae emerge from the brood lac within a week to ten days from
the time the first emergence is observed, and hence, on no account
infection should be delayed beyond 2 to 3 days of noting the larval
emergence from brood lac.
(6) Correct amount of brood lac, neither less nor more, should be used for
infection. Ordinarily a well-covered healthy brood lac stick gives
adequate larval settlement over 15 to 20 times its length, on the twigs of
the tree to be infected and hence, brood lac at this rate should be used
for infection.
(7) Selected brood lac in lengths of about 6 to 12 inches should be first tied
into bundles of 2 to 3 sticks and then such bundles tied on to the
branches of the trees at such places that the twigs above (with 15 to 20
times the total length of brood sticks used in the bundle) get full
infection. This will ensure full and uniform distribution of the brood and
consequently full and uniform infection of the tree.
(8) While tying brood bundles, care should be taken to tie them securely on
to the upper surface of branches and in such a way as to give maximum
contact of the bundles with the branch. This prevents sagging or falling
of brood bundles from the trees and allows the lac larvae to crawl to the
tree easily.
(9) Brood lac bundles should be kept on the tree for the minimum period
required for complete infection. Ordinarily, it may not be necessary to
keep the brood lac on the tree for more than two or three weeks. If kept
longer i.e. even after the complete emergence of the lac larvae, there is
the danger of a large number of enemy insects emerging from the empty
(phunki) brood lac sticks and starting heavy infestations in the field.
(10) While inoculation is going on, sometimes it will fall to the ground due
to a different reasons such as the activity of squirrels and rats, and
therefore, there is a need to keep proper watch on infected trees and then
and put such fallen bundles back on the tree.
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(11) The quantity of broodlac used usually depends on the size of the tree.
In case of Palas trees, 300 gms while in cases of small trees upto about 1
Kg lac is obtained
Cropping
While harvesting the lac crops, the following points should betake care:
I. Lac crops should be obtained only after maturation.
II. The premature cutting of lac will affect the quality of brood lac, since
the female lac insects still alive and ready to lay eggs get cut off from
their food supply from the host tree, and hence give rise to weak,
emaciated and unhealthy progeny.
III. Cropping of host trees like kusum and certain species of Ficus at the
time of harvesting also serves the purpose of pruning. In pruning or
cropping atree, the overall consideration should be that the general
health of the tree must be maintained and its frame increased as far as
possible.
IV. All dead and diseased branches should be cut off.
Cultivation of lac has been carried on by farmers in forest, sub-forest and
hinterland areas where suitable host plants exist, as a subsidiary occupation.
The more important areas of lac production are: Bihar – Chota Nagpur division,
Santhal Pargans and Gaya districts; Madhya Pradesh – Bilsapur, Raipur,
Balaghat, Chindwara, Jabalpur, Surguja, Mandla, Raigarh, Seoni, Durg,
Hoshangabad, Malda and Bankura districts; Asam – Khasi and Jaintia hills,
Garo hills, Mikir hills, Nowgong, Kamrup and Sibsagar forest division; Orissa
– Mayurbhanj, Sambalpur, Bolangir, Dhenkenal, Kalahandi and Keonjhar
districts; Maharasthra – Bhandara, Chanda, Panchmahal and Baroda districts;
Uttar Pradesh – Mirzapur, district and Lucknow and Varanasi forest divisions.
Small quantities of lac are grown in Punjab (Hoshiarpur dist.), Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu (Madurai dist.) States; the lac produced is consumed locally.
Lac Enemies
Like the other agricultural crops, the main enemies of lac crop are the insects.
These insects are serious and damaging pests to the lac crop also,. These insect
pests destroy 30-40% of lac. The insects damage the lac crop is two ways:
As Parasites: Lac insects are parasitized by small winged eight species of insect
belonging to family chalcidae order Hymenoptera. These insect pests lay eggs
in lac cells. Their grubs on hatching feed on lac insects within the cells. Loss
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due these parasites is 5-10%

As Predators:
The predators causes major damage (up to 35%) to lac crop. There are three
main insect predators on lac:
(1) Eublemma amabilis Moori: commonly known as white lac moth,
orderLepidoptera
(2) Holocerca pulverea Meyr : commonly known as black lac moth,
orderlepidoptera
(3) Chrysopa spp.: Commonly known as lac wing fly, order Diptera
The white lac moth is more destructive on trees; while black lac moth, on
the stored lac. These predator moths and fly lay their eggs on the lac
encrusted twigs. On hatching, their larvae make their way inside the lac
encrustation and feed on the lac insects as well as on lac encrustations.
In addition to insect pests, squirrels and monkeys also damage lac. The
rodents could damage greatly. These pests gnaw the mature lac
encrustations on the trees or brood lac sticks tied for inoculation, and thus,
consuming gravid females. The brood lac can be made to fall on the ground
by these animals preventing inoculation.
Forest fires too often break out in deciduous forests in summer season and
destroy both lac insects and their host plants.
Control Measures for the control of insect enemies of lac are:
 Only healthy pest-free brood lac should be used for inoculation.
 Enclosing of broodlac for inoculation in 60-80 mesh wiregauze baskets,
c. 30 cm x 7 cm in size. This method is particularly used for areas where
lac cultivation is being introduced for the first time. The baskets permit
free exit to lac larvae but exclude enemy insects. Proper management of
host plants with a view to ensure their vitality and vigour helps to reduce
damage by parasites.
 The twigs for inoculation should be cut just before swarming to get
healthy brood.
 Avoiding cultivation of early and late maturing varieties of lac, at least
for brood purposes, in the same locality to prevent the spread of pests
 Scrapping of encrusted lac from twigs should be done as soon as
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possible, and lac, thus obtained should be immediately converted into

seed lac and not left near the inoculated lac hosts.
 Immersion of freshly harvested sticklac, not wanted for brood, as well as
phunki lac (i.e., broodlac after larval emergence is complete) in running
or deep stagnant water
 Scraping of lac from twigs immediately after harvesting and killing
larvae and pupae of the pests by burning, crushing, drowning or by
fumigation with carbon bisulphide (1 oz./10cu.ft. of space) before
storage.
 Infected stick lac should be destroyed along with predators and pests.
Manufature Of Hand-Made Shellac
After proper blending, seedlac is filled into a long, narrow cloth bag. One end
of the bag is held in front of the charcoal oven while the other end attached to a
windlass is gradually turned. The heat of the oven melt the lac which is forced
out through the cloth by the pressure extended by the windlass leaving
impurities inside the bag. The molten lac is scraped out and mixed thoroughly
to ensure uniformity and transferred to a block of molten lac on the surface of a
smooth porcelain cylinder filled with hot water. The molten mass is spread on
the cylinder by means of a strip palm leaf and pulled off as a sheet of about
1/8” thickness. Standing in front of the fire, the workman so manipulates the
sheet as to heat it uniformly and then scratches it with his hands, legs and
mouth. It is pulled in all directions to produce a sheet of about 5’x4’ with a
varying thickness from 1/16” at edges to about 1/1000 of an inch in the center.
The sheet is removed from the heat which is quickly cools and hardens. The
thicker edges are broken off and remolted while the rest is crushed into small
pieces and sold in the market as handmade shellac. This process requires
considerable manual skill and long experience.
Another variety of handmade shellac known as Buttonlac is manufactured by
dropping the molten lac on to a piece of galvanized iron sheet to form circular
discs(buttons) 2-3” in diameter and ¼” thick. The residue left inside the cloth
bag is another variety of refuse lac known as Kirilac. Kirilac obtained through
handmade process contains lac to the tune of 60-70%. The handmade shellac
has an impurity content varying from 1-2.5%.
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Figure – Processing of Lac

Manufacture of machine made shellac
When seedlac is produced by machine generally two methods are used—by
heat process same as in the case of handmade shellac and the second is solvent
process where pure shellac is extracted from seedlac by using suitable solvents.
1. Heat Process
In this process the pure lac is isolated from melting seedlac by steam
heat and squeezing the soft molten lac through filter by means of
hydraulic pressure. The molten lac is then stretched by means of rollers
into long and continuous sheets which is broken into pieces to from the
machine made shellac under heat process. This shellac has an impurity
ranges from 0.5 to about 1”. The residue remaining on the filter forms
the Kirlac which has a lac content varying from 40-50%.
2. Solvent Process
In this method insoluble impurities are isolated by dissolving the lac in a
suitable solvent, usually industrial alcohol, after this the solution is
filtered through fine cloth and the alcohol is recovered by boiling the
solution. The molten shellac is then stretched to the required thickness
on a roller followed by stretching machines. The solvent process
manufactures different types of shellac containing varhying percentage
of shellac wax. Dewaxed or partly dewaxed shellac may be
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manufactured by this process. Very high grade of shellac dewaxed,

decolourised, least impurity containing shellac can be produced by this
method by using activated carbon as the decolourising agent.
Figure – Processing of Lac
Lac Composition
 The major constituent of sticklac is the resin (70-80%). Lac resin is a
polyester complex of straight- chain hydroxy fatty acids of C14 – C18
carbon chain, mono- and di – hydroxy acids along with hydroxy terpenic
acids.
 The Resin can be fractionated into soft and hard components by
exhaustive extraction with ether; the former constitutes 30% of the
original resin and is brown in colour. Both soft and hard resins can be
further fractionated by successive extraction with organic solvents.
 One fraction of soft resin contains free acids and neutral materials
including the yellow dye, erythrolaccin. The second fraction possibly
comprises of equivalent amounts of aleuritic acid, an isomer of aleuritic
acid and lacollic lactone.
 Other constituents present are: dye, sugars, proteins, and soluble salts,
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wax, sand, woody matter, insect bodies and other extraneous matter, a
volatile oil is present in traces.
1. Wax – The wax present is sticklac is usually obtained as a by-
product inthe manufacture of dewaxed shellac; it is known in the
trade as Shellac Wax.
2. Colouring matter–A water soluble red dye, laccaic acid, andan
alkali and spirit soluble yellow dye, erythrolaccin is present in lac;
the latter is possibly a etrahydroxymethyl anthraquinone. Laccaic
acid (C20H14O10) is a hydroxy-anthraquinone caroboxylic acid.
Lac dye is obtained by extracting sticklac with water and sodium
carbonate solution and precipitating with lime. It gives bright red
and scarlet shades which are somewhat faster than cochineal.
3. Refining – Crude lac, as obtained by scraping the resinous
encrustationsfrom harvested twigs, is known in commerce as
sticklac. It is seldom used without refining.
4. Seed Lac Sticklac is crushed by hand or power operated roll mills
and washed with water in cup-shaped stone vats or steel barrels. It is
then dried on cemented floors away from the direct rays of the sun
and finally winnowed. The water soluble colouring matter is
removed during washing. Washed lac or seedlac, thus obtained is in
the form of grains (10 mesh/in or less), yellow or reddish brown in
colour. Adhering impurities amount to 3-10%.
5. The lighter impurities float on the surface and form a scum which
can be easily removed. The coloured water containing lac dye is
drained out. The washing is repeated until the dye and most of the
impurities are removed. The lac thus cleaned is spread on large,
clean open air floor to dry. After drying, it is winnowed and sieved
to get the commercial variety of seedlac. The dusty lac which is
eliminated by sieving is known as Molamma lac and falls under the
category of Refuse lac, it contains approximate 55-80% lac.
Lac products and their use
 Lac dye
Lac dye is used to colour wool and silk. Its colour varies between purple
red, brown and orange. It is a mixture of anthroquinoid derivatives. It is
used in food and beverages industry for colouring. But, now-a-days
because of awareness on use of eco-friendly and safe material there is a
great demand of lac dye as a colouring material in spite of using
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synthetic dye.
 Lac wax
Lac wax is a mixture of higher alcohols, acids and their esters. It is used
in various products like polish of shoes, floor, automobiles etc, Food and
confectionary, and drug tablet finishing, lipsticks, children colourful
Crayons
 Shellac
Shellac is a natural gum resin used in numerous industries. It is natural,
nontoxic, hard, tough, amorphous, brittle, physiologically harmless and
edible resin. Shellac is a resin containing small amount of wax and a
substance responsible for its characteristic pleasant odour. The lac resin
is an intimate mixture of several components. Shellac is slightly heavier
than water. Its natural colour varies from dark red to light yellow. When
slowly heated, it softens at 65-70oC and melts at 84-90oC. Shellac is
insoluble in water, glycerol, hydrocarbon solvents and esters, but
dissolves readily in alcohols and organic acids.
It has the following extra ordinary properties:
1. It is thermoplastic and also used for various applications in the
food industry.
2. It is UV-resistant.
3. It has excellent dielectric properties, dielectric strength, a low
dielectric consent, good tracking resistance etc.
4. It has excellent film forming properties. Its film shows excellent
adhesion to wide variety of surfaces and possess high gloss,
hardness and strength
5. Shellac is a powerful bonding material with low thermal
conductivity and a small coefficient of expansion.
6. Shellac under tropical conditions of storage, may soften and form
a solid block, without adverse effects on its properties.
7. When shellac is heated for a long time above its melting point, it
gradually loses its fluidity and passes through a rubbery stage to
hard, horn-like and infusible.
Use:
o It is used in fruit coatings, e.g. for citrus fruits and apples, parting
and glazing agents for sweets, marzipan, chocolate etc. Also used as
binder for foodstuff stamp inks, e.g. for cheese and eggs.
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o Jewellers and goldsmiths use lac as a filling material in the hollows

in ornaments.
o It is also used in preparation of toys, buttons, pottery and artificial
leather.
o It is also used commonly as sealing wax.
o It is used as binder for mascara, nail varnish additive conditioning
shampoo, film forming agent for hair spray, micro-encapsulation for
perfumes.
o It is used for enteric (digestive juice-resistant) coatings for tablets
o It is used in manufacturing of photographic material, lithographic
ink and for stiffening felt and hat material.
o It is utilized in preparation of gramophone records.
Bleached shellac
Use
 In medicines for coating of pills, tables and gel caps and coating for
controlled release preparation.
 Used in coating of confections, chewing gums, marzipan chocolates,
nutties, jelly- and coffee-beans etc.
 As a wood finishing agent in wood coatings and wood stains and as a
wood filler or sealer agent for porous surfaces and cracks.
 In French polish used for antique frames for paintings and Wood polish.
 In different fireworks and pyrotechnics.
 In different electric equipments as a binder for lamp cements.
 In field of electronics as an insulation materials, serves as additive to
moulding compounds. Mass coating for print-plates and is adhesive for
si-cells.
 Used in paints as a primer for plastic parts and plastic film.
 In Aluminium industry as a primer for Aluminium and Aluminium foils.
 Flexographic printing inks
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 Barrier coating for processed food, vegetables, fruits and dry flowers.
 Used as textile auxiliaries.
 In various cosmetics products like hair spray, hair and lacquers, hair
shampoos, and binder for mascara.
 In primer for plastic parts and films.
 As an additive to natural rubber.
 In leather auxiliaries.
Dewaxed bleached shellac
Dewaxed shellac is a bit harder, shines a bit brighter, is completely free from
wax from normal shellac. Bleached lac has super characteristics and qualities
i.e. adhesive, binding, hardening, gloss, odorless. It has good film forming
properties, a high gloss and excellent adhesion to various substrates including
the human hair.
Use:
 In different cosmetic products like hair sprays, hair setting lotions, hair
shampoos, mascara, eyeliners, nail polishes, lipsticks, micro
encapsulation by coacervation of fragrances and perfume oils.
 In coating of various food products like confections, chewing gum,
candles, cakes, eggs, citrus fruits and apples, and printing inks for eggs
and cheese.
 Coating of fruits and vegetables, tablets &capsules, aluminium foil,
paper etc.
Apis spp (honeybees): Economic importance, bee species and their
behaviour, habit and habitats; Bee keeping: bee pasturage, hives and
equipments, seasonal management; Bee enemies, including diseases and
their control.
10.4 Apiculture
Apiculture is the science of beekeeping. In this we do rearing of the
honeybees in natural or artificial conditions. Beekeeping is one of the gentlest
agro-industries. Bees and beekeepers are found throughout the world. Honey
industry involves honeybee, flowering plants that provide food to the bees
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and to the beekeepers who manipulate bees according to the climate and
vegetation for their own benefit. Beekeeping creates employment, income and
a measure of economic security and well-being. Bees have been reared by
man originally for harvesting honey. Today, apiculture industry is not
restricted to honey alone. It also involves production and harvest of all hive
products, like beeswax, bee collected pollen, royal jelly, bee venom and
propolis. Honeybees are also involved in pollination to increase the yield of
agricultural and horticultural crops.
History of the apiculture
In India, usefulness of honeybees has been known from the prehistoric times.
the association between man and honeybee has a long history, as evidenced by
oldest records of honey industry in the form of paintings by prehistoric man in
the rock shelters. Honey was the first sweet food tasted by the ancient Indian
roaming in these forests. They hunted bee hives for this gift of Nature. The bees
have been mentioned in the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Quran and other holy
books. Figures and carvings of honeybees, their combs and hives are found on
the tombs, coffins, crown and maces of kings and on the coins of both ancient
and modern empires. Honeybees have been used as a weapon in the World War
I when infuriated swarms were released to hamper the entry of forces in
Belgium. The medicinal property of bee venom of relieving muscular pain and
aches of sciatica, rheumatism and arthritis has also been known for a long time.
While primitive methods of beekeeping have been used in all over the world
from a very old time. According to Einstein if the bee disappears from the
surface of the earth, man would have no more than four years to live. No more
bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.
The first rewarding scientific method of movable Frame Hive in 1851 was
discovered by Revd. L.L. Langstroth. In India, this method first came to Bengal
in 1882 and then to the Punjab in 1883. The Imperial Entomologist started
beekeeping work at Pusa in 1907 and continued with it up to 1919. The
beekeeping was taken to the South by Revd. Newton in 1911. After the
recommendations of the Royal Commission on Agriculture to develop
beekeeping as a cottage industry, (1928), the practice got a fillip in Madras
(1931), the Punjab (1933) and U.P. (1938). Nevertheless, beekeeping in India
has remained very much behind countries like the USA, Canada, Europe,
Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Whereas in these countries beekeeping by
individuals is a popular pastime, in India it is almost unknown despite the fact
that it being a tropical country can provide flowers of one or the other kind all-
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round the year making individual beekeeping as profitable as poultry farming.

It is time that this sweet and rewarding pastime is popularised in our country
too.
Figure- Ancient paintings showing beekeeping
Habit, habitats and behaviour of Apis bee species

There are some 20,000 kinds of bees, all belong to order Hymenoptera of insect
group that shows evolutionarily advanced features in body structure and in life
cycle. Of them, three families of social bees are honey producing: Bombidae,
Apidae and Meliponidae. The Bombidae are mainly temperate which keep their
broods and honey in separate waxen pots, not in combs. The Meliponidae are
stingless bees, some of them making waxen pots, some others horizontal combs
and just one, Trigona staudingeri of Africa making vertical combs. The Apidae,
is the main honey-producing family. Its four species, Apis dorsata, Apis indica,
Apis florea and Apis mellifera are most popular with beekeeping industry. Of
them, the first three are Indian and the last, European species that has been
introduced into every country of the world due to its good honey-gathering
quality.
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Figure – Morphology of honey bee (Source – R.E. Snodgrass)

Systematic Position
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Subfamily: Apinae
Apini
Tribe:
Latreille, 1802
Apis
Genus:
Linnaeus, 1758
Dwarf bee, Apis florea (F.)

Apis florea is the smallest honeybees and is called appropriately the dwarf or
the little honeybee. It does not sting easily and so mistaken for Stingless bee.
It is generally found in plains or low lands in tropics and sub-tropics. It is
rarely found in altitudes above 450 m. The nests are built in bushes, densely
leaved small trees in gardens and orchards, eaves of buildings or wall niches
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in urban areas and on closely placed stalks of crop plants like Sorghum
(jowar).
The dwarf bee is able to survive in very hot and dry climate. The comb (size
40 x 45cm) architecture is similar to that in other Apis species, except the
comb shows a distinct honey portion that is situated at the top, and where
the support is free from above. The honey cells are constructed around the
support. The dwarf bees perform short flight but the maximum distance for
foraging is often up to 750 m. In view of this, the honey stored by it is
generally unifloral.
Rock bee, Apis dorsata (F.)
Rock bees, also known as giant bee, are common in plains and hills tracts up
to 1200 m altitude in the country. The nests of the rock bees are built in the
open and are fixed underneath a broad support such as a rock cliff, branch of
a tree, or eaves of a building. A usual feature of the rock bees is aggregation
of their nests (about 100 colonies) on terrestrial and arboreal supports. In
thick forests, rockbee colonies are built on branches of lofty trees at heights
up to 50 meters. Rock bee’s nests are found even on multistoried buildings,
large overhead water tanks and towers, ceilings and arches of temples,
engineering workshops in towns and cities.
Rock bee hive is the largest hive, often 100 cm broad and 80 cm high, but
sometimes measuring up to 200 x 150 cm. The combs are semi-circular,
vertically attached to the support above, from where it hangs down. The
comb has a midrib and two layers of cells connected to it on either side. The
nest population is 60,000 to 100,000 bees in well-developed colonies.
Like the dwarf bee, rockbee is migratory in nature, but the stay of nests in any
one place is usually long and often their movement is restricted to two times in
a year. It is said that rock bees can forage even during moonlit nights. Its flight
range is more than 5 km. Honey hunting in forests is related mainly with rock
bees.
Indian hive bee, Apis indica
The Indian hive bee is also considered as sub-species of the Asian or Oriental
or Eastern hive bee, Apis cerana F. In India, two varieties: the hill variety or
‘Gandhiana’ which is darker and larger and the plain variety and ‘Indica’ which
is smaller and yellow, and various ecotypes are recognized. It makes parallel
combs on trees, termtaria, hollows of rocks and all kinds of cavities. It can be
domesticated. The Indian bee is often blamed for its desertion or absconding
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tendency.
European bee, Apis mellifera
European bees, originated in Italy, and have been introduced into all the
countries of the world where they formed the well-recognized races. In India, it
was successfully introduced in 1965; the race is A. mellifera. The original stock
at Punjab has been multiplied, and the progeny distributed in other states by the
All India coordinated Project on Honey Bee Research and Training, ICAR,
Central Bee Research and Training Institute, and Khadi and Village Industries
Commission. It can yield 4 - 5 times as much honey as the Indian bee. It makes
its nest in enclosed spaces in parallel combs and is endowed with all the good
qualities of a hive bee, i.e. it has a prolific queen, swarms less, gentle tempered
so domesticable, good honey gatherer and can guard its nests against enemies,
except wasps. It has adapted itself well to modern methods of movable frame
hives and, therefore preferred for beekeeping industry the world over.
Figure – Indian Apis Bee Species
Social organization of honeybee colony

Honeybee is a social insect because it lives in hives or colonies with a
division of labour. Each colony is a society of different castes: the worker
bee, queen bee and drone or male bee. There is a perfect co-ordination in the
functioning of the following three castes in the colony.
Queen Bee (functional female)
The queen is a fertile female larger than the other two castes. Its abdomen is
swollen with eggs. Each colony contains one queen bee as its head. After birth,
the queen stays inside the colony for about 5-10 days to grow to maturity.
Later, it goes out of the colony on mating or nuptial flights followed by several
drones. During the mating process, the stock of sperms of male bee goes into
the spermatheca of the queen, where they can survive for over 3 years. The
mated queen returns to the hive and starts its role as the queen mother, i.e.
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laying eggs. A queen can lay up to 15,000 eggs per day.

It is fed on royal jelly, a highly proteinous, enzyme- and hormone-rich food
produced by the worker bees. Egg laying is controlled by the availability of
food royal jelly. Although the queen bee can live for 2-3 years, its effective life
to lay fertilized eggs for the survival and continuation of the colony is much
shorter; usually 2 years. The queen bee can lay fertilized or unfertilized egg
depending upon the size of the brood cell. The worker brood cells receive
fertilized eggs, while the larger drone cells receive unfertilized egg. The former
hatches into worker bee larvae and the later into drone larvae.
A queen bee differs from a worker bee in its morphology, development period,
life span, and behaviour. The queen develops reproductive organs, while the
worker bee develops organs related to its work such as pollen baskets, stronger
mandibles, brood food glands and wax glands. Unlike workers, the queen never
participates in any common hive activities.
Worker Bee (sterile female)
Worker bees are infertile female developed from fertilized eggs. A bee
colony is called weak or strong according to number of workers it has. A bee
colony of A. cerana indica has 15,000 workers and a strong one has 80,000.
The workers (sterile females) are smaller than drones and queen. These have
underdeveloped reproductive organs due to the influence of the pheromones
produced by the queen. At any given time, a colony may have 2 or more
batches of worker bees, having different male parentage.
A worker bee has a life span of 6 weeks. For about three weeks following
birth, they do the indoor duties, like feeding the drones (if they are still need),
nursing the young, secreting royal jelly and bee wax, feeding and attending
queen bee, cleaning the cells and hive, repairing the damaged combs,
construction of new combs, ventilating, cooling, guarding and defence of the
colony, evaporating nectar and stored honey. During the next 3 weeks, they
take to outdoor field duties of foraging to collect water, nectar, pollen and
propolis, and ripening honey in its proventriculus (honey stomach). Older
forager bees turn also into scout bees that search for new sources of food and
new nesting sites for the hive.
A worker bee does not have an individual existence, as it lives for the good of
entire colony. It dies in harness during flight to flowers. The average worker
bee can make only one-twelfth of a teaspoon of honey during its lifetime. The
worker bees must tap over two million flowers to make about one pound of
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honey, flying a distance equal to more than three times around the world.
Drone (male)
The drones are male developed from unfertilized eggs parthenogenetically.
The male bees are produced in the colony for the purpose of mating and
fertilizing the queen bees. The larvae that develop from unfertilized eggs are
fed royal jelly and give rise to drones. Worker bees feed and take care of the
drone bees till the virgin queen in their colony is mated. After mating with the
queen, the drone dies. When queen bee returns mated to hive, the worker bees
neglect the drones.
Figure - Morphology of worker, drone and queen castes of honey

bee
Life Cycle
During nuptial flight, the queen receives spermatophores from drone and store
in its spermatheca. The queen walks over the combs deciphering the cell size
(largest of queen, smallest of worker and in between of drone) and depositing
one egg in bottom of each cell. The eggs are small, oblong and bluish white.
The eggs may be fertilized to produce females or unfertilized to produce drone
parthenogenetically, and these are accordingly deposited in the cells of required
size.
The transformation of 3 castes depends upon the amount of ‘Brood food’ or
‘Royal jelly’ produced by pharyngeal salivary glands of worker fed to larvae.
The cells of queen, worker and drone are sealed, i.e. capped with wax on 8,
9, 10 day of emergence, respectively. The cap of drone cell is convex with a
central hole, and those of worker, queen, honey and pollen are flat.
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Figure – Life cycle of Honey bee
Social behaviour
The various behavioural features of bees within the hive and in the field
are important for the smooth functioning of the colony as a unit.
(For more details please refer to Unit – 12)
Swarming and Colony Reproduction
Swarming is a method of reproduction. A part of the colony migrates to a new
site to reproduce a new colony. When food is available in plenty, the worker
bees take up activities that result in colony reproduction. They build drone
cells in which the queen lays unfertilized eggs. These hatch into drones. After
this, the bees construct queen cells and fertilized eggs are laid in these cells.
The worker bees feed the larvae in the queen cells with royal jelly, larvae
develop into fertile females, viz. queen bee. Before a virgin queen emerges
from the sealed queen cells, the mother queen leaves the hive with a part of the
worker bees as a prime swarm. Then the virgin queen emerges and after a
while rushes out of the hive with another batch of worker bees to form after
swarm that establishes itself into a colony at a new nesting site. The swarm
settles in a selected nesting site. Worker bees begin to construct combs, forage
and gather food, and to rear the brood. As the new worker bees emerge, the
hive develops into a full-fledged colony.
Nest Site Selection and Nest Construction
The nest site selection depends upon various factors like the availability of
food source nearby, distance of water source and adequate space to
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accommodate the nest. Other factors are temperature, humidity, and

availability of sunlight, ventilation, and protection from rain, predators and
enemies. Among the honeybees, rock bees prefer associations in the nest site,
while other species build their nest in independent sites in isolation.
Honeybees will occupy any cavity which is weatherproof or can be easily made
so by them, offers protection against enemies, does not become too hot in the
sun and provides adequate ventilation. The most common nesting place is a
hollow tree; other are holes under rocks, caves, hollows of termitaries,
electricity poles, if hollow, chimneys, cupboards and boxes. If the selected
place has cracks through which the bees cannot pass, they seal them with
propolis, a resinous substance with which they varnish the inside of the hive. If
the entrance is larger than the bees can guard safely, they block it with the same
material leaving only a number of small holes which they can both guard and
use to regulate circulation of air in the hive.
Following selection of nest site, worker bees produce beeswax by consuming
nectar or honey. Wax is secreted by the 4 pairs wax glands located on 3rd –
6th abdominal sterna. The wax is secreted in liquid form and hardens into thin
flakes or scales. The wax scales are removed from there with the help of legs,
kneaded into required shapes by the spatulate mandibles and stuck to the top of
nesting cavity and extended downwards bit by bit. Several bees hang like a
string to do this job of nest construction. Beeswax is also used to seal the cells
with wax cap.
The comb
The comb provides accommodation for raising of the young bees and the
storage of food. The combs are built with beeswax which is secreted by 4 pairs
of wax glands located on 3-6 abdominal sterna. The wax, secreted in a liquid
form, collects in the intersegmental regions, hardens into thin flakes that are
picked up by the legs and passed on to the spatulate mandibles for being
kneaded and stuck to the top of nesting cavity and extended downwards bit by
bit. Several bees hang like a string to do this job. First to be constructed is the
midrib on both surfaces of which are also made hexagonal cells for the broods
and food. After the first or central comb is completed, adjacent combs are made
1 3/8 inch apart in the case of A. mellifera and much larger in the hill varieties
of A. indica but a little less in the plain varieties. As the combs increase in
number, they are attached to the sides of the cavity as well as to the top but
seldom to the extreme bottom. As already mentioned, the nests of A. dorsata
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and A. florea are made of single vertical comb, those of A. mellifera and A.
indica comprise a series of parallel (horizontal) combs. There is a definite
sequence in the locations of the cells for different functions. Usually the cells
meant for honey storage are located uppermost near the point of attachment of
the comb below which are pollen cells spread in 2” wide band, further down are
worker brood cells which is followed by the drone and queen cells. New queen
cells are built only when the old queen being ineffective to rule is to be
replaced by a supersedure queen or if the queen accidentally dies and an
emergency queen has to be produced or when the colony has the urge to
reproduce by swarming. As mentioned earlier, the worker cells are the smallest,
drone cells larger than the worker cells and queen cells, the largest. Workers
and drone cells are directed sideways, queen cells vertically with open ends
downwards. Cells of the size of worker and drone cells used for storing honey
and pollen. Cells are capped or sealed after the purpose of which they are meant
is over. Cells containing unripe honey or developing brood are uncapped; those
with fully ripe honey and fully fed grubs are capped and pollen cells are
generally not capped. Only drone cells, as noted above, have a dome-shaped or
convex caps with a central hole; others have flat caps.
Nursing and Food Sharing
Young worker bees normally attend to the duties of nursing and feeding. They
can detect the young or old larvae, and feed them accordingly with royal jelly
or with beebread (a mixture of pollen and honey). The transformation of 3
castes depends on the amount of ‘royal jelly’ or ‘brood-food’ produced by the
pharyngeal by the pharyngeal salivary glands of the workers. Bees consume
pollen and nectar or honey, which helps in secretion of a special highly protein
and hormone rich food, called royal jelly. The chemical composition of royal
jelly is lipoproteins, neutral glycerides free fatty acids, sugar, amino acids and
all the B vitamins. For the first 2 ½ days all larvae are given plenty of this food
(obligatory feeding) after which those destined (chosen) to become workers and
drones (identified by the size of their cells) are given rationed (controlled) food
for 6-7 days and those destined to become queens continue to receive
abundance of brood-food for 4 ½ - 5 days (facultative feeding). On the 8th, 9th
and 10th day of emergence, the cells of the queen, worker and drones cell is
convex with a central hole, those of the worker, queen, honey and pollen cells
are flat.
Pheromones
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Pheromones plays the key role in honey bee colony for several functions. The
distinctive colony odour resulting from these chemicals helps in recognition of
hive mates, and locating their nest on return from forage flights. The chemicals
are called pheromones and control the functions and behaviour of other
individuals. The queen bee pheromones regulate the smooth functioning of the
colony. It inhibits development of ovaries in worker bees, and prevents them
from rising into new queen bees. When a virgin queen goes out on a mating
flight, its pheromones help the drones to locate and reach her. The brood
pheromones induce worker bees to feed the brood, and gather food from
outside. Similarly, alarm pheromones induce them to attack the enemy or
intruder in the colony. There are several such pheromones produced by the
three castes that selectively control the behaviour of the inmates of the hive.
Queen's Retinue
A group of house bees form a circle around the queen and attends its feeding,
cleaning and assists her in egg laying. Bees in this retinue constantly lick the
queen's pheromones and share this substance with other house bees. The
individuals in the retinue regularly are changed, as they leave the retinue to
attend to other house duties and new individuals take their place.
Supersedure and Emergency queen
Supersedure is queen replacement without colony division. A failing queen
who is unable to lay as many eggs as required, or who begins to run out of
spermatozoa and lay a high proportion of male eggs will need to be superseded
by supersedure queen. The worker bees are induced to build supersedure cells
which are 2 or 3 large queen cells in the middle of the nest, unlike a dozen of
comparatively small queen cells build at edges of nest during the swarming
period.
In absence of queen substance due to death of queen, the workers are
stimulated to get set for producing an emergency queen. The eggs or larvae less
than two and half day old in worker cells, which are still being fed on
abundance of brood food, are selected. Their cells are enlarged and extended
downwards and the larvae are fed in the same way as in queen cells to develop
into emergency queen.
Absconding and Migration
Complete desertion of a hive is known as absconding. It may occur due to
lack of water, food store, overheating due to poor insulation and ventilation of
nest, constant attack of pest and even by excessive interference of beekeeper.
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Prior to absconding, the bees drink whatever honey their nest has and then
migrate leaving behind empty combs. Absconding can be prevented by
providing water or sugar solution near the hive particularly in summer. The
experienced beekeepers always take this precaution, since absconding is
complete loss to him.
Guarding and Defence
Bees have defence mechanisms against enemies and predators. Use of propolis
is one of them. Dammar bees use propolis also to regulate nest entrance.
Dwarf bees use glue like special propolis to guard their nest from ants. Bees
developed stinging behaviour to face threats to the nest from enemies and
predators. A batch of old house bees guards the entrance of the hive. They
warn the hive mates of an impending danger to the nest, by releasing alarm
pheromones. When a guard bee stings or bites an enemy, alarm pheromones
are released that alert and instigate other workers to mount a collective attack
on the enemy.
Flying and Foraging
Initial flight of bee is restricted to the surroundings of the nest, and is called
orientation or play flight. Bees use the play flights also to void themselves of
faeces and other waste products of their metabolism. Bees exhibit highly
efficient methods of collecting food, learning the intricate patterns of the
flowers and of reaching the food. They are excellent navigators and can reach
their nest after foraging at long distances.
Nectar foragers suck nectar with their proboscis. The nectar gets into the honey
stomach, where it gets mixed with bee's digestive enzymes. When adequate
quantity of nectar is collected, the bee returns to the hive. Here, it regurgitates
the nectar and gives it to nectar soliciting house bees. Both nectar and water are
carried by separate bees.
Pollen foragers manipulate anthers of flowers to dislodge the pollens. Bees
walk quickly or fly over the flowers, getting the pollen on their body parts.
Pollen grains on any part of the body are gathered and packed together into
pellets with the help of legs that have undergone extensive modification. The
tibia of mid legs bears a spine at inner end, which is used to remove wax-flakes
from the abdominal sterna bearing wax glands. The tibia of hind legs is
broadened with concave outer surface fringed with long curved spines, the
lower one of which acting as pollen rakes. The outer concave surface of tibia
acts as a pollen basket. The basitarsus has pollen brushes. The pollens collected
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off the body the fore- and mid- legs are placed in pollen basket. Pollen baskets
hold the pellets. When the pellets are big enough, the forager returns to the hive
and deposits them in a pollen store cell.
Communication
Bees have a unique language (bee dance) to communicate among themselves
about the distance and direction of food source. Experienced forager bees
function as scout bees. They search vegetation in surroundings for food source.
On locating a good source, the scout bee performs a dance on the surface of
the comb. Through this dance, the scout bee communicates with potential
foragers in the hive the information about the location in respect to Sun, the
quality and amount of food.
Bee dance is of two types: Round dance and Tail-wagging dance. The
communication dance is a sequence of elaborate movements of the posterior
abdomen and of the bee in circles or other patterns. The vigour of dances and
the frequency patterns of movements depend upon the quality, quantity, and
distance of the food source.
Economic Importance of bees
Pollination can be accomplished by many types of birds, insects, bats, wind etc.
Bees are one of the most well-known and important types of pollinator, both in
agriculture and natural ecosystems. Pollination by bees occurs when a foraging
bee brushes against the anthers causing pollen to stick to her body. When the
bee touches the stigma while searching for nectar at the center of the flower,
some pollen grains are left on its sticky surface. Bees also use pollen as a food
source; it is collected from the anthers into an area on their legs called the
corbiculae, which contain specialized hairs that hold the pollen in place.
Indian agriculture is characterized by a predominance of small and marginal
farmers, who account for 80% of all farmer households. Agriculture has been
plagued by declining productivity over the last few decades. Recognising that
the benefit of beekeeping is 40 times more than the value of honey and
beeswax, the first National Commission on Agriculture (1976) in India had
recommended beekeeping purely as an agricultural input and put forth a plan
for apiculture until 2000. However, subsequent agricultural policy
unfortunately did not give beekeeping the importance it deserves.
Recognising the crucial role that low cost beekeeping could play in increasing
agricultural yields for the small farmer in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya
Pradesh to promote low cost beekeeping with the indigenous bee, the Apis
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Cerana Indica, to increase agricultural yields, diversify and improve rural

livelihoods.
Commercial beekeeping especially that promoted by various government
agencies focuses on the hybrid bee A.mellifera. The latter is a good producer of
honey but has to be procured from outside and is often at risk of disease. From
a small farmer’s point of view, the A. mellifera is expensive to maintain and
also requires migration as it does not pollinate all local crops. A.cerana on the
other hand is locally available, does not require migration and is an excellent
pollinator of local crops. This is an area where agriculture is rainfed and is of
subsistence nature. Average annual incomes are around Rs 20,000 – 25,000 per
annum. The economic value of crops grown for the family’s consumption like
rice, finger millet, niger and other pulses is another Rs 20,000 per annum.
Beekeeping is the actual commercial part of apiculture. Unfortunately, it is not
very popular in India as it is in the western countries. Many people here even
do not know that it can be as engaging and profitable a profession as say
poultry farming, horticulture, pisciculture etc. The reasons are that it is firstly
not eye-catching and secondly, people are not familiar with the techniques of
this trade.
In India, due to the diversity in flora, topography and activities of people,
beekeeping and management is diverse. Here, beekeeping has been adapted to
various ecosystems, socioeconomic profiles and habitat preferences. From
commercial beekeepers in Himachal Pradesh to local honey collectors in the
hills and forests of Tamil Nadu to migratory beekeepers of Kanyakumari, the
rich forest regions along the sub- Himalayan mountain ranges and the Western
Ghats they all practise some form of beekeeping. Rural beekeeping has a role to
play as not all can become commercial beekeepers. This rural sector needs to be
enhanced by appropriate tools, support systems and bring them to the forefront.
It is this informal sector which is providing up to 70 per cent of the honey and
beeswax market in India.
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Table - Increase in Yield Due to Bee Pollination

Bee keeping
Humans have collected honey from wild bee hives for more than 8,000 years,
as shown in Mesolithic rock paintings dating from 6000 B. C. E. By 2500 B. C.
E. Egyptians were keeping bees in artificial hives. Hives exploit the honeybees'
natural tendency to build nests in cavities, and allow apiculturalists to easily
move (via boat, wagon, truck) and manipulate bee colonies. This mobility has
allowed beekeepers to introduce honeybees around the world: The first hives
were brought to the New World in the 1620s by European settlers.
Primitive hives were made of hollow logs, holes built in mud walls, or cones of
mud, earthenware, or thatch. A modern apiary hive is a series of stacked boxes.
The bottom box serves as the brood chamber where larvae develop; the upper
boxes provide a space to store honey. Each box contains eight to twelve frames,
which are set so they approximate the distance between combs in a natural hive.
Bees then build their comb on the frames, which can be removed individually.
Beekeepers remove the wax caps that cover each cell of the comb and let the
cells' contents drip out by gravity, or use a specialized machine to spin the
frames and draw the comb contents out by centrifugal force. The honey is then
filtered and stored. Honey quality is determined by its flavour, clarity, and
colour.
Bee Pasturage
Apiculture is concerned with the efficient use of natural resources to produce
natural material useful to man. The materials required for honey industry come
from the flowering plants. Plants provide pollen and nectar having all the
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essential nutrients for their growth and survival of honeybees. These materials
are processed by bees into honey, beeswax, royal jelly and other items, for
immediate consumption or for storage and for later use.
Beekeeping in India has been by and large forest based. Our country, India, has
large area and varied geographical characteristic. The natural flora of Indian
forests is more varied because of the climatic conditions. There are several
thousands of species flowering plants indigenous to India and many more have
been introduced as crops of economic importance, or as ornamental plants. The
forest natural vegetation of Western and Eastern Himalayan, the Western
Ghats, the Sunder ban and the Assam region are more suited to bee life.
Beekeeping with the European honeybee (A. mellifera) that introduced in India
in 1965 depends mainly on cultivated crops. Among such species are coconut,
areca nut, red oil palm, date palm, cacao, mango, custard apple, jujube,
cinnamon, clove, cashew, fodder legumes, coriander, cumin, dill seed, fennel,
fenugreek, garlic, turmeric, ginger and other spice crops. The road side
plantations like Eucalyptus, Karanj, Tamarind, Gulmohar, Peltaphorum and
Soap Nut also contribute to honey production. Hedges and fence plants like
Mehndi (Indian privet), Duranta, Mulberry, Justicia and Jatropha do also add to
the bee forage value.
Many pulse and oilseed crops are also good sources of bee forage. Among the
plantation commercial crops, Coffee, Orange and other Citrus Fruit, Apple and
other Pomaceous fruit species, Cardamom and Rubber tree are important from
the beekeeping point of view. The rubber plantation in Southwestern and
Northeastern parts is the single largest source of nectar in India. Next in
importance is litchi tree. The entire north India has large areas under litchi
orchards that constitute an excellent source of nectar during March to May.
Cereal crops, in general, are not very useful as sources of bee forage. However,
Jowar, Bajra and Maize are valued for their pollen.
Methods of beekeeping
Traditional beekeeping
Traditional beekeeping is a natural consequence of forest beekeeping. The
different traditional hives are used for the purpose. Rural people in southern
India have been keeping bees in clay pots. A few such pots with holes and
smeared beewax inside are kept in the garden as decoy hives, i.e., devices that
attract swarms of bees. Swarms occupy the decoy hives. When the colony
becomes strong, one or two shallow pots serving as super are kept inverted over
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it one above the other. When the monsoon sets in, the pots are overturned, the
combs are taken out and honey is extracted.
Tree trunks or Logs (40 x 60-100cm) are hollowed out by removing the inner
wood and used as log hive at altitudes above 1800 m. Wall Hives are empty
spaces, left in east side wall of houses The wall hives are quite common from
Jammu & Kashmir to the north-eastern Himalayan states. In addition, packing
cases, empty wooden boxes, wicker –work and woven bamboo baskets of
suitable size are also used as hives through the country.
Figure – Collection of bees swarms from the field.
Modern beekeeping
Modern Hives
In modern beekeeping, bees are kept away from their natural homes in man-
made hive as comfortable as possible. Modern hive is a wooden rectangular
box and it is movable from one place to other. In modern hive, frames are kept
parallel to each other, have free space all around them that is twice the body
size. This is called the bee space. It was Langstroth who took notice first in
1851 about the bee space and originally designed the frame hive. Bee space is
the major practical concept in the modern hive. The eggs, larvae and pupae are
together called brood. The frames used for rearing brood are called brood
frames and wooden box holding the frames are called as brood chamber.
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Figure- Langstroth’s Beehive model
Various types of frame hive varying in number of frames and bee space are
used: Smith, British commercial, Langstroth, Modified Dadant, Newton,
Honavar, Sodepur, Villager type etc. In 1956, Indian Standards Institution (ISI)
constituted an Apiary Industry Sectional Committee to consider and bring out
standards for bee - hives and other equipment. Based on the recommendations,
two types of hives - ISI Type A and ISI Type B - were adopted.
A movable hive has the following parts:
i) Stand: It is four legged structure with dimension to support the floor board.
ii) Bottom Board: It is a tray with all its four sides raised by side runner. In
the front, side runner is replaced by alighting board.
iii) Brood Chamber: It is a rectangular box without top and bottom. One
inch scooped shelves are cut along the length core of brood box to receive the
ends of top bar of hive frames.
iv) Hive frames: These frames are wooden. The sides or chore named as top-,
side-and bottom-bars. The ends of top bars extend beyond to rest on the
scooped rabet of brood box and undersurface is grooved to receive the edge of
comb foundation. There are four wires fixed between side bars to support the
comb foundation which act as mid rib. Bee constructs their cells on both side
of frame. These frames are spaced apart to leave the bee space (ranging from
6-9 mm depending upon type of bee to be reared).
v) Queen Excluder: It is wire frame with suitable size perforation that enables
the worker to pass through but not the queen. It excludes the queen to stay in
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the brood box. It is placed in between the brood chamber and super chamber.
vi) Honey Super : A hive could have 2-3 supers depending upon strength.
The supers also have hive frames similar to brood box except in the shorter
height. In super chamber frames only honey is stored. Hence, this chamber also
called as Honey Chamber, and the frames in it as honey frames.
vii) Covers: On the top, there are two covers: inner and outer. Inner cover is a
wooden plank of the size of box. It has one or two holes in middle that allow
bee to go out but not to re-enter. The inner cover protects the bee nest and
helps to regulate temperature and humidity within hive. The top or outer cover
fits telescopically and acts as a roof for the hive to protect from sun and rain.
Generally, it has two slopping planks. Ventilation holes are present on planks.
Figure – Artificial Beehive Parts

Beekeeping practices
Capturing
Capturing of the colony consists of removing the combs and bees from the
natural nest and hiving them in the moveable frame hive. This is done early in
the mornings or in the evenings when sun is not severe and the weather clear.
After ensuring the presence of worker bees, brood in various stages of
development and the queen bee, the combs are carefully cut one by one with a
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knife. These are tied to the frames and the frames are then kept in the brood
chamber. Alternatively, receptacles called decoy hives are kept in suitable
places on trees in forests, where swarms of bees are likely to settle. These are
called decoy hives. After a swarm occupies the decoy hive, it is taken down
and the colony transferred to a normal bee box. The presence of queen is
necessary, because the workers do not stay in the hive without queen. In the
case of beekeeping with the European bee, a colony can be procured from
another beekeeper and hived in a bee box. The colony so procured should
have worker bees and a young laying queen bee.
Figure – Beekeeping Instruments

Queen rearing and Requeening of colonies
Normally mated queen bees exhaust their sperm supply within a year, and
queen begins to lay unfertilized eggs. This brings down the strength of the
colony and its normal working. It is uneconomical to maintain such colonies.
The colony can be revived by replacing the old queen with a new young and
vigorous mated one. This process is called requeening. Beekeepers are advised
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to requeen about half of the colonies every year.

In a colony, Queens are produced under the swarming or supersedure impulse
or under emergency condition. In the commonly adopted method of grafting
for queen, a combination of these impulses is created and queens are raised
from larvae of selected stocks. The grafting technique involves preparation of
queen cell cups into which young larvae are grafted, and these are given to
strong colonies from which the queen is removed a day earlier. Under the
queen less condition, the bees accept the grafted larvae and raise them into
queens.
Uniting
Colonies are united when these are too weak to continue as efficient units. In
uniting two colonies, the older queen is removed a day earlier. The two
colonies are gradually brought near to each other; the weaker queenless is
placed above the brood chamber of the other colony, with a newspaper in
between them. The newspaper is smeared on both sides with sugar syrup and
small holes are punched in it. Bees enlarge the holes and mingle with each
other without fighting. Small pieces of paper outside the entrance and absence
of dead bees in front of entrance indicate successful uniting.
Swarm - prevention and control
Swarming is the natural process of reproduction. But, it is uneconomical
to beekeepers. In swarming, nearly half of its work-force of foragers
leaves the colony with the swarm, and the colony thus made weaker, is no
longer able to gather nectar and make honey.
During the season of swarming, the strong colonies are inspected frequently to
check for any queen cells. The queen and brood combs of the colony are
removed. The queen is removed, it is kept in a queen cage in its own colony,
and all queen cells are destroyed. Presence of the queen within the colony
encourages food gathering. The queen is released after about 10 days by which
time the swarming fever passes, and the colony concentrates on food gathering
activities.
Desertion control
Bees desert their hive due to starvation because of the absence of floral sources
in the area, continuous disturbance by pests and enemies. The time of desertion
varies from place to place and from season to season. During floral dearths,
brood rearing ceases. Bees abscond or leave the hive in search of a place where
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food is available. In such cases, providing artificial feeds, i.e. sugar syrup, can
prevent desertion. A more beneficial and economical method is to migrate
colonies to places where food is available.
Migration
For a beekeeper interested in honey production, migration of colony is
undertaken during floral dearths or adverse climatic conditions, to areas where
bee forage is available, or the environmental conditions are more favourable.
The Central Bee Research and Training Institute, Pune developed appropriate
schedules for migration of bee colonies for different agro-climatic regions of
the country.
Figure – Different steps of Bee Keeping Process

Harvesting of honey
There are two main sources of honey in India: (i) Forest honey that is
obtained from wild colonies in forests, including honey produced by
traditional methods of beekeeping and (ii) Honey produced in apiaries.
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Figure- Different steps of Bee keeping Process

Harvesting of honey from these sources is described below:-
Forest honey from rock cliffs
Rockbee hives and wild nests of the Indian hive bee are the usual sources of
forest honey. More than 90 per cent of the forest honey is collected from the
rockbee colonies generally by tribals and other forest dwellers called honey
hunters. Honey is an important minor forest produce. The honey hunting
expedition is undertaken once or twice in a year, usually at the end of spring or
in late summer or in autumn. The hunting operation is safer in night only, as
bees cannot see in the dark. The hunting group leaves in the evening with the
following equipments needed for honey hunting:-
1. A fiber rope ladder (50m long) or other strong fibered climbers.
2. Narrow bamboo sticks
3. Bamboo baskets or plastic vessels to collect comb pieces
4. A sharp and long knife with long handle.
A fire is lit on the ground below the nest location, and smoke is generated.
When the nest site is quite high, a smoke torch is used in place of the ground
fire. A sufficiently long rope is tied to the torch. A fire is made in the torch and
as the smoke billows out from it, the torch is let down to reach the nest. The
smoke continues to emanate for 30 to 45 minutes, during which time the hunter
completes the operation.
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The smoke and heat from the fire below confuses the bees. Bees get
disoriented, leave the comb temporarily and hover around the nest area. The
hunter first cuts away the brood portion and then the honey portion. A basket
made of bamboo or reeds, or a vessel is used to collect the honey and comb
pieces.
Honey extraction in traditional beekeeping
A few puffs of smoke applied on the nest. In the case of pot hive, the pot is
broken to get the combs inside. In all the cases, the honey filled combs are
removed. They are pressed in a piece of cloth and honey is extracted.
Honey harvesting in Modern beekeeping
The honey or super chamber is an important provision in the modern moveable
frame hive. Ideally, when all the combs in the super chamber are full and the
honey in them is being ripened, another super is kept below the filled super
and immediately above the brood chamber. When the second super is full, a
third is given in the same way. This facilitates ripening of honey in a natural
way.
Combs with a majority of cells sealed indicate that honey is ripe and can be
extracted. A little smoke is given while handling the bees to subdue them. Bees
on the comb are dropped down into the hive by a sharp jerk of the frame.
Honey frames from all colonies are collected and brought into a room for the
extraction operation.
Each frame of honey is held in one hand, and with a long uncapping knife the
sealing of the cells is cut, just above the level of honey. The frames after
uncapping are kept in the honey extractor. The extractor is operated by a handle
at a speed of about 300 r.p.m. The frames are rotated in the process and honey
comes out of the combs by the centrifugal force. The combs remain intact, and
frames are returned to hive for use again. There are two types of honey
extractors used: Radial and Tangential.
Harvesting and extraction of beeswax
Wax is also a valuable commodity of beekeeping. It is used by the beekeeper
to form the foundation, but it also has high commercial value in domestic and
international market. The beekeeper should save all old combs and aim to
replace about 20 percent of brood combs each year. Capping, wild deserted
combs and squeezed combs from honey hunting should be collected for wax
extraction. The combs are cut into small pieces and boiled in water for wax
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melting. The boiling mixture is then poured into a gunny cloth bag strainer.
Pressure is applied over the bag with a pair of wooden rollers to squeeze out
clean fluid. The liquid is received into a vessel having cold water. As the liquid
cools the wax solidifies as a cake at the top of the water. Further purification is
done by melting the wax cakes again in boiling water; liquid wax floating over
the water is drained into a vessel containing cold water. Pure wax hardens into
a cake that floats above the water. It may be also poured into suitable molds
made of tin.
Figure – Honey Extraction and Straining Equipment

In modern apiculture, a commonly recommended extractor is solar wax
extractor that uses natural sunlight for melting beeswax. It is a rectangular
wooden box with a lid of double glass panes. The ratio of the area of glass to
volumetric capacity is important and will determine performance. The extractor
should have sloping sides and, when in use, should be positioned with the
sloping sides facing the path of the sun. The extractor contains a metal tray with
sloping sides in which to capture the wax. The molten wax gets filtered by the
strainer as it flows down from the tray into a receptacle below. This lower
receptacle contains water. Wax floats on the water and solidifies.
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Other Beekeeping Equipments

o Ant well: The four legs of hive stand are placed in the ant wells
filled with water. This prevents ants and other crawling insects
entering the hive. Ant wells are simple tin or Aluminium bowls
(15 cm in diameter).
o Nucleus Box: It is a small bee box having about 4 frames and
used to house a nucleus colony -- a small man-made colony of
bees. As the nucleus colony grows, it is transferred to a normal
bee box.
o Dummy Board: It is a wooden board of the size of a frame and
used to reduce the size of the bee nest in a hive. Dummy board
is used to reduce the free space in the hive that helps the bees in
containing heat within the nest.
o Feeders: It is simple Aluminium bowls are used to provide
sugar syrup as feed to the bees during periods of nectar
scarcity.
o Queen Cage: It is used for transport of queen with a few
attendant worker bees in packages.
o Queen introduction cage: The queen introduction cage is
made of simple woven wire mesh, (3 mm size). The mesh is
bent round in the form of a square section tube of about 9 cm
length and 2.0 x 1.3 cm cross section. One end of the tube is
plugged with a wooden block, and the other end is open.
o Wire embedder: This is used for embedding wire in the
comb foundation to give strength to the combs.
o Hive tool: It is a flat piece of steel of varying design and size
used to separate the brood and super chambers, to loosen the
frames for taking them out, or to scrape hive corners, frames and
other hive parts.
o Smoker: It is appliance to produce and apply smoke to the
bees while handling them. There are different designs of
smokers and different methods of smoking.
o Bee veil: This is an essential wear of the beekeeper for
protecting face from bee stings during the handling of bees. In
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principle a bee veil should have a cloth hood with an

arrangement to hold a hat, and a screen in front of the face to
allow free vision of the bees and colony.
o Gloves: These are used soft leather gloves with canvas
gauntlets to the elbow are the best for use to protect hands
and arms, while inspecting and handling colonies.
o Swarm net: It is used to hold a swarm of bees and transport it
to the apiary. It consists of a mosquito net bag about 50 cm
long and 40 to 45 cm wide, with one side open. The open side
has a rope to close the bag after capturing the swarm.
o Bee brush: It is a soft hairbrush to remove bees from
honeycombs taken out for extraction of honey.
o Uncapping knife: It is used to cut off capping of honeycomb
before putting it in the honey extractor. Two types of uncapping
knife, cold- and steam-uncapping knife are in use.
o Comb cutter: With comb cutter, old and worn out corns are cut
and removed.
o Scraper: It is a flat piece of steel with one end broad and
sharpened and the other end with a wooden handle. It does the
same work as hive tool, but more efficiently.
Seasonal management of Bees
In India because of the peculiarities of climate and vegetation in different
ecological zones, there is seasonal variation in bee forage and water, therefore
based on this the seasons for apiculture are divided into: -
 Dearth period
 Build-up period
 Honey-flow period
 Harvesting period
Dearth period:
This is a time of the year when nectar and pollen are not available to the bees.
Egg laying activities decreases or stops as there is no food to feed the brood.
Dearth period may be caused by:
 Prolonged dry season which will not permit flowering
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 Very heavy rains, which prevent bees from foraging.

 The combination of prolonged dry season followed by very heavy rains.
 Very cold weather which prevents bees from going out to forage;
instead they cluster to produce heat.
In this season bees are manage by following steps-
 In hot areas, put the hive under shade so that bees have time to search
for their food source instead of wasting time trying to cool the hive.
 Shelter hives to keep them dry where rains are heavy and provide proper
ventilation
 Enhance pest control measures since the colonies are most vulnerable at
this time.
 Provide water if there is scarcity and feed the colony if necessary.
 It may be necessary to provide supplementary feeding
Build-up period:
 This is a time when bee plants start flowering and bees start to bring in
pollen and nectar.
 During this period all the stores are used for comb building, egg laying
and brood rearing.
 At this time, there should not be less than two top bars full of honey so
that the queen may lay eggs to maximum capacity and brood rearing
may not drop.
 Feed any colony that runs short of food.
 The more stores of honey, the greater the number of foraging bees that
would be available to collect the crop thus the bigger the harvest.
In this season bees are manage by following steps-
 Remove all combs which are wrongly built.
 Check that the brood are in compact blocks on the combs. This
indicates a good queen.
 Look for hiding places for small hive beetles and wax moth larvae,
which the bees cannot remove.
 Merge queen less and small colonies to medium sized ones.
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 Help the bees to expand their brood nest by putting an empty top bar
in between the brood bar and the top bar containing honey and
pollen.
Honey Flow period
 Bee plants are in full bloom during this period.
 Bees bring in nectar and pollen in greater quantities for their daily
requirement and therefore utilise the period for storing.
 There will be a daily increase in stores if the colony was properly
prepared in the build-up period. Otherwise the colony will use the
honey flow period to build-up instead of collecting excess nectar and
pollen.
In this season bees are manage by following steps -
 At this time the queen should be restricted to the brood area (by using a
queen excluder) to leave the other combs to be used for storage.
 In case of a Langstroth hive, give extra supers when the colony is ¾ full.
They will serve both for the distribution of the colony population,
which will control swarming, and to store excess food.
 In the case of a Kenya Top Bar Hive, harvesting can be done to create
space.
Harvest period:
Beekeepers should inspect their apiary regularly to know when the colonies are
ready for harvesting. This is the most certain way of telling hive that’s ready for
harvesting. A colony ready for harvesting will have the following signs
 The bees become aggressive in guarding the hive, and can sting at the
slightest provocation.
 Presence of worker bees outside the hive in large numbers
 The honey harvesting period starts about ten days after blooming.
 By then the honey is ripe and ready for harvesting.
Products of Bee keeping:

Honey
Honey prepared from the nectar of a single flower source is called unifloral or
monofloral honeys, while honeys prepared from nectars of several sources is
called multifloral. Honey is extremely variable in its properties and
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composition It has characteristic flavours and aromas depending upon the

plant source. Freshly extracted honey is a viscous liquid and hygroscopic. It is
the low surface tension of honey that makes it excellent humectants in
cosmetic products. Colour in liquid honey varies from clear and colourless
(like water) to dark amber or black and depends on the botanical origin, age
and storage conditions. Crystallization is another important characteristic. The
crystallization results from the formation of monohydrate glucose crystals.
Use
 In virtually every culture, evidence can be found of its use as a
food source and as a symbol employed in religious, magic and
therapeutic ceremonies.
 A major part of the production is presently consumed as food or food
ingredient. About 10 per cent of the production is used in industry
mainly in Ayurvedic preparations, pharmaceuticals, bakery, and
confectionary and tobacco industries.
 It is valued for its nutritive value, giving energy, health, strength and
vigour. It facilitates better physical performance, resistance to fatigue,
higher mental efficiency. It also serves as a general tonic for newborn
infants, the young and the elderly, the convalescent.
 A recent scientific study on human, that honey is reported to slow down
the oxidation of LDL (low density lipoproteins) and checks
atherosclerotic plaque deposition in blood vessels.
 Honey is a potential dietary antioxidant to counter reactive free radicals.
 Honey is used in preparation of pickles, jams, jellies, marmalades,
squashes, sauces and ketchups, and sweetmeats like tarts, pancakes,
pastries, pries and pudies and confectionery like sweets, candies,
toffees, eclairs and chocolates, and in bakery products, like breads,
biscuits, cakes and cookies.
 Traditionally, honey has been used as vehicle in Ayurveda, Siddha,
Unani, and other indigenous systems of medicine. It is anti-
microbial and antiseptic and helps in healing of wounds and burns
in a natural way.
 It has a mild bleaching action on skin and used in facials,
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shampoos and other cosmetics.

Beeswax
Beeswax is a metabolic product of honeybees. Worker honeybees of less than
two weeks of age produce beeswax in a process of synthesizing esters in the
fat body behind the wax glands. Rockbee wax is usually dark yellow to
brownish in colour. Beeswax from the hive bees is white
to pale yellow in colour. The melting point of rockbees is -59.6oC, and that of
the stingless bees,
66.5oC, and that of the European bee is 62.5oC. Beeswax is a highly complex
mixture of hydrocarbons and esters of monohydric alcohols combined with
straight chain fatty acids and hydroxy-acids. The total unsaponifiable matter
(hydrocarbons and alcohols) is about 58 per cent in both the Indian and
European beeswax.
Use
 Beeswax is consumed by beekeepers for the making of wax
foundations, which are given to the bees as a guide for construction of
their combs.
 Its very special characteristics like medicinal benefits, plasticity
and aroma ensure its continuing use. Beeswax is in high demand
for commercial purposes.
 Being inert, beeswax is safe for human consumption as an ingredient
in human food. It is used for coating for drugs or pills and also to fill
capsules with equal amounts of drugs or other ingredients of various
granule sizes.
 High quality beeswax obtained from capping is compatible with
cosmetic ingredients and frequently used in ointments, cleansing creams
cold cream and lotions, emollient and barrier creams, depilatories,
lipsticks, nail creams, sun protection products, eye and face make up,
and foundation creams.
 Beeswax is used in preparation of candles, in metal castings and
modeling because due to its plasticity.
Royal jelly
Royal jelly is a special liquid food, rich in proteins, hormones, vitamins,
organic acids and minerals, secreted by the hypopharyngeal gland of young
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worker (nurse) bees. Royal jelly is whitish in colour with yellow tinge with a
pungent phenolic odour and a characteristic sour flavour. It is partially soluble
in water. It is acidic (pH 3.6 to 4.2). About two thirds of it is water. By dry
weight, proteins (73.9%) and sugars are the largest fractions. A total of 29
amino acids and their derivatives have been identified. A number of enzymes
are also present including glucose oxidase, phosphatases and cholinesterases.
The lipid fraction consists of free fatty. The major mineral salts of K, Ca, Na,
Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn.
Use
 The spectacular fertility and long life-span of the queen fed on royal
jelly, has suggestively led people to believe that royal jelly may produce
similar effects in humans too. People have experienced it as a general
tonic and stimulant improving general well-being, resistance to fatigue,
learning capacity and memory, appetite, and general health
improvement.
 Royal jelly improves immune response and general body functions.
 Royal jelly is used as ingredient in medicine-like products. It is usually
mixed with medicines, tonics, beverages and cosmetic products soon
after its production or sometime it is freeze dried.
 A mixture of royal jelly in honey (1-3 % royal jelly) is probably the
most common way in which royal jelly is used as a food ingredient.
 Probably the largest use of royal jelly is in cosmetics and dermatological
preparations.
Pollen
In India, Rock bees collect enormous quantities of pollen. The Central Bee
Research and Training Institute, Pune made pollen supplements using rock bee
pollen. After harvest from bee colonies, pollen loads are carefully air-dried or
fresh-frozen for preservation and packed in airtight glass bottles. Pollen is also
sold as tablets, in capsules mixed with honey.
The major components are proteins and amino acid, lipids and sugars. The
minor components are more diverse including flavonoids, carotenoids,
vitamins, minerals, terpenes, nucleic acids and nucleosides, enzymes and
growth regulators. All essential amino acids are found in pollen.
Use
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 The major use of pollen today is as a food or food supplement.

Tribals eat the combs pollen while harvesting honey.
 Pollen is used in medicine for treatment of diseases like chronic
prostatitis, bleeding stomach ulcers, respiratory infections and
in control of allergy reactions.
 There is good number of non-scientific reports of benefits, cures
or improvements in athletic performance, digestive assimilation,
rejuvenation, general vitality, skin vitality, appetite, hemoglobin
content, and sexual powers by use of bee-collected pollen.
 Pollen has only recently been included in some cosmetic
preparations with claims of rejuvenating and nourishing effects
for the skin.
Propolis
Propolis is a mixture of the beeswax and the resins collected by honeybee from
plants. In the process of collection of resins, it is mixed with some saliva as
well as with wax. Propolis is used by worker bees to line the inside of nest
cavities, brood combs, to repair combs, seal small cracks in hive, reduce the
size of hive entrances and to seal brood cells. These uses are significant,
because they take advantage of the antibacterial and antifungal effects of
propolis. Propolis ranges from yellow to dark brown in colour. At
temperatures of 25 to 45oC, propolis is a soft and very sticky substance.
Typically, propolis will become liquid at 600 to 700oC, but for some samples
the melting point may be as high as 1000oC.
Use
 The Greeks, Romans and Egyptians already knew that propolis would
heal skin abscesses. In sub-Saharan Africa, propolis is still used today
in herbal medicines.
 In Africa, it is still used today as a medicine, an adhesive for tuning
drums, sealing cracked water containers or canoes.
 It has been incorporated in special varnishes.
 Its anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-acne, anti-inflammatory
and anti-oxidant characteristics provide many benefits of its
applications in medicines, dermatological and cosmetic treatment.
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The antioxidant, antimicrobial and antifungal activities of propolis

also offer scope for its applications as a preservative in food
technology.
Venom
Honeybee venom is a clear, odourless, watery liquid. Honeybee venom is
produced by two glands associated with the sting apparatus of worker bees.
Sting is evolved from ovipositors. Its production increases during the first two
weeks of the adult worker's life and reaches a maximum when the worker bee
becomes involved in hive defence and foraging. About 88% of venom is water.
The glucose, fructose and phospholipid contents of venom are similar to those
in bee's blood. At least 18 pharmacologically active components, including
various enzymes (Phospholipase A2, Hyaluronidase, Acid
Phosphomonoesterase, Lysophospholipase and B -glucosidase), proteins and
peptides (Melittin, Pamine, Mast Cell Degranulating Peptide - MCD), Secapin,
Procamine, Adolapin, Protease inhibitor, Tertiapin, and various small
peptides), and amines (Histamine, Dopamine and Noradrenalin) have been
described in venom.
Use
 Bee venom has long been used in traditional medicine for the
treatment of various kinds of rheumatism.
 Ointments can be prepared by thoroughly homogenizing bee
venom with white Vaseline, petroleum or melted animal fat, and
salicylic acid, in the ratio of 1:10:1.
 Its use in cure of the diseases, like arthritis, chronic pain, epilepsy,
rhinosinusitis, polyneuritis, neuralgia, migraine, multiple sclerosis,
asthma, and tropical ulcers etcis reported.
Bee enemies, including diseases and their control
1) Brood diseases: Brood diseases are characterized by discoloured

larvae, dark punctured and sunken capping, scattered brood inside
the cells and the foul smell. These are caused by various viral,
bacterial and fungal pathogens. These are five types:-
 American foul brood: - It is caused by Bacilli bacteria.
 European foul brood: - It is also caused by bacteria, Bacillus and
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Streptococcus. Incidentally these two diseases are not reported

from tropical country.
 Chalk brood: - It is caused by the fungus, Pericystis apis, which
converts larvae into chalk-white masses of mycelium.
 Stone brood: - It is also a fungal disease caused by Aspergillus
flavus. The spores of this fungus germinate in the alimentary canal
of larvae and adults.
 Sac brood: - Disease is viral. The larvae become sac-like with
tough skin and die.
2) Nosema disease: - The causative agent is the sporozoan, Nosema
apis. This pathogen infects the lining of stomach causing dysentery.
The spores of pathogen passed out with faeces of infected bees. The
disease occurs in winter and quickly depletes the bees’ population.
3) Amoebic Disease: - The causative agent of this disease is
Malpighamoeba mellificae. It infests malpighian tubules. The cysted
amoebae passed into intestine and thence to exterior with faecal
matter. It also results in dysentery. Sterilization of brood boxes and
frame hives with glacial acetic acid fumes or 40% formaline
solutions can be taken as preventive measure for both the protozoan
diseases.
4) Acarine disease: - It is also known as ‘Isle of Wight’. The mite
infests the tracheae and feeds upon the body fluids. The eggs are laid
and reared inside the tracheae that get clogged and ultimately
mortality of bee occurs.
Enemies of honey bees:
A large number of desertions of hives by bees are due to enemies, which may
be robbers that take away honey, brood, pollen or may be breeders that make
the hive their breeding ground. Several moths and beetles are the enemies of
these two categories. Several species of the wasps, Vespa, are predacious on
bees. Also the several species of ants (Componotus sp., Dorylus sp. and
Monorium sp.) visit bee colonies and take away honey, brood, pollen, dead
bodies and other debris). Lizards and many birds being insectivorous prey upon
bees. Mammals like bears, badgers and of course man also comes in the
category of enemies.
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Threats to Apiculture
Unfortunately, there has been a major decline in native pollinators due in part to
habitat loss and alteration, introduced species, and pesticide use. Habitat loss
due to intensive agriculture, deforestation, and urban development reduces
available food resources and nest sites for native bee species. Declines in wild
bees due to competition for food resources from managed honeybees and
displacement of native plants by introduced plant species have been shown to
have severe effects on overall pollination. The use of pesticides to control
agricultural pests does not discriminate between pest and pollinator, and is thus
also a likely contributor to the dwindling populations of native pollinators. As
a result of this decline in native pollinators and the spread of disease among
domesticated honeybees, there is a current pollination crisis, both in agriculture
and nature.
It is clear that the conservation of bees and other pollinators is an important
issue. Our activities are destroying the diversity of all wildlife, and having an
effect on our own food supply. Clearly a balance between the biodiversity of
natural environments and a system of sustainable agriculture is needed.
Farmers are beginning to turn to native pollinators as a viable option for crop
production however, little is known about the majority of native bees. We must
learn more about the ecology of these species and classify the many unknown
pollinating species in order to assess the role of bees and other insects in
pollination and put them to use in sustainable agricultural systems.
10.5 Megachile spp (leafcutting bees
Introduction
Megachile species of bees are important pollinators of various agricultural
crops. They use cut leaves to construct nests in cavities (mostly in rotting
wood). They create multiple cells in the nest, each with a single larva and
pollen for the larva to eat. Leafcutting bees are important pollinators of
wildflowers, fruits, vegetables and other crops. Some leafcutting bees, Osmia
spp. are even used as commercial pollinators (like honey bees) in crops such as
alfalfa and blueberries. The Megachilidae are a cosmopolitan family of
(mostly) solitary bees whose pollen-carrying structure (called a scopa) is
restricted to the ventral surface of the abdomen (rather than mostly or
exclusively on the hind legs as in other bee families).
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Megachile genera are most commonly known as mason bees and leafcutter
bees, reflecting the materials from which they build their nest cells by soil or
leaves, respectively while few collect plant or animal hairs and fibers, and are
called carder bees. All species feed on nectar and pollen, but a few are
cleptoparasites ("cuckoo bees"), feeding on pollen collected by other Megachile
bees. Parasitic species do not possess scopae. Megachile bees are among the
world's most efficient pollinators. The motion of megachile in the reproductive
structures of flowers is highly energetic and swimming-like. This vigorous
agitation releases large amounts of pollen. Megachile also require an average of
ten times as many trips to flowers as other bee species to gather sufficient
resources to provision a single brood cell.
Distribution
Leafcutting bees are found throughout the world and are common in various
regions of Indian regions.
Description
Most leafcutting bees are moderately-sized around the size of a honey bee,
ranging from 5 mm to 24 mm, stout-bodied, black bees. The females, except
the parasitic Coelioxys, carry pollen on hairs on the underside of the abdomen
rather than on the hind legs like other bees. When a bee is carrying pollen, the
underside of the abdomen appears light yellow to deep gold in color.
Biology
Leafcutting bees, as their name implies, use 0.25 to 0.5 inch circular pieces of
leaves they neatly cut from plants to construct nests. They construct cigar-like
nests that contain several cells. Each cell contains a ball or loaf of stored pollen
and a single egg. Therefore, each cell will produce a single bee. Leafcutting
bees construct these nests in soil, in holes usually made by other insects in
wood, and in plant stems. A diversity of cavities, such as shells of dead snails,
holes in concrete walls like those produced for hurricane shutters and other
holes in man-made objects are used as nesting sites.
Most leafcutter bees overwinter in these nests as newly formed adults. In the
following spring these adults chew their way out of the nest. Leafcutters are
solitary bees and do not live in large groups or colonies like honey bees.
Leafcutters do not aggressively defend nesting areas like honey or bumble bees.
Their sting has been described as far less painful than that of a honey bee. Leaf
cutting bees will only sting if handled and therefore are not a stinging danger to
people.
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Host Plants
Leafcutting bees are important pollinators of many wildflowers. They also
pollinate fruits and vegetables and are used by commercial growers to pollinate
blueberries, onions, carrots and alfalfa. Leafcutting bees use the leaves of
almost any broadleaf deciduous plant to construct their nests. Some species of
leafcutting bees use petals and resin in addition to leaves. These bees will
commonly cut circles from ornamental plants such as roses, azaleas, ash,
redbud, bougainvillea and other plants with thin smooth leaves. This decreases
the aesthetic value of these plants.
Sericulture
Introduction
Silk is Nature’s gift to mankind and a commercial fibre of animal origin other
than wool. Silk has been under use by human beings for various purposes since
ancient times. Silk is one of the finest and most beautiful natural fibres of the
world and is known as “the queen of fibres.” Being an eco-friendly,
biodegradable and self-sustaining material; silk has assumed special relevance
in present age. Promotion of sericulture can help in ecosystem development as
well as high economic returns. Different rearing techniques are applied in
different parts of the world for large scale production of silk threads of fine
quality. This is known as sericulture.
History of Sericulture
According to Chinese legend approximately 4000 years ago, a Chinese
Empress named Si-ling-chi, brought a silkworm cocoon from her garden and
accidentally dropped it in her hot cup of tea. The hot tea softened the threads
which were recovered and weaved into silk. Thus was born silk. Si-ling-chi
devised not only the technique of culturing silkworm but also the method of
reeling the silk and making garments out of it. She was later crowned as “The
Goddess of Silk Worm”. For a long time sericulture was considered to be a
national secret by the Chinese and its industrial technique was not known in
other countries. The silk was sold by the Chinese weight for weight in gold and
its manufacture was kept a closely guarded secret for centuries. Leakage of the
secret was punishable by death. Europeans becoming curious to know the
mystery of silk, sent two spies to China in 555 A.D. in the garb of
Buddhistmonks. The ‘monks’ discovered the secret and smuggled out
silkworms (larvae) and cocoons in the hollows of their staff. The silk thus
reached Europe where the first silk factory was established in the middle of the
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6th century A.D. at Constantinople (in Turkey, now called Istanbul). In this way
sericulture spread from China to other countries and silk became a precious
commodity, highly sought after in all countries. In 139 BC the world’s longest
highway that stretched from Eastern China to the Mediterranean Sea was
opened, which was called “Silk Route” due to trade in silk. French settlers
started silk production in England only in 1688. At present Japan, China,
Korea, Italy, Soviet Union, France, Brazil and India are the chief silk producing
countries with as annual output of about 23 million kg.
Indian Sericulture
According to some sources, sericulture was introduced in India about 400 years
ago and the industry flourished as an agro-industry till 1857, with an annual
production of a million kg of silk fibre. In India, Lefroy (1905-1906) was the
first to investigate about silkworms and sericulture at the Pusa Institute, Delhi.
Sericulture is practiced in India from long time ago and India is the 2nd largest
producer of silk in the World. It has been identified as employment oriented
industry. All the sections of sericulture industry, viz. mulberry cultivation,
silkworm seed production, silkworm rearing, reeling and weaving of silk and
collection of byproducts and its processing provide a large scale employment,
thereby a source of livelihood for the rural and tribal people. Sericulture
industry is rated as the second largest employer in India.
Owing to this peculiar nature, the Indian planners have identified sericulture as
one of the best-suited occupations for ideal growth and development of rural
India. Mulberry sericulture has been traditional occupation in Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, A.P. and Kashmir; Tasar sericulture in M.P., Chota Nagpur Division and
Orissa; Muga sericulture in Assam, Nagaland, Tripura and Eri one in Assam
and West Bengal. North-eastern part of India is the only region in the world
where all four varieties of silk are produced.
Central and State level Government Silk Departments are actively engaged in
addressing the objective of promotion of sericulture in traditional as well as
non-traditional regions. With the launching of massive developmental schemes,
it is expected to gain an accelerated tempo of sericultural activities in the
country, paving way for doubling the employment opportunities in phased
manner, and thereby, it may set to bring a soothing touch to the burning
problem of acute unemployment in rural India and thus can check the rural
migration to urban areas to a certain extent.
Sericulture is an agro-based cottage industry involving interdependent rural,
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semi-urban and urban-based activities in which estimated participation of

women is about 60%. Thus, in contrast to any other agro-based profession the
role of women in sericulture industry is dominating which will be helpful for
improving the status of women in family enterprises.
Silk
Silk is the product of a pair of silk glands which are nothing but the salivary
glands of the larva present in its thoracic cavity. The secretions of these glands
pass through a common anterior margin of the lower lip of the larva. The
secretion is produced in a liquid form but on coming in contact with air, it
solidifies into what we call silk. The silk (fibre) is composed of two proteins,
fibroin and sericin. The fibroin which constitutes 75% of the material is tough,
elastic and insoluble making the core of the silk filament in the form of two
very thin fibres called brins. The sericin which along with traces of wax and
carotenoid pigments constitute the rest of the material is a gelatinous (gummy),
hot-water-solute protein that holds the brins together and covers them so that
the segments (loops) of the cocoon also stick together. When mature, the
ultimate (V) instar larva makes quick round movements of its head at the rate of
65 movements per minute while spinning its cocoon. The weight in grammes of
900 m long silk filament is called a ‘deneir’ and the size of a normal cocoon is
1.8 to 3 deneirs. A single cocoon weights 1.8 to 2 gms and its shell (without the
enclosed pupa), only 0.45 gm. About 2500 cocoons yield 1 lb (0.45 kg) of silk.
Figure – Silk glands of Bombyx mori

Silkworm species, their systematic position and salient features
Silk producing insects are termed as serigenous insects. Silkworm is a common
name for the silk-producing caterpillar larvae of silk moths. Silk moths belong
to Phylum - Arthropoda, Class - Insecta, Order - Lepidoptera, Super family -
Bombycoidea. Bombycoidea comprises eight families of which only
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Bombycidae and Saturnidae are the two important families the members of
which produce natural silk.
There are several species of silkworm that are used in commercial silk
production .Some of the major species are:
(Mulberry Sericulture)
(i) Mulberry silk worm
• Bombyx mori (Bombycidae)
• Bombyx mandarina (Bombycidae)
(Non- Mulberry Sericulture)
(ii) Tasar silk worm
• Antheraea mylitta ( Saturnidae)
• Antheraea pernyi ( Saturnidae)
• Antheraea yamamai ( Saturnidae)
• Antheraea paphia ( Saturnidae)
• Antheraea royeli( Saturnidae)
(iii) Muga Silkworm
• Antheraea assama ( Saturnidae)
(iv) Eri silk worm
 Philosamia ricini ( Saturnidae)
Salient Features
1. Bombyx mori meridionalis, the Mulberry silk worm (Lepidoptera:
Bombycidae), feeds on the leaves of mulberry (Morus alba) to produce
the best quality silk fibre. Four Indian species of mulberry, namely,
Morus alba, M. indica, M. serrate & M. laevigata, are cultivated as
main food plants of silkworm. In India where the temperature ranges
from 16oC to 31oC, mulberry silkworm can be reared throughout the
year. Mulberry Silkworm is native of Chinabut now it has been
introduced in all the silk producing countries like Japan, India, Korea,
Italy, France and Russia. Since the natural food of this worm is
mulberry leaf it is called as mulberry silkworm. The silk produced by
this moth is white in colour.
Life cycle
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Adult moths are about 2.5 cm long, creamy white in colour, without any
markings and with feeble wings that do not permit flight. Adult’s life-
span is 2-3 days after emergence. Mating occurs soon after emergence.
Female lays about 400 eggs Egg laying which would normally occur on
the upper surface of the mulberry leaves is made to take place on sheets
of paper or cards by sericulturists for the purpose of preservation and
transport.
Egg
Egg is round and white. The weight of newly laid 2,000 eggs is about
1.0 g. It measures 1-1.3 mm in length and 0.9-1.2 mm in width. With
time, eggs become darker and darker. Races producing white cocoons
lay pale yellow eggs; while races producing yellow cocoons lay deep
yellow eggs. In case of hibernating eggs laid by bi-voltine and uni-
voltine races, the egg colour changes to dark brown or purple with the
deepening of colour of the serosal pigments.
The eggs may be of diapause or non-diapause type. The diapause type of
eggs are laid by the silkworms inhabiting in temperate regions; where as
silkworms belonging to subtropical regions like India lay non-diapause
type of eggs. During diapause all vital activities of the eggs cease.
Larva
After 10 days of incubation, the eggs hatch into larva called caterpillar.
After hatching caterpillars need continuous supply of food, because they
are voracious feeders. Newly hatched caterpillar is about 0.3 cm in
length and pale yellowish white. The larval body in densely covered
with bristles. As the larva grows, it becomes smoother and lighter in
colour due to rapid stretching of the cuticular skin during different
instars of the larval stage. The skin consists of cuticle and hypodermis.
Cuticle is made up of chitin as well as protein and is covered with a thin
layer of wax, which is capable of being extended considerably to permit
rapid growth of the larva during each instar. Nodules are found all over
the surface of the body, and the distribution pattern differs according to
the variety of silkworm. Larva bears four pairs of tubercles: sub-dorsal,
supra-spiracular, infra-spiracular and basal tubercle. Each tubercle
carries 3-6 setae.
The larval body is composed of head, thorax and abdomen. The head
consist of six fused segments. It carries the appendages: antennae,
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mandibles, maxillae and labium. Median epicranial suture, clypeus and

labrum are well developed and prominent. Six pairs of larval eyes or
ocelli are located a little above the base of antennae. Five segmented
antennae are used as sensory organs. The mandibles are well developed,
powerful and adapted for mastication. The maxillary lobe and palpi help
in discriminating the taste of food. The prementum is also chitinized,
and its distal part carries a median process known as spinneret through
which silk is extruded out from the silk gland. The sensory labial palpi
are found on both sides of the spinneret.
The thorax has three segments: prothorax, mesothorax and metathroax.
Each of the thoracic segments carries ventrally one pair of true legs,
which are conical in shape and carry sharp distal claws. These claws are
not used for crawling but they help in holding the leaves while feeding.
Abdomen consists of eleven segments, though only nine can be
distinguished, as the last three are fused together to from the apparent
ninth segment. Third to sixth and last abdominal segment bear a pair of
abdominal legs, which are fleshy, unjointed muscular protuberance.
Eighth abdominal segment bears caudal horn on the dorsal side.
The abdominal segments carry the sexual markings on ventral side,
which are developed distinctly during fourth and fifth instars in the
eighth and ninth segments. In females, the sexual marking appear as a
pair of milky white spot in each of the eighth and ninth segments and
are referred to as Ishiwata’s Fore Gland and Ishiwata’s Hind Gland
respectively. In males a small milky white body known as Herold’s
Gland appears ventrally in the centre between eighth and ninth
segments. Nine pairs of spiracles are present: one pair on the first
thoracic segment and eight pairs one on each side of the first to eighth
abdominal segments, respectively.
The larval growth is marked by four moultings and five instar stages.
The full-grown caterpillar develops a pair of sericteries or silk glands.
Sericteries or silk glands are modified labial glands. These glands are
cylindrical and divided into three segments: Anterior-, middle- and
posterior-segments. The inner lining cells are characterized by the
presence of large and branched nucleus. These glands secrete silk which
consists of an inner tough protein, fibroin, enclosed by a water soluble
gelatinous protein, sericin. In Bombyx, the fibrinogen which on
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extrusion is denatured to fibroin is secreted in theposterior segment of

the gland and form the core of the silk filament in the form of two very
thin fibres called brins. The sericin, a hot water soluble protein, secreted
by middle segment of the gland, holds the brins together and covers
them. The duct from another small gland called Lyonnet’s gland, that
lubricates the tube through which the silk passes, joins the ducts of the
silk glands. Finally, the silk is moulded to a thread as it passes through
the silk press or spinneret.
Pupa
Pupa is the inactive resting stage of silkworm. It is a transitional period
during which definite changes take place. During this period, biological
activity of larval body and its internal organs undergo a complete
change and assume the new form of adult moth. The mature silkworm
passes through a short transitory stage of prepupa before becoming a
pupa. During the pre-pupal stage, dissolution of the larval organs takes
place which is followed by formation of adult organs. Soon after
pupation the pupa is white and soft but gradually turns brown to dark
brown, and the pupal skin becomes harder.
A pair of large compound eyes, a pair of antennae, fore and hind-wings,
and the legs are visible. Ten segments can be seen on the ventral side,
but only nine are visible on the dorsal side. Seven pairs of spiracles are
present in abdominal region, the last pair being non-functional. Sex
markings are prominent and it is much easier to determine the sex of
pupa. The female has a fine longitudinal line on the eighth abdominal
segment, where as such marking is absent in case of male. The pupa is
covered within a thick, oval, white or yellow silken case called cocoon.
The pupal period may last for 8-14 days after which the adult moth
emerges slitting through the pupal skin and piercing the fibrous cocoon
shell with the aid of the alkaline salivary secretion that softens the tough
cocoon shell.
Adult
The adult of Bombyx mori is about 2.5 cm in length and pale creamy
white. After emergence the adult is incapable of flight because of its
feeble wings and heavy body. It does not feed during its short adult life.
The body of moth has general plan of insect body organization .The
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ocelli are absent. The antennae are conspicuous, large and bipectinate.
The meso- and meta-thorax bear a pair of wings. The front pair overlapp
the hind pair when the moth is at rest.
The moth is unisexual and shows sexual dimorphism. In male eight
abdominal segments are visible; while in female, seven. The female has
comparatively smaller antennae. Its body and the abdomen are stouter
and larger, and it is generally less active than male. The male moth
possesses a pair of hooks known as harpes at its caudal end; while the
female has a knob like projection with sensory hair. Just after
emergence, male moths copulate with female for about 2-3 hours, and
die after that. The female starts laying eggs just after copulation, which
is completed within 24 hours. A female lays 400-500 eggs. The eggs are
laid in clusters and are covered with gelatinous secretion of the female
moth.
Figure –Life Cycle of Mulberry Silkworm
2. Antherea paphia or Antherea mylitta, the Tasar silk worm

(Lepidoptera: Saturnidae), feeds on Terminalia tomentosa that occurs in
the jungles of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, UP and Orissa. Three species of
Antherea are used for the extraction of tasar silk in India. They are
Antherea mylitta, A. perniyi and A. royeli. Out of the total non-mulberry
silk produced in India, about 400 tonnes is produced from Antherea
mylitta in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar. This silkworm feeds on
Terminalia tomentosa and Terminalia arjuna found in the forests of
central and north-eastern parts of India. The tasar silkworms is a wild
species and hence cocoons are also collected by the tribal people from
forests and silk is obtained. The first crop, usually called the seed crop is
raised during May to July, whereas the commercial crop is raised during
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October-November.The larvae are usually green in colour and moults

four times before they complete their larval duration. However, yellow,
blue and white larvae are also reported. At the end of the larval period,
they spin a ring like structure around the twig and a long stalk from
which the cocoon hangs. The cocoons are large and brown or yellow in
colour. Moths emerge from the cocoons in June. To obtain silk, the
cocoons are cooked in caustic potash and reeled to extract fibre and then
spun to manufacture coarse thread.The recent introduction of Antherea
perniyi and A. royeli on oak trees in Manipur has opened up new
opportunities for the production of superior quality tasar silk in India.
The cocoons of Antherea perniyi can be easily reeled and fibre of
superior quality can be obtained. Antherea royeli occurs in oak jungles
of the sub-Himalayan region.
Figure – Life cycle of Tasar Silkworm
3. Antherea assama, the Muga silk worm (Lepidoptera: Saturnidae), is

confined to the Brahmaputra Valley of India and produces the famous
muga silk.It belongs to the family saturniidaae and common India,
China and Sri Lanka. The caterpillar feeds on ber, oak, sal and fig
plants. The cocoon produced by this moth is hard and of hen’s egg size
which produces reel-able brown coloured silk. Though it had been only
a wild variety of silk moth since long, now by cross breeding it has been
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possible to produce such varieties which are reared anyhow and

domesticated. But the domestication of tasar caterpillars is not so easy
so that cocoons have to be collected from the forest. The moths do not
easily breed in captivity. Since breeding is not well controlled the tasar
silk industry has not reached up to mark ass the mulberry silkworm
industry.
The golden-yellow silk produced by Antherea assama is found only in
the Brahmaputra Valley of India. This species of silkworm is semi-
domesticated as the larvae which crawl down of trees at the end of their
larval period are collected and allowed to spin cocoons in captivity.
Antherea assama produces golden yellow silk that is of high quality
which is expensive. The worms feed on Som (Marchilus bombycina)
and Soalu (Litsaea polyantha) trees. At the end of the larval period,
when the worms are ready to spin cocoons, they crawl down the tree in
search of suitable places for making cocoons. To obtain silk, the
cocoons are boiled in soap and soda solution and are reeled on a
machine. The total production of muga silk in India is about 50 tonnes
but there is plenty of scope for expansion of this industry.
A single Muga female moth lays 150-200 eggs after copulating with the
male for 6-8 hrs. The larvae are yellowish with black markings on the
body and have the habit of crawling down the trees in groups when all
leaves are consumed on the trees and larvae have matured. If larvae
have not matured and the leaves on the trees exhausted, they can be
transferred to another tree. At the end of the larval period, when the
worms are ready to spin the cocoons, they crawl down the tree in search
of a suitable place for the construction of cocoons.
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Figure - Lifecycle of Muga Silkworm
4. Phylosamia ricini, the Eri silkworm (Lepidoptera: Saturnidae), which

feeds on castor (Ricinus communis) is raised in Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa commercially. It also belongs to the
family saturnidae and produces silk in East-Asia. In India sericulture
scientists are trying to produce silk in East-Asia. Sericulture scientists
are trying to produce such cross breeds which can provide good quality
of silk and can be reared easily. It feeds on castor leaf. Cocoons cannot
be reeled as in mulberry cocoons. Therefore, it has to be spun. Its life
history resemble with that of mulberry worms. The cocoons of this
worm have very loose texture and the silk produced is called as Arand
silk locally. The threads are not glossy but much durable.
The silk produced by Philosamia ricini is called Eri silk. It is grown in
Assam and in the eastern parts of India. The heavy rainfall & humid
atmosphere in these parts are conducive to eri culture. The food plants
for Philosamia ricini is castor. This silk worm is multivoltine and
reared indoors.
The eggs are white and hatch in ten days. The hatched larvae are
mounted on castor leaves in the rearing-houses and are allowed to grow
by feeding on leaves. The worms moult four times during the larval
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period of 30-32 days. Eri silkworm is generally hardy and not easily
susceptible to diseases. At the end of larval period, the larvae crawl in
search of suitable places to spin cocoons.
The cocoons of the eri silkworm cannot be reeled, as they are made up
of several small fibres and hence the emergence of moths is allowed and
the cocoons are spun like cotton to produce yarn. Approximately ninety
tonnes of eri silk is produced in the country annually. Recent efforts to
rear tasar silkworms on oak plants in the sub-Himalayan range and in
Manipur have contributed to the production of a significant quantity of
quality tasar silk. It has also opened up new avenues for improving
sericulture and also enhanced the employment potential in the tribal
hilly areas.
Figure - Lifecycle of Eri Silkworm

Sericulture and its components
Mulberry or Non-Mulberry Sericulture is an agro based industry mainly
consists of the 3 main components:
1. Cultivation of food plants
2. Rearing of silkworms
3. Reeling and spinning of silk.
We can categorize the sericulture into mulberry and non-mulberry sericulture
on the basis of variety of silkworms. In India both kinds of sericulture (4types
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of silkworms) are reared but the mulberry sericulture constitutes the major silk
industry in the country.
Mulberry Sericulture
i) Cultivation of food plants (Moriculture)
a) Cultivation of mulberry plants is called moriculture. The Central
Silk Board have developed high yielding varieties such as Kanva – 2,
S-30, S-54 suitable for southern states like Karnataka, A.P. and T.N.
and S – 162, S – 519, S –623 etc. suitable for the northern states like
Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, U.P. and W. Bengal. There are over 20
species of mulberry (family Moracea) of which 4 are more common.
They are: Morus alba, M.indica, M. serrate, and M. latifolia. These
plants grow both in tropical and temperate climates. An annual
rainfall of 600-2500 mm in sufficient for its growth. Both quality and
quantity of silk produced by silkworms depend on the quality of
mulberry leaves fed to them. Therefore mulberry species plays a very
important role in sericulture. TheM. indicais quick growing,
hardiness, and remaining flush throughout the year so it is generally
preferred for sericulture.
Figure – Mulberry Tree and Leaves with fruits
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b) Planting methods of mulberry

Mulberry culture can be done by seeds, root-grafts or stem cuttings.
Usually root grafts or stem cuttings are commonly used method.
Stem cuttings can be plant either in pit or row system. The cuttings
are planted after the first monsoon rainfall. Plants are well watered
until they have taken roots and have become strong. Weeding is
done manually or mechanically so that mulberry plants can utilise
the soil nutrients properly. Harvesting of leaves for feeding larvae is
done by leaf picking, branch cutting and top shoot harvesting.
Bombyx moriis domesticated specie, this species does not occur in
the wild. The optimum rearing conditions are 20-28degree C
temperature, 70-85 per cent relative humidity, 16 hour photophase
and unpolluted air. These favourable conditions are available in the
states of Jammu and Kashmir, W. Bengal, Karnataka, A.P. and T.N.
and mulberry sericulture can be easily carried out there.
The number of generations are termed as “crops” which depends on
the race or strain of the moth. A moth is univoltine if it produces
only one crop a year, bivoltine, If two and multivoltine if more than
2.Multivoltines are usually the locally occurring races at some places
e.g., “Mysore” race produces greenish-yellow cocoons in Karnataka
and “Nistari” race produces deep yellow cocoons in West Bengal.
The cocoon yield of multivoltine are poor in comparison to uni- and
bivoltine races. A bivoltine “Nandi” is one such hybrid that is
popular in Karnataka.
Silkworms must be reared with utmost care since they are
susceptible to diseases. Therefore, to prevent diseases, good
sanitation methods and hygienic rearing techniques must be
followed. The appliances and the rearing room should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected with 2-4% formaldehyde solution. Room
temperature should be maintained around 250 C.
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ii) Rearing house- The Rearing room or building should be as

per conditions suitable for silkworm. The rearing room
should have properly ventilation without dampness,
stagnation of air, exposure to bright sunlight and strong
winds.
iii) Rearing equipments- Following are the equipments needed
for proper rearing of silkworms :
a) Rearing stands- These are stands of frames on which are placed
rearing trays containing silkworms. They could be made of
wood or bamboo. To protect from ants, silkworms rearing
stand legs are kept in rectangular or circular enamel or
concrete bowls containing water mixed with some
insecticide.
b) Rearing trays- These are trays, generally circular, made up of
locally available cheap material like bamboo. Or may be box
type wooden trays are used to rear early instars.
c) Paraffin paper- Thick paper sheets coated with paraffin wax are
required to cover the rearing trays to maintain humidity and
prevent withering of leaves.
d) Foam rubber strips- Pieces (2.5 x 2.5 cm) of foam rubber soaked
in water are kept all around silkworm rearing beds to
maintain humidity. Moistened newspaper strips can also be
used.
e) Chopsticks- Chopsticks are pointed bamboo rods meant to pick
up younger stages of larvae to ensure their hygienic handling
and preventing from injuries.
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f) Feathers- Feathers are used for brushing together newly hatched

worms to prevent injuries.
g) Leaf chamber- Mulberry leaves are stored in chambers made up
of 7.5 cm wide wooden strips fixed some distance apart or of
some porous board. This is covered with gunny bag cloth, it
is kept moist during the summer months and dry days.
h) Chopping boards, knives and mats- As mulberry leaves are
presented to the worms in a chopped condition, chopping
board, knives and mats are required.
i) Cleaning nets-Cleaning nets are made up of cotton or nylon of
the mesh size suitable for different instars are used for
changing the rearing beds so that the left over leaf-pieces and
litter are filtered out
j) Mountages- Mountages (cocoonages or chandrikas) are
contrivances made up of rectangular bamboo mat tied on 4
bamboo sticks and bearing on its surface spirals of bamboo
tapes. Matured worms for to spin cocoons are transferred on
to them. The larvae suspend themselves to the spirals and
spin cocoons. The chandrikes are cheap and easily made,
easily stored, excreta of spinning worms dry up soon due to
free passages and thus prevent cocoons, can be easily shifted
from place to place, easily disinfected.
k) Miscellaneous appliances-Hygrometer to measure humidity, a
thermometer to record temperature , a charcoal stove to heat
the rooms in winter, disinfection pads of gunny soaked in 2%
formaline to disinfect the feet of the workers entering the
rearing room, a sprayer to disinfect the rooms themselves,
wooden stands of crossed legs to place trays during feeding
and bed cleaning, a stand for wash-basin containing 2%
formaline to disinfect the hands of the workers handling the
worms and leaf-baskets to transport mulberry leaves from the
gardens to the rearing, house.
Procurement of quality seeds
Like agriculture yield depends upon the quality of seed choosen same in case of
sericulture, the success depends upon the selection of best quality seeds or
silkworm eggs. Such seeds can be obtained from grainages which are centres
for production of disease-free seeds of pure and hybrid races in large quantities.
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These centres are the certified seed cocoon producers. The cocoons are placed
in well-ventilated rooms with optimum temperature of 23-25o C and humidity
of 70-80 %, and emergence of moth is allowed. Grainage rooms may be kept
dark, and light may be supplied suddenly on the expected day of emergence to
bring uniform emergence.
Figure- Silkworm rearing equipments
Male silkworms are kept in the trays of the females and on the beginning of
copulation, the pair is transferred to black plastic vessel. Three hours of mating
secures maximum fertilised eggs. Male moths are then kept safely at 5 degree C
for further second mating while the female moths are kept in cellules for egg
laying. Within 12 hours female silkworm lays 400-600 eggs. Proper
examination is done to check infection of pebrine disease. In case of any
infection, eggs are discarded and destroyed. Generally females are made to lay
eggs on paper sheets or cards whose surface has been coated with a gummy
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substance. The eggs are transported in the form of egg sheet. These sheets are
easy to transport. To loosen the eggs, the sheets are soaked in water. The loose
eggs are washed in salt solution of 1.06-1.10 specific gravity to separate out
unfertilized eggs and dead eggs floating on surface. Prior to the final washing,
the eggs are disinfected with 2% formalin solution. Eggs are dried, weighed to
the required standard and packed in small flat boxes with muslin covers and
dispatched to buyers. The sheets are dried in shade and transferred to incubators
for hatching.
For large scale production, 50-100 moths are allowed to lay eggs on paper
sheets. The egg-sheets are soaked in water to loosen the eggs. The loose eggs
are washed in salt solution to remove unfertilised eggs which float on the
surface. The fertilised eggs thus separated are distinfected with 2% formaline,
shade dried and packed in egg boxes for supply to buyers.
Quality of food
Mulberry tree variety is the main factor for the growth of silkworms, high
yielding mulberry varieties leaves cause good growth of silkworms. Initially
early developmental stages like I and II instar larvae are given tender succulent
leaves with a high moisture content and the older instars, mature but soft leaves
with lesser moisture content.
Shape and size of leaves
Chopped mulberry leaves are given to the larvae for feeding. For chopping,
leaves are spread on the chopping board by the handfuls, smoothly gathered flat
and in tiers. Chopping should be carried out by a broad-bladed sharp-edged
knife. For cutting smaller pieces, smaller quantities of leaves should be taken at
a time and the knife should be drawn towards the cutter rather than forwards
and backwards like a saw.
Chopped leaves can be spread evenly, the quantity of feed can be regulated and
the results assessed, they prevent silkworm beds from getting damp in wet
weather, and they do not curl up when the weather is dry. The main problem is
that chopping requires labour and expense. Shape of the chopped leaves
depends upon the type of climate. Square pieces are best when the air is dry
because they prevent rapid withering. Long thin strips or oblong pieces are
suitable when the season is wet. Triangular leaves take less labour and so can
be given to older instars who consume large quantities of leaves.
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Brushing
The process of transferring the silkworm to rearing trays is called brushing.
Suitable time for brushing is about 10.00 am. Eggs at the blue egg stage are
kept in black boxes on the days prior to hatching. The next day they are
exposed to diffused light so that the larvae hatch uniformly in response to
photic stimuli. About 90% hatching can be obtained in one day by this method.
In case of eggs prepared on egg cards, the cards with the newly hatched worms
are placed in the rearing trays or boxes and tender mulberry leaves are chopped
into pieces and sprinkled over egg cards. In case of loose eggs a net with small
holes is spread over the box containing the hatched larvae and mulberry leaves
cut into small pieces are scattered over the net. Worms start crawling over the
leaves on the net; the net with worms is transferred to rearing tray.
Figure- Brushing by feathe
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Preparation of feed bed
After brushing, the bed is prepared by collecting the worms and the mulberry
leaves together by using a feather. The bed is spread uniformly using
chopsticks. The first feeding is given after two hours of brushing. Feed bed is a
layer of chopped leaves spread on a tray or over a large area. The first and
second instar larvae are commonly known as chawki worms. For chawki
worms, paraffin paper sheet is spread on the rearing tray. Chopped mulberry
leaves are sprinkled on the sheet and hatched larvae are brushed on to the
leaves. A second paraffin paper sheet is spread over the first bed. In between
two sheets water soaked foam rubber strips are placed to maintain humidity.
The 4th and 5th instars are reared in wooden or bamboo trays by any of the three
methods: viz., shelf-rearing, floor-rearing and shoot-rearing. In shelf rearing,
the rearing trays are arranged one above the other in tiers on a rearing stand
which can accommodate 10 -11 trays. This method provides enough space for
rearing, but it is uneconomical as it requires large number of labourers to
handle the trays. Chopped leaves are given as feed in this method. In floor
rearing, fixed rearing sheets of 5-7x1-1.5m size are constructed out of wooden
or bamboo strips in two tiers one meter apart. These sheets are used for rearing.
Chopped leaves are given as feed. This method is economical than the first one
because it does not involve much labour in handling of trays. Shoot-rearing is
most economical of the three methods. The rearing sheet used is one meter
wide and any length long in single tier and the larvae are offered fresh shoot or
twigs bearing leaves. This method can be practiced both outdoors and indoors
depending upon the weather.
Each age of the silk worms could be conveniently divided into seven stages.
First feeding stage, sparse eating stage, moderate eating stage, active eating
stage, premoulting stage, last feeding stage, moulting stage. The larvae have
good appetite at first feeding stage and comparatively little appetite at sparse
and moderate eating stages. They eat voraciously during active stage to last
feeding stage after which they stop feeding. About the number of feeds to be
given to different instars, it was earlier believed that all stages should be fed 10-
12 times a day. However, recent finding show that 4 feeds a day are sufficient
for each instar. The feeds are normally given at 9 A.M., 3, 5 and 9 P.M.
MZO-09
Bed cleaning
Removal of unused left leaf and silkworm excreta after regular time interval is
called as bed cleaning. It is important not only from the hygienic point of view
but also for the proper growth of the larvae. Generally four methods are used
for bed cleaning- conventional method, husk method, net method and the
combined husk and net method.
In the conventional method, the worms I-III instar stages are simply swept
together with a feather and transferred from the old to the new bed and the
worms in IV and V instar stages are transferred manually. This is the most
common practiced method, at least with the sericulture farmers.
In the husk method, paddy husk is sprinkled over the bed in form of thin layer
and on the husk is scattered the chopped leaves. The worms quickly crawl
through the husk to get at the feed where from they can be removed to the new
tray. For the I and II instars, the husk should be just broken into small pieces
size, for the III instar is broken husk and for the IV and V instars even chopped
straw can be used.
In the net method, a cotton or nylon net of suitable mesh size is spread over the
old bed and leaves scattered on it. The larvae as usual migrate to the net in
search of fresh leaves and can be collected and transferred to a new bed.
In the combined husk and net method, a thin layer of paddy husk is first
sprinkled over the old bed and a net of suitable mesh is superimposed on it.
Two successive feedings follow where after the net with the worms on it is
transferred to another tray. This method combines the cleaness of husk method
with the case of transference of the net method. It also requires less skill and
care in manipulation though it is slightly more expensive than the former.
Spacing
Spacing is very important to avoid overcrowding of caterpillars and for
vigorous growth of silkworms. As the worms grow in size, the density in the
rearing bed increases and conditions of overcrowding are faced. This can be
done by increasing the surface area of the feeding trays with the growth of the
insects. For optimum results, rearing space may be doubled or trebled for I-III
instars, 2-3 times more than this for the IV and 2 times more than this for the
instar. It would save time and labour if the spacing is combined with bed
cleaning. Spacing could be achieved by marking out the extended feed area and
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distributing both the leaves and worms evenly over the entire area. If there are
still left some crowded spots, worms from those spots could be picked up and
transferred to sparser areas. Contrary to the belief in some farmers that
crowding saves on leaves, it leads to under-nourishment and so uneven
development resulting in a substandard harvest. Besides, crowding increases
accumulation of gases, heat, and fermentation of faecal matter, particularly
during the early stages when the temperature and humidity in the rearing beds
are high. Such unhygienic conditions may lead to infection, death and loss of
crop.
Moulting
Moulting is a very critical event in the life of caterpillars. When about to moult,
the larvae attain their maximum size for that particular instar. At this stage bed
cleaning should be carried out and leaves should be chopped to small size for
pre-moult feeding. When the larvae settle down for moulting, feeding stops. It
is advisable to sprinkle some lime powder after the last feed which prevents
early ecdysing larvae from commencing feeding and thus maintaining uniform
growth in all. During moulting, the worms are most susceptible to muscardine
infection which could be prevented by dusting them with ceresin and lime.
Mounting
Transferring mature fifth instar larvae to mountages (cocoonages or chandrikes)
is called mounting. When larvae are fully mature, they become translucent,
their body shrinks, and they stop feeding and start searching for suitable place
to attach themselves for cocoon spinning and pupation. They generally move to
the periphery of the rearing tray for this purpose. The worms attach themselves
to the spirals of the mountages and start spinning the cocoon. By continuous
movement of head, silk fluid is secreted around the body which hardens to form
a long continuous filament. The silkworm at first lays the foundation for the
cocoon structure by weaving a preliminary web providing the necessary foot
hold for the larva to spin the compact shell of cocoon. Owing to characteristic
movements of the head, the silk filament is deposited in a series of short waves
forming the figure of eight. This way layers are built and added to form the
compact cocoon shell. After the compact shell of the cocoon is formed, the
shrinking larva wraps itself and detaches from the shell and becomes pupa or
chrysalis. The spinning completes within 2-3 days in multi-voltine varieties and
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3-4 days in uni- and bi-voltine. This is the right time to pick them up and put
them on mountages.
Usually in picking up ripe worms, two methods can be applied: branch method
and net method. In the branch method, branches of mulberry with green leaves
are kept over the rearing bed and when the worms crawl on to them, they are
shaken off on a net and transferred to the mountages. In the net method, a net is
spread over the bed after feeding. The non-feeding (mature) worms come up
and crawl on to the net which is then shaken on a mat and the larvae transferred
to the mountages.
Care during cocoon spinning
During cocoon spinning the favourable and optimum conditions should be
maintained in rearing chamber for best quality of cocoons. Quality of the
cocoons spun by the larvae depends to a great extent on the temperature,
humidity and proper ventilation at the time they are being spun. The optimum
temperature of the room at this time should be 24 degree C, and the humidity
60-70 percent. Too high a temperature induces the larvae to spin their cocoons
in a great hurry and the larvae which are in haste to do so waste a good deal of
silk in preliminary processes. Besides, they spin irregular-shaped cocoons of
poor reeling quality and of thicker fibres. Too low a temperature, on the other
hand, causes delay in spinning, adversely affect the colour and texture of the
silk, thread becomes thin, and cocoons flaccid, resulting in reeling trouble and
wastage. Abnormally high and low temperatures adversely affect the health of
the worms and make the resulting cocoons unfit for seed purposes. Likewise,
too much humidity spoils the lustre of the filaments and too dry an air depilates
the worms. From the point of view of reeling, a relatively drier air during
mounting is good. Similarly, ventilation of the room should be such that
humidity is reduced but the worms are not exposed to violent draught of wind
or to direct sun.
Harvesting of cocoons
Harvesting should be done at proper time too early and too delay can cause
abnormality in cocoons. When the caterpillar has spun its silken cage or cocoon
around itself, it casts off its skin to pupate. In early days, pupal skin is tender
and ruptures easily. Therefore, early harvest of the cocoons could injure the
pupae and result in their blood not only soaking in and staining the former but
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also inducing fermentation and infection and making the stained portion
unreelable. Late harvest, on the other hand, leaves less time for transporting the
cocoons to the market and so for their stifling with the result that they will run
the risk of being cut by the emerging moths and thus being rendered unfit for
reeling, a loss that a sericulturist can ill afford to bear. It is, therefore, very
crucial for the sericulturist to harvest the cocoons at the correct time. In tropical
climate (as in Karnataka, A.P., W. Bengal), the proper time to harvest cocoons
is 5th day after their formation and in temperate climate (as in Kashmir), 7th to
8th day. Cocoons are harvested by hand. After harvesting the cocoons are sorted
out. The good cocoons are cleaned by removing silk wool and faecal matter and
are then marketed. The cocoons are sold by farmers to filature units through
Cooperative or State Govt. Agencies. The cocoons are priced on the basis
Rendita and reeling parameters. Rendita may be defined as number of kg of
cocoon producing 1 kg of raw silk.
Figure – Cocoon Harvesting
Post-harvest processing of cocoons

Now the process starts in the industrial part of the silk industry. However, since
production of silk is all that the sericulture is about, we cannot ignore the events
that meet the cocoons after they have been harvested.
These events are
 Stifling
 Boiling
 Brushing
 Reeling
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 Re-Reeling
 Finishing
 Testing.
Stifling- This means the killing of cocoons by different methods. The purpose
of stifling is to kill the pupae before they metamorphose into moths and
emerge, cutting the cocoons and rendering them unreelable. This is achieved by
any of these 3 methods: drying cocoons under the sun, hot-air stifling or steam-
stifling.
Cocoon boiling - This is also called as cooking. The cocoons are boiled first in
hot water at 95-97oC for 10-15 minutes to soften the adhesion of silk threads
among themselves, loosening of the threads to separate freely, and to facilitate
the unbinding of silk threads.
Brushing - Brushing is done for seeking the free end of the silk filament (brin)
in the cocoon. It could be achieved manually or by mechanically operated
brushes.
Reeling–Reeling is the process of unwinding the silk thread from the cocoons.
Four or five free ends of the threads of cocoon are passed through eyelets and
guides to twist into one thread and wound round a large wheel. The twisting is
done with the help of croissure. The silk is transferred finally to spools, and
silk obtained on the spool is called the Raw Silk or Reeled Silk.
Re-reeling–After the reeling of the raw silk on small reels,after proper drying
they are re-reeled on large reels. Direct reeling on large reels leads to
insufficient drying which in turn leads to production of hard gum spots on the
thread. This is overcome by first reeling the raw silk on small reels which
permits better drying.
Finishing–This is the last stage of silkworm rearing, in this process, the
different defects of the raw silk threadare removed and the silk is boiled,
stretched, purified by acid or by fermentation and repeatedly washed to bring
out the glossy look, the characteristic feature of the silk. The threads are then
changed into bundles or skeins.
Testing–Before moving to market testing is necessary to know the grade of
silk. There are some Indian and International standards to judge the quality of
the raw silk and facilitate its marketing. To maintain these standards, raw silk is
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put to a number of tests to assess its size variations, winding quality, neatness,
evenness, cohesion and tenacity.
Diseases of Bombyx mori
Mulberry silkworms, the most important of all the silkworms, are susceptible to
atleast 4 diseases : pebrine, flacheric, grasserie and muscardine. They are all
serious capable of destroying the entire stock (crop).
 Pebrine: Pebrine is also known aspepper diseaseorcorpuscle disease.
The diseaseis caused by a sporozoan, Nosema bombycis (family
Nosematidae). The main source of infection is food contaminated with
spores. Infection can be carried from one larva to another by the spores
contained in faeces or liberated in other ways by the moths carrying
infection. Pebrinized eggs easily get detached from the egg cards. They
may be laid in lumps. The eggs may die before hatching. The larva
shows black spots. They may become sluggish and dull, and the cuticle
gets wrinkled. Pupa may show dark spots. Moths emerging from
pebrinized cocoons have deformed wings and distorted antennae. The
egg laying capacityof the moth becomes poor.
 Flacherie:Flacherie is a common term to denote bacterial and viral
diseases. It hasbeen classified into following types:-
o Bacterial diseases of digestive organs: Due to the poor supply
of qualitymulberry leaves, the digestive physiology of the
silkworm is disturbed, and multiplication of bacteria occurs in
the gastric cavity. Bacteria like Streptococci, Coli, etc. have been
found associated with this disease.Symptoms, like diarrhoea,
vomiting, shrinkage of larval body may be seen.
o Septicemia: Penetration and multiplication of certain kinds of
bacteria inhaemolymph cause septicemia. The principal
pathogenic bacteria are large and small Bacilli, Streptococci, and
Staphylococci etc. Symptoms like diarrhoea, vomiting, shrinkage
of larval body may be seen. Appearance of foul odor is also a
common symptom.
o Sotto disease: It is caused by toxin ofBacillus thuringensis. The
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larvaebecome unconscious, soft, and darkish and rot off.
o Infectious Flacherie: It is caused by a virus calledMoratorVirus
which doesnot form polyhedra in the body of silkworm larvae.
The infection occurs mainly through oral cavity. The virus
multiplies in the midgut and is released into the gastric juice and
is excreted in faeces.
o Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis: It is caused by a virus
calledSmithiawhich formPolyhedra are formed in the cytoplasm
of the cylindrical cells of the midgut. The larva loses appetite.
The head may become disproportionately large. Infection occurs
through the oral cavity.
 Grasserie:The disease is also known asJaundiceorNuclear
PolyhedrosisIt iscaused by a virus called Borrelina, which form
polyhedra in the nuclei of the cells of fatty tissues , dermal tissues,
muscles, tracheal membrane ,basement membrane , epithelial cells of
midgut and blood corpuscles. The infected larvae lose appetite,become
inactive, membranes become swollen, skin becomes tender and pus
leaks out from skin. The larvae finally die.
 Muscardine or Calcino: It is of 3 types-
o White Muscardine: It is caused by the fungus,Beuveria
bassiana. The larvaloses appetite, body loses elasticity and they
cease to move and finally die.
o Green Muscardine: It is caused byMetarrhizium anisopliae. The
larva losesappetite, appears yellowish, becomes feeble and dies.
o Yellow Muscardine: It is caused byIsaria farinosa. Many small
black specksappear on the skin. Larvae lose appetite and dies.
Enemies of silkworms
1. Uzi fly (Tricholyga bombycis : Diptera) - These flies are
parasites of silkworms. They lay their eggs on them and the
maggots on hatching eat away the body of the caterpillars.
Prevention - Fly-proof doors, windows and ventilators
should be used in the silkworm rearing house. All crevices of
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the rooms should be closed to prevent maggots pupating in
the soil.
2. Beetles (Dermestes cadeverinus: Coleopetra)- Adults and
grubs (larvae) of this and other dermestid beetles are
attracked to the smell of cocoons in storage. They eat the
cocoons, enclosed pupae and often the eggs (seeds) of the
silkworms.
Prevention - The females of these beetles lay their eggs in
crevices, organic matter and wooden boards. Therefore,
closure of the crevices, and scrupulous cleaning of the rearing
room is the first requirement of prevention. Occasionally, the
rooms could be fumigated with CH3Br (methyl bromide) and
stifled cocoons should not be stored for long.
3. Ants (Hymenoptera) - Ants attack silkworms in rearing
trays.
Prevention - Legs of rearing stands should be dipped in
antwells (filled with water + insecticide). At the time of
spinning, ash or kerosene is put at the handles of the
chandrikes to keep the ants off.
4. Lizards, birds, rats and squirrels - All these animals feed
on silkworms. Mammals predate also on the pupae by bitting
open the cocoons.
Prevention - Rearing rooms should be kept free of lizards
with the help of insecticides. Birds could be scared away
from the vicinity and for rat and squirrel trapping could be
carried out in rearing houses.
Non-Mulberry Sericultures
1. Muga Sericulture
Cultivation of food plants - The primary food plants of A. assama are
Som (Machilus bombycina) and Soalu (Litsaea polyantha) which are
Assammese names. Earlier Som was grown in upper Assam and Soalu
in lower Assam. But as som has been found to be more suitable for
muga sericulture due to its long life and resistance to stem borers, it is
now grown in both the regions. Traditionally, muga silkworm rearing is
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done on irregularly scattered tall trees. But since the productivity of
cocoons is low and their management rather difficult, plants are now
cultivated on farms and maintained on scientific lines. Propagation of
plants is done through seeds and vegetatively by air layering.
Antheraea (assamenisis) assama
Distribution - In wild form, muga moths, muga is an Assamese word
meaning brown or amber) are distributed from Western Himalayas to
Nagaland, Cachar districts of Assam of South Tripura. But the
sericulture practice is confined to the Brahmaputra valley of Assam and
Foothills of East Garo hills of Meghalaya. Ideal temperature for muga
silkworm growth is 24-30 degree C and humidity 75-85 per cent.
Appearance - The wings and body of the male moth are copper brown
to dark brown and those of the female, yellowish to brown, both pairs of
wings bearing eye spots. Besides colouration, the male moth can be
distinguished from the female from its slightly smaller size, slender
abdomen, bushy antennae and sharply curved forewing tips.
Life-history
The male moth flies actively and mates with the stationary female which
seldomly flies. After copulation, the female moth lays eggs preferably
on dry twigs called “Kharika”. The moth is non-feeding and dies within
7-12 days. Duration of life-history is greatly variable in summer and
winter. The figures in parentheses are those of winter and outside, of
summer.
Rearing of muga silkworms. The muga silkworms are polyphagous,
semi-domesticated and multivoltine having 5-6 overlapping generations
in a year
Muga silkworm rearers commence their rearing work with the
procurement of seed cocoons (not layings i.e., eggs) either from
commercial rearers or from Govt. grainages (places where disease free
(dfl) seed layings or seed cocoons are developed), traditionally from the
former, in the months of May-June (Springcrop) or Oct-Nov. (Autumn
crop). Foothill areas of Garo, Naga and Cachar hills are the main seed
growing areas for muga. Commercial rearers from different localities
reach these zones much in advance, survey the rearings of different seed
growers and select what they consider the healthiest and the best rearing.
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Once selection is made, the customer rearers settle in the nearly area
until cocoons are ready. The rears always prefer to collect seed cocoons
of the stock of the peak day harvest which they call “Bharpok” stock.
The quantity of cocoons purchased depends on the number of food
plants a rearer has. If he does not have the plants of his own, he hires
them from other rearers or conducts rearing in the Government’s Village
Grazing Reserve at a nominal rate.
After collection of seed cocoons, they are loosely packed in bamboo
basket containing dry straw and transported to the site of rearing which
is near the rearer’s home. Transportation is done either on shoulder (if
the distance is short) or on trucks and buses (if the distance is long). But
in either case, the timing of transportation is during night or early
morning to avoid thermal shock. On reaching home, the cocoons are
transferred to bamboo cages and stored in a thatched and mud-plastered
house. Emergence of moths is thereafter awaited during which period
nobody is allowed to enter the grainage with shoes on. Emergence starts
from dusk and continues till morning. The emerging adults are allowed
to mate and in the copulated state itself, the pair is laid on 1.5-2 ft long
sticks made of dried straw which the locals call “Kharikas”. Two to four
copulating pairs occupy one Kharika to which the female is tied with
thread around its right forewing shoulder. After over-night mating, the
couples separate in the morning and if they do not decouple naturally,
they are made to do so by the heat of fire lighted some distance away.
Some tribal rearers devour the male moths after decoupling and the
female moths after third day of egg laying.
Brushing - Brushing, as we know, refers to transference of the newly
hatched larvae on to the food plants. At the site of brushing, the tribals
perform a traditional ceremony (Puja) after cleaning the site. This is
done to propitiate God and drive out evil moths which they believe are
the cause of poor rearing performance. This over, the Kharikas with
their moths are hung on the upper branches of the food trees. The larvae
that hatch from the eggs crawl up to the foliage and start feeding.
Plantain leaves or cloth sheets are spread under the food plants to collect
the larvae that may fall to be put back on to the foliage. The basal region
of the food plant is rubbed with thin layer of lime powder and ash to
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prevent crawling insect pests from climbing the tree and also coils of
straw rope or banana bark is tied to prevent downwards movement of
the straying larvae. The Kharikas are shifted to newer hosts after 2,3 and
sometimes 4 days of brushing. If due to shortage of leaves, the larvae
descend down the trunk, they are collected in a kind of bamboo
umbrella-like structure called Chaloni which is then placed on another
tree with the help of a bomboo pole.
Cocoonage of mountage - The cocoonages, unlike the chandrikes of
mulberry silkworms are called “Jali” which are made up of partly dried
leaves of jackfruit, mango etc. tied into a bundle. Preparation of Jalis
commence when the larvae are in their 3rd or 4th stage and are kept ready
one day before they are mature for spinning cocoons. Mature or ripe
worms are collected during dusk or night and transferred on the Jalis.
Prior to doing this, the rearers perform the Puja once again. The Jalis are
then hung and left undisturbed in separate rooms or at some shady place
till cocoons are formed. After harvesting of the cocoons, seed cocoons
are sorted out and the excess cocoons are stifling with smoke by placing
them over an oven for the purpose of reeling.
During monsoon (July-September) when the rain may continue for days
together, brushing of minute or “chawki worms”, as they are called, on
to food plants is not advised for the danger of their being washed off.
The worms during this period can be easily reared indoors by brushing
them on to tender twigs may be immersed in water contained in bottles.
This is called ‘chawki rearing’ which could continue until 3rd instar
when the worms are strong enough to cling to the host plants even
during the rains.
In every case, keen watch and supervision of the larvae on host plants
have to be kept to protect them from enemies (uziflies, braconids, insect
predators and birds), the site of rearing has to kept clean of fallen leaves
and dead larvae, larvae dropping down to the ground have to be placed
back on the leaves, in ‘chalonis’ and infected larvae have to be
identified, collected and burnt.
Grainages, as we have learnt, are centres for producing disease free
seeds – of layings (eggs) or cocoons – of pure and hybrid races in large
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quantities. To accomplish this, certain scientific practices, as listed
below, are adopted :
1. Infections of the diseases like pebrine are the worst enemies of
sericulture. To avoid it, disinfection of the grainage hall, and
equipments that come in use is the first operation that is carried out
by washing them with water and then spraying 4% formaldehyde
solution. After 48 hours of the spray, fumigation with formaline by
boiling 35-40% of it is done.
2. Seeds, Eggs or cocoons are obtained from Govt. certified agencies or
reliable sericulturists and the moths emerging from them are crushed
and their fluid examined under the microscope for any infection.
Only healthy disease free moths are utilised for seed production.
3. The eggs produced are once again disinfected by soaking them in 2-
5% formaline solution for 5 minutes, washed in water and dried.
This can also be done with high chlorines bleaching powder.
4. Overcrowding, whether at egg stage, cocoon stage, or while brushing
the larvae to food plants, is always avoided not only to check
damage to the developing embryos or pupae but also to check
infections to allow healthy growth of the worms.
5. Rearing sites should not be low lying or shady ; host plants should
be of medium size and not infested with pests like ants, wasps, aphid
termites etc. It should be kept clean by deweeding.
6. The rest of the practices are similar to those adopted by traditional
rearers.
Stifling - Stifling as we already know means killing the pupa inside the
cocoons so that the latter are not damaged (cut) by the emerging moths.
This is done by first spreading the cocoons on a bamboo mat and then
exposing them to the sun. this partly kills the chrysalis. The mat is then
kept above an oven where hot air and smoke kill the pupae fully. This
process is repeated 2-3 times whereafter the cocoons are shown to the
sun once again.
Degumming - Degumming means removal of the serecin protein
covering the silk fibres which helps maintain the shape of the cocoons.
This is done by boiling the cocoons in alkaline solution of sodium
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carbonate for 10-30 minutes depending on the amount of soda – 3 or 1
gm per litre – present in the solution. Some traditional sericulturists
employ ash of leaves, wood and bark of some trees in place of soda.
Reeling - Muga cocoons are reeled on a primitive machine called “Bhir”
in which two persons are needed – one to defloss the cocoons and draw
filaments out of 8-10 cocoons and the other to twist these filaments and
wound yarn on the spindle. Now-a-days, improved machines that do the
job faster are available. Some of them are Choudhury type machine,
Central Muga and Eri Research Station-III (CMERS-III) machine etc.
2. Ericulture
Cultivation of food plants -Eri silkworms are polyphagous in nature,
they feeds on some primary and some secondary food plants. The
primary food plants are castor (Ricinus communis) and Kasseru
(Heteropanax fragrans) and some of the secondary ones are tapioca
(Manihot utilissima) payam (Evodia flaxinifola), papaya (Carica
papaya) etc. Castor is grown by seed sowing. Best season for sowing is
September to October and March to April. Land is prepared and
manured beforehand.
Kasseru is wild plant or can be cultivated by plantations on
embankments around homestead land. It is grown both vegetatively by
cuttings and by seed sowing. Seeds sown in nurseries are transplanted at
proper spacing. Pruning or pollarding is carried out annually to induce
branching. Leaves become suitable for feeding from August to
December; in other months, they are too tender. Worms can be easily
shifted from kasseruto castor but not vice versa.
Philosamia (Attacus) ricini
Distribution-The natural habitat of P. ricini is Assam and bordering districts of
W.Bengal coexisting with it is its wild form P.cynthia which can easily
hybridise with the domesticated P. ricini. The right climatic conditions for the
growth of these insects are a temperature ranging between 18.3 – 29.4 degree C
and humidity of 75-95 per cent.
Appearance–Eri silkworm is brownish chocolate in appearance with black or
green coloured wings with white crescent markings, and woolly white
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abdomen. The male is smaller than the female bearing bushy antennae, and
narrower abdomen.
Life-history
Adult moths emerge from morning to mid-day, males emerging earlier than the
female. After an hour or two of emergence, mating occurs and continues up to
evening. The males are then separated but can be used for 2-3 more matings.
For the seed crops, the males are used only once for mating. The moth is
multivoltine (its wild counterpart is uni- or bivoltine) producing 5-6
generations. Like muga worms, Eri worms also have a variable duration of life-
history – about 44 days in summer and 85 days in winter. The figures in
parentheses are those of winter and outside, of summer.
Rearing of Eri silkworms. Disinfected seed cocoons are reared fully indoors.
Healthy cocoons are spread on bamboo trays in a cool dark room. On hatching,
active males are separated from the passive females and are allowed to mate in
a quiet dark room. Fertilised females are then tied to “Kharikas” by passing a
thread around the shoulder joint of the right wings as in the case of muga
moths. Kharikas are then suspended from a string. The eggs laid within 25
hours are normally selected for rearing. As usual, the eggs are disinfected by
washing them in 2% formaline solution and then again in fresh water to remove
traces of the chemical. Larvae hatching from the eggs are gently brushed on to
trays over which few tender leaves plucked from top regions of the plant are
spread. Crowding of trays either with worms or leaves is avoided. If humidity is
less than 75 per cent, the trays are covered with moist sheets of sac cloth. As
the worms advance in age, older and older leaves can be given. The worms
should be given 4-5 feeds at specified timings – at 4 hour intervals starting from
6 A.M. in the case of I-III instars and 5 hour intervals, in the case of IV and V
instars. Whereas I-III instars are reared in trays, IV and V instars are given
bunch feeding wherein bunches or leaves are tied by their stalks and hung
saddle-like on horizontal bamboo supports. A bamboo at spread below these
bunches helps collection and replacement of larvae that may drop down. Bunch
rearing affords greater cleanness since the excreta falls down leaving the foliage
unsoiled. Bed cleaning for earlier instars reared in trays is carried out in the
same way as for the mulberry silkworms.
Mounting and harvesting-After maturation the worms empty their gut
contents as a result their body becomes plump and shortened and they start
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looking for a mounting place moving away from their food. Maturation of
worms commences from 9 A.M. and continues up to mid-day. Such worms are
hand-picked and transferred to ‘Chandrikes’ like those of the mulberry
silkworms or to bamboo baskets filled with dry mango or banana leaves.
Cocoons are spun between the folds of leaves. To prevent worms from straying
out, the lids of the baskets are closed.
Cocoon spinning takes 3 days in summer and 5 days in winter. But they are
normally collected from the chandrikes or bamboo baskets after 5 days in
summer and a days in winter. The cocoons may be white or brick-red, 5 cm
long in the case of female (4.6 cm for male), tapering at one and flat rounded
and open at the other end, flossy and without a peduncle. They are cleaned and
spread over bamboo trays and kept protected from ants, lizards, rats etc.
Stifling, degumming and spinning -Stifling is done by sun drying the cocoons
for 1-2 days after this for degumming cocoons are tied in a cloth sac and with
the help of stone weights sunk in boiling soda solution. When sufficiently
boiled, cocoons are taken out, washed in water several times to remove soda,
squeezed to wring out water and spread on mats to dry. Being open-mouthed,
the thread of the cocoons are discontinuous and so they can only be spun and
not reeled. Spinning is done in wet condition on a Takli and in semi-dried
condition, on a charkha. However, in these methods both the hands need to be
used and so spinning becomes laborious and slow. The colour of the eri worm
silk is while or brick red and since the threads have to be spun, the cloth
produced with them is coarse and has to be cheaper compared to the silk got out
of other worms. Eri silk, therefore, is called a poor man’s silk.
3. Tasar Sericulture
Cultivation of food plants–Tasar Silkworm is a wild variety and is preferred to
be reared outdoors like onAsan (Terminalia tomentosa), Arjun (Terminalia
arjuna), Saal (Shorea robusta) and Ber (Zizyphus jujuba) plants. However,
modern sericulturists prefer to cultivate the food plants on their farms for better
supervision and adequate leaf supply. Cultivation of plants is done with seeds.
Saplings are raised in nurseries and transplanted in fields, 20-25 feet apart after
sufficient rain-fall. Watering, manuring and ploughing around the saplings are
carried out regularly and also the plants are protected from cattle, other animals
and villagers until they have achieved a good height. Pruning of the branches,
3-5 weeks before starting rearing, is carried out for better foliage growth. Due
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to continuous rearing on same plants, there is possibility of plant to become
weak, therefore it is better to grow food plants in two plots and the rearing
should be done only on alternate years in each plot.
Antheraea paphia.
Distribution- Tasar silk is divided into two categories: tropical tasar and
temperate tasar. Tropical tasar is produced in humid areas like Bihar, Orissa,
M.P. and to a less extent in U.P., A.P., Maharashtra, and Karnataka while
temperate tasar, at Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram.
Appearance- Tasar moths are fairly large insects, female being larger and
yellowish-brown in colour while males smaller and radish brick in colour but
both having prominent eye spots on their wings. The antennae of the male are
bushy (branched) and abdomen narrower compared to that of the female.
Life-history
Tasar moths are bivoltine giving two crops a year – one during August to
October and the other during October to December.
Rearing of tasar silkworms-The variety of silkworm - tasar silkworms is
entirely wild, they have to be fully reared on host plants. Adult moths from the
cocoons collected during winter of the previous year emerge only in August of
the following year due to diapause. Single male-female pairs are kept in
separate palm-leave vessels called “monia” or “mauni”. After 24 hours when
mating is completed, the lids of the monias are opened and the males allowed to
fly away. The fertilised females are then transferred to earthen-pots or
cardboard boxes for egg laying. In the next 24 hours when the egg-laying is
over, the females are crushed and their body fluid examined under microscope
for any diseases. If diseases, the whole lot of the eggs is destroyed by burning.
Only the disease free layings (dfls) are kept for rearing.
The eggs are washed in 2% formaline solution to disinfect them, washed in
water to remove the chemical, dried and kept in an incubator for hatching
which takes 7-8 days. The freshly hatched ½ inch yellowish larvae are
transferred (brushed) to the leaves of the food plants that have been kept ready
after pruning and growth of new tender shoots. The first three instars stages of
larvae are small, possess a weak grip over the foliage and therefore, run the risk
of being washed off during rains. To avoid this, these instars could be fed
indoors on food plant twigs dipped in earthern vessels containing water to
retain freshness for a longer time. The larvae feed, grow in size and moult 4
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times to become full-grown. Moults of I-IV instars occur in 3-4, 5-7, 7-8 and 8-
10 days respectively while the V instar takes 15 days of voracious feeding to
become full-grown when it measures 4-5 inches and weighs 50 gms. It then
stops feeding, evacuates its gut by passing out the excreta for the last time and
starts looking for a suitable spot to spin cocoon to pupate.
Pupation and cocoon formation- Pupation as in all other silkworms occurs
inside the cocoon. For constructing its cocoon, the larva selects a suitable spot
on a twig preferably near its origin. It then crawls down, entangles a few leaves
in its silk threads to form a cone-shaped tent or hammock, open on top. The
larva comes out of this opening and sets about spinning its cocoon which it
does in 3 steps: ring formation, peduncle formation and cocoon formation. For
ring formation, the larva nibbles the bark all around the chosen site with its
powerful mandibles to form a furrowed ring. This is followed by ejection of
silk in semicircular loops around half the furrowed circle so that in a short time
a strong half-ring of silk is formed. The larva then secretes silk to make the
peduncle which brings it near the leaf-tent. It enters the tent and begins to spin
the cocoon which takes 4-6 days to complete. The larva by this time is already
inside the cocoon to pupate. During cocoon spinning, the tasar larvae have to be
kept under close watch to protect them from the predators like birds, bats,
lizards and rodents and the cocoons from man (thieves).
Stifling and reeling of cocoons - Tasar silkworm cocoons are hard and are first
soaked in 5% Na2CO3 (soda) solution for 18 hours and then subjected to steam
cooking in pressure chamber for approximately 3 hours. After 24 hours, the
cocoons are washed in 0.5% formaline for 15-20 minutes. These steps give silk
fibres a greater tensile strength. Cocoons are then squeezed to expel water and
reeled on a reeling machine. Threads from 4 cocoons are used for reeling.
Sericulture and its role in economy of India
Silk is the most elegant fabric industry of the world with unparalleled grandeur,
natural sheen, and inherent affinity for dyes, high absorbance, light weight, soft
touch and high durability and known as the “Queen of Textiles” the world over.
On the other hand, it stands for livelihood opportunity for millions owing to
high employment oriented, low capital intensive and remunerative nature of its
production. The very nature of this industry with its rural based on-farm and
off-farm activities and enormous employment generation potential has attracted
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the attention of the planners and policy makers to recognize the industry among
one of the most appropriate avenues for socio-economic development of a
largely agrarian economy like India.
Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. India has a
rich and complex history in silk production and its silk trade dates back to 15th
century. Sericulture industry provides employment to approximately 8 million
persons in rural and semi-urban areas in India. Of these, a sizeable number of
workers belong to the economically weaker sections of society, including
women. India’s traditional and culture bound domestic market and an amazing
diversity of silk garments that reflect geographic specificity have helped the
country to achieve a leading position in silk industry. India has the unique
distinction of being the only country producing all the five known commercial
silks, namely, mulberry, tropical tasar, oak tasar, eri and muga, of which muga
with its golden yellow glitter is unique and prerogative of India.
India is the Second largest producer of silk in the World. Among the four
varieties of silk produced, in 2015-16, Mulberry accounts for 71.8% (20,434
MT), Tasar 9.9% (2,818 MT), Eri 17.8% (5,054 MT) and Muga 0.6% (166
MT) of the total raw silk production of 28,472 MT. An analysis of trends in
international silk production suggests that sericulture has better prospects for
growth in the developing countries rather than in the advanced countries. Silk
production in temperate countries like Japan, South Korea, USSR etc., is
declining steadily not only because of the high cost of labour and heavy
industrialization in these countries, but also due to climatic restrictions
imposed on mulberry leaf availability that allows only two cocoon crops per
annum. Thus, India has a distinct advantage of practicing sericulture all
through the year, yielding a stream of about 4 – 6 crops as a result of its
tropical climate.
The bivoltine raw silk production achieved a record production of 4,532 MT
during 2015-16 by registering 17% growth over previous year. Similarly, vanya
silk, which includes tasar, eri and muga raw silks, has achieved 9.8% growth
during 2015-16 over 2014-15. However, the crossbreed silk production has
declined during 2015-16 compared to the last year.
Reduction in crossbreed raw silk production is due to severe drought condition
and drastic depletion in ground water in sericulture belts in the major silk
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producing states. Further, the mulberry area expansion was severely affected in
many states due to crash in mulberry cocoon prices during planting season for
mulberry. The price crash and the drought conditions prevailed during 2015-16
also resulted in uprootment of mulberry leading to decline in mulberry area.
State wise Raw Silk production during 2012-13 to 2015-16(P) (in MT)
# State Achievement
2015-16
2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 (P)
1 Karnataka 8219 8574 9645 9823

2 Andhra Pradesh 6550 6912 6485 5086
3 Telangana 101 116
3 Tamil Nadu 1185 1120 1602 1898
4 Kerala 6 4 7 9
5 Maharashtra 97 122 221 274
6 Uttar Pradesh 157 188 236 249
7 Madhya Pradesh 190 195 248 214
8 Chhattisgarh 391 391 234 261
9 West Bengal 2070 2079 2500 2391
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10 Bihar 22 52 53 67
11 Jharkhand 1090 2003 1946 2284
12 Odisha 104 53 98 117
13 Jammu & Kashmir 145 136 138 127
14 Himachal Pradesh 23 25 30 32
15 Uttarakhand 17 22 29 30
16 Haryana
0.13 0.13 0.3 0.6
17 Punjab 5 4 4 0.8
18 Assam & Bodoland 2068 2766 3222 3325
19 Ar.Pradesh 22 15 12 37
20 Manipur 418 487 516 522
22 Meghalaya 517 644 656 857
23 Mizoram 40 44 50 64
24 Nagaland 324 606 619 631
25 Sikkim 3 0.20 8 6
26 Tripura 15 40 48 52
Total 23,679 26,480 28,708 28,472
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(p): Provisional
Production of silkworm seed

The CSB has a chain of Basic Seed Farms supplying basic seeds to the States.
Its commercial seed production centers augment efforts of the States in
supplying commercial silkworm seed to farmers. The Table below indicates the
total quantity of seed production during first 4 years of XII Plan (2012-13,
2013-14, 2014-15 & 2015-16)
(UNIT: LAKH DFLS)
XI Plan 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
(2011-
Particulars 12)
Achmn Achmn Achmn Achmn
Target t. Target t. Target t. Target t.
Achmnt
.
Mulberry 321.54 325.00 308.48 325.00 338.57 350.00 370.13 375.00 410.50
Tasar 36.44 33.13 39.74 34.51 38.44 44.09 42.46 47.14 51.62
Muga 2.52 5.02 4.87 5.52 5.00 6.07 6.11 7.26 7.45
Eri 3.17 3.39 4.21 3.60 3.61 4.10 5.69 4.52 5.75
Total 363.57 367.21 357.30 368.63 385.62 404.26 424.39 433.92 475.32
In India, sericulture is not only a tradition but also a living culture. It is a farm-
based, labour intensive and commercially attractive economic activity falling
under the cottage and small-scale sector. It particularly suits rural-based
farmers, entrepreneurs and artisans, as it requires low investment but, with
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potential for relatively higher returns. It provides income and employment to
the rural poor especially farmers with small land-holdings and the marginalized
and weaker sections of the society. Several socio-economic studies have
affirmed that the benefit-cost ratio in sericulture is highest among comparable
agricultural crops
Some initiatives like cocoon testing in some select markets, raw silk testing in
the silk conditioning and test houses and technical service centres across the
county by the Central Silk Technological Research Institute, Central Silk
Board, Bangalore has created visible impact to bring awareness about quality
among the rearers, reelers and weavers. This is important to achieve quality silk
of international standard. Recently, Central Silk Board has started a testing
laboratory for Silk and Zari at Kancheepuram to facilitate customers, producers
and other stakeholders for spot testing of silk and zari material without any
destruction to the products by x-ray analysers. More importantly, ‘Silk Mark’
Scheme is introduced by Silk Mark Organisation of India (SMOI), a registered
society, sponsored by Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Government of
India. The Silk Mark is a quality assurance label for the assurance of pure silk
and in addition serves as a brand for generic promotion of Pure Silk. The Silk
Mark is under the process of registration as a Trade Mark.
Indian silkworm breeds are multivoltine (i.e., they produce several broods a
year) and though, good progress has been achieved in cross breed (multivoltine
x bivoltine) silk production, the quality still remains incomparable to that of
Chinese breeds which are bivoltine. In spite of abundant natural resources,
socio-economic benefit of the sector like generation of employment for the
large sections of tribals and marginalized rural men and women, growing
export market as well as large domestic demand, a variety of problems have
kept Indian sericulture away from achieving its true potential. These may
include unhygienic conditions and diseases prevalent during silkworm rearing,
mediocre quality of silkworm breeds and sub-optimal processing technology,
lack of proper seed organization system and poor quality seed production, low
technology adoption by the stakeholders, inadequate/poor extension efforts,
age-old practices of post-cocoon operations, absence of quality certification and
quality-linked pricing system and poor linkages among the four production sub-
systems viz., seed, cocoon, yarn and fabric.
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An interest of sericulture in India as a whole is protected by ‘Central Silk
Board’ running under the Union Ministry of Trade and Commerce. A
qualitative and quantitative breakthrough has been made due to research
conducted on various aspects of the industry by the respective research centres
running under this board. The quality control and export of Silk is also looked
after by the board.
The important research centres are the following;—
(i)Central Sericulture Research Station, Berhampur, West-Bengal
(Mulberry).
(ii) Sericulture Research Institute Channapatna, Mysore (Mulberry).
(iii) Central Munga and Eri Research Station Titabar, Assam.
(iv)Central Tasar Research Station, Ranchi, Bihar.
These research stations have ‘sub-stations and extension centres in’ different
parts of the country for the convenience of the sericulturists there in
remote areas.
Silk properties and Its Use
Silk contains 70-75% fibroin and 25-30% sericin protein. The biochemical
composition of fibroin can be represented by the formula C15H23N5O6. It has the
characteristic appearance of pure silk with pearly lustre. It is insoluble in water,
ether or alcohol, but dissolves in concentrated alkaline solutions, mineral acids,
and glacial acetic acid and in ammoniacal solution of oxides of copper. Sericin,
a gummy covering of the fiber is a gelatinous body which dissolves readily in
warm soapy solutions and in hot water, which on cooling forms a jelly with
even as little as 1% of the substance. It is precipitated as a white powder from
hot solutions by alcohol. Its chemical formula is C15H25N5O8. It can be dyed
before or after it has been woven into a cloth. The weight in gram of 900m long
silk filaments is called a denier which represents size of silk filament.
Silk has following peculiar properties: -
1. Natural colour of Mulberry silk is white , yellow or yellowish green;
that of Tasar brown; of Muga, light brown or golden; and of Eri, brick
red or creamy white or light brown.
2. Silk has all desirable qualities of textile fibres, viz. strength, elasticity,
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softness, coolness, and affinity to dyes. The silk fibre is exceptionally
strong having a breaking strength of 65,000-lbs/sq. inch.
3. Silk fibre can elongate 20% of original length
before breaking. 4. Density is 1.3-1.37g/cm3.
4. Natural silk is hygroscopic and gains moisture up to 11%.
5. Silk is poor conductor of heat and electricity. However, under friction, it
produces static electricity. Silk is sensitive to light and UV- rays.
6. Silk fibre can be heated to higher temperature without damage. It
becomes pale yellow at 110o C in 15 minutes and disintegrates at 165o
C.
7. On burning it produces a deadly hydrocyanic gas.
Use of silk:
Silk is used in the manufacture of following articles:
 Garments in various weaves like plain, crepe, georgette and
velvet.
 Knitted goods such as vests, gloves, socks, stockings.
 Silk is dyed and printed to prepare ornamented fabrics for saries,
ghagras, lehengas and dupattas.
 Jackets, shawls and wrappers.
 Caps, handkerchiefs, scarves, dhotis, turbans.
 Quilts, bedcovers, cushions, table-cloths and curtains generally
from Eri-silk or spun silk.
 Parachutes and parachute cords.
 Fishing lines.
 Sieve for flour mills.
 Insulation coil for electric and telephone wire.
 Tyres of racing cars.
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 Artillery gunpowder.
 Surgical sutures.
10.6 Insect Pollinators
A pollinator is the biotic agent that moves pollen from the male anthers of a
flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish fertilization or 'syngamy'
of the female gametes in the ovule of the flower by the male gametes from the
pollen grain. Animals that assist plants in their reproduction as pollinators
include many insect species like bees, (honey bees, solitary species,
bumblebees); pollen wasps (Masarinae); ants; a variety of flies including bee
flies and hoverflies; lepidopterans, both butterflies and moths; and flower
beetles as well as other animals like bats, monkeys, lemurs, possums, rodents,
reptiles like lizards and snakes, birds like hummingbirds, honeyeaters, sunbirds
etc.with long beaks pollinate various plants. Wind and water also play a role in
the pollination of many plants. Somewhere between 75% and 95% of all
flowering plants on the earth need help with pollination – they need pollinators.
Pollinators provide pollination services to over 180,000 different plant species
and more than 1200 crops. That means that 1 out of every three bites of food we
eat is there because of pollinators. In addition to the food that we eat,
pollinators support healthy ecosystems. Anthecology is the scientific study of
pollination.
Pollination
Pollen is basically a spore of plant that has been produced asexually. It
germinates on contact with the stigma of a flower and grows as a pollen tube
through the style to the embryo sac where it discharges two nuclei. One
nucleus unites with the egg cell of an ovule and results in fertilization.
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female
reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. The
fertilized egg develops into a mature plant. The other nucleus from the pollen
tube unites with the polar bodies to form the endosperm nucleus in the same
ovule. The seed endosperm, or nutritive tissue like yolk in an animal egg,
develops from this union. It then dies early in the development of the young
seed or seedling which drains it of nutriment. Sperm cells and egg cells mature
by dividing the number of their chromosomes in half. Then when egg and
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sperm unite, the original number of chromosomes characteristic of the cells in
the plant is restored. Inheritable traits of the parents of both the egg and the
sperm cells are now combined in the developing embryo.
Pollination is a very important process in both human managed and natural
terrestrial ecosystems depending upon the symbiosis between species, the
pollinated and the pollinator. It is the result of intricate relationships between
plants and insects, and the reduction or loss of either will affect the survival of
both. Insect pollinators provide an essential ecosystem service for pollination,
clean the air, stabilize soils, protect from severe weather, and support other
wildlife.
Insects especially are of enormous importance in the pollinations of many
agriculturally important crops. Although gravity, wind, water, molluscs, birds,
bats and humans are agents of pollination, it is often possible to manipulate
insects in their performance on high value cropping systems.
Insect Orders working as pollinating agents
Insects are classified into 31 major orders and most of the species are
pollinators. Some of the important pollinators insect orders are Hymenoptera
(ants, wasps, bees, sawflies, Ichneumon flies and chalcid flies), Hemiptera (true
bugs, cicadas, leafhoppers, scale insects, aphids), Thysanoptera (thrips),
Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies, gnats, mosquitoes), Lepidoptera (moths and
butterflies) etc. Here are some important pollinating insect orders
1. Hymenoptera
The most familiar pollinating Hymenopterans are the bees, wasps and ants.
Hymenoptera characteristically have two pairs of wings, a large fore pair and a
smaller hind pair. These wings are held together by a series of hooks (called a
frenulum) and may appear like a single pair to the naked eye. Hymenoptera also
tend to have prominent antennae, generally with nine or more segments and
biting mouthparts.
a) Honey bees
The most recognized pollinators are the various species of bees, which are
plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an
electrostatic charge which helps them to adhere pollen grains to their bodies,
but they also have specialized pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this
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takes the form of a structure known as the scopa, which is on the hind legs of
most bees, and the lower abdomen (e.g., megachilidae bees), made up of thick,
plumose setae. Honey bees, bumblebees, and their relatives do not have a
scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula ("pollen
basket"). Most bees gather nectar, a concentrated energy source, and pollen,
which is high protein food, to nurture their young, and inadvertently transfer
some among the flowers as they are working.
Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar which is later
converted into honey, and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing
against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred
to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the
pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides
the energy for bee nutrition; pollen provides the protein.
Good pollination management during the blooming time of the crop, helps the
bees to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Millions of
hives of honey bees are contracted out as pollinators by beekeepers, and honey
bees are by far the most important commercial pollinating agents, but many
other kinds of pollinators, from blue bottle flies, to bumblebees, orchard mason
bees, and leaf cutter bees are cultured and sold for managed pollination.
b) Wasps
Many insects other than bees do pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or
pollen, or commonly both. For example, many species of hunting wasps, rely
on freely flowering plants as sources of energy in the form of nectar and also
predatory wasps (especially Sphecidae, Vespidae, and Pompilidae). They are
remarkable among solitary wasps in that they specialise in gathering pollen for
feeding their larvae, carried internally and regurgitated into a mud chamber
prior to oviposition.
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Figure
- Bee Pollinations
2. Diptera
The several families of Diptera are involved in pollination. Usually adult
dipterans feed frequently on nectar or pollen or both, but the larval stage are
harmful to plants. Examples are found in the Anthomyidae (hovering house
flies), Bombyliidae (bee flies), Calliphoridae (blow flies & bottle flies),
Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Conopidae (thick-headed flies), Cyrtidae
(small-headed flies), Empididae (dance flies), Muscidae (house flies),
Sarcophagidae (flesh flies), Stratiomyidae (soldier flies), Syrphidae (flower
flies, syrphid flies, hover flies), Tabanidae males (horse flies), Tachinidae
(tachinid flies), Tephritidae (fruit flies). These families might be considered in
the following order of decreasing importance: Syrphidae, Muscidae,
Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Bombyliidae, Conopidae, Tachinidae,
Empididae, Stratiomyiidae, Tabanidae, Tephritidae, Ceratopogonidae and
Cyrtidae. However, this order may differ for any one-plant species.
In Syrphidae most species feed on nectar and pollen or only nectar. Nectar-
feeding species have a long, slender proboscis and generally visit the same
group of flowers as the long-tongued bees. Bombyliidae adults have a long,
slender proboscis and visit flowers. In Muscidae the adults of most species visit
flowers and eat pollen and nectar.
3. Lepidoptera
Adults of most Lepidoptera feed mainly on nectar from flowers, while their
larvae feed on herbage, some roots or stored food products and wool and are
therefore pestiferous. The tongue lengths of Lepidoptera vary from 1 to 250
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mm. Those with 4-10 mm.Butterflies tend to frequent day-blooming flowers
and moths visit constantly open or evening and night-blooming flowers. The
entire suborder, Rhopalocera and 5 families of Heterocera that are numerous or
specially adapted as pollinators are Arctiidae (tiger moths & wooly bears),
Geometridae (loopers), Noctuidae (nun moths, cut worms), Pyralidae (snout
moths), Rhopaloceridae (butterflies) and Sphingidae (hawk moths & horn
worms).
Butterflies generally visits to flowers in daylight, the value of moths as
pollinators is probably underestimated. Butterflies often spend a lot of time on
the same flowers and they are regularly less effective than bees in pollination.
Hawk moths that fly in the evening or at night are assiduous flower visitors by
darting rapidly from plant to plant. Their very long proboscis seems to be
especially suited for the most highly developed Lepidoptera flowers that have
musky odors, long and narrow corolla tubes or long spurs that contain nectar.
Butterflies tend to prefer red flowers while moths prefer white flowers. Many
flowers are sometimes referred to as haw moth flowers, and where the corolla
tube exceeds 25 mm. the term is deserved.
4. Hemiptera
Some Hemipterans are also of pollination importance such as Anthocoridae
(minute pirate bugs), Phymatidae (ambush bugs) and Reduviidae (kissing
bugs). The Anthocoride prey on thrips in flowers; a few Reduviidae prey on
bees in flowers and most Phymatidae prey on bees and flies in flowers.
Anthocoridae are found in almost any flowers that are visited by thrips.
Phymartids and reduvids are found primarily on Compositae and flowers that
are grouped into tight heads.
5. Coleoptera
The Coleoptera are not as important pollinators as the Diptera, Lepidoptera and
Hymenoptera. There are nine families of Coleoptera that are at times involved
in the pollination of flowers. Most species of Cantharidae, the leather-winged
beetles, that are predaceous as larvae occasionally pollinate.. Polleniferous
species are also predaceous as adults. The majority of Meloidae, or blister
beetles, occasionally are involved in pollination. The larvae of some species
are parasitic in bee nests; others are parasitic on grasshopper egg masses. All
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adult Meloidae feed on pollen or on both nectar and pollen. The larvae of some
species of Cleridae are flower inhabiting. They are mainly parasites in the nests
of wasps and bees. The adults are predaceous, but they also feed on pollen.
Most Melyridae are predaceous as larvae and both predaceous and
polleniferous as adults. One genus of Buprestidae, Acmaeodera) (flat-headed
borer) is polleniferous. The larvae bore into wood and the adults feed on
pollen. Many genera of Cerambycidae, or long-horned beetles and round-
headed borers, can be involved as pollinators. The larvae bore into wood but
the adults feed on pollen. Several genera of Scarabaeidae, or white grubs, visit
flowers. They are primarily root-feeders as larvae, but they also feed on pollen
as adults. Elateridae, or click beetles, are mostly root-feeders as larvae, but
adults will feed on nectar and pollen. In the Dermestidae, the genus Anthrenus
feed on decaying animal matter as larvae, but adults may also utilize pollen
(especially Anthrenus). There are also other small families of Coleoptera, such
as the Mordellidae, Oedemeridae, Lycidae and Rhipiphoridae, whose members
have been observed to act as pollinators. Some blister beetles will feed on
legume petals in order to expose the pollen and nectar. Some very tiny flower-
visiting beetles may crawl into the narrowest corollas or tightest keels.
Nevertheless, only a few groups of flowers are visited regularly by a variety of
beetles. Examples are flowers with abundant pollen, social flowers with
concealed nectar, flowers with exposed nectar and flowers with partially
concealed nectar.
6. Thysanoptera (Thrips)
A small order, Thysanoptera are tiny but individual species also are good
pollinators. Adults and larvae feed either mostly on honey and pollen or are
predators of other thrips in flowers.
The larvae of many genera of Diptera are destructive. Adults may pose a health
hazard and are thus unsuitable for purposeful deployment. Muscidae may be
useful in confinement for breeding work and small-scale increase of desirable
plant stocks. There are may good pollinators among the Syrphidae, however.
They could be increased rapidly and used as predaceous forms in insectaries.
Although species may resemble bees and wasps, they are non-biting. Semi-
aquatic species could be increased in field crops. The drone fly, e.g., is an
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efficient fruit pollinator and might be propagated in shallow tanks infused with
organic material.
Importance of Pollination to Agriculture

Insects in their pollination activities have a direct impact on the flora and fauna.
It is believed that angiosperm plants and the more highly evolved insects
evolved together. Primitive flowering plants are all insect pollinated.
Therefore, grasses and all other plants are dependent upon insects. Some
beetles, most Hymenoptera, many Diptera and almost all Lepidoptera are
dependent upon materials provided by flowers. Therefore insect pollination was
necessary to the development of angiosperms.
Major Threats to Pollinators
Insect pollinators are affected by the same environmental challenges as other
species, including habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; non-native
species and diseases; pollution, including pesticides; and climate change. Many
pollinators are adversely affected by broken up of habitat into smaller, isolated
patches by road construction, development, or agriculture. These habitat
fragments may not be large enough to meet all pollinator needs by themselves.
Pollinator’s habitat has been lost because of modern techniques of agriculture
and urban and suburban development. Habitat degradation, the decline in
habitat quality, is another serious concern. For example, the loose, friable soil
required by ground-nesting bees may be trampled by heavy foot traffic or the
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use of off-road vehicles. In cities, ground-nesting species may be particularly
limited due to the large amount of landscape that has been covered with
concrete or other impervious surface.
Plants or animals brought here from other places can decrease the quality of
pollinator habitat. When non-native shrubs such as autumn olive and multiflora
rose take over open fields, they crowd out the wildflowers needed by certain
butterfly and bee species for pollen, nectar, or larval food. For example,
Japanese barberry shades out native spring ephemerals like Dutchman’s
breeches, which provide food for early spring bumble bees. Introduced
parasites and diseases are still another threat to pollinators. Thus far, the effects
of these parasites have been species-specific, including the mite and virus
species that have severely compromised honey bee colonies.
Air pollution is a very real problem for bees and other pollinators that rely on
scent trails to find flowers. Light pollution can harm moth pollinators by
increasing their susceptibility to predation by bats or birds when they are
attracted to artificial lights at night. Excessive use or misuse of pesticide and
drift from aerial spraying are a major threat to insect pollinators, especially
spraying with so-called persistent chemicals that remain in the environment for
a long time before degrading. Systemic insecticides applied to seeds can
contaminate the pollen grains that are an essential source of food for bees and
their young. Pesticides often kill directly, but sub-lethal amounts can also be
detrimental to bees and other pollinators by impeding their ability to navigate or
forage.
10.7 Biocontrol agents of weeds
Weeds
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, or in other
words it is a plant at the wrong place. These are commonly grown plants that
are unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns,
and parks. The term also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces
aggressively, or is invasive outside its native habitat.
Weeds are estimated to cause more than $40 billion in annual global losses
through degraded agricultural and silvicultural productivity, reduced access to
land and water, impaired esthetics, and disruption of human activities and well-
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being. Manual removal, mechanical cultivation, cultural practices, or chemical
herbicides can control weeds. However, use of physical and chemical methods
of weed control alone is not feasible, desirable, or sufficient in every situation.
Biological control by insect agents
Biological control of weeds is broadly defined as the use of an agent, a complex
of agents, or biological processes to bring about weed suppression. All forms
of macrobial and microbial organisms are considered as biological control
agents. Examples of biological control agents include, but are not limited to:
arthropods (insects and mites), plant pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, and
nematodes), fish, birds, and other animals. Biologically based weed
management is a much broader category of approaches that may include gene
modification, genetic processes, and gene products. Human activities intended
to remove weeds directly or indirectly, such as hand-weeding and burning,
deliberate uses of plant competition, allelopathy, and cultural and soil
management practices that alter the biotic balance of soil are considered
important adjuncts to biological control in integrated weed management
systems.
If plants are introduced to a new region that does not have these natural
enemies, their populations may grow unchecked to the point where they
become so prevalent that they are regarded as weeds. It is critical that the
biological control agents introduced do not become pests themselves.
Considerable testing is done prior to the release of biological control agents to
ensure they will not pose a threat to non-target species such as native and
agricultural plants.
Although in the long term, biological control can be cost effective and can
reduce the need for less desirable management practices, not all weeds are
suitable for biological control. Developing a biological control project requires
a substantial investment, sometimes costing millions of dollars over many
years.
An early success in biological control of weeds in Australia was the use in the
1920s of the Cactoblastis Moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) to control Prickly Pear
(Opuntia stricta), which at the time was smothering large tracts of north-east
Australia, and spreading rapidly each year. The larvae of the Cactoblastis Moth
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eat the leaves and seed pods of the Prickly Pear. The release and spread of
Cactoblastis Moth in Australia virtually destroyed Prickly Pear populations.
There have been several other successful biological controlling insects are used
all over the world. Insects that attack leaves, fruits or stems have been released,
following stringent screening, to control weeds such as Skeleton Weed, Bridal
Creeper, and Salvinia. There is also major research being undertaken on
biological control for a number of other weed species.
Insects as biological control agent of weeds
There are some well-known examples of biological control insects that have
been successfully applied for many weeds. Some of them are as follows-
1. Agapeta zoegana
This moth attacks spotted and diffuse knapweed. Larvae feed within the roots is
root miner, robbing the plant of nutrients and energy reserves, resulting in
decreased plant biomass and density. Larval feeding can cause death in small
plants and in plants infested with multiple larvae. Agapeta zoegana should be
only be released at sites where knapweed infestations are large and immediate
eradication of the weed is not the primary objective. Moths can be used with
other knapweed insects. Any control methods that directly kill the plant will
reduce or eliminate biocontrol populations. A selective herbicide should be
used to avoid diminishing the effects of strong grass competition.
2. Agrilus hyperici
Agriluslarvae feed within the roots of Klamath weed, goatweed and may
completely consume the root. Most plants infested with these larvae die. A.
hyperici should only be released at sites where weed infestations are large and
immediate eradication of the weed is not the primary objective. These beetles
can be used with other insects and can be especially effective where goatweed
plants grow in the shade. Smaller populations of the weed can either be hand-
pulled or sprayed, provided that chemicals will not leach or runoff into water
resources.
3. Aphthona spps.
The adult and larval stage of this beetles attack leafy spurge. Adults feed on
leaves and flowers, and larvae feed on root hairs and young roots. Larvae cause
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the greatest impact by decreasing the availability of stored energy reserves.
Larval feeding damage may also make plants more susceptible to infection and
disease caused by soil-dwelling fungi. Some Aphthona spp. have been known
to feed on a few other plants in the genus Euphorbia, including the native Leafy
spurge is highly toxic, extremely difficult to control with herbicides, and nearly
impossible to control with physical, mechanical or other methods. Roots can
grow 3 to 7 m deep, and new plants can sprout from pieces of roots. Thus,
successful control of leafy spurge is usually a long-term process, and biological
control is an absolutely critical component of effective management. Aphthona
spp. should be released where large infestations of leafy spurge occur. Some
beetle species are susceptible to predation by ants and interference from
grasshoppers, so initial releases should be avoided in areas where those insects
are abundant. Sheep and goats can feed safely on leafy spurge, and grazing by
these animals can help slow spread of the weed. Do not however, allow cattle
to feed on leafy spurge. Ingestion of the plant by cattle can cause animal illness
or death.
4. Bangasternus fausti
This weevil attacks diffuse, spotted, and squarrose knapweed. Larvae inhibit
plant reproduction by feeding on seeds within flower heads. Up to 100% of the
seeds in a single flower head may be consumed and the viability of any seeds
not attacked is reduced. Several seed head agents have been released for control
of knapweed. Because B. fausti larvae attack any other insects occupying the
flower heads, beetles are best released at sites where other seed head agents are
not present. Releases should be made only at sites where knapweed infestations
are large and immediate eradication of the weed is not the primary objective.
5. Brachypterolus pulcarius
This beetle attacks both yellow and Dalmatian toadflax, although it appears to
have a far greater impact on yellow toadflax. Larvae feed on reproductive
structures within the flowers, including maturing seeds, and can reduce yellow
toadflax seed production by up to 90%. Adult feeding on young stems
decreases overall plant health by causing increased branching and stunted
growth. Because B. pulicarius is already found in most yellow toadflax
infestations, redistribution may be unnecessary. Agents should only be released
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at sites where toadflax infestations are large and immediate eradication of the
weed is not the primary objective.
6. Chrysolina spp.
The larvae and adults of two species of Chrysolina feed on the leaves of
Klamath weed, goatweed. C. quadrigemina, is known to feed on one
ornamental and one native St. Johnswort, but no broad-level impacts have yet
been reported on the native species.Chrysolina spp. have established at many
sites across several states, so redistribution may be unnecessary. Releases
should only be made at sites where goatweed infestations are large and
immediate eradication of the weed is not the primary objective. Smaller weed
populations and satellite plants can either be hand-pulled or sprayed.
7. Cystiphora schmidti
Its larvae feed on the leaf and stem tissues of rush skeleton weed, reducing the
nutrients available for plant growth and maintenance. Plant tissues are either
damaged or destroyed, causing yellowing, wilting, or death of those tissues.
Infested plants may have reduced biomass, flower production, and seed
viability.
8. Eustenopus villosus
This weevil attacks yellow starthistle and a few other non-native species of the
genus Centaurea. Both larvae and adults suppress the spread of new plants by
interfering with seed production. Adults feed on and destroy young seed heads;
larvae feed inside the flower heads and can reduce seed production by up to
100% in the infested heads.
9. Larinus curtus
This beetle attacks yellow starthistle. Larvae feed on developing seeds and can
reduce seed production by up to 100%.L. curtus should only be released where
other seed head beetles have not established. Releases should be made at sites
where yellow starthistle infestations are large and immediate eradication of the
weed is not the primary goal.
10. Sphenoptera jugoslavica
This beetle prefers diffuse knapweed, but will also attack spotted and squarrose
knapweed. Larvae bore into and tunnel within knapweed roots, reducing the
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availability of the plant’s energy reserves. Releases of S. jugoslavica should
only be made at sites where knapweed infestations are large and immediate
eradication of the weed is not the primary goal. Knapweed seed head insects
and/or other root feeders may already be present at a given site and S.
jugoslavica can be used in combination with all available agents.
11. Urophora sirunaseva
This fly attacks yellow star thistle. Larvae are associated with galls formed
within seed heads. Galls are abnormal tissue growth that displace seeds and
steal vital nutrients and energy away from normal plant growth and
reproduction Releases should be made at sites where yellow starthistle
infestations are large and immediate eradication of the weed is not the primary
goal.
10.8 Soil fertility improving agents
Insects are one of the better groups of invertebrates, in improving soil fertility.
The degree of association of insects with the soil is very varied, from living
permanently in the soil and completing their whole life-cycle there, to using soil
as a temporary refuge. Many insects play a fundamental role in forming soil
and maintaining its fertility by digging tunnels in the earth, they aerate and
loosen the soil, promoting plant growth. Without scavenger-decomposer
insects, the soil would be strewn with waste, corpses and faecal matter, leading
to the growth of potentially dangerous bacteria. Decomposers are masters of
recycling. Nutrients in excrement and dead plants and animals are made
available by them for plants and the entire ecosystem.
Many insects depend on soil for part of their life cycle, e.g., many beetles,
moths, and flies, and many of these are economically important pests because
of the feeding activities of their larvae. The representatives of most insect
orders - Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, weta, mole crickets), Blattodea
(cockroaches), Isoptera (termites), Dermaptera (earwigs), Hemiptera (bugs),
Homoptera (cicadas, aphids, mealybugs), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera
(mosquitoes, flies), Lepidoptera (moths, butterflies), Hymenoptera (ants, wasps,
bees) and a number of smaller orders (Psocoptera, Thysanoptera, Neuroptera)
are found in the soil, number of terrestrial stoneflies (order Plecoptera), which
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live in the damp litter. Some of the insects groups helpful in improving soil
fertility are as follows-
Order Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers, mole crickets)
Most Orthoptera are large and conspicuous insects and are familiar to everyone.
Many can jump, using their strong hind legs. Wings may be present or absent.
In most species of grasshopper, females can be easily recognized by their long
sabre-like ovipositor, which they use to deposit the eggs into the soil. Crickets
are medium-sized, brown or black insects with rounded heads and long
antennae. Males are known for their chirping songs. They live in low vegetation
and in dry plant detritus, often hiding in burrows or under rocks making soil
more fertile. Mole crickets live underground, building tunnels 10-20 cm below
the surface in moist soil, and are not encountered very often. The front legs are
very strong, broad, flattened, and modified for digging. Mole crickets feed on
plant roots and ground invertebrates. These crickets make the ground porous
and fertile by their dead and decay matter and decomposition of litter matter.
Order Blattodea (Cockroaches)
The appearance of cockroaches is familiar to everyone. Cockroaches live in
litter under debris, under rocks and stones, under bark of dead logs, in rotten
wood and in other similar environments. They are omnivorous, and may feed
on all sorts of organic materials. They can even eat dead wood, which they
digest with the help of symbiotic gut flora.
Order Isoptera (Termites)
Termites are soft-bodied, light-coloured social insects, which live in colonies in
dead wood - often in rotting tree stumps or in decaying logs and branches on
the ground. The colony is made of numerous workers and solders, usually feed
on dead wood, digesting cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms
in their gut.
Order Dermaptera (Earwigs )
Earwigs are elongate, slender, flattened insects with a dark body and prominent
forceps-like cerci at the end of the abdomen. Earwigs are nocturnal and
omnivorous, feeding on all sorts of dead plant and animal matter, as well as on
small invertebrates making the ground fertile.
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True bugs - Order Hemiptera
Hemiptera are also known as "true bugs". All true bugs have sucking
mouthparts shaped into a long piercing beak, and feed on fluids - plant sap,
body fluids of insects and other invertebrates, or even blood. Many true bugs
are found in soil and litter, some of these bugs feed on roots by sucking sap
increasing the fertility of soil.
Order Homoptera(Cicadas, aphids, mealybugs, scale insects)
Homoptera is a large and diverse group of insects closely related to true bugs.
Homoptera vary greatly in shape and size, but all have tube-shaped sucking
mouthparts and feed on plant sap. This group is well represented in soil and
litter, where they suck the sap from plant roots. Similar to true bugs, the
Homoptera plays an important role in making soil fertile.
The cicada nymphs live in the soil, often quite deep underground, sucking sap
from roots. The nymphs remain in the soil for many years before their
development is complete. For its last moult, the cicada nymph emerges from
the soil and climbs onto some vertical object above the ground, holding onto
the rough surface with its sharp claws. Moulting into an adult then occurs. The
light-brown empty skins of cicada nymphs, still attached to the trees and fences,
are a common sight in spring.
The mealy bugs get their name from the white waxy or powdery secretions that
cover their bodies. Mealy bugs live in colonies, and are sometimes encountered
in the soil and litter, where they feed on root sap.
Aphids are small, delicate soft-bodied insects with globular bodies and
piercing, sucking mouthparts. They usually live in colonies and are familiar
garden pests, feeding on the sap of many plants. Several species of aphids occur
in the soil, where they suck the sap from plant roots.
Order Coleoptera (Beetles)
The order Coleoptera, or beetles, is the largest of all the insect orders, and the
largest of all arthropod orders as well. The beetles vary greatly in shape and
size, but all can be recognized by their thick, hardened wing covers (elytra).
Chafer beetles and dung beetles adults feed on plant leaves, flowers, fruit, and
also on dung and dead animal matter (dung beetles are often found in pitfall
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traps). The larvae of chafer beetles can be often found in the soil, where they
feed mainly on plant roots. The larvae of the grass grub live in the soil and feed
on grass roots, causing serious damage to pastures.
The elongate click beetles can be recognised by their peculiar ability to "click":
if the click beetle is placed on its back, it will jump and turn itself right side up
by using a snapping junction between prothorax and mesothorax, with a
clicking sound. The adult click beetles are often found on dead logs. The larvae
of click beetles are shiny, hard-bodied "wireworms". The larvae live in soil and
in dead logs on the ground, where they feed on plant material or on other
insects.
Longhorn beetles are elongate, with narrow bodies and very long antennae. The
adult beetles are often found on flowers where they feed on nectar; in other
species adults do not feed at all. The larvae live in dead wood. These beetles are
not soil animals strictly speaking, but may be found there occasionally.
Tiger beetles are iridescent, very active beetles 1.5-2 cm in length, often found
on the bare ground in open sunny situations. These predatory beetles are active
surface hunters. The predatory larvae are ambush hunters, and wait for their
prey inside vertical burrows they construct in humid soil.
Ground beetles are the most common beetles found in soil litter. Many
Carabidae are omnivores (feed on both plant and animal material), scavengers,
and some are herbovores.
Weevils can be recognized by the shape of their head, which is drawn out to
form a long snout. The small mandibles sit at the tip of the snout. These robust
convex beetles are common in soil samples, and are often found on the ground.
Order Diptera( Flies, gnats, and daddy-long legs)
The Diptera are easy to recognise because they have only one pair of wings.
The second pair is modified into tiny drumstick-like organs called halteres,
which serve as flight stabilizers. The adult Diptera do not feed at all. The larvae
of many species are common in soil and litter, where they feed on decaying
organic matter, fungi, plant roots, or prey on other small animals.
The crane flies, or daddy-long legs (family Tipulidae) are typically large (there
are small craneflies as well) mosquito-like gnats with very long legs, which
they loose easily. The larvae of craneflies are large (1-2 cm), grey-brown
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maggots, which are common in damp soil litter and in dead wood. They feed on
decomposing plant material.
Order Lepidoptera (Moths and butterflies )
Adult moths and butterflies are the familiar flying insects, but their larvae
(caterpillars) and pupae are often found in soil or on the soil surface. The
caterpillars have characteristic long cylindrical body with a well-developed
head. In many families caterpillars feed on mosses, liverworts, plant roots, leaf
litter, and detritus. In some species caterpillars live in burrows in the soil, but
emerge at night to feed on plants aboveground.
Order Hymenoptera, Family Formicidae (Ants)
This is a common and widespread group, familiar to everyone. The colour of
ants ranges from yellow, to reddish-brown, to black. Ants often build their
colonies in soil, under rocks and decaying logs, and in dead wood. Ants may
feed on various invertebrates, plants, nectar and sap, honeydew, and fungi. This
all are helpful directly or indirectly in increasing richness.
10.9 Scavanger Insects
A scavenger is an animal that feeds on decaying organic matter and can be
either carnivorous or herbivorous. Scavengers play an important role in every
ecosystem, they consume the dead animal and plant material so that it does not
just rot and spread diseases. When the life of one organism ends, the work of
insect decomposers begins. These insects consume excrement or dead plants or
animals, and in the process help to recycle nutrients, returning materials to the
soil or atmosphere. Some insect decomposers are general omnivores that feed
on a variety of decaying organic matter like cockroaches, for example while
others feed on decaying and decomposing animals and plants or their by
products, such as dung or animal droppings. These scavengers are extremely
important to our environment, as their feeding causes the breakdown of
complex materials into simpler compounds and nutrients that are returned to the
soil and used by other plants - thus, insects are essential to the nutrient cycle.
They are important for keeping ecological balance in nature. The food web
would break down completely without scavengers.
The insect scavengers are involved in the processes of decomposition of
animals and plants remains belong to different orders eg. springtails
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(Collembola),wood-boring beetles (e.g., Scarabaeidae, Geotrupidae or
Silphidae), Diptera larvae (e.g., Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, Scatophagidae or
Calliphoridae),woodlice (Isopoda)and termites, etc. All these groups are
responsible for the fragmentation of plant or animal remains, contributing to the
destruction phase. They contribute both to the redistribution of the organic
remains and formation of soil elements. These insect decomposers are present
in nearly all terrestrial habitats, and generally in very high numbers. In some
cases, millions of individuals belonging to hundreds of species have been
identified in just one square meter. Especially in temperate areas, insects are the
major decomposers, playing a very important role in degradation of waste.
Recyclers of plant remains
Insects play an important role in degradation processes of plant remains. Insects
lacks the ability to develop enzymatic processes for degrading the fundamental
components of any plant: lignin and cellulose. Degradation of cellulose
requires the presence of the enzyme cellulase, which most insect lack. Many
insects have solved this problem by means of mutualistic relations with micro-
organisms, having bacteria or symbiotic protozoa in the intestinal tract.
The well-known insect decomposers of plant remains are termites (Isoptera)
and cockroaches (Blattodea). The termites possess symbiotic bacteria and
protozoa, and in their absence wood cannot be assimilated by these insects.
Another important group in the degradation of plant remains is woodlice
(Isopoda), which also possess symbiotic microorganisms in their intestine that
allows them to degrade cellulose. Included in this group are some species of
springtails such as Tomocerus (Collembola), Ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera:
Scolitydae), ants of the genera Atta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and termites
(Isoptera) that cultivate fungi.
Fruits are extensively exploited by some insects, such as flies (Drosophila) and
wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) to feed into the product resulting from the
fermentation. Micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and protozoa and plant are
very closely related and therefore, in most cases it is expected that the insects
consume both resources simultaneously. In some cases, the ingested biomass of
micro-organisms is more important nutritionally than the ingested plant
remains.
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Recyclers of excrement and corpses
The process of decomposition of carrion and dung, is also important, these
decaying matter causes attraction to insects, as they are very rich resources of
organic components and have very special microclimatic conditions. Dung and
carrion are rich sources of energy and a very specialized habitat that is
exploited specifically by entomological fauna. This fauna obtains food either
directly, such as in the case of the coprophages and carrion-eating insects.
Decomposers of corpses
Insect species attracted to corpses change according to the ecosystem and
environmental conditions. The importance of necrophagous insects is not only
the ingestion of carrion, but also in making the carrion available to
microorganisms. Many insects, principally fly larvae, secret enzymes directly
into the carrion, producing liquefaction of the tissues. Likewise, adult and
larval beetles, and fly larvae, make tunnels through the carrion, increasing
aeration and microbial activity. The dominant groups, both in number of
individuals and diversity, are dipterous and coleopterous species. Also, in
geographic areas where ants are abundant, the corpses are removed rapidly by
these insects, specially the corpses of invertebrates. The number of insects
living in carrion diminishes with depth of burial.
The insects colonizing corpses form a sequential succession of groups and
species that depends on the size of the carrion, and on the climatic and edaphic
conditions of the area where they live. Very few species are widespread
throughout the world, and each geographical area and ecosystem has its
specialist species feeding on carrion.
The colonization of a corpse is a sequence of insects arriving as successive
waves at the carrion. The form, nature and timing of the succession depend on
the geographic area, the surrounding non-biological environment, and the size
of the carrion. The first waves involve blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and
house flies (Diptera: Muscidae) arriving for a few hours to oviposit or drop live
larvae. Later, there is a second wave of sarcophagid flies (Diptera:
Sarcophagidae) that together with species of calliphorid and muscid flies,
deposit their eggs or live larvae on the corpse. The larvae of these flies are, in
turn, consumed by larvae and adults of predatory beetles living in corpses.
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Staphylinids (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae), histerids (Coleoptera: Histeridae) and
silphids (Coleoptera: Silphidae), all are predators of flies, though they also feed
on carrion. When the viscera decompose and the fat of the corpse turns rancid,
a third wave of insects starts, with some species of phorids (Diptera: Phoridae),
drosophilids (Diptera: Drosophilidae) and hover fliesof the subfamily
Eristalinae (Diptera: Syrphidae) arriving. The fourth wave consists of cheese
skipper species (Diptera: Piophilidae) and related families of flies. Finally, a
fifth wave occurs, the larvae and adults from some groups of beetles such as
dermestids (Coleoptera: Dermestidae), trogids (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea:
Trogidae) and clerids (Coleoptera: Cleridae) and tineid caterpillars
(Lepidoptera: Tineidae) that eat keratin and feed on the remaining hair and
feathers.
Diptera are among the most important decomposers, especially some of the
Calliphoridae (e.g., Lucilia, Calliphora, Chrysomyia, etc.), followedby some
Muscidae (e.g., Fannia), and Sarcophagidae (e.g., Sarcophaga).Though the
adults feed on the fluids of the corpse, the larvae are the true decomposer
organisms, secreting enzymes directly into the carrion and helping with the
liquefaction of the corpse tissues while assisting the increase of microbial
activity. These families of Diptera are more abundant from early summer to
mid-autumn in temperate regions, and also in the rainy season in tropical
areas.
Among Coleoptera, a principal group in many temperate ecosystems is
Silphidae (e.g., Nicrophorus, Silpha). It is a group specifically adapted to living
in carrion and its action is comparable to that of the Diptera.
Applications of Forensic entomology
Forensic entomology is an important instrument in criminal investigation;
however, we must take into account that each succession will consist of
different species in different geographical regions. Knowledge of the
succession of species taking place in a corpse following death has been used in
studies of forensic entomology. This rather consistent succession has been used
for medical legal analyses to estimate the time elapsed since death of an animal.
The study of insect species from a cadaver gives us information about the
location, time, and conditions to which the corpse was exposed before being
found. The generalized sequence of fly colonization is most frequently used.
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The first colonizing species are the bigger flies belonging to the blow fly family
(Calliphoridae) followed by sarcophagids (Sarcophagidae) and house flies
(Muscidae). The adults of the lesser-sized families such as Psychodidae,
Scatopsidae, Sciaridae, Phoridae, Sepsidae and Sphaeroceridae come to the
corpse in the last phase of decomposition, after the corpse has been abandoned
by the larvae of the first colonizing flies. Their larvae leave the corpse to pupate
away from the larval site, normally in the ground or substrate below carrion.
The development of larvae is temperature dependent, and knowledge of the
larval cycle and its relationships at different temperatures, can be used to
estimate of age a cadaver.
Decomposers of excrement
The excrement of vertebrates generally is a rich source of nutrients, and insects
play an important role in the rapid recycling processes of feces. However,
carnivorous excrement contains little material useable by insects because of
their efficient digestive process. In contrast, the digestive system of herbivores
is less efficient, and the dung produced is quite similar to the original leaf
material. More than half the food consumed by herbivorous animals is returned
to the ground in the form of unassimilated material, i.e., dung. Because it is
abundant in organic matter and moist, herbivore dung is an ideal medium for
establishment of a specific, rich entomofauna involved in the process of
decomposition and elimination of feces. Quantitatively, large herbivore dung
pats are the most important resource for dung beetles in most regions, and this
fauna is especially abundant in historic grazing areas.
Excrement is a very special habitat for coprophagous species, and the spatial
distribution of dung increases the tendency of these insects to concentrate in a
limited space. The process of colonization of excrement typically consists of
three waves of insects. The first wave of colonizers involves certain flies
arriving within hours to lay eggs or larviposit on the dung before a crust is
formed on the pat. The second wave is several families of beetles. Lastly, mites
become abundant.
The main groups of flies are Muscidae and Scatophagidae, followed by
Fanniidae and Calliphoridae. Most adults and larvae of flies are coprophagous,
but feeding also on the micro-organisms present in the dung. Others are
facultative or obligate predator species. Many species are attracted to any
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decaying matter, but others only feed and breed in dung. Throughout the world,
muscid coprophages such as Musca domestica, Musca vetustissima and
Haematobia irritans are pests of cattle. But somemuscids are facultative
predators (Muscina spp.) and obligate predatory larvae (Mydaeae spp.). The
best-known species of Scatophagidae is probably Scatophaga stercoraria, a
species frequently found visiting dung.
Among beetles that use dung resources, the dung beetles belonging to the
Scarabaeidae (Scarabaeinae, Geotrupinae and Aphodiinae) are the most
important and numerous. Not all scarab larvae are strictly coprophagous, and
some ingest soil organic matter or feed on roots of plants. However, many are
coprophages, and often exceedingly abundant. Thousands of individuals from
many species may be found colonizing single dung pats in temperate and
tropical grazing ecosystems. Most Aphodiinae are saprophagous and within the
Geotrupinae coprophagy is the rule for the Geotrupini. Only Scarabaeinae has
coprophagy as a characteristic of most of its species. In this case, most of the
nutrients eaten by the adults are derived from eating microbes or colloids
suspended in dung. The larvae feed on the dung supplied by their parents in a
nest chamber.
Various other groups of beetles visit dung but they are primarily predators.
Coleoptera of the families Hydrophilidae, Staphylinidae and Histeridae are
associated with carrion as predators of larvae of flies and dung-beetles.
However, the two former families also include coprophagous species. In the
temperate region, the hydrophilids Cercyon and Sphaeridium (Coleoptera
Hydrophilidae) are coprophagous, arriving within the early hours after
deposition of dung.
The behavior of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) is specialized and
diversified in response to exploitation of excrement by adults and larvae. The
Scarabaeidae consist of approximately 7,000 species (5,000 Scarabaeinae,
1,900 Aphodiinae and 150 Geotrupinae). Many species of Scarabaeinae and
Geotrupinae have developed special feeding and breeding strategies that allow
them to remove dung rapidly the soil surfaces by digging burrows below the
dung pad to store fragments of dung in tunnels. The also may form dung into
balls and roll them away from the pad for burial far from the food source. The
importance of these habits is the protection of food for adult or larvae, avoiding
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competitors, predators and unfavourable climatic conditions. Only Aphodiidae
do not make a nest. Aphodiidae eat directly into the dung and many species
deposit theirs eggs directly in dung pads without nest chamber or in the
surrounding soil. Geotrupinae and many tribes of Scarabaeinae are tunnelers.
These species dig a tunnel below the dung pat and accumulate dung in the
bottom of the burrow; this food can be used either for adult or for larval
feeding. Finally, some species of Scarabaeinae are rollers, making a ball of
dung that is rolled away from the pat for a variable distance before burying.
Other groups of dung beetles make nests containing several or many brood
masses such as those observed in some species of Dichotomini, Onitini,
Onthophagini and Oniticellini. The brood masses are constructed in series, in
the same tunnel or separated in individual side branches. In this type of nesting,
bisexual cooperation may exist, but the role of the male is restricted to
introducing food into the tunnel. These species have relatively high fecundity,
and there is no maternal care.
10.10 Use of Insects and Insect Products in Medicines
Insects have been used medicinally in cultures around the world, often
according to the Doctrine of Signatures. Thus, the femurs of grasshoppers,
which were said to resemble the human liver, were used to treat liver ailments
by the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The doctrine was applied in both
Traditional Chinese Medicine and in Ayurveda. The Chinese Black Mountain
Ant, Polyrhachis Vicina, is used as an anti-cancer agent. Ayurveda uses insects
such as Termite for conditions such as ulcers, rheumatic diseases, anaemia, and
pain. The Jatropha leaf miner's larvae are used boiled to induce lactation,
reduce fever, and soothe the gastrointestinal tract. The indigenous peoples of
Central America used a wide variety of insects medicinally. Mayans used Army
ant soldiers as living sutures. The venom of the Red harvester ant was used to
cure rheumatism, arthritis, and polimyelitis via the immunological reaction
produced by its sting. Boiled silkworm pupae were taken to treat apoplexy,
aphasy, bronchitis, pneumonia, convulsions, hemorrhages, and frequent
urination.
The rise of antibiotic resistant infections has sparked pharmaceutical research
for new resources, including into arthropods. Maggot therapy uses blowfly
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larvae to perform wound-cleaning debridement. They secrete allantoin, which is
used to treat the infectious bone disease, Osteomyelitis.
Modern Scientific Use of Insects in Medicine
Although insects were widely used from long time for medical treatment on
nearly every continent, relatively little medical entomological research has been
conducted since the revolutionary advent of antibiotics. Heavy reliance on
antibiotics, coupled with discomfort with insects in Western culture limited the
field of insect pharmacology until the rise of antibiotic resistant infections
sparked pharmaceutical research to explore new resources. Arthropods
represent a rich and largely unexplored source of new medicinal compounds.
Maggot Therapy
Maggot Therapy is most commonly used in medical field, this is done with the
help of the blow fly larvae. Firstly it was used by Military surgeons during
World War II. Military surgeons noticed that wounds which were left untreated
for several days and which became infested with maggots, healed better than
wounds not infested with the blow fly larvae. It was later discovered that the
larvae secreted a chemical called allantoin, which had a curative effect.
Allantoin is now being used to treat the infectious bone disease, Osteomyelitis.
Maggot Debridement therapy is the intentional introduction of live, disinfected
fly larvae into non-healing or dead skin and soft tissue wounds of a human or
other animal for the purpose of selectively cleaning out only the necrotic tissue
within a wound in order to promote wound healing. It is also used to prevent
infection and to speed the healing process.
Apitherapy
Apitherapy is the medical use of honeybee products such as honey, pollen, bee
bread, propolis, royal jelly and bee venom. One of the major peptides in bee
venom, called Melittin, has the potential to treat inflammation in sufferers of
Rheumatoid arthritis and Multiple sclerosis. Melittin blocks the expression of
inflammatory genes, thus reducing swelling and pain. It is administered by
direct insect sting, or intramuscular injections. Bee products demonstrate a wide
array of antimicrobial factors and in laboratory studies and have been shown to
kill antibiotic resistant bacteria, pancreatic cancer cells, and many other
infectious microbes.
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Honey bee products are used medicinally in apitherapy across Asia, Europe,
Africa, Australia, and the Americas. The most frequently use is honey. It can be
applied to skin to treat excessive scar tissue, rashes, and burns, and as an eye
dressing to treat infection. Honey is taken for digestive problems and as a
general health restorative. It is taken hot to treat head colds, cough, throat
infections, laryngitis, tuberculosis, and lung diseases. Apitoxin (honey bee
venom) is applied via direct stings to relieve arthritis, rheumatism, polyneuritis,
and asthma. Propolis, a resinous, waxy mixture collected by honeybees and
used as a hive insulator and sealant, is often consumed by menopausal women
because of its high hormone content, and it is said to have antibiotic,
anaesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Royal jelly is used to treat
anaemia, gastrointestinal ulcers, arteriosclerosis, hypo- and hypertension, and
inhibition of sexual libido. Finally Bee bread, or bee pollen, is eaten as a
generally health restorative, and is said to help treat both internal and external
infections. One of the major peptides in bee venom, Melittin, has the potential
to treat inflammation in sufferers of Rheumatoid arthritis and Multiple
sclerosis.
Blister Beetle (Lytta vesicatoria) or Spanish fly
It is an emerald-green beetle in the family Meloidae of order coleopteran.
Cantharidin is an odourless, colourless terpene secreted by many species of
blister beetles. Cantharidin, the blister-causing oil found in several families of
beetles, was accepted by the FDA in 2004 as treatment for warts and other skin
problems. Historically used by the Greeks and Romans and is used as an
aphrodisiac in some societies. Recent studies in cell culture and animal models
have demonstrated powerful tumor fighting properties of Cantharidin.
Commonly called as Spanish fly, is used in treatment for warts and other skin
problems. It was in Ancient Greece and Rome, and has been used as an
aphrodisiac in some societies. Recent studies in cell culture and animal models
have demonstrated its powerful tumour-fighting properties.
Blood-Feeding Insects
Many blood-feeding insects like horseflies, and mosquitoes inject multiple
bioactive compounds into their prey. These insects have been used by
practitioners of Eastern Medicine for hundreds of years to prevent blood clot
formation or thrombosis. Different components of the saliva of blood feeding
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insects are capable of increasing the ease of blood feeding by preventing
coagulation of platelets around the wound and provide protection against the
host’s immune response. The diverse range of compounds in the saliva of blood
feeding organisms, includes inhibitors of platelet aggregation, ADP,
arachidonic acid, thrombin, and PAF, anticoagulants, vasodilators,
vasoconstrictors, antihistamines, sodium channel blockers, complement
inhibitors, pore formers, inhibitors of angiogenesis, anaesthetics, AMPs and
microbial pattern recognition molecules, and parasite enhancers/activators.
Despite the strong potential of these compounds for use as anticoagulants or
immunomodulating drugs no modern medicines, developed from the saliva of
blood-sucking insects, are currently on the market.
Silkworm Supplements
Silkworm extracts are the traditional Asian equivalents of Tylenol, the universal
pain reliever and all-purpose remedy of first resort. Asian healers use silkworm
extracts to treat everything from turgidity to seizure disorders, and they often
mix silkworm extracts with ginseng, Ma Huang, and saw palmetto to promote
male potency. Emerging science suggests that silkworm extracts may have
special benefits as dietary supplements for patients with heart disease and
circulatory disorders, because preliminary studies indicate they reduce serum
cholesterol and dissolve vascular plaque. A few optimistic pharmacists
speculate that silkworm extracts may prove effective as the most popular anti-
cholesterol medications without harmful side effects for users’ livers and
kidneys.
Grasshoppers Potential
For more than 50 years, grasshoppers have numbered among bio-medical
researchers’ very best friends. By some strange, unaccountable evolutionary
quirk, grasshoppers’ central nervous systems very closely resemble humans’ so
that, before human trials, researchers test many psycho-active drugs on the
hoppy green creatures, looking for cardio-pulmonary and behavioural side
effects. Just as importantly, grasshoppers have ranked first on cytologists’ lists
because their relatively simple DNA and their processes of cell reproduction
show extremely well under classroom microscopes. Methods for isolating and
tracking grasshoppers’ meiosis have been sophisticated for use with cancer
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cells, and many scientists believe these processes will reveal how carcinogens
trigger human cell mutation.
Several African cultures use dressings made from ground grasshoppers as pain
relievers, especially for migraines. Neurologists hypothesize that grasshopper
toxins stimulate the human central nervous system and subsequently dilate
blood vessels increasing circulation. Used for blood vessel constriction triggers
migraines, grasshoppers’ therapeutic benefits seem perfectly logical.
Usefulness of insects in scientific investigations
(For this refer to Unit -11)
10.11 Insects as Food (Entomophagy)
Entomophagy is the human consumption of insects as food. The eggs, larvae,
pupae, and adults of certain insect species have been eaten by humans from
prehistoric times to the present day. Insects as food and feed emerge as an
especially relevant issue in the twenty-first century due to the rising cost of
animal protein, food and feed insecurity, environmental pressures, population
growth and increasing demand for protein among the middle classes. Thus,
alternative solutions to conventional livestock and feed sources urgently need to
be found. The consumption of insects therefore contributes positively to the
environment and to health and livelihoods.
Entomophagy is heavily influenced by cultural and religious practices, and
human insect-eating is common to cultures in most parts of the world, including
North, Central, and South America; and Africa, Asia, Australia, and New
Zealand. Over 1,000 species of insects are known to be eaten in 80% of the
world's nations. The total number of ethnic groups recorded to practice
entomophagy is around 3,000. Today insect eating is rare in the developed
world, but insects remain a popular food in many developing regions of Latin
America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. There are some companies that are trying
to introduce insects into Western diets. FAO has registered some 1900 edible
insect species and estimates there were in 2005 some 2 billion insect consumers
world-wide. They also suggest entomophagy should be considered as a solution
to environmental pollution. Entomophagy is a potential alternative protein
source to animal livestock, citing possible benefits including greater efficiency,
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lower resource use, increased food security, and environmental and economic
sustainability.
Insects are a highly nutritious and healthy food source with high fat, protein,
vitamin, fibre and mineral content. The nutritional value of edible insects is
highly variable because of the wide range of edible insect species. Even within
the same group of species, nutritional value may differ depending on the
metamorphic stage of the insect, the habitat in which it lives, and its diet. For
example, the composition of unsaturated omega-3 and six fatty acids in
mealworms is comparable with that in fish even higher than in cattle and pigs),
and the protein, vitamin and mineral content of mealworms is similar to that in
fish and meat.
Figure - Entomophagous Insects orders worldwide statistics
Globally, the most commonly consumed insects are beetles (Coleoptera) (31
percent), caterpillars (Lepidoptera) (18 percent) and bees, wasps and ants
(Hymenoptera) (15 percent). Following these are grasshoppers, locustsand
crickets (Orthoptera) (13 percent), cicadas, leafhoppers, plant hoppers, scale
insects and true bugs (Hemiptera) (11 percent), termites (Isoptera) (3 percent),
dragonflies (Odonata)(3 percent), flies (Diptera) (2 percent) and other orders (4
percent).
Some of the edible insects are as follows-
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1. Agave Weevils
Ii is also known as an Agave Worm, the Agave Snout Weevil
(Scyphophorus acupunctatus) is a type of beetle, but is often confused
with caterpillars of a butterfly (Aegiale hesperiaris) and a moth
(Hypopta agavis). All species feed on agave plants and are eaten fried
and are even sold canned in many places of the world.
2. Ants
Ants are eaten all over the world, from honeypot ants (Camponotus
inflatus) in Australia to green tree ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) in
China, India and Thailand, carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) in
Indonesia and the Philippines, and weaver ants (Oecophylla longinoda)
in the Congo. Leafcutter ants (Atta spp.) in Colombia and Brazil taste
like a bacon-pistachio fusion and the lemon ants (Myrmelachista
schumanni) of the Amazon are named after their citrus taste.
3. Aphids
Aphids (Aphididae) are more of a source of liquid than food since all
they really eat is plant sap, sucked up directly from the plant’s phloem
with their syphons. They leave behind a sugary honeydew which is
exploited by people in Mexico and the Middle East, clearly taking after
ants, some of which are famous for herding and protecting their
collections of aphids. Aphid honeydew can taste either bitter or sweet
depending on the plants on which they feed.
4. Bagworms
Bagworms are pretty strange creatures. They are actually caterpillars of
the bagworm moth (Psychidaegen.) and they build protective casings
around themselves from twigs and leaves. Their larvae are eaten in
Mexico and Equatorial Africa, and their pupae, called fangalabola in
Madagascar, are eaten as a delicious food.
5. Bamboo Worms
Bamboo worms, or bamboo borers, are grass moth larvae (Omphisa
fuscidentalis) that feed on bamboo pulp in Thailand, Myanmar, Laos
and parts of China. It’s called rot duan, or express train, in Thai due to
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its shape and can be found at almost every street food vendor in the
country. It’s sometimes confused with larvae of the wood-boring beetle
(Dinoderus minutus), another bamboo pest, but these are not as popular
as food.
6. Bees
Honey bee drones (Apis spp.) are eaten in China and are also used as
traditional medicine, but by far the most popular way to eat them
throughout the world is in their larval form. Bee larvae, either from
honey bees, bumblebees (Bombus spp.), carpenter bees (Xylocopaspp.)
or stingless bees (Trigona spp.), are eaten in many countries throughout
Asia, central and southern Africa, South America, and the West Indies.
7. Cactus Weevils
Eaten as both larvae and adults in Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela,
cactus weevils (Metamasius spp.) are from the same family as agave
weevils and feed on cacti throughout their life cycle.
8. Christmas Beetles
Commonly eaten by the Aboriginal people of Australia, Christmas
beetle (Anoplognathus viridiaeneus) larvae.
9. Cicadas
One of the few insects eaten in the US, cicadas (Magicicada spp.) are
said to be most tender and tasty just after they molt. They are pretty
nutty so folks from Nashville have them as sweet treats cooked with
buttermilk. They are also eaten in China, Japan, Thailand, Malaysia,
Mexico and India.
10. Cochineals
Cochineals are scale bugs from the Superfamily Coccoidea that suck the
sap from prickly pear cacti. Although variants are eaten in China and the
Canary Islands, Cochineals are more famous for being the source of red
carmine dye. This dye has supposedly been used in the Americas since
the 10th century and used in a lots of foods products, from jams and
cakes to sausages and marinades.
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11. Cockroaches
These may be the epitome of filth as far as the Western mind is
concerned, but when they are fed only on salad and fruit, they can
actually taste pretty good and are quite healthy. They are consumed by
Australian, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Malay, Mexican or Brazilian
entomophagists.
12. Crickets
Crickets are eaten throughout the world in too many countries. They are
probably the most commonly used edible insect. They can be fried,
boiled, and when roasted, taste like roast nuts.
13. Diving Beetles
Diving beetles (Dytiscidae) are eaten throughout East and Southeast
Asia. In China, they are thought to have an anti-diuretic effect and are
eaten not out of nutritional necessity.
14. Dragonflies & Damselflies
Dragonflies and their close relatives, damselflies, make up the Order
Odonata and are eaten throughout the world, from Central Africa and
South America to Asia and Papua New Guinea. They are eaten either in
adult or larval form.
15. Emperor Moths
Emperor moth caterpillars (Saturniidae) are actually quite a common
edible insect in food throughout the African continent. They have a
number of genera and can be found in most African markets. They are
also eaten in Mexico.
16. Flies
Rich in fatty acids to the same extent as in some fish oils, pupae of the
common house fly (Musca spp.) are said to taste like black pudding.
Another fly of interest is the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Fly
larvae is used as processed organic food waste for livestock feed, insect
oils and fertilisers.
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17. Giant Water Bugs
Giant Water Bugs are eaten in Mexico, Venezuela, China, Japan,
Congo, Thailand, are probably most famous with tourists there as they
are among the most fearsome looking of street food options. Some say
they are like clam-flavoured potatoes and others like a salty, fruity
taste. Thai locals like them best pregnant and full of creamy eggs.
18. Grasshoppers
Like crickets, grasshoppers are eaten almost everywhere on the map.
Not all grasshoppers are edible since there are thousands of species, but
perhaps the most thoroughly exploited are Sphenarium spp. They are
most often toasted on a clay stove with lime, garlic, salt and agave worm
extract to add in more complex flavours.
19. Hornets
Essentially wasps on steroids, hornets are from the same family
(Vespidae) as their smaller counterparts. They are eaten in either larval
or pupal form in China, Japan, and across Southeast Asia.
20. Hornworms
Hornworms are the larvae of hummingbird moths and are a prominent
pest species for the commercial plants they eat. The tobacco hornworm
(Manduca sexta) is found throughout North America, is eaten due to its
ability to bioaccumulate and secrete nicotine in body.
21. Jewel Beetles
The Buprestidae family, or the jewel beetles, are a massive group of
around 15,000 species. Their larvae bore through wood, and some even
through living trees, making them a serious pest problem. They are
eaten throughout Africa, Southeast Asia and China, either as larvae or as
adult beetles.
22. June Beetles
June beetles (Phyllophaga spp.) were traditionally roasted over coals by
Native Americans, either as adults or larvae, and are said to taste like
buttery walnuts.
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23. Katydids
Katydids are better known as bush crickets (Tettigoniidae), but are
actually closer relatives of grasshoppers than crickets. Much like these
other hopping relatives of theirs, they are eaten pretty much everywhere
they’re found throughout Africa, South America, East and Southeast
Asia, India and Papua New Guinea. They taste like somewhere between
chicken, shrimp and croutons.
24. Locusts
This insect is eaten almost everywhere on our map, locusts, along with
grasshoppers, crickets and katydids. They are said to taste somewhere
between shrimp and sunflower seeds, and are especially delicious when
fed on sesame leaves.
25. Longhorn Beetles
A large family of beetles with over 20,000 species, longhorn beetles
(Cerambycidae) are named after their antennae, which are sometimes
longer than their bodies. One of the most popular edible insect families,
longhorns are eaten in almost as many of the same countries that
katydids are.
26. Mayflies
Much like dragonflies and damselflies, adult mayflies have short
lifespans, even shorter in fact than the former two groups; the Order
Ephemeroptera to which they belong is from the Greek for short-lived.
Collected during their day-long swarms as mating adults, they are eaten
in Kenya, Malawi, China and Japan.
27. Mealworms
Mealworms are probably one of the first edible insects people ever try,
mainly because they are super easy to raise, they have a great nutrition
profile, and they taste really good. They’re not actually worms at all, but
are larvae of the darkling beetle (Tenebrio spp.), a small, black, non-
biting, flightless beetle about a centimetre long that doesn’t mind
crowded spaces and loves the dark perfect for farming.
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28. Midges & Mosquitos
Both from the fly Order Diptera, midges (Chaoboridae) and mosquitos
(Culicidae) are the insects most people would probably describe as the
biggest nuisance. East Africans harvest midges by the net-full as they
swarm over their many lakes, and Mexicans serve up mosquito eggs in
tortillas with lime.
29. Mopane Worms
It is a caterpillar of a particular species of emperor moth
(Gonimbrasia belina). They have huge popularity throughout Southern
Africa.
30. Palm Weevils
Packed with nutrition and essential fats, palm weevil larvae
(Rhynchophorusspp.) are a staple insect throughout the world. They are
eaten in China, Central and Western Africa, Southeast Asia, South
America and Papua New Guinea.
31. Rhinoceros Beetles
The larvae of this beetle are more palatable than the hard exoskeletons
of the adults so this is what’s most commonly eaten. Widespread
throughout the world and extremely nutritious, they are being touted as a
significant protein source for impoverished regions in the future.
32. Silkworms
Silkworms come from a range of families, but are all from the butterfly
and moth Order Lepidoptera. Most commonly eaten in pupal form, they
are a by-product of the silk industry and can be found in street markets
in any silk-producing country. In South Korea, China and Japan,
the Bombyx mori species is eaten and tastes a bit bland, much like tofu,
but many people eat them marinated in chili and garlic sauce.
33. Stag Beetles
Stag beetles (Lucanidae) get their name from mandibles that the males
use for fighting other males around mating time. They are the largest
terrestrial insect in Europe. They are, however, common food in
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Mexico, Ecuador, India, Malaysia, Japan, Papua New Guinea and
Madagascar.
34. Stick Insects
The members of the Phasmatodea family are true bugs. They are not a
popular edible insect and they are only eaten to a significant extent in
Malaysia and Papua New Guinea, probably because they are said to
taste a bit like tree.
35. Stink Bugs
Stink bugs are a large group of insects and are eaten throughout
Southeast Asia, India, South America and Southern Africa. Their
flavour varies from bitter to slightly sweet and tangy, and they are often
eaten raw.
36. Termites
Termites are rich in protein and full of essential amino acids.They are
eaten throughout the African continent and Southeast Asia. They are
harvested straight from the ground or collected when they get their
wings and swarm to find mates. Their taste depends on the species some
are nutty and others taste of mint.
37. Wasps
Wasps are most commonly eaten in China, Thailand, Myanmar,
Indonesia, Australia and the Congo, more often than not in their larval
form. They are said to taste earthy and buttery, they are cooked with
sugar and soya sauce, served with boiled rice.
38. Water Boatmen
These look like beetles, but are true bugs, eaten mostly in Mexico.
Water boatmen (Corixidae), as their name suggests, are aquatic insects
that live in ponds and slow streams. Most are vegetarian, which is quite
unusual for aquatic bugs.
39. Water Scorpions
Water scorpions (Nepidae) are not the true scorpions but are true bugs.
They are ferocious ambush predators that will eat anything from insect
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larvae to tadpoles. They are common food eaten in Laos, Thailand,
Indonesia, Japan, Madagascar and the Congo.
40. Waxworms
Waxworms (Pyralidae) are caterpillars of the wax moth, sometimes
called bee moths because they live in beehives and eat pretty much
everything in there, other than the adult bees. They’re the common food
in China, Japan, Mexico and Brazil.
Disadvantages
Spoilage
Spore forming bacteria are a potential spoilage and safety risk for both raw and
cooked insect protein. During processing of edible insects, they must be
processed with care, simple methods are available to prevent spoilage. Boiling
before refrigeration is recommended, with drying, acidification, or use in
fermented foods also seeming promising.
Toxicity
In general, many insects are herbivorous and less problematic than omnivores.
Cooking is advisable before consumption since parasites of concern may be
present. Pesticides use can make insects unsuitable for human consumption.
Herbicides can accumulate in insects through bioaccumulation. The moths of
the Zygaenidae family are known to produce hydrogen cyanide precursors in
both larvae and adults. Cases of lead poisoning after consumption and adverse
allergic reactions are also a possible hazard
10.12 Summary
Lac is Nature’s gift to mankind and the only known commercial resin of
animal origin. It is the hardened resin secreted by tiny lac insects belonging to
a bug family. The lac insects yields resin, lac dye and lac wax. Lac resin, dye
etc. still find extensive use in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine. Lac
culture is a source of livelihood of tribal and poor inhabiting forest and sub-
forest areas. With increasing universal environment awareness, the importance
of lac has assumed special relevance in the present age, being an eco-friendly,
biodegradable and self-sustaining natural material. Since lac insects are
cultured on host trees which are growing primarily in wasteland areas,
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promotion of lac and its culture can help in eco-system development as well as
reasonably high economic returns.
Apiculture is the rearing of the honeybees. Bees and beekeepers are found
throughout the world. Honey industry involves honeybee, flowering plants
that provide food to the bees and to the beekeepers who manipulate bees
according to the climate and vegetation for their own benefit. Beekeeping
creates employment, income and a measure of economic security and well-
being. Bees have been reared by man originally for harvesting honey. Today,
apiculture industry is not restricted to honey alone. It also involves production
and harvest of all hive products, like beeswax, bee collected pollen, royal
jelly, bee venom and propolis. Honeybees are also involved in pollination to
increase the yield of agricultural and horticultural crops.
Silk is Nature’s gift to mankind and has been under use by human beings for
various purposes since ancient times. Silk is one of the finest and most beautiful
natural fibres of the world. Being an eco-friendly, biodegradable and self-
sustaining material; silk has assumed special relevance in present age.
Promotion of sericulture can help in ecosystem development as well as high
economic returns. Different rearing techniques are applied in different parts of
the world for large scale production of silk threads of fine quality. This is
known as sericulture.
A pollinator is the biotic agent that moves pollen from the male anthers of a
flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish fertilization or 'syngamy'
of the female gametes in the ovule of the flower by the male gametes from the
pollen grain. Animals that assist plants in their reproduction as pollinators
include many insect species like honey bees, solitary species, bumblebees,
pollen wasps, ants, a variety of flies including bee flies and hoverflies;
lepidopterans, both butterflies and moths; and flower beetles as well as other
animals like bats, monkeys, lemurs, possums, rodents, reptiles like lizards and
snakes, birds like hummingbirds, honeyeaters, sunbirds etc. with long beaks
pollinate various plants. Wind and water also play a role in the pollination of
many plants.
Insects are one of the better groups of invertebrates, in improving soil fertility.
The degree of association of insects with the soil is very varied, from living
permanently in the soil and completing their whole life-cycle there, to using soil
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as a temporary refuge. Many insects play a fundamental role in forming soil
and maintaining its fertility by digging tunnels in the earth, they aerate and
loosen the soil, promoting plant growth. Without scavenger-decomposer
insects, the soil would be strewn with waste, corpses and faecal matter, leading
to the growth of potentially dangerous bacteria. Decomposers are masters of
recycling.
Forensic entomology is an important instrument in criminal investigation;
however, we must take into account that each succession will consist of
different species in different geographical regions. Knowledge of the
succession of species taking place in a corpse following death has been used in
studies of forensic entomology. This rather consistent succession has been used
for medical legal analyses to estimate the time elapsed since death of an animal.
The insect scavengers are involved in the processes of decomposition of
animals and plants remains belong to different orders examples- Springtails,
wood-boring beetles, Diptera larvae, woodlice and termites, etc.
Insects have been used medicinally in cultures around the world. Insects were
widely used from long time for medical treatment on nearly every continent,
relatively little medical entomological research has been conducted. The
Chinese Black Mountain Ant, Polyrhachis Vicina, is used as an anti-cancer
agent. Ayurveda uses insects such as Termite for conditions such as ulcers,
rheumatic diseases, anaemia, and pain. The Jatropha leaf miner's larvae are
used boiled to induce lactation, reduce fever, and soothe the gastrointestinal
tract.
Entomophagy is the human consumption of insects as food. The eggs, larvae,
pupae, and adults of certain insect species have been eaten by humans from
prehistoric times to the present day. Insects as food and feed emerge as an
especially relevant issue in the twenty-first century due to the rising cost of
animal protein, food and feed insecurity, environmental pressures, population
growth and increasing demand for protein among the middle classes. Thus,
alternative solutions to conventional livestock and feed sources urgently need to
be found. The consumption of insects therefore contributes positively to the
environment and to health and livelihoods.
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1. Describe some beneficial insects.
2. Describe the Biology, host trees of Lac Insect.
3. What do you mean by enemies of lac insect?
4. Explain the Lac culture management in details.
5. Describe the different Apis species found in India.
6. Write an essay on Social organization of bees.
7. Write a short note on different fields of forensic entomology.
8. Describe the different steps of beekeeping.
9. Explain the different bee enemies with their control methods.
10. Discuss the economic importance of apiculture.
11. Write an essay on Sericulture and its management.
12. Explain the lifecycle of Bombyx mori.
13. Compare the different characteristic features of Muga, Eri and Tassar
Silkworms.
14. Write a short note on role of sericulture in Indian Economy.
15. Write a short note on the different enemies and diseases of silkworms.
16. Briefly describe the different characteristic features of Megachile spp.
17. What do you mean by Bee pasturage?
18. Describe the structure of artificial bee hive with a well labelled diagram.
19. Describe the importance of pollinator insects.
20. Write an essay on medicinal importance of insects.
21. What do you mean by entomophagy? Describe in details with examples
10.14 References
 Economic Zoology by Dr. G. S. Shukla ,Dr. V. B. Upadhyay
 Text Book of Applied Zoology: Vermiculture, Apiculture, Sericulture,
Lac Culture, Agricultural Pests and their Controls by Pradip V Jabde
 Applied Zoology I by Prof. Preran Johari
 Elements of Economic Entomology by B. Vasanthraj David and V.V.
Ramamurthy
 A Monograph on LAC – B. Mukhopadhyay and M.S. Muthana
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 Lac Cultivation – Shellac export promotion Council, Kolkatta
 Story of Shellac – Shallac Export Promotion Council, Kolkatta
 Industrial use of Lac – RN Banerjee Secretary, SEPC, Kolkatta
 Krishnawami, S., Narasimhanna, M. N., Suryanarayan, S. K. and
Kumavaraj, S. 1979a.Sericulture Manual -2 Silkworm rearing. FAO
Agriculture Services Bulletin Vol.2: 54-88
 nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/213/1/APICULTURE.pd
f
 nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/.../sericulture%20-%20Formatted.pdf
 nsdl.niscair.res.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/.../LAC%20CULTURE.p
df
 https://en.wikipedia.org
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Unit – 11
Pests of Forestry and Forensic
Entomology
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.2.1 Pests of Forestry
11.3 Forensic Entomology
11.4.1 Introduction
11.4.2 History of Forensic Entomology
11.4.3 Fields of Forensic Entomology
11.4.4 Insects of Forensic Importance
11.4.5 Entomological Evidence Collection during Death Investigations
11.4.6 Entomological Collection Equipments
11.4.7 Collection and Preservation of Insects
11.4.8 Forensic Entomological Decomposition
11.4.9 Preliminary Idea about Post Mortem Interval (PMI)
11.4.10 Some Forensic Important Insects – Flies and Beetles
11.5 Summary
11.7 References
11.1 Objectives
By the end of the chapter, the student would acquaint himself with-Pests Of
Forestry- Bionomics, main host plants,Insect Biology,Life Cycle,Nature Of
Damage, Control of Sinoxylon, Dinoderus, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis.
The history, fields and applications of forensic entomology, methods employed
in the estimation of Post-Mortem Interval (PMI), the biology, identification,
collection and preservation of insects that are of use in this branch of science.
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11.2 Introduction
11.2.1 Pests of Forestry
Forests and biodiversity is key to all life forms. The richer the diversity of life,
the greater the opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development and
adaptive responses to such new challenges as climate change. India is quite rich
in forest wealth. About one-fifth of its land is under forests. India’s forests
cover about 23% of total geographical area of the country. Our forests are
mostly in the hilly area or over the plateau.
Forests play a vital role in the economy of the country. Forests are precious &
valuable ecosystems that provide a variety of useful products, such as timber,
fuelwood, fibre and non-wood forest products, and contribute to the livelihoods
of rural communities. They also provide vital ecosystem services, such as
combating desertification, protecting watersheds, maintaining biodiversity, and
enhancing carbon sequestration, and play an important role in preserving social
and cultural values. It is critically important to protect these valuable resources
from disturbances such as fire, pollution, invasive species, insects and diseases.
Insects plays an essential ecological role in forests by consuming trees and
other plant material, forest insects and micro-organisms contribute to healthy
change and regeneration in forest ecosystems. They help renew forests by
removing old or otherwise susceptible trees by recycling nutrients and
providing new habitat and food for wildlife. However, there are not always
ecological benefits of forest insects but when there are severe infestations they
destroy or damage large areas of commercially valuable forest, or infest forest
products bound for export, then insects and diseases whether native or exotic
insect species becomes “pests.”
Insect pests, diseases and other biotic agents have significant impacts on forests
and the forest sector. They can badly affect tree growth, vigour and survival,
the yield and quality of wood and non-wood products, wildlife habitat,
recreation, aesthetics and cultural values. Damage caused by forest pests can
directly and indirectly reduce wildlife habitat thereby reducing local
biodiversity and species richness.
There is need for forests management so that the risks and impacts of unwanted
disturbances are minimized. Under sustainable forest management, various
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measures are applied to protect forests from insect pests and diseases. Effective
pest management requires reliable information on the pests themselves, their
biology, ecology, and distribution, their impacts on forest ecosystems and
possible methods of control.
Pests of Forestry
Sinoxylon (Auger Beetles, Powder Post Beetle)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Bostrichoidea
Subfamily: Bostrichinae
Tribe: Sinoxylini
Genus: Sinoxylon Duftschmid, 1825
Distribution
Auger beetles, also known as false powderpost beetles, are serious pests of
trees, forest products, agricultural crops, and stored vegetable products in most
regions of the world. There are approximately 570 species in 89 genera
worldwide, including approximately 73 native species found in North America.
Most woodboring bostrichids obtain nutrition from starch, enabling many
species to utilize almost any dry wood material from an enormous host range.
The frequency of non-native bostrichid interceptions at ports of entry and
storage facilities around the world has increased during the last few years.
Bostrichids, along with many other woodboring insects, are often accidentally
introduced inside solid wood packing material in containerized cargo. The
bostrichid genus Sinoxylon Duftschmid contains 52 species, all of which are
native to Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe and are typically not considered
primary pests. Widely distributed in the Oriental Region and introduced in
India from Australia and New Zealand.
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Sinoxylon damage is typically caused by the boring of adults and larvae in the
stems, branches, or twigs of dead, damaged, or stressed hosts. One species has
even been known to damage lead cables.
Main Host Plants
Sinoxylon species utilize a wide variety of hosts, including numerous trees,
shrubs, herbaceous plants, and bamboos. Some of the host plants of Sinoxylon
are Acacia arabica, Acacia catechu, Acacia gageana, Acacia modesta,
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia amara, Albizzia lebbek,
Albizzia odoratissima, Albizzia procera, Albizzia stipulate, Anogeissus
acuminate, A. latifolia, Bamboo species, Buted frondosa, Caesalpinia sepiaria,
Calycopteris floribunda, Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea, Castanea vesca,
Castanopsis argyrophylla, Casuarian equisetifolia, Cedrela toona, Combretum
ovalifolium, Cordia myxa, Dalbergia latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo,
Dendrocalamus strictus; Derris elliptica, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus,
Eucalyplus citriodora, Eugenia jambolana, Ficus glomerata, Ficus religiosa,
Flugged microcarpa, Gmelina arborea, Grevillea robusta, Grewia tiliaefolia,
Indigofera tinctoria, Lagerstroemia, lanceolata, Lannea grandis, Mallotus
philipinensis, Mallotus roxburghianus, Mangifera indica, Melia azedarach,
Millettia brandisiana, Morus indica, Ougeinia dalbergioides, Parashorea
stellata, Pongamia glabra, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis spicigera, Pterocarpus
indicus, Pterocarpus marsupium, Quercus sp., Shorea robusta, Sterculia
ornata, Tectona grandis, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia belerica, Terminalia
bialata, Terminalia tomentosa, Xylia dolabriformis, Zizyphus jujuba, Zizyphus
rugosa, Zizyphus xylopyra etc.
Insect Biology
The genus Sinoxylon is characterised by wide and very short mandibles, ends
truncate and not capable of crossing each other, body length is approximately
3.5-8.5mm, Elytral apical declivity with a pair of juxtasutural processes situated
on, next to or away from the suture, second antennal club segment strongly
transverse and third antennal club segment always strongly transverse. There
are approx 52 known valid species in this genus.
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Sinoxylon anale
 Body length 3.5-6mm
 Marginal groove of each elytron either stopped near the outer turning
point or sometimes joining the posterior margin of the apical declivity.
 Elytrons bases are with a sharp ridge between the shoulders and
scutellum
 Sutural margins on apical declivity crenelate laterally below the
juxtasutural processes
 Pronotum front armed with a transverse row of four teeth.
Life Cycle
The life-cycle varies with different Sinoxylon species. Life cycle can be
minimum for about 3 months and the maximum over 4 years.
Sinoxylon anale
S. anale emerges as adult beetle throughout the year, and there is no regular
sequence of generations and no regular correlation between the length of the
life-cycle and the season of the year.
The adults bore tunnels into the sapwood and eggs are laid inside. A generation
of S. anale may start with oviposition on any date in the year (except in cold)
and the life-cycle of individuals hatching from eggs of the same date may be
completed in as little as two and half months or may require over a year. On
hatching, larvae excavate sapwood by making more or less straight, often
intersecting lines, which are circular in section and tightly packed with fine
wood dust. The larvae are white, curved with short legs and measuring upto
6mm. The larvae bore circular galleries in the sap-wood, the galleries being
packed with fine wood-dust. Larvae pupate in a cell at the extreme end of the
larval tunnel and beetles bore out directly to the surface. The life cycle get
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completed in 3-4 months. The population is more in August to October months.
Life cycle varies between wide limits, minimum and maximum being about 3
months and over four years respectively. The beetles are on wing from March
to October.
Figure – Generalized life-cycle of Sinoxylon

Nature of Damage
Sinoxylon anale specie is the commonest bostrychid in India and is found as
frequently within the forest as in timber depots, sawmills and factories.
Sinoxylon species are known to tunnel into freshly or recently felled wood or
sickly or dying standing green trees, and rarely dry timber. Attacked trees and
wood can be identified by the presence of circular shot holes measuring 2.5-3.0
mm, with wood powder at or near their entrances. Small white grubs or pupae
can be found in the sapwood behind the bark. Severely affected logs look
completely riddled and a network of tunnels can be seen in the interior.
Sometimes complete death of a tree can happen due to attack. It is primarily a
borer of the sapwood of logs particularly of Leguminosae but its range of food-
plants is wide and varied. In timbers with well-defined line of separation
between sapwood and heartwood the larval galleries do not penetrate the true
heart; the sapwood may be entirely reduced to dust. It is recorded as injurious to
the sapwood of timbers used in building construction and in boxes and packing
cases of planks but not of plywood.
The adult beetles sometimes bore into green shoots and twigs for the purpose of
feeding or hibernation making axial tunnel as a result the leaders of seedlings or
young saplings may be girdled or killed. Beetles bore into the stems of sickly or
dying poles with more or less success. Horizontal tunnels are made just within
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the circumference of the cambium layer and these fill with a black gum that
exudes from the entrance-hole and runs down the bark.
The gallery-system of S. anale in a log starts with a short entrance tunnel bored
radially through the bark in to the inner sapwood, and then turns and runs in the
same plane in a curve parallel to the outer sapwood circumstance. It is used as
an oviposition tunnel and is cleaned of all the wood-dust produced by the parent
beetles during its excavation ; both male and female occupy it while the eggs
are laid from time to time in niches in the walls and they remain long hatching
is complete, guarding the tunnel against entry of predators and parasites. The
larvae bore ever-widening larval galleries which run upwards and downwards
in the sapwood for several inches, more or less straight but sometimes they are
circular in cross-section and tightly packed with fine wood-dust. Pupation takes
place at the extreme end of the larval tunnel in a cell and the beetle bores out by
a direct route to the surface.
Control
Cultural Control
Field sanitation measures such as immediate removal of fresh cut wood from
forests and plantations, and removal and burning of infested standing trees can
minimize borer attack. Primary or epidemic attacks on relatively healthy trees
may develop in the vicinity of an unhealthy crop if local infestation is allowed
to continue unchecked. Standing sick trees may also be used as traps for egg
laying and later can be destroyed.
Physical Control
Seasoning to practically air dryness is a very effective way of minimizing or
preventing borer incidence. Rapid drying to reduce the exposure time during
seasoning by barking, storage in the sun in open rows and kiln seasoning will
considerably reduce borer attack. Water seasoning or ponding in which there is
submersion of woods in water for up to 10 days is also helpful. Immersion in
water for 6-12 months can give protection for 6-32 months and subsequent
infestation is also not severe. Logs which are already infested can be sterilized
by immersion in cold or hot water.
Chemical Control
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The synthetic pyrethroids Sherpa [cypermethrin] and Ripcord [cypermethrin] at
0.1, 0.2 and 0.5%, and Cyperkill [cypermethrin], Sunmerin and Bulldock [beta-
cyfluthrin] at 0.5% proved the most effective against powder post beetles
(Sinoxylon anale and S. crassum) attacking stacks of fuelwood. A single spray
of Sherpa afforded 88, 92 and 95% protection at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.5%
concentrations, while Ripcord protected 82, 90 and 95% billets at the same
concentrations for the same period. Cyperkill, Sunmerin and Bulldock at 0.5%
concentration gave 82, 95 and 91% protection of billets, respectively. Some
41% of billets remained safe from beetle infestation in the control.
Dinoderus (Bamboo Post-Powder Beetle)

Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Superfamily: Bostrichoidea
Genus: Dinoderus minutus (Fabricius, 1775)
Distribution
Dinoderus minutus, the bamboo borer or bamboo powderpost beetle, belongs to
Bostrichidae family of Coleoptera. Dinoderinae, an important subfamily
including many post-harvest insects, consists of 16 species in four genera. D.
minutus was first named by Fabricius in 1775, according to records in the
Bishop Museum, USA.
D. minutus has a worldwide distribution. It is native to Asia and has been
reported in Israel, West Africa, South Africa, North America, Central America,
South America, Germany and other European countries. It occurs in almost all
the South Asia countries.
Main Host Plants
Dinoderus minutus is an important borer that attacks felled culms and bamboo
timber products. It also damages rice, cassava and sugarcane. In China and
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most south Asian countries, the main host plants of Dinoderus minutus are
Bambusa bambos (thorny bamboo), Bambusa breviflora, Bambusa
pervariabilis, Bambusa polymorpha, Bambusa textilis, Bambusa vulgaris
(common bamboo), Dendrocalamus giganteus (giant bamboo), Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus strictus (male bamboo), Manihot esculenta
(cassava), Oryza sativa (rice), Phyllostachys heteroclada, Phyllostachys
heterocycla, Phyllostachys pubescens, Pinus (pines), Saccharum officinarum
(sugarcane)
Insect Biology
Life Cycle
Dinoderus minutus is polyvoltine. The life cycle is almost uniform irrespective
of distribution. The adults and larvae can be found at any given time of the year
and overwintering is not distinct, although they are less active in cold winters.
The first peak of adult emergence is in February, the second is in June, and the
third is in October.
Eggs
The females begin to deposit eggs individually, in tunnels mined by the adults
in mid-April, and oviposition can last 4 months. The peak time for oviposition
is in May and June. Temperature and humidity affect ovipositon. A female can
lay approximately 20 eggs. The eggs are spindle-shaped or elongate-oval, very
small, milky-white, and nearly transparent. The eggs are individually laid in
tunnels made by the adults.
Larvae
The eggs hatch in 5 to 8 days. The larvae bore longitudinally in the culm, which
can make a tunnel approximately 15 to 20 mm long and take about 40 days to
develop. The larvae are approximately 3 to 4 mm long and milky-white. The
body is 'C'-shaped. The head is round and the length is equal to the width. The
mouthparts are black. The thorax is expanded and bears three legs, which
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decrease along its length. The spiracles are oval-round, which is longer than
those in the sternum. Dense hair covers the tibia.
Pupae
Pupation occurs in cocoons made at the terminal end of the larval tunnels. The
pupa is almost spindle-shaped, approximately 2.5 to 4 mm long, and milky-
white. The compound eye and mandibles are black, and there is a pair of finger-
like projections on the end of the sternum.
Adults
After approximately 4 days, the newly developed adult beetles may fly away or
may explore other parts of the same bamboo. Some beetle holes are left on the
bamboo and a great quantity of tunnels may be present at high densities of D.
minutus. The adult is elongate-columnar, approximately 2.5 to 3 mm long and
0.9 to 1.5 mm wide, reddish or dark-brown and covered with dense puncta and
hair, which is more obvious at the posterior of the wings. There are many tiny
punctures on the head, which is small and black. The head is covered by the
prothorax, so that it cannot be seen when viewed dorsally. The compound eyes
are back and round. The antennae are ten-segmented and lamellate. The first
segment is oval and twice as long as it is wide, the second is the same width as
the first, and the three distal segments are swollen. The elytra are covered with
dense and small punctures and bristles, which are more obvious at the posterior
of the wings. The legs are reddish-brown. The tarsus consists of five segments;
the first is no longer than the third or the fourth. The first abdominal segment is
equal to the second in length.
Starch, soluble carbohydrates and proteins are nutritionally essential to D.
minutus. The incidence of borer attacks has a strong correlation to the richness
of nutrients in felled culms, and vary significantly with bamboo species,
growing sites, timing and culm age at felling, and the method of transportation
and storage.
D. minutus has a strong ability for starvation tolerance. The adults have a strong
ability for pesticide resistance and have no phototactic reaction toward light
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Figure – Generalized life-cycle of Dinoderus
Nature of Damage
Ghoon borers (Dinoderus spp.), found in most Asian countries, cause the most
damage to felled culm and finished products. These are probably the most
common and serious pests in the Asian bamboo industry. Damages usually
result in the loss of large amounts of raw materials or in the destruction of
finished bamboo products. Large quantities of culms are destroyed each year by
these insect borers, in storage yards, stacks with immature culms are the
starting points for attack and the bamboo is often converted to dust.
Approximately 40% of a bamboo stack may be lost within a period of 8 to10
months due to ghoon borer attack.
The adult beetles burrow into felled culms through wounds, cracks and cut
ends, and make horizontal tunnels along the fibrovascular tissues of the culms;
the larvae make longitudinal tunnels. The damaged part of the culm becomes
powdery, and the powder is sifted from the beetle hole. Large populations of
borers will leave numerous tunnels in the culm, making it useless. Numerous
beetle holes will be left on the surface of the culms.
D. minutus adults have a risk of dispersal because the larvae, pupae and adults
may stay inside the tunnels of the bamboo culms, which by transport meanscan
be dispersed to new areas which is long distance dispersal.
Control
There are several options for the control of D. minutus, such as phytosanitary
methods, biological control, physical methods and chemical control. Selecting
the best option depends on a number of factors, such as the severity of
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infestation, the location of infestation, potential for reinfestation, and cost of
treatment.
Phytosanitary Measures
D. minutus is a phytosanitary pest in many countries because it can be easily
transported between countries in the international trade of bamboo wood and
products. Therefore in many open ports, D. minutus is a dangerous pest that
should be treated seriously and warrants careful inspections. All imported
wood, containers and products are treated by government pest control operators
using fumigation and heating, for example, if some symptoms of defoliation are
detected.
Biological Control
There are a few predators reported that can be used to control D. minutus. A
clerid preys on the borer in boring tunnels, Spathius bisignatus [Platyspathius
dinoderi] and Spathius vulnificus parasitize the eggs of D. minutus. Tillus
notatus preys on the larvae, pupae and adults. These natural enemies cannot be
relied upon as an effective control method, although they can cause high
mortality of the borers.
Physical Control
After felling, the physical or chemical treatment of culms can significantly
improve their resistance to borers as well as to fungi. The traditional and
simplest method is to immerse felled culms in water. This method may only be
effective in preventing damage from bostrychid beetles. It is also only suitable
for those bamboos with a low starch content. This method takes a long time and
culms treated in this way tend to blacken. The heating of culms using fire,
boiling water or exposure to direct sunlight in hot summers, can kill borers of
D. minutus including the eggs, larvae, pupae and adults. Some advanced
microwave and infrared techniques have recently been developed for killing the
borers in bamboo culms.
Chemical Control
Chemical treatment using various insecticides and preservatives has been the
most widely used method in controlling post-harvest pests of bamboos,
including D. minutus. Various preservatives have been recommended: 5%
water solution of copper-chrome-arsenic composition (CCA); 5-6% water
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solution of copper-potassium dichromate-borax (CCB); 5-6% water solution of
boric acid-borax-sodium pentachlorophenate in 0.8:1:1 or 1:1:5 ratios (BBP); 2-
3% water solution of borax: boric acid in a 5:1 ratio; and 10% or 20-25% water
solution of copper sulphate. These are mostly applied by soaking under normal
temperatures, cold or heated conditions, or under high pressure.
Soaking in an aqueous solution of 2% boric acid, 0.5% pentachlorophenate and
5% alcohol can treat bamboo rind and similar semi-finished products. Treating
dried bamboo splits by immersing them in diesel oil as a simple and cheap
method of bamboo preservation. The two low-toxicity organophosphorus
insecticides prothiophos and phoxim, were more effective than organochlorine
ones for the preservation of bamboo materials against fungi and boring pests.
Treating culm splits by immersing them in 0.2% phoxim for 3 minutes can
result in total mortality of D. minutus in the culm in 2 to 3 days, and can protect
the treated split from attack for over 1 year.
Affected bamboo material can also be treated by fumigating in closed chambers
or storehouses with sulphuryl fluoride at a rate of 30 to 50 g/m³ of timber for 24
hours.
Hoplocerambyx Spinicornis (Sal Heartwood Borer, Longicorn Beetle)
Systematic Position
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Suborder: Polyphaga
Superfamily: Chrysomeloidea
Family: Cerambycidae
Genus: Hoplocerambyx
Species: Hoplocerambyx spinicornis
Sal (Shorea robusta) is a dominant tree species in the Indian forests. Sal is a
deciduous species and attains height up to 45 m. It is the main source building
timber and also used as fuelwood and fodder. Sal covers over 11 million ha in
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India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Sal forests regenerates very well but are heavily
damaged by pests like sal borers, by excessive grazing and frequent forest fires.
Sal heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis, is one of the major
devastating insect pest in Sal forest. Outbreak of this insect occur periodically
in various parts of the India and may destroy thousand of trees. The trees of all
sizes and ages are attacked in the epidemic caused by the longicorn beetle,
though, the preference was for trees of 60-120 cm. girth class. The sap can
attract insects from a distance of 2 km. These insects are always present in the
Sal forest in low densities. The infestation of Sal borer is considered to be
epidemic when the trees affected are more than 1.0 percent of the total growing
stock of the trees.
Distribution
The range of Hoplocerambyx spinicornis is from the Philippines and Borneo to
the extreme western and southern limits of forests of Shorea robusta in India. It
does not extend into dipterocarp forests in south India. It appears to be absent
from intensively worked sal forests in the Gangetic plain like Gorakhpur,
United Provinces owing to the shortage of breeding-material.
Main Host Plants
The main host plants of Hoplocerambyx spinicornis are Shorea assamica, S.
obtuse, S. robusta, Duabanga sonneratioides, Hevea braziliensis, Parashorea
robusta, Pentacme suavis etc.
Insect Biology
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis beetles are active by daylight and particularly
during the warmest part of the day, usually they avoid direct sunshine by
sheltering in shady places, but when the sky is overcast and if a heavy rain is
falling they readily take flight and may cover long distance in the open.
In forest the flight is low as well as slow and frequently interrupted by halts on
trees or bushes accidentally encountered but the general direction is well
controlled. They run actively over the bark of trees and often assemble in large
numbers on a particular tree for mating. Ordinarily at sunset they retire to
sheltered spots such as the undersurface of logs, crevices and flakes of bark,
large leaves, etc., where they rest with the underside of the body pressed close
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to the surface of the shelter. But they are readily active after dark if stimulated,
and have been attracted to trees late night.
Life Cycle
A heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis, often emerges soon after a few
showers of monsoon rains from the third week of June to the end of August.
They attract to the odour of freshly cut bast and sapwood of sal.
For mating there is a tough competition between males, leads to fights in which
antennae and legs are bitten off. The bite of the large pointed mandibles is
powerful and can draw blood from the human finger. In captivity large males
have been observed to monopolise several females driving off smaller males in
much the same way as a stag or boar does. When courting a female the male
sometimes halts and raises his body to the full extent of his legs and stridulates
by vibrating the inner posterior edge of the pronotum against the scutellum.
Both male and female sexes can stridulate when alarmed or defensive. Sexes of
very unequal size may pair successfully. Pairing is frequently repeated and
during the period a female is laying eggs, it usually alternates with the
deposition of a few eggs.
Eggs
Male and female beetles pairs at once and soon after mating female start laying
eggs on the bark of sal trees. Each female beetle lays about 400 eggs in cracks
on the bark of the dead or dying trees 7-9 days after the emergence. The eggs
are white-creamed color, about 4 mm long. The preferred site of oviposition are
the underside of logs on the ground and the shady side of the trunk
and branches of standing trees. The viability of eggs varies from 75 to 100 per
cent depending on weather conditions. The egg laying is correlated with
humidity. At 55% relative humidity, there is no oviposition. Oviposition is only
above 55% r. h. In dry conditions, the eggs are killed due to desiccation and
very high humidity invites attack of some fungal hyphae.
Larvae / Grubs
After 3-7 days of egg period, the hatching takes place. The freshly hatched
grubs bore the bark and reach to the sapwood, where they form tunnels. The
white grubs feed under the bark. They soon enter the sapwood and finally the
heartwood by the end of November. The sapwood exudes a sap (resin)
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sometimes kills larvae. Weak and diseased trees and broken or fallen trees are
more attacked. The larvae feeds on sapwood throughout their life. The full
grown grub is about 7.5 cm in length. It excretes a lot of wood dust that
accumulates into heap near the base of the tree. It ultimately leads the tree to
girdle and dry up. One can tell the progress of attack by examining the dust
thrown out of holes in the bark, which falls to the ground at the base of the tree
and accumulates in a heap often 2 or 3 feet deep. If there is a good deal of
heartwood dust it means that the grubs are nearly full grown.
After feeding the sapwood during the winter and ensuring hot weather, the grub
move to heartwood where they form a wider pupal chamber, the grubs start
pupation from December onwards, develop to immature beetles between April
to May and emerge out from middle June onwards during monsoon.It then
develops a pupae chamber, In the final stage the larvae shuts itself in by a
partition of calcium carbonate and long wood fibers loosely packed.
Pupae
Pupation occurs in pupal chamber. It begins from February and continues till
April. After 2-3 weeks of pupal period, immature beetles of Sal borer develop
and wait inside the pupal chamber for the emergence till the monsoon arrives.
Adult
The insect turns into a beetle in May-June and waits until the monsoon arrives.
Dark brown beetle in color, elyfra varying in colour from piceous black to
reddish-brown, body is about 2 - 6.5 cm in size. It has long antennae. The
antennas of male are relatively longer than the body while the female is shorter
than her body. Antennal segments are with spines at corners.
It appears annually with the start of Monsoon. The emergence is
largely complete when the cumulative rainfall is about 900 mm during
early monsoon.
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Figure : Lifecycle of Hoplocerambyx spinicornis
Nature of Damage
Nowadays Hoplocerambyx spinicornis ranks as the potentially most injurious
forest insect in India. This is partly due to a series of bad epidermics in the
United Provinces and in Central India, and partly to a better realisation of the
financial importance of such catastrophes as well as of its more diffuse endemic
activities.
For food H. spinicornis gnaw the bark of sal, particularly the inner and living
bark, when it is exposed by some accident to the free. Fresh sap from the bast
and sapwood of Shorea robusta is highly attractive and is absorbed with
eagerness until the alimentary canal is fully distended. A beetle that is gorged
on sap appears intoxicated and often is unable to stand or fly. Fresh sap can be
detected by the beetle from considerable distances, beetles have been attracted
to newly exposed sap over a measured distance of a quarter of a mile, within 5
minutes, flying upwind. Fermented sap a week or more old is much less
acceptable and its range of attractiveness is much diminished. Water is also a
necessity to the beetle and without it life is reduced by ten days or more. The
beetle drinks from a droplet of water by scooping movements of the palpi and
the hypopharynx.
Control
Sal borer is highly destructive insect pest to the Sal. The tree vigorosity should
be maintained as the pest attracts to the inferior trees at the beginning. Leaving
logs or parts of dead trees on the ground should be avoided. Controlled forest
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fire maintains its population by killing the eggs in the bark. Insect trap and
killing method is most effective remedial method to check its population.
Preventive measures
 Maintain the stand density
 Control burning
 Avoiding the tree damage: Grazing and other biotic interference in sal
forests should be minimized as far as possible.
 Burning of debris and stumps after harvesting of trees.
 Sal timber depots should be away from the Sal forests.
Remedial measures
 Trap tree operation: few medium sized trees should be felled every
year during the monsoon (especially June- July) and their bark should be
smashed. The fresh smell attracts the insects from the distance of up to 2
kms.
 Cutting affected trees: Felling and removal of affected trees away from
the sal forests (identified by the large amount of yellow resin oozing out
of the bark and heap of wood dust at the base of the trunk).
 Stacking of infested timber in depots 5 km away from Sal forests
 Diseased or dying sal trees, wind-fallen trees, insect (borer) attacked,

felling refuse, etc. should be disposed off during winter-summer before
onset of monsoon every year.
Besides existing preventive and remedial control measures, the authors have
advocated spraying of 0.05% endosulfan 3.5 ml insecticide per litre of water
of 0.05 per cent chlorpyriphos (10 ml insecticide/litre) on stored borer
attacked sal stacks and then covering them with polythene sheets before
monsoon in June to kill the beetles emerging from sal logs.
11.3 Forensic Entomology
11.3.1 Introduction
Forensic Entomology is the use of the insects, and their arthropod relatives that
inhabit decomposing remains to aid legal investigations. Forensic entomology
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is the branch of forensic science in which information about insects is used to
draw conclusions when investigating legal cases relating to both humans and
wildlife, although on occasion the term may be expanded to include other
arthropods. Insects can be used in the investigation of a crime scene both on
land and in water. It is of immense use in the investigation of crimes of even
civil disputes. Forensic entomology is not only a useful tool of decide how long
human remains have been undetected, but it can also be used to find out
whether the corpse has been moved after death, the cause of death, and also to
solve cases of contraband trafficking.
11.3.2 History of Forensic Entomology
Insects are known to have been used in the detection of crimes for a long time
and a number of researchers have written about the history of forensic
entomology. The Chinese used the presence of flies and other insects as part of
their investigative armoury for crime scene investigation and instances of their
use are recorded as early as the mid-tenth century.
Indeed, such was the importance of insects in crime scene investigation that in
1235, a training manual on investigating death, Washing Away of Wrongs, was
written by Sung Tz’u. In this medico-legal book it is recorded that the landing
of a number of blowflies on a particular sickle caused a murderer to confess to
murdering a fellow Chinese farm worker with that sickle. Between the
thirteenth and the nineteenth century, a number of developments in biology laid
the foundation for forensic entomology to become a branch of scientific study.
The two most notable were, perhaps, experiments in Italy by Redi (1668) using
the flesh of a number of different animal species, in which he demonstrated that
larvae developed from eggs laid by flies, and the work by Linnaeus (1775) in
developing a system of classification. In so doing, Linnaeus provided a means
of insect identification, including identifying such forensically important flies
as Calliphora vomitoria (Linnaeus). These developments formed foundations
from which determination of the length of the stages in the insect’s life cycle
could be worked out and indicators of time since death could be developed.
The credit for the first modern forensic entomology case goes to French doctor
Bergeret. A particularly significant legal case, which helped establish forensic
entomology as a recognized tool for investigating crime scenes, was that of a
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murdered newborn baby. The baby’s mummified body, encased in a chimney,
was revealed behind a mantelpiece in a boarding house when renovation work
was being undertaken in 1850. Dr Marcel Bergeret carried out an autopsy on
the body and discovered larvae of a fleshfly, Sarcophaga carnaria (Linnaeus),
and some moths. He concluded that the baby’s body had been sealed up in 1848
and that the moths had gained access in 1849. As a result of this estimation of
post mortem interval, occupiers of the house previous to 1848 were accused and
the current occupiers exonerated.
The next significant point in the history of forensic entomology resulted from
observations and conclusions made by Mégnin (1894). He related eight stages
of human decomposition to the succession of insects colonizing the body after
death. He published his findings in La Faune des Cadavres: Application de
l’Entomologie à la Médicine Légale. These stages of decomposition were
subsequently shown to vary in speed and to be dependent upon environmental
conditions, including temperature and, for example, whether or not the corpse
was clothed. However, the similarity in overall decomposition sequence and the
value of the association of insects has been demonstrated for decomposition of
the bodies of a number of animal species. This knowledge about insect
succession on a corpse became the basis for forensic entomologists’ estimations
of the time since death of the corpse.
In the twentieth century insects were shown to be of value in court cases
involving insect colonization of body parts recovered from water and not just
whole corpses found on land. On 29 September 1935, several body parts, later
identified as originating from two females, were recovered from a Scottish river
near Edinburgh. The identities of the deceased were determined and the women
were named as Mrs Ruxton and Mary Rogerson, ‘nanny’ for the family. The
presence of larvae of the blowfly Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, in
their third larval instar, indicated that the eggs had been laid prior to the bodies
being dumped in the river. This information, combined with other evidence,
resulted in the husband, Dr Ruxton, being convicted of the murder of his wife
and Mary Rogerson.
The importance of ants and cockroaches in causing post-mortem artifacts was
shown by German doctors Klingelhöffer and Maschka and the forensic
pathologist from Poland (then Austria) Stefan von Horoskiewicz. Both
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Horoskiewicz and Maschka have reported cases in which there were bites by
ants or cockroaches that resembled ante-mortem abrasions or bruises. In all
those cases, but for the findings and testimony of these renowned scientists,
innocent people would have been punished. During this time (the beginning of
twentieth century) France and Germany were the main centers for the work on
entomology. This is evident from the following two books of that time
Thierleben (Life of The Animals) by Alfred Brehm and Souvenirs
entomologiques (Souvenirs of Insect Life) by Jean Henri Fabre. These books
specifically dealt with carrion beetles and blowflies and went a long way in
popularizing entomology among the people.
During the next few decades a lot of scientists worked on the subject and the
database on the properties of Insects increased. Although the amount of
research increased in the field, there was no great increase in the popularity of
the subject. Only a few scientists across the globe worked on insects. The main
aim of this research was to prepare a database for their own geographic area
and environmental conditions. All this changed in the mid 1960s. When Watson
and Crick discovered DNA in 1953, even they would not have thought about its
potential in forensic sciences especially forensic entomology. The use of DNA
brought in a new era in the identification of the invertebrates.
Soon DNA was being used to identify the insects at the scene of crime. This
method was billed as more advanced and scientific than morphological features.
The late 1970s saw the emergence of entomotoxicology as a new branch of
forensic entomology. In this the presence of toxins in the invertebrate
decomposers was detected and was used as a method of finding the cause of
death. So now the use of forensic entomology was graduating from finding only
PMI to finding the cause of death.
According to the latest worldwide directory of forensic entomology
approximately only 62 scientists are involved in this field of study in the world.
However, forensic entomology in our country is still in its infancy. Currently,
there are only two researchers who are active in this field in India: Pankaj
Kulshrestha of Medico Legal Institute, Bhopal, and Devinder Singh of Punjab
University, Patiala. Kulshrestha pioneered the application of forensic
entomology in India Considering the vastness of our country, we are yet to go a
long way to generate basic data on the taxonomy, geographic distribution,
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biology and ecology of the insects involved in the decomposition of dead
animal.
Indian courts of justice allow any scientific evidence to prove a case, under
article 138 of the Evidence Act. But forensic entomology is yet to find an
undisputed place in the legal proceedings in our country due to the absence of
sufficient background data on the insects involved in the decomposition of dead
animals and also the dearth of professional forensic entomologists.
11.3.3 Fields of Forensic Entomology
Forensic entomology can be divided in three sub fields:
1. Urban
The urban aspect deals with the insects that affect man and his immediate
environment. It includes both criminal and civil components as urban pests
may feed on both the living and the dead. The damage caused by their
mandibles or mouthparts can produce markings and wounds on the skin that
may be misinterpreted as prior abuse. Urban pests are of great economic
importance and the forensic entomologist may become involved in civil
proceedings over monetary damages.
2. Stored-Product
Stored product insects are commonly found in foodstuffs and help in both,
criminal and civil proceedings involving food contamination.
3. Medicolegal (Medicocriminal Entomology)
The medicolegal (or medicocriminal) entomology focuses on the criminal
component of the legal system and deals with the necrophagous (or carrion
feeding) insects that typically infest human remains. Medicolegal forensic
entomology includes arthropod involvement: in events such as murder,
suicide and rape, and also physical abuse and contraband trafficking.
Applications of Forensic Entomology
1. Indicators of time of death
In the first 72 hours after death, the pathologist is usually considered to be able
to provide a reasonably accurate determination of the time of death.
Historically, this has been based upon the condition of the body itself and such
features as the fall in body temperature. Beyond this time, there is less medical
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information with which to correlate post mortem interval (PMI). So another
area of expertise is required to clarify time of death. The forensic entomologist
can provide a measure of the possible post mortem interval, based upon the life
cycle stages of particular fly species recovered from the corpse, or from the
succession of insects present on the body. This estimate can be given over a
period of hours, weeks or years. The start of the post mortem interval is
considered to coincide with the point when the fly first laid its eggs on the
body, and its end to be the discovery of the body and the recognition of life
stage of the oldest colonizing species infesting it. The duration of this stage, in
relation to the particular stage of decay, gives an accurate measure of the
probable length of time the person has been dead and may be the best estimate
that is available.
2. Estimating PMI (Post-Mortem Interval):
Forensically significant conclusions often can be drawn by noting the state of
successive colonization of a corpse by local arthropod fauna, or by identifying
the developmental stage of necrophagous (dead-flesh eating) insects collected
in, on, or near the body. The most common use of forensic entomology is to
determine the minimum time since death (minimum post-mortem interval, or
PMI) in suspicious death investigations. The PMI is estimated by identifying
the age of the insects present on a human corpse, which can provide a relatively
precise estimate in circumstances where pathologists may only be able to give a
broad approximation. The fundamental assumption is that the body has not
been dead for longer than it took the insects to arrive at the corpse and develop.
Thus, the age of the oldest insects on the body determines the minimum PMI.
Arthropods are important carrion feeders. The first groups of insects that arrive
on a dead vertebrate is usually blowflies (Diptera : Calliphoridae). Usually the
female oviposits within two days after death of the vertebrate. The maggot
undergoes three instars; forms prepupae, pupae within puparium, and then the
imago. If we know how long it takes to reach the different stadia in an insect’s
life, we can calculate the time since the egg was laid. This calculation of the age
of the insects can be considered as an estimate of the time of death. But even if
the estimate of the insect age is correct, the death of the victim (usually) must
have occurred before the eggs were laid. This period is quite variable and
depends on temperature, time of day the death occurred, time in year the death
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occurred, whether the corpse is exposed or immersed in soil or water, etc. As a
general rule insects lay eggs on a corpse within two days after the corpse is
available for insects.
3. Corpse relocation :
Insects can also be of help in establishing whether the corpse has been moved
after death, by comparing the local fauna around the body, and the fauna on the
body. In some instances, movement of suspects, goods, victims or suspect
vehicles can be traced with the help of insects. Parts of the insects, or whole
insects can, for example, be captured in different car parts, such as in radiators
or tire threads. Many arthropods live in close relation to carrion. By identifying
the insects found, and plotting the distribution of each insect, as well as the
biology of each species one can find the greatest degree of overlap, and
describe the areas where the suspect has been. For example, certain species of
blowflies tend to be found primarily within large urban centers. Identification
of such species in association with a corpse found along a rural roadside
suggests that the victim was killed in town and subsequently dumped in the
remote rural environment.
4. Finding the cause of death :
During crime investigation, the main target is to find out when a victim died but
also how the victim died, as this can help identifying the criminal. In some
instances the insects themselves may be the killers, and in others the insects
occurring on the carrion can shed a light on what happened when the victim
died.
Under normal conditions, insects invade the corpse through body orifices such
as nose, mouth, eyes, ears, anus, etc. Wounds inflicted due to a knife or a bullet
injury attract flies for feeding and egg laying. The aggregation of flies and their
life stages help experts to trace the spot and predict how the murder was
committed.
Poison can be traced in blood, urine, stomach contents, hair and nails. Maggots
occurring on a corpse may also possess traces of poison. After a while when the
body is totally decomposed or dried, it is impossible to sample stomach
contents, urine and blood from the dead body, but it still is possible to sample
the poison from maggots, empty puparia or larval skin cast.
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5. Investigating physical abuse :
Insects are of value as forensic indicators in cases of neglect or abuse. One of
the applications of forensic entomology includes the detection of abuse in
children and neglect of the elderly. Entomological evidence has been used to
prove neglect and lack of proper care for wounds existing on the elderly under
both private and institutional care.
Some insects, for example the greenbottle Lucilia sericata (Meigen), are
attracted to odours, such as ammonia, resulting from urine or faecal
contamination. Adult flies of this species tend to be attracted to an incontinent
individual; a baby that has not had its nappy changed sufficiently often, or
incontinent old people who have not been assisted in maintaining their bodily
hygiene. Flies may lay their eggs in clothing or on skin. These eggs, if
undiscovered, will hatch into maggots (larvae) which start feeding upon flesh,
or on wounds, ulcers or natural entry points of the body. Over time the flesh
will be eaten away and the region may be further infected by bacteria as well as
being invaded by other insects.
In some cases wasps and bees have been used as murder weapons, as in a case
some parents had shut their infant in a room full of wasps, in order to get rid of
it. Wasps and bees inject venom to which some people may be sensitive and
allergic to and can die if not treated in time.
Another important aspect of wasps and bees is their effect on drivers. Many car
accidents are probably caused by some wasp, bee or bumble-bee coming
through the window, causing hysteria, or a distraction from the road leading to
a collision or other accidents. The stings (or mere presence) of bees and wasps
may be responsible for a large number of single occupant car accidents that
seem to lack a definitive cause. Some accident studies have shown insects to be
within the top 20 causes of automobile accidents. Forensic entomologists
examine the fragmented remains of insects that have impacted and lodged on
the front fascia, windshield, and radiator of automobiles. Analysis of such
remains can yield evidence to the probable path of an automobile through
particular areas when pinpointing the location and areas of travel are of unique
importance.
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6. Detecting or investigating drug consumption
Insects could serve as a resource for detecting toxic substances when other
typical sources, such as urine, blood, or tissue, are not present. While some
evidence supports the hypothesis that insects can be used for detecting these
substances, insects sampled from human remains may not be a suitable
substrate for quantifying certain compounds e.g., narcotics.
Insect evidence collected from human remains can be used to detect the
presence of drugs. In some cases when the primary resources used for
toxicological analysis are not present, insects collected from the corpse may
serve as an alternative material for examination. Insects also provide valuable
clues in cases of deaths related to narcotics or toxins, particularly more so when
the corpse itself is too putrefied to be analyzed.
The insect life cycle stage that feeds on the cadaver is a potential reservoir of
undigested flesh from the corpse. Because, in some circumstances, the flesh
from the corpse can retain some types of drugs that had been consumed by the
victim before he/she died and which may even have been the cause of death,
these drugs may be recovered by analysing the insects and may include opiates,
the barbiturate phenobarbital, benzodiazepines or their metabolites, such as
oxazepam, triazolam, antihistamines, alimemazine and chlorimipramine, a
tricyclic antidepressant. To date there is not a great deal of information
available that indicates the role of drugs, which are present in decomposing
body tissue, on necrophagous larvae.
In 2001 Musvaska and his colleagues examined the effects of consuming liver
containing either a barbiturate - sodium methohexital or a steroid -
hydrocortisone on the development of a fleshfly, Sarcophaga tibialis Macquart.
They concluded that, compared with controls, the length of the larval stage was
increased, whilst pupariation was more rapid. In 2005 Arnaldos and his co
workers by various laboratory experiments investigate the effects of heroin,
also showed that the length of time taken to complete individual larval stages in
Sarcophaga tibialis was considerably longer, in contrast to those larvae which
were not fed heroin. However, heroin has been shown to increase the rate at
which other species of maggots Cocaine and one of its breakdown products has
been found in small amounts in the puparium of Calliphoridae, so this drug is
clearly sequesteredin the larval body and retained in the next life stage.
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Suicide cases can also be investigated using forensic entomology by analysing
the maggots which had fed on the corpse and demonstrating the presence in the
body of malathion, an organophosphate insecticide,
The following chemicals have been traced in maggots – Triazolam, Oxazepam,
Alimemazine,Chloripriamine,Phenobarbitol,Malathion,Mercury,Amritriptyline,
Nortriptyline, Cocaine , Phenycyclidine, Heroin, etc.
7. Wildlife investigations :
The illegal killing of animals is a very serious problem. Killing an animal for
trophy parts such as the head, antlers or hide is most common by the poachers.
In such cases, determining time of death can assist in narrowing the focus of the
investigation. Though the use of forensic entomology in wildlife crime is less
well known, it is equally valuable.
8. Insect contamination of food
Many parts of world consume insects as part of their diet. For example, aquatic
insects such as the giant water bug, Lethocerus indicus Lepeletier Serville, are
eaten as a delicacy across south-eastern Asia. Chocolate-coated bees are eaten
in the UK, and in North America some shops sell canned, fried grasshoppers,
whilst Thai cooked crickets in tins are available via the world-wide web.
However, the presence in food of insects that are eaten unintentionally, or could
be eaten along with the food, is considered unacceptable to the consumer and a
source of contamination. For example, the saw-toothed grain beetle, a stored
product pest, may be found in cereal packages; wire worms may be sold along
with freshly cut lettuces, or may be processed into lettuce and tomato
sandwiches; whilst in many countries, fish and meat which is left in the open to
dry can become infested with beetles or flies, either in the drying process or
later on a market stall. These are then eaten and have the potential to cause
illness. Forensic entomologists can be asked for an expert opinion in civil cases
relating to the food industry, where food has been contaminated by insects
living in close association with man.
11.3.4 Insects of Forensic Importance
The insects that can play very important role in forensic entomological
investigations. A deep knowledge of the insect species association with
difference habitats may provide information regarding the history of the
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remains. Several species of insects belonging to the orders Diptera, Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera are associated with decaying matter, including
corpses. Some of the main insects of forensic importance includes blowflies,
flesh flies, cheese skippers, hide and skin beetles, rove beetles and clown
beetles. In some of these families only the juvenile stages are carrion feeders
and consume a dead body. In others both the juvenile stages and the adults will
eat the body (are necrophagous). While some other families of insects are
attracted to the body solely because they feed on the necrophagous insects that
are present.
The Dipterans are predominantly the largest group both in terms of species
diversity and density followed by the beetles (Coleoptera). Decomposing
bodies undergo biological, chemical and physical changes and at each stage of
decomposition, they are invaded by a specific species of insect often in a
predictable sequence. These changes are dependent on interrelated factors such
as climate, situation and insect access. For instance, blow flies are the first
colonizers of the carrion and include several important genera, viz. Calliphora,
Lucilia, Cochliomyia and Phormia. The sarcophagids arrive a few days later. A
characteristic pattern of the maggots of these species is their movement in large
numbers which presumably facilitates their combined ammonical excretory
products to condition the tissues and counter the acidic effects of rigor mortis.
As these species develop and the process of decay sets in, the odour of the
corpse changes, becoming more ammonical and putrescent.This results in
attraction of other dipteran species, particularly the phorids and later, the
stratiomyids and species succession begins. Beetles colonize corpses later than
the flies. Histerid and staphylinid beetles are the first to arrive followed by
beetles belonging to Dermestidae, Rhizhophagidae, Ptinidae and
Tenebrionidae.
Wasps and ants are predaceous, preying upon insects that invade the carrion.
The diversity of these insect species has been found to vary in different
ecosystems depending on the habitat of the carrion as well as that of buried and
unburied cadavers. Such difference in diversity paves way for possible
suspicion/prediction about any crime. Several species of Lepidoptera may be
associated with the corpse at different stages of decomposition, being attracted
by the gases excreted from the body (methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide,
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nitrogen), but since they tend to arrive very late, are less useful in establishing a
PMI.
11.3.5 Entomological Evidence Collection During Death Investigations
Death Scene Procedures
The most important step of forensic entomological investigation is to observe a
crime scene carefully with all necessary requirements for collecting
entomological specimens. With the police investigation there is a need for
collection of entomological evidence. It is important to note that the collection
of insects and other arthropods from a death scene may disturb the remains.
Therefore, the forensic entomologist should contact the primary investigator
and make plans for the Once a course of action as been determined, extreme
care should be taken during insect collection so that the remains are disturbed
as little as possible. Before collections are made proper notes and details should
be taken as to the general habitat, ambient weather conditions, the microhabitat
immediately surrounding the body and location of the body.
Scene Observations and Weather Data
Entomological investigation of the death scene can be done into the following
steps:
1. General habitat and location of the body :
 Carefully observations of the scene should be made and note the
general habitat and location of the body in reference to vegetation,
sun or shade conditions, and its proximity to any open doors or
windows. Sites of insect infestations on the body should be
documented as well as different developmental stages of insects are
observed such as eggs, larvae, pupae, or adults.
 The type of habitat shows about the possibility of different types of
insects on the body. If insects are typical of other habitats are found
than the crime scene may suggest that the body has been dumped. It
is also useful to document evidence of scavenging from vertebrate
animals and predation of eggs and larvae by other insects such as fire
ants. These type of observations should be noted on the Death Scene
Form.
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2. Collection of meteorological data at the scene :
When estimating the PMI, meteorological data about the crime scene is
absolutely critical. The insect development is affected by various abiotic
factors like temperature and relative humidity in the environment
development takes place.
a) Temperature determination is extremely important to get information
about insects growing on the body before it was discovered.
b) The body temperature should be determined by placing a thermometer
on the body surface.
c) Ambient air temperature at the scene taken approximately at chest
height with the thermometer in the shade. Ambient temperature can be
evaluated by taking readings at 0.3 to 1.3 m heights in close proximity
to the body.
d) Ground surface temperature is obtained by placing the thermometer on
the ground, immediately above any surface ground cover.
e) To take the temperature of the soil, it is better to use a soil thermometer
so that there is little chance of the thermometer breaking as it is forced
into the ground.
f) Temperature of the soil directly under the body. Soil temperatures
should be taken immediately after body removal at a ground point which
was under the body before removal. Also take soil temperatures at a
second point 1-2 m away from the body. These temperatures should be
taken at 3 levels: Directly under any ground cover (grass, leaves, etc.), at
4 cm soil depth and at 20 cm soil depth.
g) Weather data that includes the maximum and minimum daily
temperature and rainfall for a period spanning 1-2 weeks before the
victims disappearance to 3-5 days after the body was discovered.
h) Weather data for the scene should be collected from the nearest
meteorological station. Minimum requirements should be maximum and
minimum temperature and amount of precipitation. The climatological
data should extend back to the time the victim was last seen.
i) Maggot mass temperatures can be obtained by inserting the thermometer
into the center of the maggot mass.
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3. Collection of insects from the body at the scene:
 The first insects that should be collected are the adult flies and beetles.
These insects are fast moving and can leave the crime scene rapidly
once disturbed. The adult flies can be trapped with an insect net. Once
the adult flies have been netted, they are placed in the mouth of a
“killing jar”. The jar is then capped and the insects will be immobilized
within a few minutes. Once they are immobile they can be easily
transferred to a vial of 75% ethyl alcohol. Beetles can be collected with
forceps or gloved fingers and placed directly into 75% ethyl alcohol.
 Another important point is that the collected specimens should be
properly labeled. Labels should be made with a dark graphite pencil,
NOT IN INK. The label should be placed in the alcohol along with the
specimens, and alcohol and should be used for labelling purposes. The
collection label should following format :
 Geographical Location
 Date and hour of collection
 Location on the body where removed
 Name of collector
 First the investigator should search for the presence of eggs, which are
easily overlooked. After this step, the larvae should be readily apparent
on the body. The largest larvae should be actively searched for and
collected. A sample of 50-60 larvae of same species should be collected
from the maggot mass. These insects can be placed directly into a killing
solution or ethyl alcohol. If the larvae are boiled with about 48 hours of
initial preservation, a good specimen should result. The investigator
should discuss preservation techniques with their cooperating
entomologist. In any case the exact preservation techniques should be
documented and forwarded to the forensic entomologist.
 Living specimens from the crime scene can be placed in specimen
containers. Tiny air holes should be made in the lid. This container
should be enclosed in an appropriate shipping container and shipped
immediately to a forensic entomologist.
4. Estimate the number and kinds of flying and crawling insects.
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 Locations of major infestations associated with the body and
surrounding area should be note down. These infestations may be
egg, larval, pupal or adult stages, alone or in any combinations of the
above.
 Immature stages include eggs, larvae, pupae, empty pupal cases, cast
larval skins, fecal material, and exit holes or feeding marks on the
remains of particular adult insects must be observed.
 Presence of ny insect predation such as beetles, ants and wasps or
insect parasites should be carefully observed.
 The various data like the exact position of the body: compass
direction of the main axis, position of the extremities, position of
head and face, noting of which body parts are in contact with
substrate, noting where it would be sunlight and shade during a
normal daylight should be note down.
 Different insect activities like flying, resting or crawling insect
adults or larvae or pupae within the proximity to the body should be
observed.
 Other unusual naturally occurrings, man-made, or scavenger-caused
phenomenon which could alter the environmental effects on the
body like trauma or mutilation of the body, burning, covering, burial,
movement, or dismemberment must be also keenly observed.
 Close-up photos of the different stages of insect found on the
different sites of body should be taken before collecting.
5. Collection of insects from scene after body removal:
 After the removal of body preserved and living samples of many of
the insects that inhabit a corpse will remain on, or buried, in the
ground should be taken. Soil and litter samples should also be taken
both immediately under where the body was positioned, and from
the immediately under where the body was positioned, and from the
immediate surroundings. To collect the leaf litter and debris, sample
collector first down the exposed upper surface of the soil, and then
make a separate collection from about the first two or three inches of
topsoil. Each soil collection area should be about 10-15 cm2, and be
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taken from underneath the head, torso and extremities. All soil
samples should be kept in a cardboard container for immediate
delivery to a forensic entomologist. These collections should be
labeled and given to the forensic entomologist along with the insects
collected from the body.
6. A passive technique for collecting adult insects at the crime scene is by
using sticky traps with a slow drying adhesive substance. These traps are
made from waxed cardboards. This type of trap will collect many insects
in a few minutes. An insect collection net can be used to collect flying
insects. Eggs, larvae, pupae and adults of insects on the surface of the
human remains should be collected and preserved to show the state of
the entomological data at the time of discovery. Insects within the body
should not be collected before the autopsy. If there is enough insects,
samples of egg, larvae and pupae should be collected alive and placed
on a rearing medium such as raw beef liver. Rearing to the adult stage
makes identification easier, and may give vital clues to the PMI
estimation. It is important that the temperature in the rearing container is
as constant as possible, in the range of 20-27D C.
7. Laboratory findings:
 Next step of forensic entomological investigation is processing of
samples in laboratory. All samples, both live and dead specimens
should now be processed as fast as possible. Live specimens are
multiplied in incubators with known temperature and humidity
levels. Several times each day these containers should be watched,
and changes such as hatching of eggs or larvae, pupariation or
eclosion of adult insect should be noted. The exact time should be
noted. Pictures could be taken for demonstration to a jury or other
investigating officials. Taxonomic status of collected larvae and
adult should be determined if possible. For recreation of the
environmental conditions for the larvae to estimate PMI it is
necessary to do experiments outdoors near the crime scene.
8. Data analysis :
After collection and processing of the data, data analysis should be done:
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 During the PMI the remains have been disturbed or disarticulated or
not.
 Presence of any antemortem administered drugs such as alcohol,
cocaine or heroine was proved or not.
 Analysis of the age of all specimens as possible, based on presence
of drugs, temperature and humidity conditions.
 After death whether the insect activity was delayed or not.
9. Interpretation of blood splash pattern:
 Insects can also confuse the understanding of blood spatter pattern
analysis. Roaches simply walking through pooled and splattered blood
produce tracking that may not be readily recognizable to an untrained
observer. On other side the Spots of blood in unique and unusual areas
such as on ceiling may misinform crime scene experts unless they are
aware of the appearance of blood contaminated roach tracks. In the
similarl way, flies and fleas may also track through pooled and spattered
blood. Sangivorous flies will feed on the blood and then pass the
partially digested blood in its feces, termed as “flypecks”. Flies also
regurgitate and possibly drop a blood droplet on a remote surface, which
may serve to confuse bloodstain analysis. Fleas feeding on the living can
excrete out a large amount of undigested blood on many household
surfaces. If a crime occurs in a heavily infected apartment, fecal drops
already present would serve to confuse analysts as those droplets would
test positive for human blood. So it is important to recognize and
properly note about all the insects that feed on living, decomposing, or
dried vegetable material.
 Entomological evidence can also help determine the circumstances of
abuse and rape. Victims that are helpless often have associated fecal and
urine soaked clothes or bed dressings. These materials will attract
certain species of flies that otherwise would not be recovered. Their
presence can yield many clues to both antemortem and post-mortem
circumstances of the crime.
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11.3.6 Entomological Collection Equipments
Proper equipments are essential for the proper collection of entomological
evidence. The entomological equipments includes plastic or polycarbonate
screw-top sampling jars for both preserved specimens and live cultures,
forceps, stepping plates to preserve the scene from contamination, a killing jar
containing ethyl acetate, labels, indelible markers with fine points, fine forceps,
artists’ paint brushes, an entomological net and killing agents for larvae, such as
boiling water, and an insect preservative. A number of preservatives could be
used, including 70–80% alcohol, KAAD and Kahle’s solution; each has its
benefits. Kahle’s solution contains both a fungal control and a preservative.
It is possible to configure a collection kit, and most of the necessary items can
be purchased locally. A summarized list of necessary item has been compiled.
 Insect Collection Nets
 Screw capped vials of 10 ml
 For long term storage, a neoprene cone inserted lid, which reduces
evaporation and periodic maintenance is not required as often.
 Insect killing jars filled with 1.5 cm of plaster of paris with wide-mouth.
 Soft-touch or “Feather-touch” forceps for the collection of
entomological specimens without damage
 Collection container for collection of living
 Aluminum foil for constructing a pouch that will hold the live larvae and
their food source during shipment.
 Vermiculite or sand or dirt from the death scene should be filled to the
bottom of the larval containers to allow for migration, and to absorb
excess fluids during shipment.
 Plastic specimen containers (150-250 ml size).
 Paper labels (non-adhesive, heavy bond paper) for labeling and
placement inside of the collection containers
 Paper labels (adhesive), for labelling and placement on the exterior of
collection containers.
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 Graphite pencil (HB or #2) for making labels. INK SHOULD NOT BE
USED since the preservative fluids will cause the ink to smear and not
adhere to the paper.
 Small hand trowel or garden spade for soil sampling and digging for
migrating larvae or pupae in outdoor death scenes.
 Digital Thermometers ( other traditional types can also be used )
 35 mm SLR camera, lens, and flash for on-scene macrophotography of
insects.
 Ruler or other measuring devices.
 Preservation and collection chemicals (In particular ethyl alcohol, ethyl
acetate, and KAA).
 Paper towels, for use in kill jars and for cleaning utensils.
 Disposable gloves.
 Shifting screens for processing soil samples for insects and insect
artifacts.
 Styrofoam containers with insulated lids Shipping containers.
(Cardboard boxes can also be used )
11.3.7 Collection and Preservation of Insects
 Collect adult flies with sweep-net around corpse and preserve in ethyl
alcohol.
 The hairy maggots of Chrysomya are heavily predacious on both other
fly species and their own at highly populated densities. So it is important
to remember when collecting both hairy maggots (Chrysomya spp) and
smooth maggots (Calliphora and Lucilia spp) from the same corpse – if
they are placed together in a vial, the smooth maggots will soon be
consumed by the hairy maggots, and will not be represented in the
entomological evidence gathered.
 Collect all size maggots (1st, 2nd and 3rd instars) and preserve half in
ethyl alcohol, and keep the rest alive in ventilated container and
refrigerated (4-5 DC; record time of refrigeration).
 The largest larval stage pupates, forming a dark brown casing, so dry
soil is required adjacent to their food source.dry soil for pupation.
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 Pupae: some of these pupae need to be collected and placed in a
ventilated container and some into ethyl alcohol. Empty pupal cases also
need to be collected and placed into a container.
 Beetles grubs are also helpful when determining post-mortem time
interval.
 Adult beetles can be collected from or around the corpse or with a
sweepnet and preserved in ethyl alcohol.
11.3.8 Forensic Entomological Decomposition
Process after Death
 The body undergoes several changes after the death. These changes can
be divided into various stages, which are important to know, in order to
fix the time of death.
Stages of dead body processes :
Dead body passes through a series of stages. Since there are many variables,
only broad generalizations can be made:
1. Algormortis - the change in body temperature after death. This is the
most useful indicator of the time of death during the first 24 h.
2. Livormortis - the settling of blood in the body, which imparts a bluish
purple colour.
3. Rigor mortis - the stiffening of the muscles after death. It is a well
known phenomenon, and is due to a complex chemical reaction in the
body. In the living body muscles can function both aerobic and
anaerobic. In the dead body muscle cells can only function
anaerobically. When muscle cells work anaerobically, the end product is
lactic acid. In the living body, lactic acid can be converted back, by
means of excessive oxygen uptake. In the dead body this cannot happen,
and the breakdown of glycogen in the muscles leads irreversibly to high
levels of lactic acid in the muscles. This leads to a complex reaction
where actin and myosin fuse to form a gel. This gel is responsible for
the stiffness felt in the body. This stiffness continues till the
decomposition begins. However, Rigor mortis is never considered the
only basis for estimating time of death.
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4. Autolysis - the breakdown of the tissues by the body’s own internal
chemicals and enzymes. Body starts decomposing at different times
after death, and may also be used in estimating time of death, however it
should be noted that the duration of each stage might vary considerably.
Decomposition :
The decomposition of a body can be divided into several stages:
 Initial decay: The body appears fresh but continues decomposing
internally due to the activities of bacteria, protozoa and nematodes
present in the body before death.
 Putrefaction: This results from the breakdown of tissues by bacteria.
The body swells or bloating stage due to the gases produced internally
that are the chief source of the characteristic decaying flesh.
 Black putrefaction: Flesh of creamy consistence with exposed parts
black. Odour of decay is very strong.
 Butyric fermentation: Corpse starts drying. Some flesh remains at first,
and cheesy odour develops. Ventral surface becomes mouldy from
fermentation.
 Dry decay: Cadaver becomes almost dry and the rate of decay is slowed
down.
 Mummification: This occurs due to dehydration or desiccation of
tissues.
Factors Affecting Body Decomposition :
The rate of decomposition is affected directly or indirectly by a number of
factors
 Temperature
 Access by insects
 Burial, and depth of burial
 Access by carnivores or rodents
 Trauma, including wounds and crushing blows
 Humidity, or dryness
 Rainfall
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 Body size and weight
 Prior embalming
 Clothing
 The surface on which the body rests
11.3.9 Preliminary Idea about Post Mortem Interval (PMI)/ Estimating
Time of Death
Post-mortem interval (PMI) is the time that has elapsed since a person has
died. If the time in question is not known, a number of
medical/scientific/forensic entomology techniques are used to determine it. This
also can refer to the stage of decomposition of the body.
After identification of the specimens from the body, the next stage is to connect
this information to the temperature at the crime scene. Temperature data,
covering the period since the person was last seen alive, are obtained from the
local meteorological station. These data are ‘corrected’, using a correction
factor calculated from the meteorological office data and half-hourly
temperature readings, which have been recorded at the crime scene for 3–5 days
after the body was discovered. These corrected data provide an estimate of the
temperatures at the crime scene before the corpse was found. From this
information, we can determine the length of time the flies took to grow from an
egg to the developmental stage recovered from the body. By implication, this is
the best estimate of the post mortem interval (PMI) that is available.
In temperate regions, the time of death can be estimated from the degree of
stiffness and temperature of the body up to about 36 hours. These parameters
have to be used cautiously as several other factors may play a role.
Initially when the body begins decaying, it starts to smell, different types of
insects are attracted to the dead body. The insects that usually arrive first are the
dipterans, in particular the blow flies (Calliphoridae) and the flesh flies
(Sarcophagidae). The females lay their eggs on the body, especially around the
natural orifices such as the nose, eyes, ears, mouth, anus, penis and vagina. If
the body has wounds, the eggs are also laid in such wounds. Flesh flies do not
lay eggs instead deposit larvae.
After few hours, depending on species, the egg hatches into small maggots.
These maggots live on the dead tissue and grow fast. When the larva is fully
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grown it becomes restless and begins to wander. It is now in its prepupal stage.
The prepupa then molts into a pupa, inside puparium. Typically it takes
between one to two weeks from the egg to the pupae stage. The exact time
depends on the species and the temperature in the surroundings.
The theory behind estimating time of death, or the post mortem interval
(PMI) with the help of insects is very simple: since insects arrive on the
body soon after death, determining the age of the insects leads to an
estimation of the time of death. The PMI can also be estimated by the pattern
of colonization of insects. These procedures can be categorized into two
methods:
Method I involves determination of the age of the insects from the appearance
of various stages, or by application of temperature dependant development of
insects usually flies.
Method II uses a generally predictable succession of arthropods that often
facilitates decomposition of organic matter.
Method 1: Age and stage of an insect :
In this method age of dipteran insects especially that of blowfly eggs, larvae,
pupae and adults is estimated for PMI calculation.
 Eggs
During the first eight hours or so the eggs show little signs of
development, after which changes can be noticed. At the end of the egg
stage the larvae can be see through the chorion. The egg stage typically
lasts a day or so.
 Larvae :
The maggot passes through three instars stages during its development.
The first instar is approximately 5 mm long after 1.8 days, the second
instar is approximately 10 mm long after 2.5 days, and the third instar is
approximately 17 mm long after 4-5 days. Exact stage of instar is
identified on the basis of size of larva, length of the crop, size of the
larva’s mouth parts and morphology of the posterior spiracles. The
duration of different instars depends very much on temperature and
humidity.
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 Pupa :
After 8-24 days of oviposition the pupal size is about 9 mm in length.
The presence of empty puparia indicates death to have occurred more
than approximately 20 days ago. Identification can be confirmed based
on the remaining mouth parts of the third instar larvae. A more precise
way to determine age of larvae and eggs is the use of rearing.
Calculation
 Time A - The body is found with masses of eggs on it, none have
hatched. The time of the discovery, and the time when the first 1st instar
larvae occur is noted. The first occurrence time is substracted from the
discovery time.
 Time B - The blow flies are reared to adults. They are allowed to mate
and lay eggs on raw beef liver under conditions similar to the crime
scene. Time from oviposition to the first appearance of 1st instar larvae
is recorded. Call this time B.
 B – A = C (the time since oviposition to discovery). Similar calculations
can be done for other instars as well.
Accumulated degree hours:
 Insects are cold blooded animals, their development is dependent upon
temperature. The rate of development is more or less dependent on
ambient temperature. The rate of development of all insects is directly
dependent on the ambient conditions, particularly temperature. Between
upper and lower thresholds, which vary between species, the higher the
temperature, the faster the insects develop; the lower the temperature,
the slower they develop.
 For each species there is a threshold temperature below which no
development occurs. As the temperature rises above this threshold, a
certain amount of time is required for the insect to pass through each life
stage. Because this heat is accumulated as “thermal units,” it can be
calibrated and described as “degreedays” or “degreehours”. This can be
calculated by multiplying the temperature (F) with the number of hours
spent during that particular stage. If the ambient temperatures during the
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period of development are known, then, in theory, the minimum PMI
can be determined.
Factors affecting rate of development of maggots on a body:
 Temperature (which can depend on geographical location, indoor or
outdoor exposure, sun or shade, time of day and season).
 Heat generated by the maggot mass
 Food source (tissue type, e.g. liver, heart, lungs)
 Contaminants and toxins (external and internal)
 Burial or other obstructions (e.g. plastic sheets, water) that hinder access
and egg laying by adult insects.
The entomologist may attend the crime scene personally to collect the insect
specimens from the body or its surroundings. This is ideal, because he or she
can use knowledge of Insect Biology and behaviour to make sure that as many
specimens as possible are collected which helps interpret the results.
Alternatively, the entomologist may collect insect specimens during the post-
mortem examination as well as viewing photos of the crime scene or visiting
the scene after the body has been removed.
The life-cycle of the maggot is also influenced by many chemicals like – high
dosages of cocaine accelerate the development of some sarcophagids.
Malathion, an insecticide, is commonly used in suicide, and is usually taken
orally. Presence of malathion in the mouth may lead to a delay in the
colonization of the mouth. Presence of amitriptyline, an antidepressant, can
prolong the developmental time with up to 77 hours, at least in one species of
Sarcophagidae. Knowledge of drug use in the victim is therefore important not
only in finding the death cause, but also in estimating the time of death.
Another method to estimate the PMI is to use the morphological characters of
the maggot. For example the length of the crop of Calliphora vicina and length
of the maggot at different time periods is given below :
Method 2 : Faunal Succession :
The sequence in which the insects feed on the dead body is called the faunal
succession. Another important biological phenomenon that occurs on corpse is
a succession of organisms that increase on the different parts, e.g. Files are
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often first on the scene. They prefer a moist corpse for the maggots to feed on.
Predatory rove beetles or parasites that feed on maggots wait until the blow
flies arribe to lay their eggs. Beetles that feed on bone, have to wait until bone
is exposed. The succession on cadavers happens in a fairly predictable sequence
and can be used in estimating time of death if the body has been lying around
for some time. Estimation of time since death requires knowledge of sequence
and can be used in estimating time of death if the body has been lying around
for some time. Estimation of time since death requires knowledge of sequence,
pattern, and duration of insect activity, ability to identify each species in all
stages of their life cycles and knowledge of the time occupied by each life stage
under various conditions. This system of estimation offers great accuracy
initially, but is less accurate with increasing time.
Blow flies -> staphylinids -> Adult green bottle fly decrease -> Dermestidae,
Silphidae, Histeridae and certain mites -> Large predator/scavenger activity->
Beetles
The first groups to arrive on a body is blow flies, followed shortly by
staphylinids. As putrefaction develops, more groups arrive at the scene, with
most groups present just before the body dries out due to seepage of liquids.
After the body dries out, dermestids, tineids and certain mites dominate the
animal groups on the body, and blow flies gradually vanish. The fauna in the
soil also change. This can also be used to estimate time since death. A typical
sequence of succession at a carcass as an example is given below :
 Ambient temperatures (C):
 Mean 20.8; Min. 9.03; Max. 34.9
 Maggot mass temperature (C):
 Mean 30.9; Max. 50.7 (128 hrs. PMI)
 Mean RH: 50%
 Precipitation : none
Fresh Stage
 10 minutes PMI – Calliphoridae, species Lucilia illustris (Meigen)
 Six hours PMI – Egg clusters.
Bloated Stage
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 8 hours – Bloating
 12 hours, bald-faced hornets (Dolichovespula maculate) (Linnaeus)
 33 hours PMI: the green bottle fly eggs hatched
 48 hrs : Staphylinidae appear
Active Decay Stage
 72 hour PMI – flesh fly (Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis)
 Terrestrial isopods
 Adult green bottle fly decrease
 Dermestidae, Silphidae, Histeridae appear
Advanced Decay Stage
 120 hours : carcass began to desiccate
 132 hours : third instar/post feeding maggots
 147 hours : maggot mass exit carcass
 Large predator/scavenger activity
Body Desiccated, No odour
 288 hrs. PMI – Beetle Activity
 25 days: scavengers
Decomposition Summary
 Green bottle fly appear within 10 min
 Ovipositing/ egg cluster 6 hrs.
 33 hrs: first hatch
 12 hrs: predators (hornet)
 72 hrs: predators (beetles)
 168hrs: green bottle maggots leave carcass
Some insects are specific in living in very decayed dead bodies. For example
the cheese skipper, Piophila casei (Piophilidae), larvae usually appear 3-6
months after death. The cheese skipper is a well known pest of cheese and
bacon worldwide, and has a cosmopolitan distribution. Adult cheese skippers
may appear early after death, but larvae occur later. The earliest appearance on
human remains is when the body is two months old, and this was under
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excellent summer conditions. In graves of three to ten years old and three to six
feet deep Piophila casei was observed.
Finding the transfer of body after death:
Various species of fungi, bacteria and animals inhabits on the dead body after
death. The base on which the body is lying also changes over time. Fluids are
leaked out from the deadbody can cause the disappearance of certain insects,
and other insects increase as the time goes. A forensic entomologist then looks
for how long the body has been there by looking at the fauna at the body, and
also estimate the time the body has been lying there by sampling soil insects
underneath the dead body.
If the dead bodies are found in such an environment where blowflies entry can
not possible. If there are blowflies, it means that the body has been moved
there. Insects like Calliphorids are heliophilic means that they lay their eggs on
warm surfaces only, which means that they usually occur where the bodies lie
in sunny places. While some blowflies species prefer shade. For example,
Lucilia species prefer sunlight, and Calliphora prefer shady conditions. Some
synanthropic species (which are strongly associated with human activity) occur
in urban areas e.g. Drosophila, Musca, Muscina, Ophyra, Stomoxys, etc., but
are not encountered frequently in investigations. Other species are not
synanthropic and occurs in rural areas.
11.3.10 Some Forensic Important Insects – Flies and Beetles
Flies:
 Flies are often seen first on the scene. They prefer a moist corpse for the
maggots to feed on, as such a corpse is easier for them to chew. Many
dipteran flies have been recorded in the vicinity of carrion. These
include: Blow flies (Calliphoridae), flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), muscid
flies (Muscidae), skipper flies (Piophilidae), dung flies
(Scathophagidae), scavenger flies (Sepsidae and Sphaeroceridae),
soldier flies (Stratiomyidae), mushroom flies (Phoridae), sand flies
(Psychodidae) etc. However, only some of these are useful in estimating
the PMI. Some of the important dipterans are as following:
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1. Blow flies (Calliphoridae) :
 The blow flies have a bright shining blue or green metallic appearance
are known as blue-bottles or green bottles. They are small to medium,
some being smaller and other larger than the common housefly.
Members of the family Calliphoridae namely Lucilia, Chrysomya,
Calliphora, and Phaenicia include the largest number of flies that feed
on carrion. Calliphora vicina, Lucilia cuprina, L. sericata, and
Chrysomya bezziana may be considered the type species, being also
very common in various parts of India. All these species are widely
distributed in various parts of the world.
 The blowflies (family Calliphoridae) are of greatest value to forensic
entomology because they are usually the first insects to colonize a body
after death, often within hours. Adult blowflies are well adapted to
sensing and locating the sources of odours of decay, so can quickly find
the corpses. The age of the oldest blowflies gives the most accurate
evidence of the PMI. Blowfly plays a very important role in the
environment as primary decomposers, and the larval infestations of a
dead body are a vital component of the natural recycling of organic
matter. Eggs are usually laid in the natural orifices of the body like eyes,
nose, mouth, ears or other dark and moist places, such as the folds of
clothes or just under the body. Maggots undergo three instars.
Depending on the species, they pupate on the body or move away to find
a suitable site. They may move many metres before burrowing into the
soil or under objects such as rocks and logs or, if indoors, under carpets
and furniture. The larva then forms the barrel-shaped puparium, within
which the pupa metamorphoses into an adult fly. When the fly emerges,
the empty puparial case is left behind as long-lasting evidence of the
insect development.
 The sites of blowfly infestation on the corpse are important in
determining the cause of death or reconstruction of events prior to death.
For example: if there have been trauma or damage of the body prior to
death, this may lead to heavy infestation of other body parts than the
usual sites when the victim is not mutilated. After death, blowfly may
oviposit in the wounds, rather than the usual body orifices. The usual
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sites of oviposition on dead humans are natural openings. Even here
there is preference. Blowflies most often lay their eggs in the facial
region, and more seldom in the genitoanal region. If there is a sexual
assault prior to death, leading to bleeding in the genitoanal region,
blowflies are more likely to oviposit in these regions. Therefore, if there
blowfly activity is observed in the genitoanal region, one can suspect a
sexual crime. This must of course be corroborated with other evidence
as well. The interpretation of maggots in the anogenital region becomes
very fuzzy after a few (4-5) days, as eggs are laid in this region during
the course of decay in the natural course of decomposition.
2. Flesh flies (Sarcophagidae)
 Flies of the family Sarcophagidae are commonly known as flesh flies.
Flesh flies are stripey backed or chequered flies usually black in colour
with grey longitudinal stripes on thorax, with bright red eyes. They are
very close to the Blowfly family but none of them are in metallic colour.
Ovo-larvipary is a typical trait of the family. The majority of
Sarcophagus flies are scavengers of small carrion like dead insects and
snails as well as smaller vertebrates, and only few species are breeding
in larger vertebrate carcasses and faeces.
 Flesh flies frequently give birth to live young on corpses of human and
other animals, at any stage of decomposition from newly dead through
to bloated or decaying. They arrive at corpses slightly later than the
pioneer blowflies, but the eggs hatch in the uterus of the female, before
she lays them, with the result that the larvae are deposited directly on the
body. This allows them to catch up on the blowflies, whose eggs take
around 24 hours to hatch. Flesh fly pupae can remain dormant for long
periods. The sarcophagid larvae are characterized by having a barrel-like
shape with their posterior spiracles sunk into a hollow. The edge of the
posterior segment has a large number of tubercles. This makes this
family easy to distinguish as a larval stage. Maggots of some
Sarcophaga species hibernate as pupae in autumn and do not emerge as
adult flies until late spring. Flesh flies are often seen in houses.
3. Soldier flies (Stratiomyidae):
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 Soldier fly, Hermitia illucens larvae are scavengers and grow well on
many kinds of decaying organic matter, including carrion, manure, plant
refuse and the waste products of beehives. Adults commonly frequent
flowers of the daisy and carrot families. The fly commonly breeds in
outdoor toilets, poorly managed compost and in poultry manure. Larvae
occur in greatest densities in moist rather than wet or dry media. It has
been shown to be a ubiquitous inhabitant of both surface and buried
human remains.
 The adult is a dusky winged, nonbiting fly is 15 to 20mm long. The fly
often resembles a black wasp in its appearance and behaviour. When at
rest, its wings are folded on top of each other on abdomen. Their long
and slightly elbowed antenna also makes them look like a wasp. Their
legs are black with white tip. Primarily shiny black, the female’s
abdomen is reddish at the apex and has two translucent spots on the
second abdominal segment. The male’s abdomen is somewhat bronze in
color.
 Egg is about 1mm long, the elongate-oval egg is pale yellow or cream
colored when newly laid but darkens with time. Each egg mass contains
about 500 eggs. Maggot is fat, slightly flattened, with a tiny, yellowish
to black head. The skin is tough and leathery. Creamy white and about
1.8 mm long when newly hatched. The larva develops through six
instars, the last of which is reddish-brown. The mature larva is about
18mm long and 6mm wide, although some individuals may be as long
as 27mm.
 The motile pupa develops within the darkened skin of the last larval
instar (puparium). The pupa is about one-third the length of the
puparium. Adults of the black soldier fly appear to initiate egg laying 20
to 30 days. Even at warm temperatures, subsequent completion of the
life cycle can require an additional 55 days. Black soldier fly larvae are
preyed upon by sphaecid wasps, histerid beetles, and many species of
birds and are parasitized by small wasps.
4. Coffin flies (Phoridae) :
 Adult phorids are slightly smaller aprroximately 2-3mm but more robust
flies than sciarids. They are darker in colour with a hump-backed
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appearance with no obvious differences between male and female flies.
Adult flies tend to remain on the compost surface or in close proximity
to the cropping area. They are very active in the presence of light and
have a characteristic rapid, jerky movement.
 Each female can lay up to 50 eggs in close proximity to developing
mycelia. Phorid larvae are off white, legless maggots are without’a
distinct head capsule. The anterior region narrows to a point while the
posterior is blunt with small protuberances. The duration of phorid
development is temperature dependent and may vary between 15 days
(24-27DC) to 50 days (16-21DC). Larval development accounts for
approximately 1/3 of the development time and the remainder is spent in
pupation.
Figure –Flies of Forensic significance
Beetles Beetles are generally found on the corpse when it is more decomposed.
Suborder Polyphaga contains the majority of families of beetles of forensic
importance. The following features characterize this suborder. The hind coxa is
rarely fused to the metasternum, it is movable and so does not divide the first
visible abdominal sternite. The thorax in this suborder does not have lines or
sutures across its dorsal surface. Polyphaga larvae are of many different shapes.
They have legs with four segments which end in a claw. Some larvae in the
suborder Polyphaga have legs which are reduced, others have vestigial legs, or
the legs may even be absent altogether. Polyphaga adults eat a variety of food.
Some beetles are predaceous, but in the suborder as a whole many are
phytophagous. Only beetles which are predators are of immediate importance to
the forensic entomologist. A number of beetles visit a dead body, either because
the body itself forms food and a habitat, e.g. the Dermestidae, or to feed on the
insects already present, e.g. the Staphylinidae. The families of insects from this
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suborder that are important in forensic entomology includes hister beetles
(Histeridae), rove beetles (Staphilinidae), carrion beetles (Silphidae), carcass
beetles (Trogidae), hide beetles or carpet beetles (Dermestidae), checkered
beetles (Cleridae), scavenger beetles (Scarabeidae), sap beetles (Nitidulidae)
etc. have been recorded to be associated with the dead bodies. Important groups
useful in forensic entomology are given below:
1. Hister beetles (Histeridae)
 Hister beetles are shiny and glabrous, black or metallic coloured, rarely
brownish, and ranging from 0.5 to 20mm long. The body is normally
ovate to oblong and strongly convex, sometimes it is elongate and
cylindrical or dorsoventrally flattened. The head is usually tucked
deeply into the prothorax. The form of the antennae is striking short,
elbowed, 3 segmented club. The underside of the prothorax is expanded
and excavated to receive the front legs and often the antennae. The front
tibiae are broad and often spiny. The elytra are striate, shortened and
truncate, usually exposing two or three apical segments of the abdomen.
 Adults and larvae are predators of other insects, especially the soft
bodied larvae and eggs of flies. Most are associated with decaying
organic matter such as dung, carrion, rotting plants and fungi, where fly
maggots abound. Others live in mammal burrows, ant nests, under bark
and in bark beetle galleries. Some appear in stored products, where they
feed on other insects. The carrion feeding species only become active at
night when they enter the maggot infested part of the corpse to capture
and devour their maggot prey. During daylight they hide under the
corpse unless it is sufficiently decayed to enable them to hide inside it.
They have fast larval development with only two larval stages. Among
the first beetles to arrive at a corpse are Histeridae of the genus
Saprinus. Saprinus adults feed on both the larvae and pupae of
blowflies, although some have a preference for fresh pupae. The adults
lay their eggs in the corpse, inhabiting it in the later stages of decay.
Saprinus lugens Erichson is common and widespread on carrion.
M.umbrosus (Casey) is common in carrion, sometimes in dung.
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2. Rove beetles (Staphylinidae)
 Rove beetles live in many different habitats, but are most abundant in
leaf litter, decomposing matter and moist soil. Many live in fungi,
carrion, dung, vertebrate nests, ant and termite nests, under bark, on
vegetation and flowers, and in tidal debris; some are active on beaches.
They are 0.5 to 50mm long, brown to black and glabrous to setose. The
antennae are usually 10 or 11 segmented, threadlike, sometimes clubbed,
and the first segment is usually elongate. The elytra are usually short and
truncate, exposing 5 to 6 abdominal segments; hindwings are normally
functional. The abdomen in most taxa is flexible dorsoventrally, often
held upward, showing 6 to 7 abdominal sternites. These beetles can run
quickly and fly well.
3. Carrion beetle (Silphidae)
 Carrion beetles or burying beetles, are associated with dead animals.
Most species are attracted to carrion, which they feed themselves and
sometimes also their developing young ones. Some species are
associated with dung or fungi. These are slightly flattened beetles of
approximately 20 mm long body. The antennae are club-shaped. Their
overall brown or black bodies are marked with yellow, orange or red.
The elytra may not cover the entire abdomen, as in the Nicrophorus
species.
 These strong insects can move the body of a small animal to a suitable
burying place, remove soil from under the animal, and gradually bury it.
The beetles lay egg on the body, and the larvae feed on it. Recent
evidence suggests that the adult beetles feed on maggots associated with
the body, rather than on the dead animal itself.
 The burying beetle (Necrophorus sp.) is black and orange, stout-bodied,
and measures ½ to 1 inch in length. This beetle is often covered with
very small, tan colored mites, which may be parasites or merely
scavengers. Little is known about why these mites are found on the
beetle.
4. Carcass beetles (Trogidae) :
 Carcass beetles are large in size with very thick exoskeletons and
uniform dark colouration. They are among the last beetles to inhabit a
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carcass and, they feed on dried remains such as skin and ligaments.
Adults and larvae both feeds on the carcass and the larvae live in
vertical burrows underneath it when they are not foraging. Carcass
Beetle, Omorgus candidus is typical of carcass beetles found at
vertebrate carvasses.
5. Hide beetles (Dermestidae) :
 Dermestids are compact, oval, usually strongly convex beetles 1 to
12mm long. The base colour is black; some species have patterns of
white, yellow, brown or red setae or scales. The head may be retracted
into the prothorax up to the eyes. There is a median ocellus. The
antennae are inserted in front of the eyes – they are threadlike or
comblike, have 5 to 11 segments, and usually bear a 3-segmented club.
The antennae fit in grooves below the pronotum. The legs are mostly
retractile; the hind coxae are excavated to hold the folded demora.
 The larvae, densely covered with mostly spiny setae, are scavengers,
feeding on dried carcasses, fur, feathers, wool, silk, leather, cereals and
many other organic materials. With these habits, many are damaging
pests in human habitations; elsewhere they are valuable recyclers. Many
live in bee and wasp nests feeding on old pollen stores or insect remains,
or in bird and mammal nests eating feathers and hair and other organic
matter. Some Trogoderma species are predators of wasps, bee larvae and
spider eggs. Adults are usually found on flowers where they eat pollen
and nectar.
6. Darkling Beetles (Tenebrionidae) :
 Darkling beetles are flightless and hard bodied, brown or black beetles
ranging in length from 1 to 80 mm. The 11 segmented antennae are
thread like, bead like, or sometimes clubbed; they arise beneath a lateral
expansion of the frons, which often notches or divides the eyes into
upper and lower parts.
 Darkling beetles are habitants of arid and regions, where they are
associated with soil and sand; in forests, many species live under bark,
in rotten wood, leaf litter and fungi and in the nests of mammals, birds
and insects. Larvae and adults eat fungi, decaying plant matter, roots,
seeds and cereal products. The larvae of some groups are predatory; for
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example, Corticeus species hunt bark beetles in their galleries. Tenebrio,
Tribolium and other genera are cosmopolitan pests of stored food
products. Tenebrionid larvae are typically long and cylindrical to
somewhat flattened, often heavily sclerotized.
Figure –Beetles of Forensic significance
Moths associated with carrion :

Clothes-moths (Tineidae):
 Larvae feed on mammalian hair during their larval stages and may
forage on any hair that remains. They are amongst the final animals
contributing to the decomposition of a corpse.
Wasps, ants, and bees associated with carrion :
 These hymenopteran insects are not necessarily necrophagous. Some
feed on the body, some are also predatory, while some eat the insects
feeding on the body. Bees and wasps have been seen feeding on the
body during the early immature developmental stages. These insects
may cause problems for murder cases in which larval flies are used to
estimate the post mortem interval since eggs and larvae on the body may
have been consumed prior to the arrival on scene of investigators.
11.5 Summary
Forests play a vital role in the economy of the country. Forests are precious &
valuable ecosystems that provide a variety of useful products, such as timber,
fuelwood, fibre and non-wood forest products, and contribute to the livelihoods
of rural communities. Insect pests have hazardous impact on forests and the
forest sector. They can badly affect tree growth, vigour and survival, the yield
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and quality of wood and non-wood products, wildlife habitat, recreation,
aesthetics and cultural values
Forensic insects are important agents in the biological breakdown of corpses
and often provide valuable evidences in criminal incestigations. These insects
feed, live, or breed in and on the corpse, depending on their biological
preferences and on the state of decomposition. Among all these, insects are
considered the most impotant tools in forensic science. Numerous insect species
especially the flies (Diptera), beetles (Coleoptera), and their larvae are attracted
by corpses. The investigation of insects recovered from crime scenes and
corpses opens a wide range of applications for forensic entomology.
Forensic entomology is the application of Insect Biology in criminal
investigations. Entomological evidence is particularly useful in estimating the
time of death in cases where the post-mortem interval (PMI). Besides this,
forensic entomology is also useful in corpse relocation, finding the cause of
death, detecting physical abuse, detecting drugs or other poisonous substances
and in wildlife investigations. Knowledge of the insect species associated with
different habitats may provide information regarding the history of the remains.
Several species of insects belonging to the orders Diptera, Coleoptera,
Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera are associated with decaying matter, including
corpses.
Sinoxylon.
Dinoderus,
3. What do you mean by pests of forests? Explain the details of
Hoplocerambyx spinicornis?
4. Explain the history of forensic entomology.
5. Describe the different applications of forensic entomology.
7. Write a short note on different fields of forensic entomology.
8. Describe the different insects of forensic importance.
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9. Suppose you are forensic entomologist, now you have to investigate one
dead body, now explain how will you collect the different evidences
during your investigations?
10. What is the format for collection label for different entomological
samples?
11. Explain the different stages of dead body processes.
12. List out the important families of flies and beetles that appear on a
cadaver.
13. List out the important collection equipments used at the death scene.
14. “Forensic entomology is useful in various fields besides the estimation
of PMI” discuss.
15. How the time of death is estimated using information about the
appearance of various insect species appearing on a death body?
11.7 References
 Forensic Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in Legal Investigations,
Second Edition, Jason H. Byrd (Editor), James L. Castner (Editor),
Publisher: CRC Press; 2 edition, ISBN-10: 0849392152,ISBN-13: 978-
0849392153
 Forensic Entomology: An Introduction, Dorothy Gennard (Author),
Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell; 2 edition (April 23, 2012), ISBN-13: 978-
0470689035.
 Forensic Entomology (Bugs and Bodies): Sue L. Hamilton, Crime Scene
Investigation Series, Publisher- ABDO, 2010.
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Unit - 12
Social insects: Termites, Honeybees,
Ants; social organization and caste
differentiation
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Termites
12.4 Bees
12.5 Ants
12.6 Summary
12.8 References
12.1 Objectives
 Social Insects
 Eusocial, Presocial, Subsocial, Parasocial species
 Termites
 Social organization and caste differentiation
 Fertile castes and sterile castes
 Importance of Pheromones in termites life
 Structure and composition of nest of termite
 Different types of termite
 Bees
 Queen, Drone and workers
 Nuptial Flight
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 Structure of Bee hive
 Different types of bees
 Bees communication
 Ants
 Queens, Workers and Mates
 Importance of Pheromones in ants life
 Nest structure of ants
 Different types of ants
12.2 Introduction
Social insectmeans insects that live in colonies and manifest three
characteristics: group integration, division of labour, and overlap of
generations, feeding aggregations, parental care of the young and communal
nest sites.
Many insects exhibit "social" behaviour. In a broad sense, any insect that
interacts with another member of its own species could be called a social
insect. Truly social (eusocial) means a species must exhibit all four of the
following characteristics:
1. Share a common nest site
2. Individuals of the same species cooperate in caring for the young
3. Reproductive division of labor -- sterile (or less fecund) individuals
work for the benefit of a few reproductive individuals
4. Overlap of generations -- offspring contribute to colony labor while their
parents are still alive
Species that lack one or more of these characteristics are classified as
presocial. Within this category are subsocial species (in which the parents care
for their offspring) and parasocial species (which have a common nest site but
lack one or more of the other eusocial characteristics).
Living in social groups has both advantages and disadvantages. Inlarge colonies
there is risk of spread of contagious pathogens, nest sites may be attacked by
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"social parasites" who steal food or attack the brood, and member individuals
must compete with each other for space and resources. On the other hand,
cooperative behavior can accomplish construction of huge nest sites,
widespread foraging for food, and constant vigilance against predation or
parasitism. For social insects, the benefits outweigh the liabilities. Social
behavior is an adaptation that promotes survival and reproductive success of the
species.
Relatively few insects are classified as eusocial -- the distinction is limited to
the following groups:
Order Isoptera
Termites -- all species
Order Hymenoptera
Ants -- all species (family Formicidae)
Bees -- about 600 species in the family Apidae
Wasps -- about 700 species in the family Vespidae
12.3 Termites
Termites are the members of order Isoptera. All isopterans are eusocial insects.
Termites feed primarily on the cellulose and lignin found in plant cell walls;
these compounds are the main ingredients of wood and all paper products.
Termites cannot digest the cellulose directly so they rely upon symbiotic
bacteria and protozoa living within their intestines to supply most of the
enzymes needed for cellulose digestion.
Termites are sometimes called white ants. They may resemble ants in size, but
they are not ants. They are distinguished from ants by the absence of a
constriction or peduncle between the thorax and the abdomen. Ants have
unequal wings (anterior pair is larger), whereas the termites have equal wings.
Termites live on wood and are nocturmal, whereas the ants live on sweet
chemicals and anima's matter and are diural. Microtermesobesiand
odntotermesobsus are two common species of termites found in India.
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Ecologically, termites play an important recycling role in the environment by

helping to break down dead wood and other plant tissues. They become pests
when their appetite for wood and wood products extends to human household
items likefurniture, building materials, cardboard, and other valuable products.
Social Organization and Caste Differentiation
Each termite nest or colony can have hundreds, thousands, or even millions of
members. In fact, the termite colony is really a large, extended family. Within
this family, various groups of individuals have differentfunctional roles
according to a "caste system".
The colony of termites is well managed by division of labour as termites exhibit
polymorphism. Colony comprises two major castes (A) Fertile caste (B) Sterile
Caste.
(A) Fertile caste: The fertile caste is of the following three forms:
a. Long winged adults or colonizing Adults: winged adults are
produced in good number in rainy season and are actually winged
males and female. Male and female individuals go on nuptial flight
and copulate in the sky. After fertilization the female may have a
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new colony separately. Males have well developed eyes and wings.
Long winged adults are of two types.
i. Queen: The queen of M. abesi is 5 to 7.5 cm. in length. The
sole function of the queen is egg laying. She lays about
70,000 to 80,000 eggs in 24 hours. The life span of a queen is
recorded to be 5 to 10 years. The queen lives n royal chamber
of the nest and feeds royal jelly. The queen is well served by
the workers.
ii. King: The king is father of the colony living with the queen
in the royal chamber. It is developed from an unfertilized egg
by feeding on nutritive diet. It fertilizes the queen repeatedly
to produce fertilized eggs for the hatching of the winged
male, female and workers. Life of the king is shorter than the
queen. So the king is replaced by a new one.
Both true kings and queen have two pairs of wings in the
beginning but wings are ultimately discarded and only their
truncated base remains present.
b. Short-winged adults(Brachypterous): These are supplementary or
substitute orneotenic king and queen. Body is less pigmented. The
two pairs of wing are short, vestigial and pad-like.
c. Wingless form (Apterous): There are worker-like substitute kings
and queens which occurs in the more primitive species. The body is
without pigmentation. There are no traces of wings.
(B) Sterile castes: These are form with rudimentary reproductive organs. This
is of three types:
a. Workers: The workers are numerous and the largest group. They
perform all the duties of the colony except reproduction. The body
has little or no pigmentation. The workers are commonly dimorphic,
but sometimes trimorphic comprising small, intermediates and large
individuals.These soft-bodied, wingless individuals perform all of
the hard labor in the colony: they clean, maintain, and repair the
nest, gather food and water, care for the young, and construct new
tunnels and galleries as the colony grows. These juveniles all have
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the genetic capacity to undergo additional molts and become soldiers
or reproductives, but most will spend their entire lives as workers.
a. Soldiers: The soldiers are highly specialized. Soldier caste are larger
in size but fewer in number than the workers.They are concerned
with the defense of the colony against predictors. They are also
wingless,pigmented and large handed individuals with projected
prominent mandibles. In some species three grades of soldiers-small,
medium and large are present.
b. Nasutes: In higher genera (Edutermes) the mandibulate soldiers are
replaced by other form called the nasutes. Their head is prolonged
into a rostrum, lack jaws but have a large gland in the head that
shoots defensive chemicals through a nozzle at the front of the head.
Head have the opening of a large frontal gland at its apex. The sticky
secretion of the gland is inflicted upon their enemies in warfare and
is used to dissolve hard substances, like concrete which fall in the
way of the workers when building nest.
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Role of Pheromones
The termite's caste system is regulated by pheromones. The king and queen
each produce special pheromones that circulate throughout the colony and
inhibit workers of the same sex from moulting into reproductive adults. A
death in the royal family or an increase in the size of the colony can results in a
lower concentration of the corresponding pheromone and, subsequently, one or
more workers will moult into replacement reproductives. Likewise, the
concentration of sex-specific soldier pheromones regulate the numbers of male
and female soldiers to fall within an optimal range based on colony size.
Excess numbers of soldiers or reproductives may be killed and eaten by the
workers.
Nest of Termite (Termitaria)

The primitive termite species feeds upon wood cellulose and excavate galleries
in wooden structure. Some species construct carrion nestof masticated wood.
These carrion nests are ovoid or rounded in shape. The nest may attain the
sizeof football and placed up the trees.
Subterranean termites usually construct underground nests and have the ability
to tunnel through the soil to find new food resources. These colonies are often
long-lived and may grow to include several million individuals. The
subterranean termites that live in North America and Europe often invade
wooden structures above the ground by building earthen tubes that serve as
protective tunnels between the nest and their food source. These tubes are good
evidence of a termite infestation.
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The termites are the most efficient engineers that the entrance to their mounds
always faces north. They build excellent natural air conditioning systems,
which modern day architects are at pains to figure out. Many species burrow in
the ground and constructs a nest or termitarium. They consist numerous tunnels
and chambers and may be entirely subterranean or with a mound above the
surfaces. Suchtermitaria may be a few meters high and 9 meters in basal
diameter. The termitaria are made up of sand particles which are cemented
together by saliva and faecal matter of termites.This material on drying
becomes hard like cement.
In Africa and Australia, other subterranean species mix bits of soil with saliva
to build nest mounds that are up to 20 feet (6 meters) tall. The inside of the
mound is divided into numerous chambers and galleries. The king and queen
live in a special cell deep inside the mound. The female’s abdomen grows in
size until it is large enough to hold many thousands of eggs. The queen lays
these eggs at the rate of several thousand a day. Worker termites carry the eggs
away to specially constructed cells in the nest. There the workers care for the
young as they hatch from the eggs.
Some of the mound-building termites cultivate underground fungus gardens.
They collect dead plant material, mix it with saliva and their own waste
products to create a paste, and inoculate this substance with the spores of a
symbiotic fungus. The termites feed on special structures produced by the
growing fungus.
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Types of Termites
1. Drywood Termites
This is an extremely common type of termite found in many parts of the
world. They can be easily recognized by the hexagonal pellets that these
species leave behind after eating the untreated wood. The dry-wood termites
eat the wood from within and create a hollow. If we simply touch wood in
those hollow spaces, the pieces tend to wither and fall down. There are
further sub-classifications of dry-wood termite. All these sub-categories have
a common habit of building tunnels along the grain of the wood. The various
species of drywood termites based on their physical appearanceare as
follows-.
 West Indian Drywood Termites – The swarmers have a body
length of around 6mm or greater with a head width of bigger than 1
mm. These species tend to swarm at nights. The soldier species have
a 5mm long body and head bigger than 1 mm width. The head of this
termite is rough without an identifiable frontal ridge.
 Indo-Malaysian Drywood Termites – The swarmers have a body
length lesser than 5mm and the head smaller than a 1mm width.
These species swarm during the morning hours. Soldier varieties of
the Indo-Malaysian dry wood termites have 3-4mm long body and
their heads have a distinct front rim.
 Western Drywood Termite – The swarmer variety of this termite
has a dark brown body with a reddish-brown color on the head. They
swarm in the daytime. The soldier species have an extra-long third
antenna section that succeeds the length of the subsequent antennas
by at least three times. These varieties are more common in places
with low elevations.
2. Subterranean Termites
The second most prevalent type of termite is the subterranean termite. This
variety is generally found in premises built on elevated foundations. These
species can survive only underground, as they need high moisture levels to
thrive. They build mud tubes to maintain the requisite humidity levels. They
can also construct the mud tunnel on walls, cracks, wood and anything that
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comes in direct contact with the ground.The various species of these termites
based on their physical appearance are as follows-.
 Eastern Subterranean Termites – They are generally found in North
America and found in swarms of thousands. They swarm mainly during
the spring season. We can easily identify them by finding mud tubes or
the wings of the king and queen termites.
 Western Subterranean Termites – They enter our homes through
cracks in the foundation and other gaps which are as small as 1/16″ in
width. We can identify them through the colonies underneath the frosty
level and above the water table in the ground. They eat the cellulose part
of the wood found in dressers, furniture, walls and floors.
 Desert Subterranean Termites – They are commonly found in the dry
desert climatic conditions and have long mouths than wider ones found
in other species. If we find a small mud tube hut hanging from ceilings,
wooden walls, shelves, overhangs and the like, then we can be sure that
our house has become a victim of the desert subterranean termites.
3. Dampwood Termites
The dampwood termites thrive in high moisture conditions, and do not require
staying underground or in contact with the soil to survive. They are identified
by the traces of the dampwood species near water leaks, in wall voids. They are
also found in moist and decaying wood in dead trees, stumps and logs. If we
find exterior damage to wooden furniture, floors or ceilings, then there will be
surity about the existence of dampwood termites. The intensity and pattern of
wood damage basically depend on the level of wood decay. These termites are
visibly bigger than other termite species. The different varieties of dampwood
termites and all have similar identification traits. The immature termites work
in colonies and use their faecal pellets to seal their living spaces so as to prevent
outside air from entering.
4. Formosan Termites
Formosan termites are the most destructive species of termites and are
sometimes, considered as part of subterranean species in most places. They can
be easily distinguished from other termites due to their comparatively larger
size and yellowish brown bodies. These Formosan termites can form cartons
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inside the wood to retain water for their colony till they find a perennial water
source. Their colonies are very large, numbering to thousands and millions of
members in each colony.
12.4 Bees
Honey bees are social insects, which mean that they live together in large, well-
organized family groups. Social bees are highly evolved insects that engage in a
variety of complex tasks not practiced by the multitude of solitary insects.
Communication, complex nest construction, environmental control, defense,
and division of the labor are just some of the behaviors that honey bees have
developed to exist successfully in social colonies. These fascinating behaviors
make social bees the most fascinating creatures on earth.
Approximately more than 20,000bee species have been described worldwide.
Nearly all of these species use pollen and nectar from flowering plants as food
for themselves and their offspring. Physical adaptations for this lifestyle
include branched (or plumose) body hairs for catching and holding pollen,
combs (scopae) and baskets (corbiculae) for collecting and carrying the pollen,
and chewing and lapping type mouthparts for sipping nectar from flowers.
Some bees collect nectar and then convert it into honey. This process occurs in
the bee's crop where sucrose in the nectar undergoes enzymatic conversion into
glucose and fructose. The honey is regurgitated for storage or mixed with
pollen and fed to developing larvae. Some bees have abdominal glands that
secrete wax. This wax, alone or mixed with other substances, is often used for
construction of the nest site. Although most bees are solitary or subsocial, the
family Apidae contains three distinct groups that exhibit eusocialbehaviour:
these are commonly known as stingless bees, bumble bees and honey bees.
Social Organization and Caste Differentiation of Honeybee
A honey bee colony typically consists of three kinds of adult bees: workers,
drones, and a queen. Several thousand worker bees cooperate in nest building,
food collection, and brood rearing. Each member has a definite task to perform,
related to its adult age. But surviving and reproducing take the combined efforts
of the entire colony. Individual bees (workers, drones, and queens) cannot
survive without the support of the colony.
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In addition to thousands of worker adults, a colony normally has a single queen
and several hundred drones during late spring and summer. The social structure
of the colony is maintained by the presence of the queen and workers and
depends on an effective system of communication. The distribution of chemical
pheromones among members and communicative “dances” are responsible for
controlling the activities necessary for colony survival. Labor activities among
worker bees depend primarily on the age of the bee but vary with the needs of
the colony. Reproduction and colony strength depend on the queen, the quantity
of food stores, and the size of the worker force. As the size of the colony
increases up to a maximum of about 60,000 workers, so does the efficiency of
the colony.
Permanent houses, made up of sheets of wax (honey comb) are made by nearly
500 species of social bees. In the spring season a honeybee colony that has
grown sufficiently large will split in two, with the old queen and half herworker
along with a daughter who will become a new queenmake chambers in the
ground in cliff, and in hollow trees. There are often many such sites within
range of the waiting swarm,but only some motivate a worker to perform a
dance back at the swarm a dance that communication information about the
distance and quality of the potential new home. Colony of honeybees consists
of three castes Queen, Drone and workers.
1.Queen
Each colony has only one queen, except during and a varying period following
swarming preparations. Queen is a fertile female only one queen is found in a
colony. The size of the queen is largest among other castes of bees. Queen can
be easily identified by its long abdomen strong legs and short wings. The queen
has ovipositor on the tip of the abdomen. The contribution of queen for its
scullery is to lay eggs.
Queen is the only sexually developed female, her primary function is
reproduction. She produces both fertilized and unfertilized eggs. Queens lay the
greatest number of eggs in the spring and early summer. During breeding
season, queens lay up to 1,500 eggs per day. They gradually slow down the
process of laying eggs in early October and produce few or no eggs until early
next spring - January. One queen may produce up to 250,000 eggs per year and
possibly more than a million in her lifetime.
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A queen is easily distinguished from other members of the colony. Her body is
normally much longer than either the drone’s or worker’s, especially during the
egg-laying period when her abdomen is greatly elongated. Her wings cover
only about two-thirds of the abdomen, whereas the wings of both workers and
drones nearly reach the tip of the abdomen when folded. A queen’s thorax is
slightly larger than that of a worker, and she has neither pollen baskets nor
functional wax glands. Her stinger is curved and longer than that of the worker,
but it has fewer and shorter barbs. The queen can live for several years,
sometimes for as long as 5, but average productive life span is 2 to 3 years.
The second major function of a queen is producing pheromones that serve as a
social “glue” unifying and helping to give individual identity to a bee colony.
One major pheromone is termed as queen substance. It is produced by her
mandibular glands, but others are also important. The qualities of the colony
depend largely on the egg-laying and chemical production capabilities of the
queen. Her genetic makeup is along with that of the drones she has mated
withcontributes significantly to the quality, size, and temperament of the
colony.
About one week after emerging from a queen cell, the queen leaves the hive to
mate with several drones in flight. Because she must fly some distance from her
colony to mate, she first circles the hive to orient herself to its location. She
leaves the hive by herself and is gone approximately 13 minutes. The queen
mates, usually in the afternoon, with seven to fifteen drones at an altitude above
20 feet. Drones are able to find and recognize the queen by her chemical odor
of pheromone. If bad weather delays the queen’s mating flight for more than 20
days, she loses the ability to mate and will only be able to lay unfertilized eggs,
which result in drones.
After mating the queen returns to the hive and begins laying eggs in about 48
hours. She releases several sperm from the spermatheca each time she lays an
egg destined to become either a worker or queen. If her egg is laid in a larger
drone-sized cell, she does not release sperm. The queen is constantly attended
and fed royal jelly by the colony’s worker bees. The number of eggs the queen
lays depends on the amount of food she receives and the size of the worker
force capable of preparing beeswax cells for her eggs and caring for the larva
that will hatch from the eggs in 3 days. When the queen substance secreted by
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the queen is no longer adequate, the workers prepare to replace her. The old
queen and her new daughter may both be present in the hive for some time
following supersedure.Supersedure is the act or process of superseding;
especially the replacement of an old or inferior queen bee by a young or
superior queen.
New virgin queens develop from fertilized eggs or from young worker larvae
not more than 3 days old. New queens are raised under three different
circumstances: emergency, or swarming. When an old queen is accidentally
killed, lost, or removed, the bees select younger worker larvae to produce
emergency queens. These queens are raised in worker cells modified to hang
vertically on the comb surface. When an older queen begins to fail because of
decreased production of queen substance, the colony prepares to raise a new
queen. Queens produced as a result of swarming are usually better than
emergency queens since they receive larger quantities of food of royal jelly
during development. Like emergency queen cells, supersedure queen cells
typically are raised on the comb surface. In comparison, queen cells produced
in preparation for swarming are found along the bottom margins of the frames
or in gaps in the beeswax combs within the brood area.
2.Drone
Male member of colonies are called as drones. Drones are haploid fertile males.
The size of drone is smaller than queen but larger than sterile femalesi.e.
workers. They copulate with the queen and fertilize her eggs.
Drones are largerthan worker and smaller than queen bees in the colony. They
are generally present only during late spring and summer. The drone’s head is
much larger than that of either the queen or worker, and its compound eyes
meet at the top of its head. Drones have no stinger, pollen baskets, or wax
glands. Their main function is to fertilize the virgin queen during her mating
flight. Drones become sexually mature about a week after emerging and die
instantly upon mating. Although drones perform no useful work for the hive,
their presence is believed to be important for normal colony functioning.
While drones normally rely on workers for food, they can feed themselves
within the hive after they are 4 days old. Since drones eat three times as much
food as workers, an excessive number of drones may place an added stress on
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the colony’s food supply. Drones stay in the hive until they are about 8 days
old, after which they begin to take orientation flights. Flight from the hive
normally occurs between noon and 4:00 p.m. Drones have never been observed
taking food from flowers.
When cold weather begins in the fall and pollen or nectar resources become
scarce, drones usually are forced out into the cold and left to starve. Queenless
colonies, however, allow them to stay in the hive indefinitely.
3.Workers
Workers are the smallest and sexually undeveloped females. They constitute the
majority of members occupying the colony. Under normal hive conditions do
not lay eggs. These are diploid sterile females their sterility is due to diet effect
queen substance and the pheromone. Their numbers in colony is the highest.
Workers have specialized structures, such as brood food glands, scent glands,
wax glands, and pollen baskets, which allow them to perform all the different
responsibilities of the hive. They perform all the functions of the colony except
egg laying. Workers have behaviour of doing all the works of the colony such
as collection of pollen grains, water and nectar from flowers, cleaning and
defending the colony, nursing embryo etc. from their ancestors.
They clean the cells and maintains the hygienic conditions of hive, feed the
brood, care for the queen, remove debris, build beeswax combs, guard the
entrance, and air-condition and ventilate the hive during their initial few weeks
as adults. Later as field bees they forage for nectar, pollen, water, and plant sap.
The life span of the worker during summer is about 6 weeks. Workers reared in
the fall may live as long as 6 months, allowing the colony to survive the winter
and assisting in the rearing of new generations in the spring before they die.
Numerous adaptations have taken place in the body of worker bee to perform
various factions of the comb. Its body is hairy and legs are modified. When
workers visit a garden of flower and sit on a flower pollen grains adhere to
these hairs and other parts of the body Worker clean off pollen with the help of
a special structure (the cleaners) present on each fore legs. Pollen brushes are
present on every leg and pollen grains are stored in the pollen basket present on
the outer surface of tibia on hind legs. Nectar and water is collected in crop by
sucking through mouth parts.
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Worker bees possess Nabokov scent gland in their abdominal region. A
pheromone is released from this. This defensive organ is modified ovipositor
having a large poisonous storage sac and a sting. Poisonous storage sac contains
a poisonous chemical. This chemical is injected into the body of enemy through
sting. Worker bees attack collectively to the intruder and sting the intruder
collectively.
Nuptial Flight
Most interesting part in the life cycle of honeybee is its way of mating. Mating
takes place during a fight called nuptial fight. Virgin queen takes a flight
followed by males. A few males only succeed in mating. Queen and other
males return to their comb. But now worker bees allow only the queen and all
males are driven away and they die in nature. Polyandry is relatively rare in
insects where a single female mates with several mates. But polyandry is
common phenomenon in honeybee. Queen honey bee mates with several drones
in succession during her nuptial flight.
Bee Hive
The highest degree of nest construction among insects is found in bees. The
architecture of the nest is unsurpassed and unparalleled in the animal kingdom.
The hive and comb of the bees are formed mainly by workers. A comb is a
vertical sheet of wax, composed of a double layer of hexagonal cells projecting
in both directions from central wax-sheet.
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The worker bees produce wax for the formation of the new hive and are known
as builders. New hive is made hanging vertically from rock buildings or
branches of trees consists of thousands of hexagonal chambers of cells made up
of wax secreted by the builder's abdomen The resins and gums secreted by
plants are also used for construction and repair of the hive.
Comb hangs vertically downward, while cells are horizontal in position. The
hexagonal shape of cells accumulates maximum space in minimum use of wax
and labour. The wax used in building of a comb is secreted from the wax glands
present in the abdomen of worker bees. This wax has the highest melting point
i.e., 140° F. Before use, the wax is masticated and mixed with secretions of the
cephalic glands to convert into a plastic substance.
The resinous substance called “propolis”, prepared from pollen, is used in
making the comb water—proof, and it also helps in filling the cracks and
crevices in the hive.
The cells of the comb are of various types. The “Storage cells”, which contains
honey and pollen are generally built on the margin and at the top of the comb.
The “brood cells”, which contains the young stages, are built in the centre and
the lower part of the comb. Brood chamber is further divided into three types,
namely Worker-chamber, where developing workers are reared; Drone-
chamber, where developing drones are reared and the Queen-chamber, which is
larger than other and where the larvae developing into queens are reared. There
is no special chamber for adults. They move on the surface of the comb.
In Apis dorsata brood cells are similar in shape and size but in other species
brood cells are of three types viz worker cell for workers drone cells for drones
and queen cell for the queen cell is used once only while rest are used a number
of times there are no cells for lodging the adults. They generally keep moving
about on the surface of the hive. The cells are mainly intended for the storage of
honey and pollen especially in the upper portion of the comb.
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Types of Bees
 Honey bees include the well-known European honey bee
(Apismellifera) as well as 8 other species of Apis that are native to
Europe, Asia, and Africa. These bees usually nest above ground, often
inside hollow trees. They construct vertical wax combs with individual
hexagonal cells for storing honey and rearing brood. During cold
winters, the bees cluster together, feeding on stored food reserves and
sharing their body heat.
 Bumble bees are large, fuzzy bees that typically nest in thick tufts of
grass or in shallow underground cavities. About 300 species of eusocial
bumble bees have been described worldwide but their distribution is
almost entirely limited to temperate zones in the northern hemisphere.
Colony structure is largely seasonal. Mated queens hibernate during the
winter and emerge in early spring to build a small nest site containing a
"honey pot" and several brood cells. After gathering a supply of nectar
and filling her "honey pot", each queen lays a few eggs and
"singlehandedly" rears her first brood -- all daughters. When these
offspring become adults, they remain unmated, stay with the queen, and
serve as the first members of the colony's worker caste. Thereafter, the
queen does very little except lay eggs while her workers perform all
tasks related to gathering food, enlarging the nest, and caring for the
young.
 Stingless bees include about 300 eusocial species that are mostly
tropical or sub-tropical in distribution. They are called "stingless bees"
because the sting is reduced in size and rarely used for defense. These
bees often nest in hollow trees or rock crevices. They collect nectar and
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pollen from flowers and store honey in large egg-shaped pots made of
cerumen, a mixture of beeswax and plant resin. The honeypots are
usually arranged in an irregular perimeter around a central brood comb
that is constructed in horizontal layers.
 Most species of stingless bees are relatively small (less than 1 cm in
length) and live in colonies that contain one queen and 50-1000
workers. A few species, however, are as large as European honey bees
and may have over 40,000 workers living together. Both queens and
workers develop from fertilized eggs, but queen larvae have larger
brood cells and receive more food than worker larvae. Males (drones)
develop from unfertilized eggs (often laid by unmated workers). Most
of the stingless bees form perennial colonies with the ability to replace
the queen when she dies. Large colonies may divide by swarming, but
workers usually build and provision a new nest before it will be
occupied by a young queen and a group of workers from the old nest.
Bee Dance (Beecommunication)
Honeybees are with complex behaviour and social organization. This tiny insect
detect polarized light, memorizes the details of their environment, learn and
communicate about food source among –members of comb.
Karl von Frisch after 20 years of research work could reveal that worker bees
communicate information about the load of food source through "bee dance".
“The dance is performed on the hive”. Frisch revealed his work in the year
1967 and got Nobel prize for this contribution in the year 1973. The
information given by stout bees to the members of her colony by dance is called
as "language of the bees” or we can say that the dance displays of bees encode
fairly specific information about the distance and direction to suitable foraging
sites.
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If the forager bees has found a rich new food source, a distance within 50
meters form the hive, she performs roughly a circular path called "round
dance".She moves in circles alternately to the left and to the right, turning first
one way and them the other way. Other workers follow her in round dance and
are then stimulated to set out on foraging flights.
If the food source is more than 50 meters from the hive a forager performs a
"Waggle dance".In a waggle dance she moves in a narrow semicircle, turns
along its diameter, making a figure of '8'. This waggle dance shows information
about both the direction and the distance of the food source.
A foraging bee on the way to a discovered food source notes the angle between
the food source, hive and sun. During a waggle dance she transposes this
information onto the surface of the comb. If the bee walks vertical waggling
straight up the comb. If the bee walks vertical waggling strait up the comb, the
feeding place will be found by flying directly towards the sun. If the honeybee
walks horizontal and waggling straight down the comb, the food is located
directly away from the sun. If food source is positioned to the right of a line
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between the hive and the sun waggle oriented at 900 to the right on the comb. If
food source is positioned 900 to the left of a line between the hive and the sun
forager move horizontal and waggle runs oriented at 900 to the left on the comb,
in waggle dance, sun-compass information about food source is converted into
a symbolic code based on gravity. Bees are very sensitive to ultra violet rays
and in addition they can orient to the plane of polarization of light coming from
a blue patch of sky.
12.5 Ants
Ants communicate with each other through tappings with the antennae and
smell. They are considered, together with the bees, as one of the most
socialized animals. They have a perfect social organization, and each type of
individual specializes in a specific activity within the colony. They are
intelligent creatures and each ant is considered then as an individual cell of a
bigger organism.
There are over 8,800 species of ants in the family Formicidae -- all of them are
eusocial. There are more species of ants than all other social insects combined.
They are also the most ecologically diverse group in terms of distribution, life
history, feeding strategies, and specialized adaptations. As a group, ants
consume a wide variety of food, but individual species usually tend to
specialize: some are primarily carnivores, some gather seeds and grains, while
others concentrate on sweets (nectar and honeydew).
The ants are among the most highly evolved social insects. Like honeybee and
termites they also have a very complex social organization. About 90% ant
species are social. Six species of ants are:
1. Monomorium : Large and black ants living in cervices of walls, trees,
trunks etc.
2. Componotus : Common back, house ands
3. Solenopsis: Small and red, house ants
4. Dorylus : Winged ants which appear around light after rains.
5. Aenictus : Common and gregarious ants.
6. Oecophylla : Red, tree ants.
7. Formica : Make mound nest.
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Social Organization in Ants
The ant colony is made up of one or more fertile egg-laying queen, hundreds or
thousands of adult female workers, a nursery for rearing eggs, larvae, and
pupae, a storage area for food reserves, and a disposal site for waste and dead
bodies.
During two or three days a year there will also be drones, which seem to have
only a reproductive function.The queen emits an scent that makes all the
workers behave in the way they do. An ant that loses its way to the nest does
not live long.
Most new colonies are founded in late spring or early fall after an annual
"swarming" event in which hundreds or thousands of winged ants which are
virgin males and females and emerges from their nests and fly into the air for
the purpose of mating. After returning to earth from this nuptial flight, the male
wanders off and dies. The new queen sheds her wings and scouts around for a
suitable homesite. She lays a small clutch of eggs and cares for them until they
mature into her first batch of workers which are all females. Thereafter, the
queen devotes herself to laying eggs while the workers forage for food, care for
the young, and enlarge the nest.
In some species, each nest contains only a single queen (monogyny) while other
species may have several queens living together peacefully in the same nest and
sharing in egg production (polygyny). In single-queen colonies, all of the
workers are sisters so there is a selective advantage for mutual cooperation.
Death of the queen, however, will result in death of the colony because the
workers have no way to replace their queen. In multiple-queen colonies, the
death of a single queen has less impact. New queens may be adopted or
adjacent colonies may join together. Colony survival is maximized at the
expense of individual queens who gain no selective advantage if their own
daughters are rearing the offspring of another queen.
In some ants, all workers are similar in size and appearance. But in other
species, workers may vary in size and some individuals may have physical
characteristics that make them more suited for some jobs than for others. The
smallest individuals, sometimes called minors (or minims), generally work
inside the nest caring for the queen or feeding the larvae. Larger individuals
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may forage for food or enlarge the nest. The largest ants, called majors (or
maxims), often have huge mandibles and powerful jaw muscles. They often
serve as soldiers, standing guard at the nest entrance, protecting foragers from
predation, or defending the colony from raids by other ants.
Caste Differentiation in Ants
The ants show an extreme case of polymorphism According to Imms (1948) at
least 29 distinct types of morphologically different individuals are known. The
main castes are queens, workers and mates.
1. Queen or Gynes
These are the fertile females: Queen is larges is size in comparison to other
castes of their species. The antennae and legs are relatively shorter and
stouter and the mandibles are well developed. Some species are winged
while some species are wingless. Usually large individuals are termed
macrogynes, and dwarf ones, microgynes. Unlike honeybees, a colony of
ants contains several queen.
An egg laying worker, gynaecoid, occurs in colony. She becomes normal
queen if queen is lost due to any reason. Rarely there occur some peculiar
individuals called gynandromorphy. They bear external secondary sexual
characters of both male and female.
2. Workers of Ergates
Sterile female are called workers or ergates. Ergates are smallest in size.
They are characterized by a reduced thorax, and small eye. Workers are
mostly dimpohic. The larger workers are called the macregates and dwarf
individualsmicregates. Macregates are called the wrestlers of the insect
world for their ability to lift too many weights. They also have amazing
sense of direction. Soldiers are modified workers (sterile female). They are
without wings, with distinct heads and powerful They protect the - from
enemies. Besides protection they serve to crush e seeds and other hard food
for inmates.
Number of army ants in a colony is very huge containing up to 22 million
individuals- While on march they eat up everything edible in their path.
Army ants have three types of workers. Small worker perform the task of
feeding the developing broods. Intermediate size of workers act as foragers
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or scout ants. These search the site of food. Largest size of workers is
soldiers defending their colony. Some soldiers attack the colony of the
insects and capture the young larvae and pupae of other ant colonies. There
capture larvae and pupae after hatching are used a slaves.
3. Males or Aners
These are small, fertile winged individuals. They bear proportionately
smaller head, reduced mandibles, longer antennae, well developed
reproductive organs and genitalia. The larger individuals are called the
macraners and the smaller one micraners.
Role of Pheromones
Pheromones play very important role in the maintenance of the social
organization of an ant colony. Alarm, social cohesion, recruitment, and trail
marking pheromones are among the list of semiochemicals that have been
reported in ants. Each colony also has a distinctive taste or odour which
members use to identify nestmates and exclude invaders. Regulation of caste is
not well-understood. Apparently, all female eggs are identical when laid.
Whether they mature into minors, majors, soldiers, or new queens depends on
the care and feeding they receive as they grow and mature. To some extent,
this may depend on the needs of the colony as manifested through feedback
loops involving photoperiod, food supply, temperature, and many other
variables.
Nest of Ants
The new colony is founded by a single newly fertilized queen. Some species do
not construct nests. They simply take abode in cervices, holes under stones, or
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logs. Some species temporarily occupy nests other ants, a relationship termed
parabiosis. Most species make their own nest. The nests or formicaries are of
different types located in different places. Ants make subterranean nests
excavating galleries in the-grounds, used as nurseries for brood, granaries for
storing food. Many species make mound nests. Such mound nests are well
exhibited by species of Formica. Formica rufa make mounds of60-160cm. in
diameter. Some species construct suspended nests made of earth carbon which
is saliva mixed with Vegetable matter or silk hanging from trees in tropics and
containing anastomosing galleries and chamber.
African weaver ants (Oecophyllalonginoda) and Asian weaver ant

(Oecophyllasmaragdina) construct large conspicuous nests on tree by weaving
together several leaves with silk. They obtain the silk from their own larvae.
The colony of weaver ants consists of a single queen and two kinds of workers,
the larger major workers who forage, construct the nest, and take care of the
queen, and the smaller minor workers who care for the eggs and young
larvae.The adult worker cannot product silk. The silk is produced by the larvae.
It is well known to us that in most insect species the larvae use their silk to spin
cocoon inside which the pupae undergo metamorphosis. The major weaver ant
workers who need silk, hold larvae together during nest construction to obtain
silk from these larvae. While some major workers maneuver and hold leaves
together, other major workers hold larvae in their mandibles and weave them
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across the leaf This makes the larvae release strands of silk from silk glands
underneath their mouth. Male larvae have smaller silk gland and contribute less
silk for nest construction or cocoon.
Types of Ants
With more than 8,800 described species, ants are the most ecologically diverse
of all social insects. The following list includes some of the more common
groups
 Harvester ants usually live in arid environments and feed primarily on
seeds. Many species build elaborate underground nests that may reach
depths of six feet or more.
 Army ants are nomadic predators that do not have permanent nests.
They include legionary ants which live in South America, and driver ants
which live in Africa.
 Slave-maker ants raid the colonies of other species and steal worker
larvae and pupae. Once the slaves mature, they work for their "owners"
until they die.
 Leafcutter ants (also known as parasol ants) are gardeners. They chew
up plant leaves into a pulp and use it to fertilize a fungus they grow for
food in underground gardens.
 Weaver ants build nests in trees. Workers interlink their bodies, pull
branches into position, and tie the leaves together with silk spun by their
larvae.
 Honey-pot ants feed on honeydew excreted by aphids. Some workers
engorge themselves with food reserves until their abdomens swell to the
size of marbles.
 Fire ants are an invasive species with a very painful sting. They respond
aggressively to any disturbance of their nest.
 Thief ants are very small. They raid the food supplies of larger ants and
then escape through tunnels that are too small for the bigger ants to enter.
 Carpenter ants build their nests in wood. Unlike termites, they do not
eat the wood but they may still cause serious damage to homes and other
wooden structures.
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12.6 Summary
Insect society is more organized and functional in many ways in comparison to
any other society. It is real paradise where each member ceaselessly keeps on
contributing for the welfare of the society and race continuity without any
personal greed, lust of jealousy. Most species of honeybees, ants and wasps of
order Hymenoptera and termites of order isoptera of class Insecta are perfectly
social .
1. Define Eusocial behavior.
2. What do you mean by Presocial, Subsocial, Parasocial species ?
3. Explain the social organization and caste differentiation in termites in
details.
4. Describe the importance of pheromones in termites.
6. Write a note on different types of bees.
7. Describe the structure of bee hive.
8. Explain the structure of termitaria.
9. Describe the Social organization of ants in details.
10. Explain the role of pheromones in social insects.
12.8 References
 ESSIG : College Entomology
 Text Book of Entomology, K. P. Shivastava, Vol. 1 And 2 Kalyani
Publication, Ludhiana.
 Handbook of Entomology- M. R. Dhingra, Publisher- Oxford Book
Company, ISBN -13-9789350300558,ISBN-10- 9350300558
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Unit – 13
Pest management
13.1 Objective
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Concept of pest: How and why insect have become pests?
13.3.1 Concept of pest
13.3.2 Categories of pests
13.3.2.1 Based on occurrence
13.3.2.1 Based on level of infestation
13.3.3 Causes for outbreak of pests in agroecosystems
13.4 Insect control: Basic idea
13.4.1 Natural control
13.4.2 Applied control
13.5 Various method of insect control
13.5.1 Cultural methods
13.5.2 Mechanical methods
13.5.3 Physical methods
13.5.4 Biological methods
13.5.5 Genetic methods
13.5.6 Regulatory methods
13.5.7 Chemical methods
13.6 Prophylactic and cultural methods
13.6.1 Prophylactic methods
13.6.2 Cultural methods
13.7 Quarantine regulation
13.7.1 Introduction
13.7.2 Some definition of pests, pesticides and transgenic etc. as per Govt.
notification
13.7.3 Importance of plant quarantine
13.8 Quarantine restrictions
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13.8.1 Domestic quarantine restrictions in the movement of agricultural
produce, seeds and planting material
13.8.2 International quarantine restrictions in the movement of
agricultural produce, seeds and planting material
13.9 Case histories of exotic pests/diseases and their status
13.9.1 Case histories in foreign countries
13.9.2 Case histories in India
13.10 Plant protection organisation in India
13.10.1 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (D&PPQS)
13.10.2 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
13.11 Acts related to registration of pesticides and transgenic
13.11.1 Insecticides Act, 1968
13.11.2 Regulatory measures specific to transgenic seeds
13.12 History of quarantine legislations
13.13 Plant Quarantine, 2003
13.14 Environmental Acts
13.15 Industrial registration
13.16 APEDA
13.17 Import and export of bio-control agents
13.18 Physical methods for Pest management
13.19 Summary
13.20 Glossary
13.21 Self learning exercise
13.22 References
13.1 Objective
 How and why insects attain pest status?
 What are important parameters for pest categorization?
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 What are important methods of insect control?
 Find out the important prophylactic, cultural and physical practices
for pest management?
 What is the importance and history of plant quarantine?
 What are the important provisions of different acts related to plant
quarantine?
 What are the importance of organizations viz., DPPQS, NBPGR and
APEDA in plant quarantine?
13.2 Introduction
Pest management is an application of technologies to achieve a satisfactory
reduction of pest numbers and to maintain the pest population below levels that
causes economic damage. It includes multiple tactics such as the use of natural
enemies, cultivation of resistant crop varieties and insecticides etc. applied in a
compatible manner. It also includes the use of such tactics that help in the
conservation of environmental qualities. There are many tools for pest
management but no one methods are without drawbacks. For convenience of
studies, the pest management may be group in to preventive tactics such as
cultural practises, physical and mechanical measures and legal control that
prevent the insect to attain a pest status while others are curative tactics such as
biological, bio-pesticide and chemical control that reduce the number of insect
infesting the crops or human belongings.
Insect migration from one place to other is frequent phenomenon. The natural
barriers are the only preventive measures of insect dispersal from one
geographic to others. In past, there were no restrictions to carry plant materials.
Now, Legal restrictions also play an important role to check the pest dispersal
from one geographical area to other areas. Therefore, different countries
established various institutes to execute rules and regulations to prohibit to
dispersal of invasive pests and diseases.
13.3 Concept of pest: How and why insect have become pests?
13.3.1 Concept of pest: The word ‘Pest’ derived from the Latin word ‘Pestis’
meaning Plague. The term ‘pest’ is used broadly to insects, other invertebrate
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like nematodes, mites, snails, slugs, etc. and vertebrates like rats, birds, jackal
etc., that cause significant and economic loss to crops, stored produce and
animals. An insect (or any other living being) whose population increases to
such an extent as to cause economic losses to crops or a nuisance and health
hazard to man and his belongings will be declared a pest. An insect may be a
pest at one place (or in one season) but may not be so at another place (or in the
next season), therefore, being a pest or not is only a matter of insect numbers.
For example, Painted lady butterfly, Pyrameis cordui, is only a thing of beauty
in England where as in France it is a pest of artichokes. The population of pest
never remains constant for long, but it tends to oscillate all the time about a
theoretical optimum for the species. The following factors directly connected
with men become civilized are responsible to convert insect into pest:
1. Cultivation of crop led to a concentration of host plants provide easily
available food to enable the insect to flourish.
2. Domestication and large –scale cropping/breeding of livestock provided
ideal conditions for their multiplication.
3. Storage of grains necessitated by large scale cultivation encouraged
insects to thrive in food stored in plenty.
4. The increase in human population attracted many insects like,
mosquitoes, lice, bed bugs etc. they become human parasites. Later, as
the society evolved, the creation of families and villages would have
lead to crowded living, favoring the spread of those parasites and with
them the diseases (Pathogens) they carried.
5. Finally, deforestation necessitated by man’s needs for greater
cultivation, habitation, establishment of large industries, etc., made
forest insects, migrate to fields and become pests of such plants and
animals which they would otherwise have not cared for.
Damage boundary is the lowest level of injury caused by pest where the
damage can be measured. Insect pests are divided into negligible, minor and
major pests depending upon the severity of damage caused on the crop yield.
Those insects that cause less than 5% loss in yield, is said to be negligible.
Insects which normally cause a loss ranging from 5 to 10% are said to be minor
pests and those which cause a loss of 10% or more in general called as major
pests.
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13.3.2 Categories Of Pests
13.3.2.1 Based On Occurrence
 Regular pest: These are generally occurs in abundance during a
crop season and have close association with crop. Ex. thrips on
chillies, aphids on mustard & shoot & fruit borer on brinjal
 Occasional pest: Infrequently occurs, population is affected by
unusual weather conditions or the injudicious use of insecticides,
no close association with crop. Ex. caseworm of rice, mango
stem borer, castor slug caterpillar
 Seasonal pest: These are occurs mostly during a particular part
of the year in crop. The incidence of these pests is largely
governed by the climatic and weather conditions in a locality or
place. Ex. red hairy caterpillar on groundnut (April -May in
Pollachi tract and during August in Madurai district in south
India), rice grasshoppers, Oxya spp. and Hieroglyphus banian
(nymph hatch out in June- July after receipt of rains).
 Persistent pests: These pests are occur on the crop throughout
the year, and are difficult to control. Ex. chilli thrips, mealy bug
on guava
 Sporadic pests: These pests occur in isolated localities during
some period. Ex. coconut slug caterpillar, rice ear head bug
13.3.2.2 Based on level of infestation
 Epidemic Pest: Pests which come suddenly in a severe form in a
region or locality at a particular season or time only. Ex. rice
hispa, Dicladispa armigera, rice leaf roller, Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis etc.
 Endemic pest: Pests which come regularly and confined mostly
to a particular area or locality. Ex. red hairy caterpillar Amsacta
albistriga on groundnut in Kurnool, Rice gall midge in Madurai
and Mango hoppers in Periyakulam etc.
13.3.3 Causes for pest outbreaks in agro-ecosystems: The insect’s pest
problems in agriculture are probably as old as agriculture itself. However, under
subsistence agriculture the pest numbers were generally low as the productivity
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was poor. The insects under favourable conditions multiply enormously and
different species multiply at different rates. When the numbers of an insect
increases, it reaches the pest status. Rapidly increasing human population
during last century has necessitated intensification of agriculture through
expansion of irrigation facilities, growing of new crops, introduction of
improved and exotic varieties, and application of increased amounts of
agrochemicals. Modern agriculture technologies have resulted in increased
higher yields and it has also contributed in severe outbreaks of insect pests in
agricultural crops. There are two major categories of pest out breaks viz.,
eruptive and gradient. The eruptive outbreak spreads out from local epicentres
and cover large areas. This outbreak is self-perpetuating i.e. once initiated
positive feedback processes operating at high population densities maintain the
outbreak. Whereas gradient outbreak does not spread from local epicentres and
not cover large areas and it is not self-driven and is entirely dependent on
external environmental or internal genetic conditions. This type of outbreak
arises and subsides as its driving forces change in time and space. The
following are important factors which enhanced pest outbreaks:
 Use of high yielding varieties and introduction of new crops: Mostly
improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests. Sometimes, the
insects, which are considered of minor importance, become major
importance with the introduction of new varieties and strains. The
improved combodia cotton strains are highly susceptible to the spotted
bollworm, Earias sp. and the stem weevil Pempherulus affinis. The
spread of rice cultivation into the non-traditional north-western States
like Punjab and Haryana has brought up the problem of white backed
plant hopper (WBPH). The hybrid sorghum CSH-1 was severely
attacked by shoot fly, Atherigona varia soccata stem borer, Chilo
partellus and ear head gall midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola.
 Indiscriminate use of pesticides: Sometimes use of insecticides as a
prophylactic or curative measure results in reducing one of the
competitive species of pests while allowing the others to multiply.
Repeated use of same insecticides may also lead to the secondary
infestation in which it is not effective. Continuous spraying of carbaryl
on cotton against bollworms and on brinjal against shoot and fruit borer
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results in the mite infestation which is often very severe. Indiscriminate
use of pesticides also destroys the natural enemies of the pest and
sometimes leads to the pest outbreak.
 Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers: Heavy use of inorganic
nitrogenous fertilizers develops congenial conditions for rapid
multiplication and subsequent outbreaks of pests. Application of
nitrogenous fertilizers gives luxurious growth of the crop and makes it
more vulnerable to insect attack as in case of cotton which show higher
incidence of sucking insects like whiteflies, aphids and leafhoppers etc.
because there will be no competition for food.
 Destruction of forests and bringing forest area under cultivation:
The destruction of forest over larger areas for cultivation affects on
weather factors viz., temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind velocity etc.,
in that locality and thus set conditions favorable for some insects to
develop enormously. The insects feeding on the trees and plants in the
forest area are driven to neighboring areas where they may infest the
cultivated crops and become new pests.
 Introduction of a new pest in a new area: When an insect gets
introduced into a favorable new area without its natural enemies it
becomes more abundant. The wooly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum,
became a serious pest of the apple in Niligiris as there was no natural
enemy of the pest to check its multiplication. It was brought under
control only when its specific parasitoid, Aphelinus mali was introduced
from Punjab.
 Monoculture (intensive and extensive cultivation of crops without
proper crop rotation): When a single crop is raised over extensive
area, limitation of food gets nullified and there is no competition for
food and shelter and these results in the increase in pest populations.
The effect is more pronounced if the cropping is done in more than one
season for the year. The incidence of borers is high when sugarcane crop
is raised over extensive areas continuously. Cotton mono-cropping over
large areas, prolonging the crop growth beyond the regular duration and
non removal of crop residues before the next crop accentuates
population of American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera and pink
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bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella even if there is crop rotation with
closely related crops or when there are alternative food plants for the
insect pests concerned, again the population of insect pests is likely to
increase. Cotton followed by okra increases the incidence of pests like
bollworms, whiteflies, mites etc.
 Accidental introduction of foreign pests: Immature and adult stages of
certain insects adhere closely to the plants such as scales and aleurodids
and those which bore into the tissues of plant parts such as leaf miners,
stem borers, gall insects etc., and are more liable to be introduced into
other countries. Some of such insects introduced into India from foreign
countries are the diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella on cruciferous
vegetables the San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciousus on fruit
trees on hills, the green mealy bug, Coccus viridis on coffee and the
potato tuber moth, Phthorimoea operculella, cotton cushiony scale,
Icerya purchase, Spiralling whitefly, Alerodicus dispersus, Coconut
mite Aceria guerreoronis etc.
 Destruction of natural enemies: The natural enemies keep the insect
pests under check. The destruction of these either by man or other
agencies tends to increase the population of insect pests in an area.
Sometimes the weather conditions may be favorable to the pest and
unfavorable to its natural enemies. The insecticides may often affect the
parasitoids and predators more than the host insects. DDT kills
parasitoids and predators and thus encourages aphids, scales mealy bugs
and spider mites to multiply into enormous proportions. Insecticides
may also alter crop physiology to make the plant more susceptible to
attack by insects or they may even directly stimulate reproduction of
surviving insects.
 Large scale storage of food grains: Storage of food grains in large
scale also leads to pest problems, if poorly managed. Large scale stored
food grains are favorable for storage insects to breed and multiply.
 Biotypes of pest species: Insects have great adoptions for their survival.
There are several insect species that develop biotypes that are able to
develop and multiply even on resistant crop cultivars. Several biotypes
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of aphids on mustard crop, gall midge and brown plant hopper on paddy
and white fly on cotton etc. have been observed in India.
13.4 Insect control: Basic idea
Insect Control: Any factor that is capable of making life hard for the insect
that will repel or interfere with its feeding, mating, reproduction or dispersal
can be taken as a method of insect control in its broadest application. There are
two ways in which insect pests are controlled.
13.4.1 Natural control: In nature, there are two sets of tendencies namely the
biotic potential tending to increase the population and the environmental
resistance tending to reduce the population. As such there is a constant
interaction between these two opposing forces and then maintains a dynamic
equilibrium known as Balance of life. It is evident from the above that in any
case, the insects or other animals never attain the high density which they are
potentially capable of doing which is because of environmental limiting factors
like abiotic factors comprising mainly temperature and humidity which at too
high or too low levels adversely affects insects. Natural disturbance like heavy
rain, hail storms, snow, sand storms, dust storms, and very high wind velocity
are adverse to insect life. Biotic factors i.e. limitation of food, competition for
food and space and natural enemies act adversely depending on the density of
population.
13.4.2 Applied control: Those control measures in which men’s interventions
are associated are called applied control. Early human had to live with and
tolerate the ravages of insect pests and pathogens, but gradually learned to
improve their condition through trial and error experiences. These
improvements led to the beginning of pest control. Prior to the emergence of
crop protection sciences and even before the broad outlines of the biology of
pests were understood, humans evolved many cultural and physical control
practices for protection of their crops. Cultural practices viz. crop rotation, clean
cultivation, mixed cropping, use of traps crops, hoeing etc. were most important
to preventing crop losses used by farmers in ancient times. Some of these
control practises are still valid and useful to-day. Depending on the time of
taking action the applied control measures may be
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 Preventive or prophylactic i.e. action taken to prevent the
occurrence or spread of infestation and
 Curative or remedial measures i.e. measures which are taken to kill
the already existing pest population
13.5 Various method of insect control
Various methods of insect control: Several techniques available for
controlling individual insect pests and are conveniently categorised in
increasing order of complexity as - cultural, mechanical, physical, biological,
genetical, regulatory and finally chemical. The main important practices are
mentioned under different heading:
13.5.1 Cultural methods: Following agronomic practices come under cultural
methods by which we can manage the insect pest of crops.
a. Use of resistant varieties f. Pruning or thinning and proper
spacing
b. Crop rotation g. Planting of trap crops
c. Crop refuse destruction h. Crop sanitation
d. Tillage of soil i. Water management
e. Variation in time of planting j. Judicious and balanced use of
or harvesting fertilizers
13.5.2 Mechanical methods: a. Hand destruction, b. Exclusion by barriers, c.
Use of traps
13.5.3 Physical methods:
a. Application of heat: Hot water treatment, exposing of infested grain
to sun and super heating of empty godowns at 50 oC to kill
hibernating stored grain pests.
b. Manipulation of moisture: Reduction of moisture content of grains
helps to prevent from the attack of stored grain pests.
c. Radiant energies: Radio frequencies, infrared light, ultra violet and
invisible lights and ionising radiations etc.
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13.5.4 Biological control:
a. Protection and encouragement of natural enemies
b. Introduction, artificial increase and colonization of specific
parasitoids (egg, larval & pupal parasitoids) and conservation of
natural enemies
c. Propagation and dissemination of specific bacterial, viral, fungal and
protozoan diseases.
13.5.5 Genetic methods: Use of sterile male technique
13.5.6 Regulatory methods: Plant quarantine (Foreign & Domestic
quarantine)
13.5.7 Chemical methods: Use of attractants, repellents, growth inhibitors &
insecticides etc.
13.6 Prophylactic and cultural methods
Prophylactic and cultural methods
13.6.1 Prophylactic methods: It’s includes some culture practices, legal
measures and chemical practises, which are used to keep away the pests from
crops. These are effective especially in the case of certain pests which are
known to occur in an area year after year or season after season.
a. Deep ploughing: Several insects which live or hide in the soil get
exposed to sun as well as predators like birds etc due to deep ploughing.
Ex. Larvae and pupae of many insect pests
b. Field and plant sanitation: Regular removal of weeds, grasses which act
as alternate hosts and pest affected part of plants will eliminate the source
of infestation of the pest. By periodical removal of grasses from bunds,
the mealy bug attack on the rice crop can be minimized , and by clipping
of the dried branches of citrus further multiplication of the stem borer can
be avoided.
c. Growing pest resistant varieties: Certain varieties of crops are
inherently less damaged or less infested than others by insects. These are
called resistant varieties. Ex. GEB-24 and MTU–5249 resistance to paddy
BPH, Surekha variety to gall midge, TKM -6 and Ratna for stem borer
and Northern spy variety of apple due to hard sclerenchymatous root
tissue is resistant to wooly aphids.
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d. Others prophylactic measures:
i. Treatment of seeds and seed material with chemicals to protect
the crop from pests (groundnut seed treated with chlorpyriphos
0.02%a.i. affords protection against root grub; imidacloprid 70
WS at 10 g/kg cotton seed recorded leafhopper and whitefly
below ETL level up to 35 days of sowing)
ii. Swabbing tree trunks to ward off borer incidence (trunks of
coffee bushes swabbed with chlorpyriphos 0.05% emulsion to
prevent attack by coffee white borer)
iii. Change of banana from perennial to annual crop reduced the
infestation of banana rhizome weevil Cosmopolitus sordidus in
addition to giving increased yields.
iv. Periodical raking up of manure pits to prevent breeding of
rhinoceros beetle
v. Periodical drying of harvested and stored produce to prevent
infestation by stored product pests
vi. Adjusting the time of sowing (Early sown sorghum in kharif
reduces the infestation of shoot fly, timely and synchronous
planting has been found to reduce bollworm damage in cotton
and stem borer damage in sugarcane )
vii. Application of oil over stagnant water in ponds and pools to
prevent mosquito breeding.
In addition to these, all the legal measures taken to prevent the entry of pests
from foreign countries and the spread of pests from one region to another
within the country as detailed under the legal methods of control as also most of
the cultural and mechanical methods are prophylactic in nature.
13.6.2 Cultural methods: The manipulation of cultural practices at an
appropriate time for either eliminating or reducing or avoiding pest population
to cause damage in crops is known as cultural control. The cultural practices are
designed to hit at some weak point in the seasonal history or make the
environment less favourable for the pests and or more favourable for its natural
enemies. It is the cheapest among all methods.
i. Crop rotation: Crop rotation is most effective practice against pests
that have a narrow host range and dispersal capacity. Lady’s finger
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followed by cotton will suffer from increased infestation of pests. Hence
if a non-host crop is grown after a host crop, it reduces the pest
population. Ex. Cereals followed by pulses. Groundnut with non
leguminous crops is recommended for minimizing the leaf miner
incidence.
ii. Trap cropping: Growing of susceptible or preferred plants by
important pests near a major crop to act as a trap and later it is destroyed
or treated with insecticides. Trap crop may also attract natural enemies
thus enhancing natural control. Ex:
Trap crop Main crop Insect pest
a. Castor Chillies Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera
litura
b. Tomato Citrus Fruit sucking moths Otheris spp
c. Marigold Cotton American bollworm Helicoverpa
armigera
iii. Mixed cropping: it is intended for getting some produce when one crop
is attacked; the other escapes and comes up well. Ex. Garden peas and
sunhemp.
iv. Trimming field buds: Grasshopper eggs, which are laid in field bunds,
are destroyed by trimming field bunds.
v. Some other practices specially adopted for certain pests
 Raking up and hoeing of the soil around grounds in mango and other
fruit trees serves to destroy pupae of fruit flies
 Root weevil, Echinonemus oryzae damage in rice can be overcome
by applying 20 kg ammonium sulphate and 40 kg single super
phosphate in rice
 Adoption of high seed rate in sorghum and later removal and
destruction of shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) affected plants
 Trash mulching @ 3 t/ha 3 days after planting or earthing up at a
month or two after planting to minimize early shoot borer (Chilo
infuscatellus) attack in sugarcane
 Destruction of crop residue: Stubbles of sugarcane and paddy that
harbour borers should be ploughed up and burnt.
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 Periodical drying of stored produce against stored grain pests.
 Pruning of dried twigs/ branches to eliminate pests like scales and
orange borer
13.7 Quarantine regulation
Quarantine regulation: In ancient time, man carried required seeds and plants
wherever he moved. This practice is still continuing in the civilized settlements
of mankind. As a consequence, many plant types have moved from their centres
of origin, to an entirely new regions / continents, where they got well
established and naturalized. The pests associated with plants and seeds also
moved along unnoticed into a new region, where they caused severe damage,
not only to the plants with which they associated but also started to infect /
infests many other plant types in the introduced region. The realization of the
economic, social consequences happened due to indiscriminate and unscientific
movement or trade of plants, seeds and plant materials, necessitated the
countries or provinces to start regulating the movement of plants and plant
materials. Therefore, in olden days the term “Quarantine” was originally
applied to the period of detention of passengers arriving in ships from countries
where epidemic diseases such as bubonic plague, cholera and yellow fever were
prevalent. The ship’s crew and passengers being compelled to remain isolated
on board long enough to permit latent cases of diseases to develop and be
detected before any persons were allowed to land. The word “quarantine” is
derived from the Latin words “quarantum” or “quaranta giorni” meaning
forty; that is to say a forty day period. Fixing of the period as forty has no
scientific relevance at that time, but merely as practical measure based on
necessity. Since the term Quarantine is so aptly fitted to and so firmly
associated with an entirely unique situation, it was carried over from the human
disease field into similar animal disease field and later adopted to cover
protective efforts for the exclusion of pests and diseases of farm and
horticultural crops, as well as forest and fruit trees.
13.7.1 Some definition of pests, pesticides and transgenic etc. as per Govt.
notification:
 Pest means any biotic agent capable of causing any injury or damage
to plants and plant products and include any form or stage of insects,
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mites, snails, slugs, worms, nematodes, algae, fungi, protozoa,
bacteria, actinomycetes, viruses, viroids and molecutes and also
include genetically engineered or modified organisms and weeds.
(PQ Order)
 Quarantine Pest means a pest of potential economic importance to
the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but
not widely distributed and being officially controlled (PQ Order)
 Alien Species (non-native, non-indigenous, foreign, exotic) means a
species, subspecies, or lower taxon occurring outside of its natural
range (past or present) and dispersal potential (i.e. outside the range
it occupies naturally or could not occupy without direct or indirect
introduction or care by humans) and includes any part, gametes or
propagule of such species that might survive and subsequently
reproduce. (IUCN,2000)
 Alien Invasive Species means an alien species which becomes
established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, is an
agent of change, and threatens native biological diversity.
(IUCN,2000)
 Ecosystem means the complex of a community of organisms and its
environment.
 Weed It is defined as “A plant considered undesirable, unattractive,
or troublesome, especially one growing where it is not wanted”. Or
in simple words “A plant that interferes with management objectives
for a given area of land at a given point in time”.
 Pesticides are any substance or mixture of substances intended for
preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest, including vectors of
human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production,
processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural
commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or
substances that may be administered to animals for the control of
insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. The term
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includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator,
defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the
premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops
either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from
deterioration during storage and transport (According to FAO)
 Transgenic are an organism whose genome has been altered by the
transfer of a gene or genes from another species or breed.
13.7.2 Importance of plant quarantine Importance of plant quarantine:
Since the dawn of civilization, man utilized his best possible efforts to
domesticate the bounty of nature as per his needs. It is not just in recent years
that the countries are being invaded by alien species, since time immemorial,
man started to move with plants and animals wherever he fancied. In a way it
paved way for species richness in newer area and domestication has become
part of human settlement. It is not true that all alien species are harmful or
dangerous, even the invasive species are not so dangerous in their place of
origin, as the invasiveness is curtailed due to influence of many factors of the
particular ecosystem. The alien species become invasive in newer area due to
absence of natural enemies and congenial environmental parameters. Some
alien species became beneficial and some became nuisance. To promote safe
trade of agricultural materials across trans-boundary movement around the
world implementation of plant quarantine system has become a necessity to
safeguard biodiversity of a nation. Plant quarantine acts as a filter and not as a
barrier of trade. The entry of a single exotic insect or disease and its
establishment in the new environment continues to cause great national loss
(table 1 ) till such time it is brought under effective control. In certain cases a
country has to spend a few million rupees before success in controlling the
introduced insect pest or disease is achieved.
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Table1. Losses caused by introduced plant diseases
Disease Host Country Introduced Losses caused
from
Blight Chestnut U.S.A. Eastern Asia $ 100-1000
million
Powdery Grapevine France U.S.A 80% in wine
mildew production
Canker Citrus U.S.A Japan $ 13 million; 19.5
million
trees destroyed
Dutch elm Elm U.S.A. Holland $ 25 million -$ 50,000
disease million
Downy Grapevine France U.S.A $ 50,000 million
mildew
Bunchy top Banana India Sri Lanka Rs.4 crores
Wart Potato India Netherlands 2500acres infected
13.8 Quarantine restrictions

Quarantine restrictions
13.8.1 Domestic quarantine restrictions in movement of agricultural
produce, seeds and planting materials: Under the DIP Act 1914, the
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage has the responsibility to
take the necessary steps and regulate the inter-state movement of plants and
plant materials in order to prevent the further spread of destructive insects and
diseases that have already entered the country. The sole object of enforcing
domestic quarantine is to prevent the spread of these pests and diseases from
infected to non-infected areas. According the then Madras Government enacted
the “Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act” in 1919 and perhaps it was
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the first state to enact such an act in this country. This act was passed to prevent
the spread of a pest, disease or weed from one part of the state to another and to
make it incumbent on the part of the growers to carry out the prescribed
remedial measures. Under this act the state govt. may notify an insect as a pest
for the purpose of enforcing the provisions under the Act. They also have to
notify the areas affected; the remedial measures to be undertaken, the
government staffs or classes of Govt. staff who will be the Inspecting Officers
under the Act and the time for which the notification will be in force. If the
cultivator or occupant of a premise does not adopt the control measures
envisaged in the Act the Inspecting Officers will themselves carry them out and
arrange to recover the money through land revenue; in addition the cultivator
will be prosecuted. Most of the states in India have plant quarantine laws to
avoid entry of plant pests and diseases. The State Pest Act has been in force in
respect of the following cases:
1. Cotton bollworms and stem weevil: Bollworms (Earias vitella F., E.
insulana and Pectinophora gossypiella) and the stem weevil, Pempherulus
affinis caused severe losses to combodia cotton in 1918 and this infestation
was due to allowing the crop in the field continuously for two or three years
thereby facilitating uninterrupted breeding of the pests. Therefore, Pest Act
was enforced (with the objective to keeping the lands without cotton for
sometime will help starve out the insect) to stipulating that the previous
crop of cotton should be removed before 1st August and the succeeding crop
should not be sown earlier than 1st September each year in Coimbatore,
Salem, Madurai and Tiruchirapalli districts. However, since the cotton
growing season in these districts are not uniform, the Act was latter
subjected to a few modifications so as to suit the seasons in each of these
tracts.
2. Coffee white borer: The Pest Act was enforced in 1946 and has been in
force in parts of Salem, Madurai, Coimbatore and the Nilgiris. All infested
coffee plants are to be removed and destroyed by 15th December every year.
The stems and branches of the bushes should be swabbed with lindane
emulsion before the emergence of the beetles, which takes place in two
periods, April-May and October-December so as to prevent them from
laying eggs.
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3. Bunchy top of banana: The export and the transport from the States of
Assam, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu to any other State of
Banana plant or any other plant of the genus Musa, including sucker, stem,
leaf, flower, and any other part thereof which may be used for propagation,
or the materials of banana plant or any other plant of the genus Musa, which
are used for packing and wrapping, excluding the banana fruit is prohibited.
4. Banana mosaic: The export and transport from the States of Maharashtra
and Gujarat of any plant of Banana or any other plant of genus Musa
including the sucker, stem, flower and any other part thereof, but excluding
leaf and fruit thereof is prohibited; vide Government of India notification
No. F. 6-10-PPS dated the 11th April, 1961.
5. Potato wart: The export to potato tubers from the State of West Bengal to
any other State or territory of India is prohibited.
6. Apple scab: The Directorate of Horticulture, Himachal Pradesh worked out
a detailed scheme for the eradication of scab, and also issued a notification
No.NIC.20/76 dated 28th December 1978, prohibiting the export of planting
material of apple outside the State.
7. Coffee berry borer: The Govt. of India invoked the pest act for restricting
movement of coffee from infested areas to uninfected areas in November,
1992. The rule is still in force with regards to seed supply to non-traditional
areas and North Eastern region.
8. Fluted Scale (Icerya purchasi Maskell): The incidence of this pest was
found localised within the limits of the Nilgiris and Kodaikanal. Therefore,
steps were taken to prevent its further spread. None of the plants listed as
alternative hosts was permitted to be transported from the notified areas
without inspection and fumigation.
In Tamil Nadu as per Madras Pests and Diseases Act of 1919, quarantine
regulations are periodically enforced. e.g., cardamom mosaic prevalent in
Anamalai area of Coimbatore District and is free from Nelliampatti area. Hence
the movement of diseased plant material from Anamalai to Nelliampatti area is
prevented.
13.8.2 International quarantine restrictions in movement of agricultural
produce, seeds and planting materials: All countries in the world have
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restrictions on the import of plant or plant materials to prevent the entry of
foreign pests. The enforcement of the quarantine measures is supported by legal
enactments, called quarantine laws. The imported plants and plant materials
have to be thoroughly examined at the port of entry for the presence of any
foreign insects or of their any other life stages. An insect which is apparently
harmless or a very minor pest in its native country can turn to be a potential
pest in a new country. As such the entry of all pests, irrespective of their status
in the country of origin, is to be prevented and any infested material has to be
disinfested by suitable means at the port of entry.
Presently, there are 35 PQS’s functioning at various Seaports, Airports and
Land frontier stations, in addition to 61 In-land depots to carry out plant
quarantine inspection and to facilitate safe import of plants/ plant materials.
These operations operate under the provisions made under the government of
India’s Destructive Insects and Pests Act of 1914 (DIP Act). The importation of
consignments of plants from foreign countries has to done only through any of
these ports. The consignments should be accompanied by certificates issued by
the officers of the Department of Agriculture of the exporting country as to
their freedom from pests and diseases; these certificates are called
phytosanitary certificates. At the port of entry these consignments are inspected
and if necessary fumigated to kill the pests carried by them. Import of plant by
post or air is not permitted except by experts for scientific purposes. Import of
potato tubers into our country from areas known to be infested with ward
diseases or golden cyst nematode of potatoes is totally prohibited. Restrictions
have been imposed on the importation of rubber seed, sugarcane setts and
coffee and cotton seeds to guard against the West Indies sugar weevil,
Sphenophorus sacchari, the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei and the
Mexican boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis Boheman. However, much other
plant material can be imported provided they are accompanied by phytosanitary
certificates. In same way, all exports of commodities from this country like
bulk consignment of pepper, tamarind and cardamom have to be accompanied
by phytosanitary certificates.
13.9 Case histories of exotic pests/diseases and their status
Case histories of exotic pests/diseases and their status: Some of devastating
incidences which had taken place in the late 17th and early 18th century lead to
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the creation of plant quarantine at global level.
13.9.1 Case histories in foreign countries
 Great Famine of Irish: Potato was introduced into Ireland as a garden
crop and during late 17th century it was consumed as supplementary
food. By early 18th century, it assumed the status of staple food for the
poor during winter season and as well considered as agrarian economy
as it fetched more money and hence grown in more acreage (<60%). In
1843-44, a new disease started to destroy the crops and was identified as
late blight of potato, Phytophthora infestans. Late blight of potato
infection completely destroyed potato crop in 1845, which lead to the
starvation and death of 1 million people and migration of another 1
million from Ireland from 1845 to 1852. The unfortunate event of late
blight devastation occurred due to incursion of Phytophthora infestans
from USA, which caused loss of around £3,500,000 potatoes.
 Toppling of Grapevine industry in Europe: Introduction of powdery
mildew (Oidium tuckeri) into Europe with American grape-vines is
classical example of trans-boundary movement of plant pest. Its
pathogenicity on European grape vine was unknown at that time and the
disease spread like wild fire on European grape vines (1850). To control
powdery mildew, root-stocks of resistant varieties were imported from
America (1854). However, these grape vines carried Phylloxera
vastatrix, a root inhabiting aphid of grape vines. To combat this pest,
more American vines resistant to Phylloxera were introduced, but these
additional introductions brought with them the downy mildew
(Plasmopara viticola), and black rot (Guignardia bidwellii). In France,
where the vine industry was thriving, had to face the brunt of these pest
incursions and many business men abandoned vine production and
emigrated to Algeria and other countries. Further, these incidences lead
to the formulation of Bordeaux mixture pesticide.
 Colossal toad menace: The cane toad, Bufo marinus, native of central
and south America, was introduced into Australia by the sugarcane
industry to control two pests, the grey backed cane beetle (Dermolepida
albohirtum) and frenchie beetle (Lepidiota frenchi). 101 toads were
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imported in June1935 and within 6 months the population exploded to
60000 and was released in the cane fields. Initially, the bio-control agent
was so successful, whereas it became a environmental menace in a short
period of time, causing ecological imbalance replacing the native frogs
due to its over population, further, it became the reason for extinction of
snake and fox species due to consumption of this poisonous toad. Even
the tadpoles are poisonous.
 Green Cancer of Tahiti: The prolific tree, Miconia calvescens has
overrun Tahiti's native forests. Miconia is one of the most destructive
invaders in tropical rain forest habitats. It is a serious threat to
ecosystems in the Pacific because of its ability to invade intact native
forests. Miconia has earned itself the descriptions such as the ‘green
cancer of Tahiti’ and the ‘purple plague of Hawaii’. Once miconia is
established at a certain place it drastically changes the ecosystem and
biodiversity of that environment.
 Food turned foe: Philippine rice farmers have lost nearly US$1 billion
in crops to the invasive golden apple snail, Pomacea canalicualata
which was originally introduced from South America to south-east Asia
around 1980, as a local food resource and as a potential gourmet export
item. The markets never developed; the snails escaped or were released,
and became a serious pest of rice.
13.9.2 Case histories in India: Several new pests have been introduced into
India in the past, which are causing major crop loss, economical damage and
environmental degradation and become major constraint in some of agricultural
commodities.
• Potato: Potato wart introduced from Netherlands, Potato cyst nematodes
from UK, Potato tuber moth from Italy & Late blight of Potato from
Europe
• Coconut: Eriophid mite from Sri Lanka
• Banana: Bunchy top of banana virus from Sri Lanka
• Rubber: Powdery mildew from Malaysia
• Sunflower; Downy mildew from USA
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• Apple: Codling moth from Pakistan, San Jose Scale from USA
• Coffee: Coffee berry borer from Sri Lanka
13.10 Plant protection organisation in India
Plant protection organisation in India
13.10.1 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (DPPQS):
The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (DPPQS) established
under Department of Agriculture & Cooperation of Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India, is an apex plant protection organisation in the country
having the following key functions:
 To enforce Plant Quarantine Regulations issued under The Destructive
Insects & Pests Act, 1914 and amendments issued there under to prevent
introduction & spread of exotic pests;
 To implement the provisions of The Insecticides Act, 1968 and rules
framed there under for effective control over use of pesticides;
 To fulfill international commitment and obligations in respect of locust
control and phyto-sanitary measures;
 To introduce and popularize innovative plant protection technologies
such as integrated pest management (IPM) practices;
 To impart training in areas of plant protection technology, pesticide
quality testing & pesticide residue analysis etc. ;
 To coordinate and liaison with State/Union Territory Governments in all
matters relating to plant protection
The Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India heads the Directorate
of Plant Protection and Quarantine Station, which is located at N. H. IV,
Faridabad-121001 (Haryana). The Directorate implements five central sector
schemes in the area of plant protection viz., expansion of plant quarantine
facilities, integrated pest management programmes, implementation of
Insecticide Act, locust control and training in plant protection.
Though the Directorate was formed in 1946 with plant quarantine wing,
the first Plant Quarantine Station (PQS) was established at Mumbai in 1949
followed by the PQS at Chennai in 1950, Amritsar in 1954, Cochin in 1955,
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Kolkata in 1956, Visakhapattinam in 1957 and at Tuticorin and Bhavnagar in
1968. At present, there are 35 PQS’s functioning at various Seaports, Airports
and Land frontier stations, in addition to 61 In-land depots to carry out plant
quarantine inspection and to facilitate safe import of plants/ plant materials. All
member countries of IPPC need to establish National Plant Protection
Organization (NPPO) for implementation of phytosanitary measures, import
regulations to promote safe agricultural trade through plant quarantine system;
DPPQS is the NPPO for India.
13.10.2 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR): This bureau
has been designated as the national nodal agency for issuing permission to
public and private sector agencies for import of seeds and germplasm,
transgenic planting material or genetically modified organisms(GMOs) for
research and experimental purpose. Permits for import of transgenic and
genetically modifies organisms are issued only after the Review Committee on
Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) accords the import clearance. The RCGM is set
up by the Department of Biotechnology under the provisions of the rules for the
manufacture, use, import, exports and storage of hazardous micro-organism,
genetically engineered organism or cells, made under the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986. NBPGR has a separate Division of Plant Quarantine
with goods equipments facilities. NBPGR has established a regional plant
quarantine station at Hyderabad that takes care of the quarantine needs of the
International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT),
Directorate of Rice Research and other research organisation in the region.
Some crop specific Indian institutes are also entrusted with the responsibility of
post entry isolation growing facilities and desired scientific expertise. These
institutes are Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundri, Central
Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod, Central Tuber Crops Research
Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla and
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore.
Forest Research Institute (FRI) Deharadun for import of forest plants
Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata for import of ornamental plants to
enforce quarantine laws in India.
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13.11 Acts related to registration of pesticides and
transgenic
Acts related to registration of pesticides and transgenic
13.11.1 Insecticides Act, 1968: The Insecticide Act, 1968 has been enforced
on 2nd September, 1968 by the Government of India to regulate the import,
manufacture, sale, transport and distribution and use of insecticides with a view
to prevent risk to human beings or animals. The government of India also
constituted the Central Insecticide Board (CIB) to advise the state and central
governments as per this act. The insecticide rules of 1971 framed under the
Insecticides Act 1968 had come in to force in 1971. There are nine chapters in
the insecticide rule, 1971 relating to the functions of CIB, RC, CIL, grant of
licenses, packing, labelling, first aid, antidote protective clothing’s etc. Under
this act and rules, there is compulsory registration of the pesticides at the
Central level and licence for their manufacture; formulation and sale are dealt
with at the State level. With the enforcement of the Insecticides Act in the
country pesticides of very high quality are made available to the farmers and
general public for house-hold use, for protecting the agricultural crops from the
ravages of their pests, humans from diseases and nuisance caused by public
health pests and the health hazards involved in their use have been minimised to
a great extent. For the effective enforcement of the Insecticides Act, the
following bodies have been constituted at the Central level.
13.11.1.1 Central Insecticide Board (CIB): The Government has constituted
Central Insecticides Board under the Chairmanship of Director General of
Health Services with 29 members from different speciality and government
organisations.
Functions of CIB:
 To advise the Central and state Governments on technical matters on
technical matters arising out of administration
 To specify the uses of the classification of insecticides on the basis of
their toxicity
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 To advise tolerance limits for insecticides, residues and an establishment
of minimum intervals between the application of insecticides and
harvest in respect of various commodities
 To specify the shelf-life of insecticides
13.11.1.2 Registration committee: Registration Committee consisting of a
Chairman and other five persons who shall be members of the Board. The main
objective of the committee is to register insecticide after scrutinizing their
formulae and verifying claims made by the importer or the manufacturer, as the
case may be, as regards their efficacy and safety to human being and animals.
The function of the registration committee is to specify the precautions to be
taken against poisoning through the use or handling of insecticides. For import
and manufacture of insecticides, registration certificate is essential and a
separate certificate for each insecticide. This committee has power to prohibit
the import, manufacture and sale of pesticides and also confiscate the stocks.
The offences are punishable and size and other penalties are prescribed. Both
the Central and State Governments are empowered to make rules, prescribe
forms and fees. This committee give three types of registration viz., provisional,
regular or full and repeat registration.
13.11.1.3 Central Insecticide Laboratory:
1. To analyze samples of insecticides and submission of certificates of
analysis to the concerned authority;
2. To analyze samples of materials for insecticide residues
3. To carry out such investigations as may be necessary for the purpose
of ensuring the conditions of registration of insecticides;
4. To determine the efficacy and toxicity of insecticides
13.11.2 Regulatory measures specific to transgenic seeds: Bio-safety
concerns have led to the development of regulatory regimes in many countries
for research, testing, safe use and handling of GMOs and products thereof.
India is one of the earliest countries to establish a bio-safety system for
regulation of GMOs. Acknowledging the potential of Genetic Engineering and
its relevance to India, Ministry of Science and Technology provide sufficient
impetus for research and monitoring of transgenic seed development. The
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measures of transgenic regulation fall under the Environment and Protection
Act, 1986 and EPA rules, 1989. The Rules 1989 also define the competent
authorities and composition of such authorities for handling of various aspects
of the Rules. Presently there are six committees. The mandate of the six
Committees notified under Rules 1989 is as follows:
 Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC): The functions are
of an advisory nature and involve review of developments in
biotechnology at national and international levels and recommend
suitable and appropriate safety regulations for India in recombinant
research, use and applications from time to time.
 Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) established in
1986 under the Department of Biotechnology, ministry of Science and
technology is to monitor the safety related aspects in respect of on-
going research projects and activities (including small scale field trials)
and bring out manuals and guidelines specifying procedure for
regulatory process with respect to activities involving genetically
engineered organisms in research, use and applications including
industry with a view to ensure environmental safety.
 Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) established
under MoEFCC is the apex body to accord notified under Rules 1989.
For approval of activities involving large scale use of hazardous
microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production
from the environmental angle. The GEAC is also responsible for
approval of proposals relating to release of genetically engineered
organisms and products into the environment including experimental
field trials (Biosafety Research Level trial-I and II known as BRL-I and
BRL-II).
 State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC’s) have a major
role in monitoring. It also has powers to inspect, investigate and take
punitive action in case or violations of statutory provisions.
 District Level Committees (DLCs) have a major role in monitoring the
safety regulations in installations engaged in the use of genetically
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modified organisms/hazardous microorganisms and its applications in
the environment.
 Institutional Bio-safety Committee (IBSC) is established under the
institution engaged in GMO research to oversee such research and to
interface with the RCGM in regulating it.
13.12 History of quarantine legislations

History of quarantine legislations: The first legal restrictions to hinder the
spread of disease were enacted against human disease. It was the dangerous
outbreak of bubonic plague, which swept through Europe during the 14th
century that led the Venetian Republic to appoint three guardians of public
health, to exclude infected and suspected ships and to make the first quarantine
of infected areas in 1403. The first plant quarantine law was promulgated in
Rouen, France in 1660 to suppress and prevent the spread of common barberry,
the alternate host for wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis Pers.). Among other
countries, the first few to establish plant quarantine services were
 Indonesia enacted a law to prohibit importation of coffee plants and
beans from Sri Lanka in 1877
 In USA, the PQ work started well ahead in 1891 when the State of
California initiated seaport inspection at San Pedro, probably the first in
the world. The Federal Plant Quarantine Act was enacted in 1912.
 In Australia the first set of regulations governing PQ came into force on
1909 following introduction of the Quarantine Act of 1908
 The German Government started to put ban on plants and plant products
from USA in 1913
In India the first regulation legislative measures against crop pests and diseases
was initiated under the Destructive Insects and pests Act of 1914 (DIP act) and
it was passed by Governor General of India on 3rd February, 1914. Under this
Act, rules governing the import and movement of plants and plant materials,
insects and fungi are framed. The Act provides
 It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the
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import into India or any part there of any specific place therein, of
any article of class of articles.
 It authorizes the officers of the Customs at every port to operate, as
if the rules under the DIP Act are made under the Sea Customs Act.
 It authorizes the Central Government to prohibit or regulate the
export from a State of the transport from one State to another State
in India of any plants and plant materials, diseases or insects likely
to cause or infestation. It also authorizes the control of transport and
carriage and gives power to prescribe the nature of documents to
accompany such plants and plant materials and articles.
 It authorizes the State Governments to make rules for the detention,
inspection, disinfection or destruction of any insect or class of
insects or of any article or class of articles, in respect of which the
Central Government have issued notifications. It also authorizes the
State governments for regulating the powers and duties of the
officers whom it may appoint on this behalf.
 It provides penalty for persons who knowingly contravene the rules
and regulations issued under the Act.
 It also protects the persons from any suit or prosecution or other
legal proceedings for anything done in good faith or intended to be
done under the Act. Consequent to Bengal famine 1943, a Central
Plant Protection organization was established in 1946 under the then
Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Often a new pest, disease or weed
has accidentally entered a country where it did not exist before and
has multiplied, spread and caused enormous damage to the crops of
that country.
13.13 Plant Quarantine, 2003
Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 (PQ
Order, 2003): Government made this order to prohibiting and regulating the
import into India of agricultural articles. This order notified under the DIP Act
and came into force with effect from 1st January, 2004. This order contains
seven chapters on different aspects such as Preliminary, General conditions for
import, Special conditions of Import, Post-entry Quarantine, Appeal and
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Revision, Power of Relaxation and Repeal and Savings. The PQ Order, 2003
replaces all the preceding Orders / notifications of plant quarantine regulations.
PQ Order, 2003 was formulated on the scientific basis of Pest Risk Analysis
(PRA). The commodities are categorized into various Schedules based on
associated pest risk either through pathway or from countries where the pest is
known to be reported. In toto, the order clearly spells out notified points of
entry, list of prohibited, restricted, regulated commodities, quarantine weeds of
concern to India, Inspection fee, authorities to issue import permits, to certify
post entry quarantine facilities (PEQ) and the deposition of samples to gene
bank of NBPGR.
13.14 Environmental Acts
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: This act constituted after the decision
taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at
Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps
for the protection and improvement of human environment and also abide to
implement the decision aforesaid related to the protection and improvement of
environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living
creatures, plants and property. This act was introduced on 23rd May, 1986 from
Indian parliament and called the Environment Protection Act, 1986. Under this
act the Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures as it
deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the
quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating
environmental pollution. Some important provisions are mentioned below:
1. No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge
or emit or permit to be discharged or emitted any environmental
pollutant in excess of such standards as may be prescribed.
2. No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance
except in accordance with such procedure and after complying with such
safeguards as may be prescribed.
3. Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the
prescribed standards occurs or is apprehended to occur due to any
accident or other unforeseen act or event, the person responsible for
such discharge and the person in charge of the place at which such
discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall be bound to prevent or
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mitigate the environmental pollution caused as a result of such discharge
and shall also forth with:-
a. intimate the fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such
occurrence; and
b. be bound, if called upon, to render all assistance, to such
authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
4. On receipt of information with respect to the fact or apprehension of any
occurrence of the nature referred to in subsection1, whether through
intimation under that sub-section or otherwise, the authorities or
agencies referred to in sub-section 1 shall, as early as practicable, cause
such remedial measures to be taken as are necessary to prevent or
mitigate the environmental pollution.
5. The expenses, if any, incurred by any authority or agency with respect to
the remedial measures referred to in sub-section 2, together with interest
at such reasonable rate as the Government may, by order, fix from the
date when a demand for the expenses is made until it is paid may be
recovered by such authority or agency from the person concerned as
arrears of land revenue or of public demand.
6. The Central Government or any officer empowered by it in this behalf,
shall have power to take, for the purpose of analysis, samples of air,
water, soil, or other substance from any factory, premises or other place
in such manner as may be prescribed.
7. The Central Government may by notification in the Official Gazette,
appoint or recognize such persons as it thinks fit and having the
prescribed qualifications to be Government Analysts for the purpose of
analysis of samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent for analysis
to any environmental laboratory established or recognized under sub-
section 1 of section 12.
13.15 Industrial registration
The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951: An Act to provide for
the development and regulation of certain industries. It contains four chapters.
Chapter I describes about different terms related to industries. Chapter II
provides information related to the central advisory council and development
councils (CAC&DC). (i) Central Advisory Council is made for purpose of
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advising to matters concerning the development and regulation of scheduled
industries, The Advisory Council shall consist of a Chairman and 30 members
appointed by the Central Government. This council advised to central
government for making rules connected with the administration of this Act. It
works for the interest of (a) owners of industrial undertakings (b) owners of
industrial undertakings (c) consumers of goods manufactured or produced etc.
(ii) Development Councils is made to provide in order to increase the efficiency
or productivity of scheduled industries. It also functions for which the
Development Council is established, to improve or develop the service that
such industry or group of industries renders or could render to the community,
or to enable such industry or group of industries to render such service more
economically. A Development Council shall prepare and transmit to the Central
Government and the Advisory Council, annually, a report setting out what has
been done in the discharge of its functions during the financial year last
completed. It also imposed cess on scheduled industries. Chapter III contains
rules to regulate scheduled industries which registered viz., registration of
existing industries, revocation of registration, License for new industries,
licence for producing or manufacturing new articles, etc.
i. Registration of existing industrial undertakings C: The owner of every
existing industrial should follow
• The owner of every existing industrial undertaking, not being the
Central Government, shall, within such period as the Central
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, fix in this
behalf with respect to industrial undertakings generally or with respect
to any class of them, register the undertaking in the prescribed manner.
• The Central Government shall also cause to be registered in the same
manner every existing industrial undertaking of which it is the owner.
• Where an industrial undertaking is registered under this section, there
shall be issued to the owner of the undertaking or the Central
Government, as the case may be, a certificate of registration containing
the productive capacity of the industrial undertaking and such other
particulars as may be prescribed.
• The owner of every industrial undertaking to whom a certificate of
registration has been issued under this section before the
commencement of the Industries (Development and Regulation)
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Amendment Act, 1973 (67 of 1973), shall, if the undertaking falls within
such class of undertakings as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, specify in this behalf, produce,
within such period as may be specified in such notification, the
certificate of registration for entering therein the productive capacity of
the industrial undertaking and other prescribed particulars.
• In specifying the productive capacity in any certificate of registration
issued under sub-section (3), the Central Government shall take into
consideration the productive or installed capacity of the industrial
undertaking as specified in the application for registration made under
sub-section (1), the level of production immediately before the date on
which the application for registration was made under sub-section (1),
the level of the highest annual production during the three years
immediately preceding the introduction in Parliament of the Industries
(Development and Regulation) amendment Bill, 1973, the extent to
which production during the said period was utilized for export and such
other factors as the Central Government may consider relevant including
the extent of under utilization of capacity, if any, during the relevant
period due to any cause.
ii. Revocation of registration in certain cases C: If the Central Government is
satisfied that the registration of any industrial undertaking has been obtained
by misrepresentation as to an essential fact or that any industrial undertaking
has ceased to be registrable under this Act by reason of any exemption
granted under this Act becoming applicable thereto or that for any other
reason the registration has become useless or ineffective and therefore
requires to be revoked the Central Government may after giving an
opportunity to the owner of the undertaking to be heard revoke the
registration.
Chapter IIIa contains rules and regulations related to direct management or
control of industries. Chapter IIIaa described the rules related to management
or control of industrial undertakings owned by companies in liquidation.
Chapter IIIab described power of central government to provide relief to certain
industries undertakings. Chapter IIIac contains rules and regulation of
liquidation or reconstruction of companies. Chapter IIIb described the rules and
regulations for control of supply, distribution, price etc., of certain articles
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manufactured by registered industries. Chapter IV contains all miscellaneous
rules viz., inspection of industries, and general prohibition of taking over
management or control of industrial undertakings, to issue directions to
Development Councils, penalties made on industries for contravenes or
attempts to contravene or for false statements provided by industries, delegation
of powers to Development Council, State Government or officer or authority
subordinate to the Central Government etc. This act contains three schedules.
The first schedule provides list of industries engaged in the manufacture or
production of any of the articles viz., metallurgical industries, fuel, boilers and
steam generating plants, transportations, industrial machinery & tools etc. The
second schedule contains functions which assigned to Development Councils.
The third schedule includes the Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act,
1946; the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 and the Minimum Wages Act, 1948.
13.16 APEDA
APEDA: The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development
Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India under the
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act
passed by the Parliament in December, 1985. The Act (2 of 1986) came into
effect from 13th February, 1986 by a notification issued in the Gazette of India:
This Authority replaced the Processed Food Export Promotion Council
(PFEPC).
13.16.1 Functions of APEDA: Following functions have been assigned to the
Authority.
 Development of industries relating to the scheduled products for export
by way of providing financial assistance or otherwise for undertaking
surveys and feasibility studies, participation in enquiry capital through
joint ventures and other reliefs and subsidy schemes;
 Registration of persons as exporters of the scheduled products on
payment of such fees as may be prescribed;
 Fixing of standards and specifications for the scheduled products for the
purpose of exports;
 Carrying out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughter houses,
processing plants, storage premises, conveyances or other places where
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such products are kept or handled for the purpose of ensuring the quality
of such products;
 Improving of packaging of the Scheduled products;
 Improving of marketing of the Scheduled products outside India;
 Promotion of export oriented production and development of the

Scheduled products;
 Collection of statistics from the owners of factories or establishments
engaged in the production, processing, packaging, marketing or export
of the scheduled products or from such other persons as may be
prescribed on any matter relating to the scheduled products and
publication of the statistics so collected or of any portions thereof or
extracts there from;
 Training in various aspects of the industries connected with the
scheduled products;
 Such other matters as may be prescribed.
13.16.2 Products monitored: APEDA is mandated with the responsibility of

export promotion and development of the following scheduled products viz.,
fruits, vegetables and their products, meat and meat products, poultry and
poultry products, dairy products, confectionery, biscuits and bakery products,
honey, jaggery and sugar products, cocoa and its products, chocolates of all
kinds, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, cereal and cereal products,
groundnuts and walnuts, pickles, papads and chutneys, guar gum, floriculture
and floriculture products, herbal and medicinal plants. In addition to this,
APEDA has been entrusted with the responsibility to monitor import of sugar.
13.16.3 Composition of the APEDA Authority: As prescribed by the statute,
the APEDA Authority consists of a Chairman and 39 members (one member
from Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Government of India, ex-official;
one member appointed by the Central Government representing the Planning
Commission; three members of Parliament of whom two are elected by the
House of People and one by the Council of States; eight members appointed by
the Central Government representing respectively; the Ministries of the Central
Govt. viz., Agriculture and Rural Development, Commerce, Finance, Industry,
Food, Civil Supplies, Civil Aviation and Shipping and transport; five members
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appointed by the Central Government by rotation in the alphabetical order to
represent the States and the Union Territories; seven members appointed by the
Central Govt. each representing from Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
National Horticultural Board, National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing
Federation, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Indian Institute of
Packaging, Spices Export Promotion Council and Cashew Export Promotion
Council; twelve members appointed by the Central Government representing
Fruit and Vegetable Products Industries, Meat, Poultry and Dairy Products
Industries, Other Scheduled Products Industries and Packaging Industry and
two members appointed by the Central Government from amongst specialists
and scientists in the fields of agriculture, economics and marketing of the
scheduled products).
13.17 Import and export of bio-control agents
Import and export of bio-control agents: International Standard for
Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM No. 3) provides guidelines for risk management
relating to the export, shipment, import and release of biological control agents
and other beneficial organisms. The standard lists the related responsibilities of
contracting parties to the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)
(‘contracting parties’), of National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPOs) or
of other responsible authorities, importers and exporters. ISPM No. 3 addresses
biological control agents capable of self-replication (including parasitoids,
predators, parasites, nematodes, phytophagous organisms, and pathogens such
as fungi, bacteria and viruses), sterile insects and other beneficial organisms
(such as mycorrhizae and pollinators), including those packaged or formulated
as commercial products. Provisions are also included for importation of non-
indigenous biological control agents and other beneficial organisms for research
in quarantine facilities. The final version of the standard was submitted to the
seventh session of the ICPM (in April 2005) for consideration. After minor
modifications it was adopted as ISPM No. 3 (FAO 2005a and 2005c). The
Standard states that it is “intended to facilitate the safe export, shipment, import
and release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms.
Responsibilities relating to this are held by contracting parties, NPPOs or
other responsible authorities, and by importers and exporters.” However it
does not include reference to living modified organisms, issues related to
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registration of bio-pesticides, or microbial agents intended for vertebrate pest
control.
“Contracting parties, or their designated authorities, should consider and
implement appropriate phytosanitary measures related to the export, shipment,
import and release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms
and, when necessary, issue related import permits.”
As described in this standard, NPPOs or other responsible authorities should:
• Carry out pest risk analysis of biological control agents and other
beneficial organisms prior to import or prior to release;
• Ensure, when certifying exports, that the phytosanitary import
requirements of importing contracting parties are complied with;
• Obtain, provide and assess documentation as appropriate, relevant to the
export, shipment, import or release of biological control agents and
other beneficial organisms;
• Ensure that biological control agents and other beneficial organisms are
taken either directly to designated quarantine facilities or mass-rearing
facilities or, if appropriate, passed directly for release into the
environment;
• Encourage monitoring of release of biological control agents or
beneficial organisms in order to assess impact on target and non target
organisms.
*Responsibilities of, and recommendations for, exporters include ensuring that
consignments of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms
comply with phytosanitary import requirements of importing countries and
relevant international agreements, packaging consignments securely, and
providing appropriate documentation relating to biological control agents or
other beneficial organisms.
*Responsibilities of, and recommendations for, importers include providing
appropriate documentation relating to the target pest(s) and biological control
agent or other beneficial organisms to the NPPO or other responsible authority
of the importing country.” In nut shell, in India following procedure is follows:
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“The Accompanied documents in respect of Import of Live insects/ Fungi /Bio
control agents shall be scrutinized to ensure the imports are covered by a
special permit issued by the Plant Protection Advisor to the Government of
India (PPA) and shall be allowed to be imported only through specified point of
entry. Further the packages were inspected to ensure the seals are intact and
not damaged during the transport and are cleared to the actual importer under
intimation to the Plant Protection Advisor to the Government of India (PPA). In
case of illegitimate imports the same shall be destroyed by incineration under
intimation to the importer and the same brought to the notice of the Plant
Protection Advisor to the Government of India (PPA)”.
13.18 Physical methods for Pest management
Physical methods for pest management: Use of certain physical forces to
minimize the pest populations are known as physical methods. This method
involves manipulation of temperature, humidity, radio frequencies, infrared and
use of radiant energies. Some of the important practices listed below:
 Male insects can be made sterile by exposing them to gamma radiation
(source 60CO) or by using chemicals. When sterile males are released in
normal population they compete with normal males in copulation and to
that extent reductive capacity of the population are reduced. By
sterilizing the pupae of screwworm, livestock pest (Cochliomyia
hominivorax Coquerel) with radiations, sterile males were obtained.
They were released @ 400males /sq mile for 7 weeks. By this method
total eradication was achieved in South East parts of America and in the
Curacao islands in case of screwworm.
 Artificial heating and cooling of stored products will prevent insect
damage. Usually high temperatures are more effective than low
temperatures.
 Stored products can be exposed to 55 0C for 3 hours to avoid stored
product pests.
 Kaolinic clay after successive activation with acid and heat can be
mixed with stored grains. The clay minerals absorb the lipoid layer over
the insect cuticle, and the insects lose their body moisture and die of
desiccation.
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 Steam sterilization of soil kills soil insects and nematodes.
 Oxygen stress and carbon dioxide high concentration: In air tight
containers small volume of air is enclosed, the available oxygen is
quickly utilized by insects and raise concentration of carbon dioxide.
High concentration of carbon dioxide leads to death of stored products
insects.
 An entoleter is used in flour mills to kill stored grain pests by centrifugal
forces.
 Exposure of insects to ultrasonic waves of 400 kilocycles for 4 to 30
minutes at 500 watts found effective to kill insects.
 Vapour Heat Treatment (VHT): Heated air is saturated with water (>RH
90%) for specified period of 6 to 8 hours for raising pulp temperature to
43-44.5°C in case of mango against fruit flies.
13.19 Summary
An insect (or any other living being) whose population increases to such an
extent as to cause economic losses to crops or a nuisance and health hazard to
man and his belongings will be declared a pest. The population of pest never
remains constant for long, but it tends to oscillate all the time about a
theoretical optimum for the species. Several techniques available for
controlling individual insect pests and are conveniently categorized in
increasing order of complexity as - cultural, mechanical, physical, biological,
genetical, regulatory and finally chemical. Pest management is an application of
different plant protection technologies in a compatible manner to maintain the
pest population below levels that causes economic damage and also help in the
conservation of environmental qualities and are social accepted. Some culture,
legal measures and chemical practices are used as prophylactic measures to
keep away the pests from crops. These are effective especially in the case of
certain pests which are known to occur in an area year after year or season after
season. The pests associated with plants and seeds also moved along unnoticed
into a new region, where they caused severe damage, not only to the plants with
which they associated but also started to infect / infests many other plant types
in the introduced region. Therefore, domestic restrictions regulate the inter-state
movement of plants and plant materials in order to prevent the further spread of
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destructive insects and diseases that have already entered the country and
international restrictions regulates the imported plants and plant materials have
to be thoroughly examined at the port of entry for the presence of any foreign
insects or of their any other life stages. DPPQS are responsible for expansion of
plant quarantine facilities, integrated pest management programmes,
implementation of Insecticide Act, locust control and training in plant
protection in India and NBPGR designated as the national nodal agency for
issuing permission to public and private sector agencies for import of seeds and
germplasm, transgenic planting material or genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) for research and experimental purpose. APEDA is mandated with the
responsibility of export promotion and development of the following scheduled
products viz., fruits, vegetables and their products, meat and meat products etc.
International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM No. 3) provides
guidelines for risk management relating to the export, shipment, import and
release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms.
13.20 Glossary
 Epidemic pests: Pests which come suddenly in a severe form in a
region or locality at a particular season or time only are known epidemic
pests.
 Gradient outbreak: An outbreak which is not self-driven and does not
spread from local epicenters and is also entirely dependent on external
environmental or internal genetic conditions.
 Curative measures: Those measures which are taken to kill the already
existing pest population are called as curative measures.
 Phytosanitary certificate: It is a certificate issued in the model format
prescribed under the International Plant Protection Convention of the
Food & Agricultural Organization and issued by an authorized officer at
the country of origin of consignment or re-export.
 Quarantine Pest: A pest of potential economic importance to the area
endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely
distributed and being officially controlled.
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1. Insects which cause a loss more than 10 per cent in yield are known as
_______________.
2. Vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis was imported in India from
____________in year 1929.
3. NBPGR is situated at ________________.
4. First plant quarantine station was established at __________ in year 1949.
5. Who is plant protection advisor of Government of India?
6. APEDA stands for ___________________________________.
7. San Jose scale of apple was introduced in India from__________.
1. Define persistent pests?
2. What is monoculture?
3. Enlist important practices of cultural methods?
4. Write the functions of NBPGR?
5. Write a short note on domestic restrictions for movement of plant
materials?
6. Explain the important provisions of Insecticide act 1968?
1. Write down about histories of exotic pests and diseases and their status?
2. Outline various practices applied in physical methods of pest management?
3. What are the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and their important
provisions?
4. Explain plant quarantine and write down the objective and importance of
Plant quarantine?
5. Write in detail about APEDA?
1. Major pests
2. California
3. New Delhi
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4. Mumbai
5. Dr. S. N. Sushil
6. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
7. Italy
13.22 References
 Dhaliwal, G. S. and Arora, Ramesh (2000): Principles of Insect Pest
Management, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
 David, B. V. and Ramamurthy, V.V. (2012): Elements of Economic
Entomology, Namruta publications, Chennai.
 Nayer, K. K.; Ananthakrishnan, T. N. and David, B. V. (1976): General
and Applied Entomology, McGraw-Hill Offices, New Delhi.
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Unit – 14
Biological control of crop pests and weeds – I
14.1 Introduction
14.2 History of Biological Control
14.3 History of Biological Control in India
14.4 Principles of Biological Control
14.5 Scope of Biological Control
14.6 Important groups of parasitoids, predators and pathogens
14.7 Principles of classical biological control – importation, augmentation
and conservation
14.8 Glossary
14.10 References
14.1 Introduction
The use of natural enemies for reducing pest populations whether insects or
weeds and their damage is known as biological control or biocontrol. The
principle behind biological control is that all living entities whether insect or
weeds have natural enemies, which when encouraged and multiplied can keep
pest populations below economically damaging levels. Use of these living
organisms for reducing pest insects and weeds is an integral part of Integrated
Pest Management (IPM) and organic farming as it is an eco-friendly method,
which does not have the harmful effects associated with chemical means of
controlling insects.
These natural enemies of insect pests or biological control agents can be
predators, parasites or pathogens. Biological control agents of weeds include
insects and pathogens. Predators, are species which directly eat a large number
of preys during their lifetime, eg ladybird beetles and lacewings. Parasitoids lay
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eggs on or inside host insects, where their immature stages feed and develop,
ultimately killing the host. Pathogens are organisms, which cause disease in
pest insects. Pathogens are microbial and include bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
The host insect gets weakened or killed due to the disease caused by pathogens.
Pathogens are relatively specific to certain insect groups. Introducing or
encouraging natural enemies in a cropping system can reduce the population of
pest organisms. Bio control can be either natural or applied. Applied biocontrol
has three broad and somewhat overlapping approaches: conservation, classical
and augmentation. In this chapter, history, principles, scope, approaches and
types of biological control will be discussed.
14.2 History of biological control
Human beings have been using biological control for controlling pests since a
long time. From the earlier primitive ways of bringing predator population
closer to preys, to the present day commercial insectaries and air-freight
delivery of natural enemies across the world, biological control has passed
through several phases .
14.2.1 Early phase
During the early phase of biological control (approximately 200 A.D. to 1887
A.D.), the use of natural enemies was on a small scale, not very systematic
and was done without any scientific studies. It is believed that the Chinese were
first to use natural enemies to control insect pests. The ancient Chinese
observed that ants were very effective predators of many citrus pests. They
increased the populations of ants by taking their nests from surrounding habitats
and placing them into their orchards. In 1200 A.D., ants were used in Yemen
also for control of date palm pests. In 1762, the mynah bird, Acridotheres
tristis, was successfully introduced from India to Mauritius for control of the
red locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata. Egg parasites Trichogramma sp. were
shipped from the U.S. to Canada for control of Lepidopterous pests in 1882.
14.2.2 Intermediate Phase.
During the intermediate phase (1888 to 1955) there was better planning and
execution of biocontrol programs. The introduction of Vedalia beetle, Rodolia
cardinalis Mulsant, for control of the cottony cushion scale in 1888 is one of
the famous examples of the intermediate phase. The Cottony cushion scale,
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Icerya purchasi Maskell, was accidentally introduced into California (USA) in
1887. It spread rapidly and the citrus industry was in grave danger. After a lot
of research, the natural enemies Rodolia cardinalis of this pest (the Vedalia
beetle) were collected from Australia and released in California citrus orchards.
The population of pest reduced drastically in a year.
Lantana camara an ornamental plant of central and south America, became a
serious pest in Hawai. Dr albert koebele explored the jungles of Mexico to
search for its natural enemies and sent 23 species of insects to Hawai in 1902.
These insects were released on lantana plants directly without host specificity
tests. Eight species of insects were reported established on this plant throughout
Hawai island by 1905.
The Sugarcane leafhopper Perkinsiella saccharicida , caused significant losses
in total yield of sugar in the Hawaiian Islands in 1903 . The natural enemies
attacking it were searched from Queensland, Australia and a number of
parasitoids were collected and released. An egg parasitoid,
Paranagrus optabilis Perkins established and played a dominant role in the
early reduction of leafhopper in Hawaii in 1905. Later it became widespread
and abundant in 1906-1907, leading to significant reduction in leafhopper
population. Another major mile stone of this phase was the discovery of
Bacillus thuringiensis to be the causative agent of bacterial disease of the
Mediterranean flour moth in 1911 by Berliner .
During 1930 to 1940 biological control gained popularity, followed by decline
during the World War II. The use of synthetic pesticides became widespread
after the discovery of many relatively cheap chemical pesticides. In 1947, the
Commonwealth Bureau of Biological Control was established. In 1951 the
name was changed to the Commonwealth Institute for Biological Control
(CIBC) which currently has its Headquarters in Trinidad, West Indies. In 1955
the Commission Internationale de Lutte Biologique contre les Enemis des
Cultures (CILB) was established in Zurich, Switzerland. This organization is
now known as the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC).
From 1956, it started a journal known as “Entomophaga” devoted to biological
control of arthropod pests and weed species.
14.2.3 The Modern Period
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The modern phase (1957 to Present) of biological control is marked by more
precise studies of natural enemies and better execution of bicontrol projects.
The concept of economic threshold levels was started in 1959 by Vern Stern
et al, which helped growers in making decision regarding when they needed to
apply pesticides or other management tools, and therefore reduced the need for
routine pesticide sprays in cropping systems . In 1962, Rachel Carson wrote a
book “Silent Spring” which focussed on the deleterious effect of indiscriminate
spraying of chemical pesticides on the ecology and environment. People and
governments became aware of the harmful effect of chemical pesticides,
consequently the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was developed
in the late 1960’s. Biological control constituted an integral component of
IPM. In 1964 a book titled “Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds” was
published by Paul DeBach and Evert I. Schliner which was later known as
History of Biological Control which is considered to be a major reference
source for the workers and researchers of biological control. A landmark paper
titled “Biological Control: Panacea or Pandora’s Box” published in 1983 by ,
Frank Howarth changed the way in which biological control was perceived. He
had the opinion that classical biological control sometimes led to extinction of
beneficial endemic species. Research on this aspect of biocontol found some
impact but no species extinctions due to classical BC efforts have resulted from
to date.
14.3 History of biological control in India
The history of biological control in India dates back to the seventeenth century
and since then a great deal of success has been achieved in biological methods
of pest control. In India, organized and systematic biological control research
began with the establishment of the Indian station of Commonwealth Institute
of Biological Control (CIBC) at Bangalore in 1957 with need based substations
at 22 places in the country right from Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) to
Palghat (Kerala). The advent of CIBC marked the beginning of organized and
systematic biological control research in India. During this period, our
knowledge of natural enemies of crop pests and weeds has increased manifold.
The All-India Co-ordinated Research Project on Biological Control of Crop
Pests and Weeds (AICRP) was established in 1977 with 10 centres under the
aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for carrying out
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biological control research in different parts of the country. The AICRP was
elevated to independent Project Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC) with
its headquarters in Bangalore in 1993. PDBC was the nodal agency in the
country that organized biological control research at the national level with 16
centres spread across the country. During XIth plan, PDBC was upgraded as
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) to act as a nodal
agency for collection, characterization, documentation, conservation, exchange
and utilization of agriculturally important insect resources (including mites and
spiders) for sustainable agriculture. In the twelfth five year plan the Bureau is
now re-named as National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR).
14.4 Principles of biological control
1. Most organisms have their enemies in nature, which reduce their
population by either diseases, or predation. This phenomenon of natural
control is utilised by human beings in biological control for
suppressing the population of pest species.
2. The aim of biological control is to suppress insect pest populations to a
level where they are not economically important, rather than their total
eradication. Biological control works in a way where both pest and
natural enemies remain in the agro-ecosystem at low densities.
Biological control be self-perpetuating and can keep population of
many important pests at low density for long periods.
3. All natural enemies need certain level of pest population for their own
survival, development and sustenance. Natural enemies need to search
the pest to consume (predators) or develop and multiply on them
(parasites and pathogens). But after being established , biological
control can provide relatively permanent control, if climatic factors or
pesticides do not create unfavourable conditions for them.
4. The possibility of development of resistance to a control agent is
negligible.
5. Keeping pest populations at an acceptable level may be achieved by
combining the action of natural enemies with other means of control
{Integrated pest management (IPM)}
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6. As compared to chemical pesticides ,biocontrol agents may take time for
achieving significant control.
7. The success of a biological control program depends on extensive
preliminary studies for understanding the biology and ecology of the
pest and natural enemies, the environments of their origin and the
places where they are going to be released. Although this research is
time consuming, but it is necessary. When all essential efficacy studies’
are conducted, the chances of biocontrol programs success are better as
compared to hasty release of biocontrol agents without proper
evaluation. Research on development of new molecule as a potential
pesticide and placing a product on the market also takes around 10
years time.
8. Efficacy of a program of pest control also depends on the cost
effectiveness. Although initially the biocontrol programs seem
expensive, many studies have proved that, in the long run natural
enemies are more cost effective than pesticides.
14.5 Scope of biological control
Due to the growing awareness on the harmful impacts of pesticide use on the
environment and human health, biocontrol has emerged as feasible and safe
alternate approach to pest management has a bright future. In the present times,
the opportunities and need for effective biological control are greater than ever
because of problems such as resistance of insect pests to many pesticides, ban
and withdrawal of many pesticides on environmental grounds without suitable
replacements. As biological control methods do not show the quick results as
shown by pesticides, convincing farmers to adopt more biocontrol measures for
controlling pests is not an easy task. However the use of bio control methods is
gradually gaining importance, especially for the management of pests that are
difficult to control with insecticides like mealy bugs, scales etc. In the coming
years, biological control is going to be an integral part of pest management
programs because it is a safe and sustainable eco friendly way of dealing with
pests
Presently more than 150 species of natural enemies are commercially available
for augmentative biological control (van Lenteren 2003).Each pest species has
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tens to hundreds of associated natural enemy species (parasitoids, predators and
pathogens), and thus thousands of natural enemies still await discovery,
indicating great opportunities in research on bio control agents. Improved
networking among the world's biological control community and construction
of easily accessible databases containing information on all studied natural
enemies (with appropriate evaluation) is required for increasing the rate of
identification of new and efficient control agents.
Training of extension personnel and farmers is essential as farmers through
self-learning and experimenting, are capable of quickly selecting the most
appropriate pest management strategy for their crops, and will move away from
chemicals to cultural methods and biological control. The trained farmers later
become master trainers and pest control decision makers themselves, and pass
their experience to their neighbors and relatives. Creating awareness regarding
the benefits of sustainable and environmentally friendly pest management is
necessary to avoid unnecessary use of chemicals by farmers.
Biological control is expected to account for a significantly increased
proportion of all crop protection methods by the year 2050. Future pest
management will depend strongly on biological control because it is the most
sustainable, cheapest and environmentally safest system of pest management
with additional benefits for growers and consumers.
The future of biological control depends on researchers, bureaucrats in
government agencies and farmers. The reluctance in using biological control is
mainly due to attitudinal barriers. A commitment towards encouraging
increased implementation of this sustainable, biologically-based pest
management and more support and funds for research in this field is needed
from policy makers. There is also a need to popularize bio control methods
through more trainings, information and education and publicize the
environmental and social benefits of biological control through the mass media.
14.6 Important groups of parasitoids, predators and
pathogens
Natural enemies of insects and mites can be grouped into three primary types
i.e. predators parasites and pathogens. Most of the parasites and pathogens are
often highly specialized and attack a limited number of closely related pest
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whereas predators may not always be specialized. Weeds are controlled using
insect herbivores and pathogens. In the following sections different groups of
natural enemies have been discussed in detail .
14.6.1 Predators
A predator is an animal that kills and consumes other insects or mites (the
prey). Predators generally are larger than their prey and they kill or consume
both immature and adult prey. Insect predators usually belong to the orders
Coleoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera and Odonata .
Maximum number predators are beetles (Coleopterans) especially from the
families Coccinelidae and Carabidae . Other arthropod natural enemies include
predatory mites and spiders. Predator adults and immature stages are often
generalists rather than specialists. Some adult predators feed on pollen if prey is
not available. Most of the predators are extremely useful natural enemies of
insect pests. Unfortunately, some prey on other beneficial insects as well as
pests. Insect predators are frequently found in all agricultural and natural
habitats. Some important arthropod predators are ladybird beetles lacewings ,
geocorid beetles, syrphid flies and spiders.
14.6.1.1 Lady Beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)
Ladybird beetles, Lady beetles or, ladybugs, are among the most visible and
best known beneficial predatory insects. Ladybird beetles are usually red or
orange with black markings. They have alligator-like larvae. The adults pass
harsh climate in hibernation and females lay their bright yellow or orange eggs
in clusters near aphid colonies during favourable cooler weather when
population of aphids increase.
Most lady beetles are beneficial as both adults and larvae, feeding primarily on
aphids. They also feed on mites, small insects, and insect eggs. Two
coccinellids exceptions are the introduced Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna
varivestis, and the squash beetle, Epilachna borealis , which feed on plants both
as adults and larvae of both species. Most lady beetles found on crops and in
gardens are aphid predators. Some prefer mite or scale species. If aphids are
scarce, lady beetle adults and larvae may feed on the eggs of moths and beetles,
and mites, thrips, and other small insects, as well as pollen and nectar. They
may also be cannibalistic. Because of their ability to survive on other prey
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when aphids are in short supply, lady beetles are particularly valuable natural
enemies.
Fig 1 Eggs larvae and adults of lady bird beetles.

14.6.1.2 Lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae )
Many lacewings are important predators of insect pests. The larvae of all
lacewings are predaceous but in some species, adults may also be predaceous.
Lacewing larvae prefer aphids as prey but also consume a range of other soft-
bodied pests such as mites, thrips, jassids and mealybugs.The most abundant
are the common green Lacewings (Chrysopa carnea). The adults are about 1/2
to 3/4 inch long, and are yellowish-green with golden eyes and large, delicate
netted wings. The lacewing lays her eggs on foliage. The eggs are oval, pale
green in color, and are attached to the end of a hair-like stem. In a few days
they hatch. The tiny larvae that emerges has a voracious appetite and will feed
on aphids, small worms, insect eggs, mites, thrips, immature whitefly, and other
insects.
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Fig 2 Eggs larvae and adults of lacewings

14.6.1.3 : Syrphid fly Hover Flies (Diptera: Syrphidae)
Syrphid flies are also known as flower flies and are most easily recognized by
their typical hovering (helicopter like) flight above flowers or aphid-infested
plants. Syrphid flies are important pollinators. Some species of syrphid flies
look like a bee or wasps. Larvae are voracious predators of aphids and other
small soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids some caterpillars and scale
insects. Adult syrphid flies require sugar from flower nectar as source of
energy for their flight and female flies feed on pollen as a source of protein
before they can lay mature eggs. Their eggs are whitish and oblong shaped and
laid among aphids. A maggot hatches from the egg in 2 or 3 days and begins to
feed on aphids voraciously. A single larva can consume as many as 400 aphids
during its development period. The larvae are greenish yellowish maggots
tapered toward the head. The larval stage lasts for 7 to 14 days, depending on
temperature, and the larva can consume as many as 400 aphids in its period of
development. Pupa are shaped typically like a teardrop. Pupation occurs on
plant parts near the aphid colony, or in the soil.
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Fig 3 Syrphid Adult pupa and larva
14.6.1.4 Geocorid bugs (big eyed bugs)

Adults and nymphs have oval bodies and broad heads. Their most
distinguishing characteristic is their large, bulging eyes. Bigeyed bugs walk
with a distinctive "waggle" and omit a fowl odor when handled. Bigeyed bugs
feed on a wide variety of prey smaller than themselves. They are among the
most important natural enemies in cotton. They feed on eggs and small larvae
of most lepidopteran pests (bollworm, pink bollworm, tobacco budworm), on
the eggs and nymphs of plant bugs (e.g., Lygus), and on all life stages of
whiteflies, mites and aphids.
Fig 4 : Geocorid bug

14.6.1.5 Spiders
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Spiders are arachnids, not insects but they are important generalist predators
of many insect groups like thrips, caterpillars, aphids, plant bugs, leaf hoppers,
flies, etc. Spiders are abundant and widespread in all types of habitats. Their
importance as pest control agents has been acknowledged by farmers from time
immemorial and their presence is considered by many to be indicative of a
healthy agroecosystem. In China people in villages take the number of spiders
in a field as a measure of its potential agricultural productivity. Spiders
comprise a very diverse group that can be broadly categorized by their hunting
tactics to capture prey. Web building spiders use silk to trap their prey, other
species are hunters that actively search for their food. Some spiders are highly
cryptic ‘sit and wait’ predators, that hide in flowers attack pollinators All
spiders produce a venom that is poisonous to their food source and once this
venom is injected, it immobilizes their victim and then begins the digestion
process. Conservation and augmentation of spiders in the fields is a simple, yet
efficient method of pest control.
Fig 5 Spider
14.6.2 Parasites
A parasite is an organism that lives and feeds in or on another organism( host )
ultimately killing it. Often only, the immature stage of the parasite feeds on the
host. Adult parasitoids are generally free-living. However, adult females of
some parasites (such as many wasps that attack scales and whiteflies) may be
predaceous. The term “parasite” and parasitoid are often used synonymously
but the distinction between them is that true parasites (eg. lice, ticks) do not
typically kill their hosts but parasitoids kill the host. Most insect parasitoids
only attack a particular life stage of one or several related species. The female
searches for host and lays eggs in or on it. The immature parasitoid develops on
or within a pest, feeding on body fluids and organs, eventually leaving the host
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to pupate or emerging as an adult. Pests attacked by parasitoids die slowly.
Some hosts are paralyzed, while others may continue to feed or even lay eggs
before succumbing to the attack. Parasitoids, often complete their life cycle
more quickly and increase their numbers much faster than many predators.
Parasitoids can be the dominant and most effective natural enemies of some
pest insects, but their presence may not be obvious. Most beneficial insect
parasitoids are wasps (Order Hymenoptera) or flies, (Order Diptera), although
some beetles and other insects may have life stages that are parasitoids .
Tachinid flies, ichneumonid wasps , braconid wasps and chalcid wasps are
valuable insect parasites .
14.6.2.1 Ichneumonid wasps
These wasps include a large number of species and are very widely distributed.
Most are somewhat wasp-like in appearance and many of the females have very
long ovipositors, often longer than the body. Most of these wasps are internal
parasites of the immature stages of the insect pest host. The parasite may
complete its development in the host insect pest.
14.6.2.2 Braconid wasps
These wasps are another large group of parasitic insects. The adults are
relatively small (rarely over 1.5 mm long) and a great many are stout-bodied.
These wasps parasitize a wide range of insects but chiefly aphids and the larvae
of moths, beetles, and flies. The habits of the braconids are similar to the
ichneumonids except that many of them pupate in silken cocoons on the outside
of the body of the insect host.
Fig.6 Adult and pupae of braconid wasp
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14.6.2.3 Chalcid wasps
These wasps are usually quite small (2 mm) and in general are black, metallic
blue or sometimes green. Many species live inside minute insects or the eggs
of scale insects, aphids, caterpillars, and flies.
14.6.2.4 Trichogramma wasps
Trichogramma are extremely tiny wasps of family Trichogrammatidae and are
very important parasitoids of insects. Trichogramma wasps occur naturally in
almost every terrestrial habitat. They parasitize insect eggs, especially eggs of
Lepidopterans. Trichogramma species are the most widely used insect natural
enemy in the world partly because they are easy to rear in masses and they
attack many important crop insect pests. Mass rearing of Trichogramma species
as biological control agents began in early 1900s. Trichogramma are reared
and released annually on an estimated 80 million acres of agricultural crops and
forests in 30 countries to control some 28 different caterpillar pests attacking
corn, rice, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables and fruit trees.
14.6.2.5 Tachinid Flies: Many species resemble an overgrown house fly. The
fly is usually grayish, brownish, or black mottled with bristles. The adult flies
rest on foliage or on flowers upon which they feed. Adults lay eggs glued to the
host or laid on foliage where the host insect pest may ingest them. Hatched
larvae are also deposited on or in the victim insect pests. Larvae feed on the
contents of host insect pests.
Fig. 7 Tachinid fly

14.6.3 Pathogens
Diseases can be important natural controls of some insect pests. Insects and
mites can be infected by disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, viruses,
nematodes and fungi. Most pathogens are very small size organisms(microbes)
, which can be viewed clearly with the help of microsope only . These micro
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organisms cause diseases in insects and ultimately result in the death of insects.
Under some conditions, such as high humidity or high pest abundance, these
naturally occurring organisms may multiply to cause disease outbreaks or
epizootics that can drastically reduce an insect population. In comparison to
conventional chemical pesticides, the organisms used in microbial insecticides
are essentially nontoxic and non pathogenic to wildlife, humans, and other
organisms. The safety offered by microbial insecticides is their greatest
strength. Some pathogens have been mass produced and are available in
commercial formulations for use in standard spray equipment. Formulations of
the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt, for example, are widely used by
gardeners and commercial growers.
Most insect pathogens are relatively specific to certain groups of insects and
certain life stages. Unlike chemical insecticides, microbial insecticides may
take longer to kill or debilitate the target pest. This may limit their use to crops
that can sustain some insect damage. To be effective, most microbial
insecticides must be applied to the correct life stage of the pest, and some
understanding of the target pest's life cycle is required. Some microbial
insecticides must be eaten by the insect to be effective. Good spray coverage is
therefore important. Microbial insecticides are compatible with the use of
predators and parasitoids, which may help to spread some pathogens through
the pest population.
14.6.3.1 Bacillus
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is an insecticide with unusual properties that make it useful
for pest control in certain situations. Bt is a naturally occurring bacterium common in
soils throughout the world. Several strains can infect and kill insects. Because of this
property, Bt has been developed for insect control. At present, Bt is the only "microbial
insecticide" in widespread use. These bacteria are the active ingredient in some
insecticides. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) is a Gram-positive, spore-forming
bacterium that forms parasporal crystals composed of proteins known as the
insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins and hemolytic toxins during sporulation. Various
strains of Bt produce different parasporal inclusion proteins, which exhibit specific
activity against larvae of Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera .Bt insecticides are
most commonly used against some leaf- caterpillars. Recently, strains have been
produced that affect certain fly larvae, such as mosquitoes, and larvae of leaf beetles.
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Bt is considered safe to people and nontarget species, such as wildlife. Some
formulations can be used on essentially all food Crops. The insecticidal activity of Bt
was first discovered in 1911. However, it was not commercially available until the
1950s. In recent years, there has been tremendous renewed interest in Bt. Several new
products have been developed, largely because of the safety associated with Bt-based
insecticides.
14.6.3.2 Virus
Insect-specific viruses can be highly effective natural controls of several
caterpillar pests. Different strains of naturally occurring nuclear polyhedrosis
virus (NPV) and granulosis virus are present at low levels in many insect
populations. Epizootics can occasionally devastate populations of some pests,
especially when insect numbers are high. Insect viruses need to be eaten by an
insect to cause infection but may also spread from insect to insect during
mating or egg laying. In some cases, for example while searching for suitable
hosts for egg laying, beneficial insects such as parasitoids may physically
spread a virus through the pest population. No threat to humans or wildlife is
posed by insect viruses. Virus diseases of caterpillar pests may cause indirect
mortality of some beneficial larval parasitoids if the host insects die before the
parasitoids have completed development. Predators and adult parasitoids are
not directly affected. Viruses can overwinter in the environment or in
overwintering insects to re-establish infection in subsequent seasons.
The successful commercialization of insect-pathogenic viruses has been
limited. Thus far, NPV strains have only been mass produced in living insects,
a costly procedure. Viral insecticide development is further hindered by the fact
that the viruses are specific to one species or genus, ensuring a relatively small
market.
14.6.3.3 Entompathogenic Fungi
As the name suggests the fungi which cause diseases in insects are known as
entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana,
Verticillium leacenii are some of the well known entomopathogenic fungi and
are available as commercial products also. Some insect species, including many
pests, are particularly susceptible to infection by naturally occurring, insect-
pathogenic fungi. These fungi are very specific to insects, often to particular
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species, and do not infect animals or plants. Fungal growth is favored by moist
conditions but fungi also have resistant stages that maintain infection potential
under dry conditions. Fungi have considerable epizootic potential and can
spread quickly through an insect population and cause its collapse. Because
fungi penetrate the insect body, they can infect sucking insects such as aphids
and whiteflies that are not susceptible to bacteria and viruses.
Fungi invade insects by penetrating their cuticle or "skin." Once inside the
insect, the fungus rapidly multiplies throughout the body. Death is caused by
tissue destruction and, occasionally, by toxins produced by the fungus. The
fungus frequently emerges from the insect's body to produce spores that, when
spread by wind, rain, or contact with other insects, can spread infection.
Infected insects stop feeding and become lethargic. They may die relatively
rapidly, sometimes in an upright position still attached to a leaf or stem, perhaps
in an elevated location or concentrated near crop borders. The dead insect's
body may be firm and "cheese-like" or an empty shell, often but not always
with cream, green, red, or brown fungal growth, either enveloping the body or
emerging from joints and body segments.
Insect-pathogenic fungi usually need moisture to enable infection, and natural
epizootics are most common during wet or humid conditions. The effectiveness
of these fungi against pest insects depends on having the correct fungal species
and strain with the susceptible insect life stage, at the appropriate humidity, soil
texture (to reach ground-dwelling pest species), and temperature. The fungal
spores, which can be carried by wind or water, must contact the pest insect to
cause infection. Naturally occurring fungal epizootics may considerably reduce
aphid, caterpillar, leafhopper, and thrips populations.
14.7 Principles of classical biological control – importation,
augmentation and conservation
Biological control may be natural or applied. All insect species are suppressed
by naturally occurring organisms and environmental factors, with no human
input. This is frequently referred to as natural control. Natural biological
control thus occurs without “man’s intervention” whereas applied in Applied
biological control there is human intervention in “the manipulation of natural
enemies to control pests”
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Three distinct approaches to biological control are recognized: importation
(classical), augmentation and conservation of natural enemies. These
approaches or strategies are different but also overlapping. These techniques are
used according to the situation of the farming system either alone or in
combination in a biological control program. Classical biological control is
generally perceived to be the most important approach but now augmentative
and conservation biological control are also receiving great deal of attention.
14.7.1 Classical biological control
Classical (importation), biological control involves importation and
establishment of new natural enemies to an area, usually for exotic pests but
sometimes also for native pests. During the introduction of new crop in a
country, its insect pests may also be imported to the new country along with the
seeds or planting material either accidentally or due to negligence. These non-
native insects may sometimes become established in the new country. Once
established, the introduced organisms might also achieve pest status due to the
absence of their natural enemies in the new habitat to suppress their
populations. Under such a situation the natural enemies of the insect pests are
imported from the native countries, and released in the new habitat where they
are highly effective. This Importation of natural enemies, is known as
importation or classical biological control. This approach is used when a pest of
exotic origin is the target of the biocontrol program. The country where the pest
originated is first determined, thereafter explorations are conducted in the
native region for search of promising natural enemies. In principle ,the search
for suitable natural enemies (parasitoids, predators, pathogens) should include
all organisms closely related to the target pest, with special consideration to
those organisms that affect pest density and distribution. The identified natural
enemies are evaluated for potential impact on the pest and also non target
organisms in the new country before being cleared for release. Natural enemies
imported into country must first be placed in quarantine for one or more
generations so that no undesirable species are accidentally imported .
The most famous and early example of classical biological control dates back to
the end of nineteenth century, when citrus orchards in California were suffering
grave damage due the Australian scale, Icerya purchasi. The introduction of its
natural enemy, the coccinellid ladybird, Rodolia cardinalis from Australia
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successfully controlled the scale. In Europe the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma
lanigerum was controlled through the introduction of its specific parasitoid
Aphelinus mali .
Biological control of the alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica (Gyllenhall) in US is
another example of a successful program using importation of natural enemies
(Bryan et al. 1993). The alfalfa weevil, a native of Europe, was originally
detected in the US in 1904 and gradually the weevil became a serious pest of
alfalfa. A major program aimed at biological control of the weevil was initiated
in 1957. In this program 12 parasitoid species were evaluated imported and
released which became established reduced the population of weevils in the US.
14.7.2 Augmentative biological control
This type of biological control involves the supplemental release of natural
enemies. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of
the season (inoculative release) or literally millions may be released (inundative
release). Augmentation is be achieved by mass production and periodic release
of natural enemies of the pest, and by genetic enhancement of the enemies to
increase their effectiveness of control. An example of inoculative release occurs
in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the parasitoid,
Encarsia formosa are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predaceous
mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite.
Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as Trichogramma are frequently
released in large numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates for
Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre
per week depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomopathogenic
nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control
of certain soil-dwelling insect pests. Mass releases are made at special times
when the pest is most susceptible and natural enemies are not yet present, or
they can be released in such large numbers that few pests go untouched by their
enemies. The augmentation method relies upon continual human management
and does not provide a permanent solution, unlike the introduction or
conservation approaches.
14.7.3 Conservation approach
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‘Modification of the environment or existing practices to protect and enhance
specific natural enemies or other organisms to reduce the effect of pests’
(Eilenberg et al., 2001)
Conservation biological control involves identification and modification of
factors that limit the effectiveness of the natural enemies. In conservation
approach needed resources are provided to preserve and enhance natural
enemies.Slight modifications in farming practices and ecological planting
schemes can create agro ecosystems more closely resembling natural
ecosystems and promote field populations of voracious pest eating beneficials
at no additional cost to farmers. Cotton field populations of dominant natural
enemies are markedly high when cotton agro ecosystem biodiversity is
increased as compared to monocultures. Intercropping with cowpea was found
to increase coccinellids, and parasitism of spotted bollworm under south Indian
conditions. H. armigera parasitism by hymenopterous parasitoids in central
India was high when late variety redgram was grown as strip or border crop
with cotton. Interplant maize and cowpea act as a source of predators against
H.armigera. The refuge or source function of border maize or cowpea are
attributed to the abundance of floral nectar and alternative prey (aphids),
shelter, mating and oviposition sites harbored in the border crop compared with
monoculture cotton having lesser biodiversity. By their very nature, pesticides
decrease the biodiversity of a system, creating the potential for instability and
future problems Pesticides, should be used with caution, since such pesticides
may kill predators at the same time as killing the pests. Sometimes part of a
crop area is left untreated so that natural enemies will survive and recolonise
the treated areas. Erecting bird perches increases the visitation by the birds and
hence their predation on insects. Farmscaping is a term coined to describe such
efforts. Habitat enhancement for beneficial insects, for example, focuses on the
establishment of flowering annual or perennial plants that provide pollen and
nectar needed during certain parts of the insect life cycle. Other habitat features
provided by farmscaping include water, alternative prey, perching sites,
overwintering sites, and wind protection.
This approach has inherent advantages over either classical biological control
or augmentative releases. Conservation relies on naturally occurring enemies
that are well adapted to the target area. Natural enemies occur from the
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backyard garden to the commercial field. Therefore, conservation is probably
the most important and readily available biological control practice available to
growers. The method is generally simple and cost-effective. With relatively
little effort the activity of these natural enemies can be observed. For example
lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasitised aphid mummies are
almost always present in aphid colonies. Fungus-infected adult flies are often
common following periods of high humidity. The usage of pesticides has a
side-effect on natural enemies. When a pesticide kills the pest, the natural
enemies disappear too. They migrate from the agroecosystem
or die. Certain cultural practices can also damage the natural enemies or their
habitats, e.g. removal of uncultivated areas, field margins, weedy areas,
roadsides, etc.; soil cultivation; crop establishment; fertilisation, growth
regulators, or harvesting especially at the critical periods of beneficial
organism’s life cycle. To conserve natural enemies, pest management decisions
must be carefully planned. Conservation involves planning a programme for the
whole farm, including the non-farmed land, to enhance biodiversity and
landscape features.
14.8 Glossary
 Augmentation: Biological control practices intended to increase the
number or effectiveness of existing natural enemies.
 Biological control or biocontrol: The use of living organisms, such as
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens, to control pest insects, weeds, or
diseases. Typically involves some human activity.
 Biorational: Having a minimal disruptive influence upon the
environment and its inhabitants (e.g., a biorational insecticide).
 Bt: The bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis.
 Chemical control: Pest management practices which rely upon the
application of synthetic or naturally-derived pesticides.
 Classical biological control: The importation of foreign natural
enemies to control previously introduced, or native, pests.
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 Conservation: Any biological control practice designed to protect and
maintain populations of existing natural enemies.
 Cultural control: Pest management practices that rely upon
manipulation of the cropping environment (e.g., cultivation of weeds
harboring insect pests).
 Density (insect populations): The number of insects per unit of
measure (e.g., beetles per square meter).
 Ecology: The study of an organism's interrelationship with its
environment.
 Economic threshold: The pest density at which a control tactic must be
implemented to avoid an economic loss.
 Entomopathogenic: Insect disease causing organism.
 Exotic: Introduced from another country or continent (e.g., introduced
insect pest).
 GV: Granulosis virus.
 Habitat manipulation: Manipulation of agricultural areas and
surrounding environment with the aim of conserving or augmenting
populations of natural enemies (e.g., the planting of a refuge for natural
enemies).
 Honeydew: The sugary liquid discharge from the anus of certain insects
(Homoptera) such as aphids and scales.
 Host: The organism in or on which a parasitoid lives; a plant on which
an insect feeds.
 Host plant resistance: The relative amount of heritable qualities
possessed by a plant that reduces the degree of damage to the plant by a
pest or pests.
 Hyperparasite: A parasite whose host is another parasite.
 Indigenous: Native to an area.
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 Inoculative release: The release of relatively small numbers of natural
enemies that are expected to colonize, reproduce, and spread naturally
throughout an area.
 Insect growth regulator (IGR): A substance, natural or synthetic, that
controls or modifies insect growth processes.
 Insect resistant (plants): Tolerant of, or resistant to, insect attack (as in
plants).
 Instar: The stage of an insect's life between successive molts, for
example the first instar is between hatching from the egg and the first
molt.
 Integrated pest management (IPM): An approach to the management
of pests in which all available control options, including physical,
chemical, and biological controls, are evaluated and integrated into a
unified program.
 Introduction (classical biological control): The importation of a
natural enemy from a foreign country or continent, usually to control a
pest also of foreign origin.
 Inundative release: The release of relatively large numbers of natural
enemies to suppress pest populations, without the expectation that the
natural enemies will colonize and spread throughout the area.
 Life Cycle: The sequence of events that occurs during the lifetime of an
individual organism.
 Mass-reared: Produced in large numbers, as in natural enemies
produced for release programs.
 Microbial insecticide: A preparation of microorganisms (e.g., viruses
or bacteria) or their products used to suppress insect pest populations.
 Native (insect or plant): Of local origin, not intentionally or
accidentally introduced.
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 Natural control: The suppression of pest populations by naturally
occurring biological and environmental agents.
 Natural enemies: Living organisms found in nature that kill, weaken, or
reduce the reproductive potential of other organisms.
 Nectar: The sugary liquid secreted by many flowers.
 NPV: Nuclear polyhedrosis virus.
 Parasite: An organism that lives in or on another organism (the host)
during some portion of its life cycle.
 Parasitoid: An animal that feeds in or on another living animal,
consuming all or most of its tissues and eventually killing it.
 Parthenogenesis: Development of an insect, from egg to adult, without
fertilization.
 Pathogen: A disease-causing organism.
 Pest: An organism that interferes with human activities, property, or
health, or is objectionable.
 Pesticide: A substance that is used to kill, debilitate, or repel a pest.
 Pest-resistant crops: Crops that possess attributes which minimize
damage by pests.
 Phenology: The seasonal life history of an insect population.
 Pheromone: A substance, such as a sex attractant, that is given off by
one individual and causes a specific reaction in other individuals of the
same species.
 Population: A group of individuals of the same species within a given
space and time.
 Predator: An animal that attacks and feeds on other animals, normally
killing several individuals during its life cycle.
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 Resurgence (pest): The development of large populations of pests that
had previously been suppressed.
 Sampling: Estimating the density of organisms (pests or natural
enemies) or damage by examining a defined portion of the crop.
 Septicemia: Blood poisoning caused by pathogenic organisms.
 Specialist: A pest or natural enemy that utilizes a narrow range of
species for its host or prey.
 Trap crop: A small area of a crop used to divert pests from a larger area
of the same or another crop. The pests, once diverted to the trap crop,
may be treated with an insecticide.
1. The use of living organisms, such as predators, parasitoids, and pathogens,
to control pest insects, weeds, or diseases is known as --------
2. The importation of foreign natural enemies to control previously introduced,
or native, pests is known as-----------
3. Organisms causing diseases in insects are known as -----------------------
4. A preparation of microorganisms (e.g., viruses or bacteria) or their products
used to suppress insect pest populations is known as -------------
5. Biological control practices intended to increase the number existing
natural enemies are called- -----------
6. Organisms that lives in or on another organism (the host) during some
portion of its life cycle are called --------------
7. Full form of NBAIR is -----------------------------
8. Full form IOBC is --------------------
9. If you find pale green in oval eggs attached to the end of a hair-like stem on
plants they indicate the presence of -------------------------
10. Alligator shaped larvae eating aphids in a crop indicate the presence of ------
1. What is meant by biological control ?
2. What are natural enemies and what are their different types.?
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3. What is the difference between parasites and parasitoids?
4. What are pathogens? Give examples of commercially available
entomopathogenic pesticides,
5. How was the problem of the Cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi
Maskell, in California (USA) controlled?
6. Who wrote the book Silent Spring? What issues did this book raise?
7. What are syrphid flies? How do they help in biological control?
8. Which are the commonly used parasitoids in India, and yhey are used for
the control of which pests?
9. What is farmscaping?
1. What are entomopathogenic fungi. How do they work? Give examples
of some entomopathogenic fungi.
2. What are lady bird beetles, how are they helpful in biocontrol?
3. What are the three approaches of applied biological control. Which
approach do you feel is better and why?
4. What is Bt, how is it used in insect pest management?
5. What are the limitations in bicontrol, what do you feel is the future
scope of biological control?
1. Biological control
2. Classical biological control
3. Entomopathogenic
4. Microbial insecticide
5. Augmentation
6. Parasites
7. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects.
8. International Organization of Biological Control
9. Lacewing bugs/ Chrysoperla
10. Ladybird beetle
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14.10 References
 DeBach, P. 1974. Biological control by natural enemies. Cambridge
University Press, London. 323 pp.
 Bale J.S. , Lenteren J.C. van , Bigler F. 2008 . Biological control and
sustainable food production .http ://rsbt.royalsocietypublishing .org /
Volume: 363 Issue: 1492
Future of biocontrol http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK367.pdf
 Hagen, K. S. and Franz J.M. 1973. A history of biological control. p.
433-476. In A History of Entomology (R. F. Smith, T. E. Mittler, and
C. N. Smith, editors). Annu. Rev. Inc., Palo Alto, California. 517 pp.
 Pimentel, D. 1963 Introducing parasites and predators to control native
pests. Can. Entomol. 95, 785–792.
 http://www.nbair.res.in/
 Singh S.P. 2004 . Some success stories in Classical Biological
Control in India. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research
Institutions (APAARI) APAARI publication 2004/2 80pp.
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Unit - 15
Biological control of crop pests and weeds – II
15.1 Objective
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Biology, adaptation, host seeking behavior
15.4 Pathogenic nematodes
15.5 Pathogenic viruses
15.6 Pathogenic bacteria
15.7 Pathogenic fungi
15.8 Pathogenic protozoa
15.9 Biological control of weeds
15.10 Various aspects of biological control
15.10.1 Ecological aspects
15.10.2 Biological aspects
15.10.3 Taxonomic aspects
15.10.4 Economic aspects
15.10.5 Legal aspects
15.11 Types of parasitism
15.11.1 multiple parasitisms
15.11.2 hyperparasitism
15.11.3 superparasitism
15.12 Summary
15.13 Glossary
15.15 References
15.1 Objective
 How some insects are beneficial in controlling unwanted plants/weeds?
 Different types of parasitism?
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 Various other organism such as virus, nematodes, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa which help to control insects.
 Different aspects of biological control
 Adaptations of predators and parasites of insects
15.2 Introduction
Biological control/ biocontrol/ biopesticides is an ancient way to control plant
diseases and harmful insects. The biological controlling agents do not infest the
crop or beneficial insect but only destroy the target species. These are naturally
occurring farmer’s friends in the field that we can multiply in the laboratory and
release them in the fields, this is called Biological Control. Biological control
is the older technique that is not so expensive as compared to means of other
control such as chemical, genetical or microbial. It is considered as primary or
first line of control method in the field from the very ancient time. It has gained
a lot of success in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). These agents are virus,
parasites, bacteria and fungi .
According to Baker and Cook (1983), biological control is the reduction of
inoculum density or disease producing activities of a pathogen in its active or
dormant state by one or more organisms. DeBach (1973) defined biological
control as the study and utilization of parasite, predator and pathogens for the
regulation (FIG 15.1) of pest population densities (Biological control of Insects
Pest and Weeds, 1964).
FIG 15.1: Biological control- Population density of pest reduced after

introduction of predators
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15.3 Biology, adaptation, host seeking behavior
Biocontrol may also be defined as the destruction of unwanted insects by the
introduction and increase in the number their of natural enemies. With these
entomopathogenic insects, insectivorous birds, reptiles, frog, spiders,
centipedes crabs etc are also involved in and as agents of biological control.
Biology
Broadly bioagents which control insect pests can be divided into following
categories:
1. Obligate Bioagents: These bioagents in nature are associated with a
specific insect as they are obligatory and are difficult to culture in
artificial media. E.g. Bacillus popilliae which causes milky diseases of
white grubs.
2. Spore Forming BioAgents: The toxic protein crystals formed by these
sporulating bio inoculants are highly toxic to the target agent. E.g.
Bacillus cereus produces such toxins.
3. Determinative Bioagents: These bioagents are activated when they
reach inside the host and then multiply in the haemocoel of insect and
produce lethal septicemia. E.g. Bacillus thuringenesis isrilensis (Bti).
4. Facultative Bioagents: The host tissue is damaged by the invasion of
these bioagent but they are not obligatory parasites.
5. Predaceous Bioagents: The bio agent either secretes a sticky substance
or chemicals to kill the insect or feed upon them.
FIG 15.2: Effect of number of individual pest reduces below EIL on

introducing biocontrol agents
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Adaptation:
There are many adaptations and counter adaptation involves in parasites and
hosts. Parasite induces some behavioral changes to increase the better of either
the host or the parasite. For example, ant Cephalotes atratus when infected with
a parasitic nematode are transformed to resemble a ripe fruit. Physical changes
occur by behavioral changes that increase the ant conspicuousness to prey.
Together with these changes the risk of predation by birds also increases. Ants
are the intermediate host and birds are the definitive host, so that this predation
allows the parasite to complete its life cycle. The nematode manipulates ant
appearance and behavior thus confers fitness benefits onto the parasite.
Host seeking behavior:
Both predators and parasites have specific way to search or select their host. To
parasitize or predate (FIG 15.3) host they should be efficient first in finding the
host habitat where it lives. After finding host habitat it is necessary to find a
suitable host which can accept the predator or parasite and suitable for
infection. The parasite or predator found its host by tactile, olfactory senses and
with this host color, size, shape, physiological conditions and contact are
necessary stimulus to attack. Host may also change their own behavior
because of the presence of parasites to defend themselves or tolerate impacts of
infection. Any changes observed in hosts after infection of pathogen are
assumed to be adaptive for either the parasite or the host. There are four criteria
that characterize adaptation regarding parasite-induced behavioral changes.
1. Fitness effects- It is the most important criteria for adaptation as
induced behavioral change increase fitness of either the host or the
parasite.
2. There is strong correlation between the behavioral change that are
induced and the benefit to the host or parasite is evidence for adaptation.
3. Convergence - Similar traits arising in different lineages experiencing
similar selective pressures is considered evidence of adaptation.
4. Complexity of the trait- A trait that appears merely by chance or as a
by-product of another selective force may be an adaptation.
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FIG 15.3: An aphid parsite, chalcid wasp Aphlelinus mali

A trait may be simple or complex or a trait whose expression appears simple
may be mechanically complex.
Parasitic Manipulation of Host Behavior
Many parasites induce change in behaviors in their hosts that appear to confer
fitness benefits. It include behaviors that enhance the likely hood of parasite
transmission from host to host, changes in host preferences for habitat selection,
parasite release at appropriate sites, and colonization by suitable mates for the
parasite. The manipulation may be adaptive or produced by coincidental by
products. The adaptive manipulation in which specific behavioral alterations
induced in a host can be used by parasites to increase their fitness. For example,
infection of the parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis leads to altered drifting
behavior in Grammarus pulex as predation risk by P. laevis’s increases. The
parasite induces behavioral alterations that are side effects of infection and no
longer meet the criteria for adaptation and would be considered as coincidental
by products. For example, when honeybees Apis mellifera are infected with the
parasite Nosema ceranae, it exhibit a change in thermal preference.
The mechanism of the behavioral changes as temperature rises, the bees due to
infection have poor thermoregulatory ability. The changes in behavior due to
pathogen infection are stimulated by CNS and altered neurochemical
communication.
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Behavioral Adaptations for Parasite Resistance
Parasites have many deleterious effects on host fitness and adaptation of certain
behavioral changes used by hosts may be characterized as adaptations. These
behaviors such as behavioral fever, self-medication, compensatory behavior
and suicidal behavior occurs due to parasite and predator attack. Self-
medication of host when get infected is a complex behavior found in multiple
animal taxa. Generally, compensatory behaviors are also seen where for
example in case of female bush cricket infected with gut protozoa mate more
frequently as compared to healthy females.Suicidal behavior is an example of
pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum infected with braconid wasp Aphidius ervi.
Here behavior of infected pea aphids becomes more risky that leads to death by
a predator as compared to non-infected aphids.
15.4 Pathogenic nematodes
There are number of entomopathogenic/pathogenic nematode families as
Mermithidae, Steinernematidae, Heterorhabditidae who contain species that are
parasites of insects during their nematodes development. There are normally 4
moults in between the egg and adult stages known as juveniles. Most
nematodes infect the insect during their infective stage juveniles. Their mode of
entry may be through the host cuticle or the midgut, and after getting entry into
the hemocoel, juvenile undergoes rapid growth. After enough growth it leaves
the host and enters the soil to moult giving rise to the adult nematode. Mating
and oviposition occurs external to the host in the Mermithidae family.
Mode of Action
Some species kill their hosts when they leave into soil. Some species kill the
host by releasing symbiotic bacteria like Acromebacter when they enter the
cavity of the host. The insect are killed due to bacterial septicemia. Most
nematodes do not culture in artificial media except some obligatory
endoparasitic nematodes of the genus Steinernema/ Neoplectana. They are fast
acting which can kill the host within 24-48 hours. Generally the third stage
juvenile is infective called daner juvenile(FIG 15.4). The insect die due to
protracted larval development, abnormal morphology or reduced fecundity,
toxins released by nematode causes endocrine imbalance. Some of the
examples are;
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 Neoplectana glaseri is used against Japanese beetle observed first by
Glaser.
 Neoplectana feltiae against immature stages of flies and crane flies.
 Heterorhabiditis bacteriophora against larvae of Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera.
 Heterorhabiditis megidis against black wine weevil.
 Nematode DD-136 (Neoplectana carpocapse carries a pathogenic
bacteria Acromebacter nematophilus) .It is used against many insect pest
like beetles, cockroaches, grasshoppers, moths etc.
FIG 15.4: Nematode life cycle

The nematode entering in the host insect depends upon the quantity and quality
of inoculum and their ability to establish it and multiply in large numbers,
resulting in severe infection. The incubation period (time between the entrance
of microorganisms into the body and the first symptom of infection) within the
host varies from pathogen to pathogen and insect to insect. The mode of action
to kill the insect may also be due to the production of endotoxins or exotoxins
released by symbiotic bacteria.
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Advantages
 They infest a wide range of host.
 Juveniles can be easily cultured and stored.
 Easily applicable in field.
15.5 Pathogenic viruses
Virus is submicroscopic, obligatory, intracellular and pathogenic organisms
used to control insects . There are three categories of viruses ,spore forming
cytoplasmic or nuclear polyhedral, granular and baculovirus.
Insect viruses fall into five major groups belonging to the family Baculoviridae
on the basis of genetic material DNA or RNA. DNA is a genetic material in
case of Nucleopolyhedrosis viruses (NPV), Granulosis virus (GV),`Non
inclusion viruses (NIV) and Entomopox viruses (EPV) while RNA in
Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses (CPV).
Mode of action
There are more than 800 viruses found to control target arthropod insect pests.
They are the obligate parasites and can be cultured only in living hosts in the
laboratory. When they get mass multiplied it is sprayed in the field. The
sprayed viral particles get attached to the plants and when the insect larvae feed
and ingest the polyhedral inclusion bodies (PIB) they multiply inside the
midgut. This causes death of the larvae. As these protein crystals are insoluble
in water they can be reused to infect live insects. It can be stored for long
storage outside the living tissue of plants. Virus are short lived outside the host
except cabbage looper NPV that can persist for 9 years in soil.
Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV): It is the most frequently used viral agent
in IPM. Virus particles are rod-shaped and enclosed in an outer envelope which
may contain one or several viral rods. The viruses enclosed in the envelope are
occluded (encased) in protein crystals called polyhedra. NPV is normally
transmitted by oral ingestion of polyhedral that dissolves, releasing viral rods
into the lumen of the insect host's midgut. For example, NPV controls
Helicoverpa armigera (gram pod borer), Spodoptera litura (tabacoo
caterpilllar). NPV infect nucleus of the midgut epithelium of the insect, may be
seen with the following symptoms:
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 larval skin darkens with yellow patches or appear oily
 Skin becomes fragile
 Hemolymph of the host becomes turbid
 infected larva usually climbs to highest peak available prior to death
 After death, integument ruptures and releases millions of polyhedral to
the environment.
Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Viruses (CPV)
Particles are not enclosed in membranes like NPV's, but are occluded in protein
crystals similar to those of NPV's. CPV infect the cytoplasm of the midgut
epithelium of Lepidopterous larvae. Symptoms of CPV infected hosts include
 Time taken for the development of host larvae is longer
 Body of the infected larvae are small with their head large
 Body color may change from normal.
Granulosis Viruses (GV)
GV particles are surrounded by an envelope similar to NPV's envelope.
Particles surrounded by these membranes are occluded in a proteinaceous
capsule similar to the polyhedral protein that occludes NPV's. GV usually
contains only one infectious virus particle called virion rather than many virion
particles contained in Nuclear Polyhedrosis Viruses (NPV's) and Cytoplasmic
Polyhedral Viruses (CPV's). It infects the fat body of Lepidopterous larvae
primarly. GV's are transmitted orally and primarily through the egg. For
example, GV controls Achoea janata (castor semilooper), Chilo infuscatellus
(sugarcane borer). Symptoms of a GV infected host include
 The color of larvae becomes lighter
 Haemolymph turns turbid
 Host contains many capsules
 GV comes into action when epidermis is infected causing it to liquefy.
Baculovirus
In contrast to NPV and GV it does not contain protective protein coat or
occlusion body. They are double stranded DNAs with non occluded virion. For
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example Baculovirus oryctes used to control rhinoceros beetle. It is strictly
restricted to arthropods therefore it is safe to use that do not harm non target
species. It causes wilting disease by entering gutwall and liquefies the tissue.
15.6 Pathogenic bacter
Infectious pathogenic bacteria include non spore-forming bacteria and spore
forming bacteria. They are the potential pathogens live in digestive tracts of
most insects. They enter in insect through haemocoel due to stress factors like
temperature extremes, pathogen infestation, parasites and others. Because of
these insects with sucking mouthparts like bug, butterflies, moths are hard to
control. They can be stored in the form dried spores which later can be mixed
with water and apply in the field. So it is available both in powder form or
suspension form. First time the insecticidal activity of bacteria was discovered
in 1920. The structure of Bti is given below (FIG 15.5).
FIG 15.5: Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis
Mode of action:
It causes milky disease (Bacillus popilliae) in white grubs of scarab beetles
such as the Japanese beetle. They can enter the insect through damaged
integument. Or they come in action when they are ingestion, after which spores
germinate and penetrate the alimentary canal. Invasion and destruction of
midgut epithelium is the first step after ingested. They are found in blood after
30 hrs of initial invasion at 30 °C and 7 to 10 days later, about 2-5 billion
spores/larva are determined. Larva's blood appears white milky due to number
of spores. Larva dies due to septicemia as they multiply in host haemolymph
and die due to starvation.
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FIG 15.6: Mode of action of Bt

They are pathogenic to mainly lepidopterous larvae and immatures stages of
other insects. It forms a toxic crystal (parasporal body) called delta endotoxin
which is an alkaline activated crystalline protein (FIG 15.7). Parasporal body
contains hyaluronidase and phospholipase that digest the cement holding
substances of gut epithelium. Delta endotoxin reduces pH up to 6 and inhibits
DNA dependent RNA polymerase by competing for ATP binding sites. Delta
endotoxin is also called Insecticidal crystal protein (ICP) or cry proteins
encoded by cry genes. Cry I are lepidopteran specific, Cry II for lepidopteran
and dipteran, Cry III for coleopteran, Cry IV for dipteran and Cry V for
coleopteran and lepidopteran (FIG 15.6). Endospores are also produced by
alpha exotoxin which is heat labile lecithinase and beta exotoxin which is an
ATP analog. Some are susceptible to action of either the crystal or the spore
alone or some to both:
 Type I: develop a general paralysis and die within1 to 7 hrs after
ingestion of bacillus;
 Type II: do not develop a general paralysis and die within 2 to 4 days
after ingestion;
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 Type III: susceptible to a combination of both crystals and spores;
 Type IV: some lepidoptera are not susceptible to both.
After ingestion of spores, first symptom in both Type I and II is that insect
stops feeding. Activity of crystal is dependent on the pH of the larval foregut
and proteolytic enzymes of the gut. Pasteuria bacteria used to control parasitic
nematodes and decreases root knot nematode damage. Bacillus spericus for
mosquito control and Bacillus cereus for army worms, cockroaches, codling
moth and Indian meal moth. Bacillus sotto causes sotto disease in silkworm.
FIG 15.7: Mode of BT action

Non spore forming bacteria Serratia marcescens infect wide variety of insects
and its presence in the host is determined by reddish color of the body.
Streptococcus pluton is a causative agent of European foulbrood disease in
larval honeybee.
Rickettsias:
Rickettsias also causes infestation in insect as in case of Rickettsiella popilliae
against Japanese beetle.
Some of the important bacterial pathogens are:
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Bacteria Trade name Manufacturer Used against

B. popilliae Doom Fairfex Japanese beetle larvae
Dutky and B. (causes milky disease)
lentimorbus
Dutky
(bacteria)
B. Bactucide Philips Duphar Lepidopterous larvae of
thuringiensis Bactospene Novo many agricultural crops,
subsp. Biobit Biokontrol forests, ornamental plants
Ksurstaki Bt Condor Korea and shade loving trees
(Btk) Cutlass Exposives
(bacteria) Delfin Ecogcn
Dipel Biotechnology,
Javelin Sandoz Inc.
Larve Bt Abbott Labs
Sok Sandoz Inc.
Thuricide Knoll Ubs
Nor- American
Sandoz Inc.
B. Certan Sandoz Inc. Wax moth larvae in honey
thuringiensis combs
subsp. galleria
(bacteria)
B. MVP Mycogen Lepidopterous larvae
thuringiensis Biotechnology
subsp. kurstaki
(Btk)
B. Muscabac Formos Flies
thuringiensis
subsp.
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thuringiensis
B. Florback Novo Nordisk Diamond back moth
thuringiensis Centari Abbot Labs
subsp. aizurai
15.7 Pathogenic fungi

In Fungi, family Deuteromycetes and Entomopthora cause death in insects.
They are still undergoing through research to find more and more use of it.
They are in a new innovative approach to control insects and attack mostly
members of the family Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and coleoptera. Fungi
penetrates the body directly through integument and occupy in the softer tissues
of insect body. Fungi infection can be seen in insects by a thick mycelial mat
covering the entire body of it.
Fungi that infest insect and make them ill are called as entomopathogenic fungi.
It includes at least 14 species that attack aphids only. A remarkable feature of
some fungi is their effect on plant capay and its efficiency. Several members
of fungi Chytridiomycota, Synchytrium solstitiale and Blastocladiomycota have
been used to control yellow star thistle and mosquito.
Mode of action:
There are more than 36 different genera of fungi which are used in IPM to
control pest. Fungi are transmitted from one insect to another by spore called
conidium (FIG 15.8,9). Conidia germinate and form mycelia which penetrate
the insect cuticle. Development of fungus infections is dependent on favorable
conditions as high humidity, temperature and population densities. The
important examples of fungi are:
 Metarrhizium anisopliae (green muscardine fungus) against locust,
white grub, lepidopteran, Pyrilla
 Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus) against Colorado patato
beetle, Pyrilla, aphids, thrips, weevils.
 Hirsutella thompsoni against citrus red mite (Trade name: My car, by
Abbot labs)
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 Entomophthora spp. etc.
 Paecilomyces fumusoroseus against thrips, white flies, aphids
 Lecanicillium spp. against thrips, white flies, aphids
 Cordyceps spp. Infect wide range of insects.
FIG 15.8: Mode of action of fungi
FIG 15.9: Conidia germinating and penetrating in insect cuticle
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15.8 Pathogenic protozoa
Flagellates, coccidians, ciliates, amoebas and haplosporidians have pathogenic
relationships with insects, but are considered as the least important groups.
Neogregarines and microsporidians (FIG 15.10) are the most important
entomopathogenic protozoa.
Mode of action
They are transmitted orally from one insect to another as their spores are
resistant. They can be transmitted transovarial (from mother to developing
egg/ova) from infected females to her progeny. They produce diseases in
insects which range from very pathogenic to chronic debilitating infections.
They can be important naturally occurring mortality factors. They are
obligatory parasites which cannot complete their life cycles in external media.
They firstly attack midgut epithelium in some insects and later to other tissue
especially fat body. The insect die due to protozoa reproduction, toxin released
or secondary invasion of bacteria or viruses. They produces spores or cyst
which can live outside the host for quite long duration.
FIG 15.10: Generalized microsporidian spore

Pathogenic protozoans are:
 Nosema locustae used to control grasshoppers marketed in the trade
name of noloc, Hopper, Stopper by the companies Sandoz Inc.,
Environment Technologies and Reuter Labs.
 Perezia pyraustae used against European corn borer in United states.
 Nosema bombycis causes pebrine diseases in silkmoth.
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 Nosema apis in honey bees.
 Nosema lymantriae for gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar)
 Nosema polyvora to control cabbage worm Pieris brassicae
Pre-requisites of Microbial Inoculants
 Bio inoculants/ bio agents should be highly virulent to the target
organism.
 It should be stable to sustain in nature.
 Virulence should be host specific.
 Should not damage crop, beneficial insects, micro flora and predators.
 Should be easily cultured in masses.
 Should be stable for a long period of time.
Advantages of Microbial Inoculants
 They are eco-friendly and leave behind no toxic residues.
 Most of them are host specific insect and in turn protect beneficial
insects.
 Most inoculants are easily culture in the laboratory covering minimum
space as they are microbes.
 They are not expensive to produce large quantities of inoculum.
 They take long time to develop resistance.
 They are efficient in controlling insect where chemical insecticides
cannot reach.
Way of using microbial inoculants:
 Short Term Control: For a particular season in a year or by using
highly virulent pathogens.
 Long Term Control: Generally used for perennial crops and less
virulent pathogens are preferred.
Disadvantages of Microbial Inoculants
 It is beneficial only when it is applied at correct times.
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 They have host specificity for most pathogens, so narrows down its uses
are quite limited.
 It is very important to maintain a pathogen in a viable condition, until
the contact with the insect is made.
 Difficulty in producing some obligate and facultative pathogens on a
large scale.
 Requirement of favorable environmental conditions for the pathogen to
act, multiply and execute its mode of action.
 Tendency of dead insects remaining attached to the host.
15.9 Biological control of weeds
Weeds are the unwanted plants that grow along with the crop grown and
compete the field crop for food, space, niche, water and shelter. So there is a
need to remove these unwanted plants for efficient yield of crop grown. They
are physically eliminated from the farmers by hand picking but it is a tedious
job which waste a lot of energy and time. Biological control of weeds is an
alternative which involves the invasion of living organisms, such as insects,
herbivorous fish, other animals, micro-organisms, and competitive plants to
limit their infestations. Any biological control approach shall yield best results
when it is integrated with a comprehensive Weed Management Programme
(WMP).
Outstanding examples of classical Bio-control of Weeds:
 Lantana (Lantana camara L.)
Lantana, was the first typical exotic weed that was controlled successfully with
insect bio-agents in Hawaii. This bushy exotic weed is a native of Central &
North America and invaded Hawaii in large areas of rangelands that it was
causing great concern. In 1902, Albert Koebele was first to visit Mexico and
Central America to find insects destructive to Lantana. Perkins conducted tests
with insects sent by Albert Koebele and finally selected eight species for
release on lantana infestations. Of these, Crocidosema lantana Busck (a moth)
was found in destroying flowers and seeds of lantana, which formed the chief
organ for dispersal of this weed. The insect greatly curtailed the spread of
lantana and thinned its existing infestations. Fifty years later, the entomologists
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in Hawaii made further attempts to find and introduce new insect species to
destroy lantana; this time from areas other than the native land of the weed.
They found seven more insects feeding on lantana. Of these, Hypena jussalis
Guenoe was an excellent feeder of lantana leaves. It defoliated all sizes of
lantana plants rapidly. Since then many other insects have been screened for the
destruction of lantana in Hawaii, and the weed has been brought under control
on its different islands. Biological control of lantana has also been adopted
successfully in Australia and other places. In Australia, three highly successful
insect biocontrol agents are; hispine beetles (Octotoma scabripennis Guerin),
Uroplata girardi Pic.) and tingid or lantana bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal,
FIG 15.11 A). These insects are causing severe damage to the susceptible taxa
of Lantana, which are receding fast there. In Andhra Pradesh (India), lantana
has been successfully controlled with some of these insects, besides the lantana
seedfly (Ophiomya lantanaea) (Thakur, 1992).
A) B)
Fig. 15.11: Lantana bush has been destroyed A) Defoliation of the weed
with Teleonemia scrupulosa B) Lantana stem gridled by larvae of
Plgiohammus spinipennis
 Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.): In Australia, biocontrol of Opuntia
inermis with a moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg, FIG 15.12) is used.
At the present, in Australia only occasional plants and few patches of
prickly pear are found. The recovered land has returned to a useful
agriculture there. In Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra (India), 40,000
hactare of land infested with Opuntia dillenii was recovered from the
weed by releasing Dactyloplius tomentosus Auct. ‘cochineal scale
insect’ as its bioagent. Other species of Opuntia were not attacked by
this insect. The primary damage to Opuntia with insects can be
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combined with secondary attacks by bacterial and fungal parasites for
further eroding the weed. These secondary bioagents are Cleosporium
anatum E & E, Phyllosticta concava Seav. and Montegnella
oppuntiorum Speg.
Fig. 15.12: Opuntia all Over and Opuntia infested by Cactoblastis cactorum
within 3 years (in Australia).
 Carrot grass (Parthenium hysterophorus L.): It is an exotic alien weed
which is considered one of the most dreaded weeds of the world.
Originally a native of tropical America and West Indies, it has spread in
many countries, including India. Ever since its first appearance in India
in 1956 at city Pune, it has spread alarmingly in almost every part of the
country. It is primarily a weed of all possible neglected non-crop areas,
including grazing grounds, where it has covered vast areas with
devastating effects on health and environment. Carrot grass has now
also spread to some agricultural lands, fallow fields, and orchards.
Parthenium is poisonous and allergic in its effects on humans.
FIG 15.13: Zygograma bicolorata against Parthenium hysterophorus and

Cyrtobagous salviniae against Salvinia molesta.
The biological control of Parthenium using a Mexican beetle,
Zygogramma bicolorata (FIG 15.13), is found very promising. Large
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patches of land heavily infested with this menace have been cleared off
by the beetle in several parts of the country. The number of insects
released must be 50-100 beetles/plant of carrot grass. Management of
Parthenium through biocontrol may be considered as the most preferred
way as it is cost-effective and self-sustaining method.
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): Water hyacinth, a worldwide
aquatic weed, infests transplanted rice fields in many countries,
including India. Several attempts have been made on the biological
control of this weed by pathogens and insects both. Most success in this
respect has been met in Florida (USA) with a hyacinth moth, Sameodes
albiguttalis B. Benner, which is a native of South America. The
bioagent exhibits its rapid reproductive ability in field conditions. Its
larvae feed upon young leaves and apical buds of water hyacinth, rather
severely. With this hyacinth moth, two beetles, viz., Neochetina
eichhorniae (Warne) and N. bruchii (Atustache), are also damaging to
water hyacinth, but these are not as fast acting in building their
populations as the hyacinth moth do.
 Salvinia (Salvinia molesta): In Kerala (India), fresh water courses and

paddy fields have been cleared of this noxious fern, using curculionid
beetle (Cytrobagous salviniae Sands) as a very effective bioagent. The
beetle is native of South America. It is released in waterways by
collecting some beetle-infested Salvinia plants from either the beetle
rearing ponds or some old infestations, and scattering these on the
target, salvinia infestations. It takes 4-6 months for the salvinia mats to
turn yellow, and another six months to sink, completely. The young
larvae of the beetle damage the terminal buds, rhizomes, and petioles of
salvinia. The biological control of salvinia has made lives of over 5
million people in Kerala more comfortable than before.
In addition to the above mentioned examples of outstanding achievements and
wide interest in the biological control of weeds, there are many more successes
on hand at various stages of research and field use.
Table 1: Some Additional Examples of Promising Bio-agents of Weeds
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Weed Bio-agent Reporting Kind of bio-
Country agent
Chondrilla Puccinia Australia Plant pathogen
juncea chondrillina
Cirsium arvense Septoria cirsii Plant pathogen
Cyperus rotundus Bactra verutana India, Pakistan, Shoot boring
USA moth
Echinochloa spp. i)Emmalocera spp. i) Stem boring
(In rice fields) ii) Tripos spp. moth
ii) Shrimp
Eupatorium Entyloma USA Plant pathogen
riparium compositarum
Hydrilla Hydrellia USA Shoot fly
verticillata pakistanae
Orobanche Sclerotinia sp. USA Plant pathogen
cernua
Rumex spp. i) Uromyces rumicis USA Plant pathogen
ii) Gastrophysa USA Beetle
viridula
Tribulus Microlarinus USA Pod weevil
terrestris lareynii and M.
lypriformis
Biological Control Organization

The increasing importance of biological control has increased the interest of
many countries in developing biological control stations and organizations to
solve their pest control problems through natural enemies.
Table 2: Biological control stations in different countries
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Country Station/Organization
India CIBC (Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control),
Bangalore
Australia CSIRO, Sydney
U.S.A. CIBC, Fontana, California
Mauritius FAC, of Agric. Kyushu University, Fukoda
France USDA, ARC, Nanterre, Seine
CIBC is a unit of CAB (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau). It came
in existence in 1956 in Bangalore. It lists about 24 species of exotic natural
enemies and about 68 species have been released.
15.10 Various aspects of biological control

The biological control includes all the agents which are living and its associated
factors that can increase or decrease the population of biocontrol agents. There
are various aspects that can maximize the effect of biological control.
15.10.1 Ecological aspects
The population of the insects has two major concerns as homeostasis and
regulation. As the population density of insect is not constant and fluctuates in
nature. Homeostasis refers to the stability of the population over a long period
of time; they are more or less constant. This stability or equilibrium is achieved
by regulation. The regulation of insect population comes in role as there are
immigration and emigration of natural enemies which control insect number.
Some predators and parasites are the natural agents that keep the population
below a certain level. Food chain and food web has many interconnected
trophic levels which includes predators and parasites. When the natural enemies
are not living in an area where crop field are grown then these bioagents are
trapped, augmented, transported and release to the field to control destructive
insects.
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15.10.2 Biological aspects
These include all the entomophagous insects and their aspects as nutrition,
classification, behavior, mating and oviposition.
i) Classification: Biocontrol agents are classified into two types as
true parasites and entomophagous insects. True parasites are the
organisms other than insects and entomophagous insects which
feed on other insect. Entomophagous insects are further
subdivided into parasites or parasitoids. Parasites may be
ectoparasite, endoparasite, solitary, facultative or obligatory.
Parasites may attack any stage of life cycle of insect as egg,
larva, pupa or adult.
ii) Nutrition: The female insect always needs a source of protein to
develop their eggs. The source of protein may be nectar, honey
dew or blood . If this protein requirement is not fulfilled by the
female all the eggs get reabsorbed in the ovarioles.
iii) Behavior: It is the manner by which predators and parasites find
their host and select them as per their requirement. Major steps
are involved as host habitat finding, host finding, host acceptance
and host suitability.
iv) Mating: Mating behavior is the way to meet male and female for
copulation. Insects may be polygamous which mate several times
as in case of most insects like grasshoppers, cockroaches or
monogamous which mate only once in their life cycle as termite
and honeybee queen.
v) Oviposition: And after mating to select the site of oviposition,

host finding and where to lay egg on the host, in the host or away
from the host. Eggs of the predators and parasites are laid singly
or in groups and may or may not reach the host if laid away. In
Diptera and hymenoptera there is specific way to parasitize the
host as it first inject the venom through stinging and then have
specific selected sites where they lay eggs. This specification is
used as a useful taxonomic importance.
15.10.3 Taxonomic aspects
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All the natural enemies should be identified well before they are used in
biological control. Their behavior, life cycle, habitat, ecology, requirement and
systematic position must be well known before application. For example genus
Circulifer tenellus (beet leaf hopper) was place in genus Eutettix earlier which
was found to be incorrect when the researchers were trying to locate it in
Australia, Argentina, Mexico and was found in California which was its home
place. Due to this incorrect placement of insects it is very difficult for the
researchers to work on a correct path. Due to the biological control efforts new
sibling species or cryptic species were discovered. Sibling species are those
species which are morphological similar but they cannot cross. In case of genus
Aphytis of the order Hymenoptera it was thought only one species exist but later
on found seven sibling species of this genus. Aphytis is a effective biocontrol
agent against red scale insect in California.
15.10.4 Economic aspects
Any other method used to control insect pest as chemical, physical, cultural etc
needs a lot of energy and money to spend. But in case of biological control
initial investment is needed but it is economical as it is effective in long run and
do not need repeated application as it is self sustaining.
15.10.5 Legal aspects
When the biological control agents are not found in an area where it has to be
applied, then we have to import the predators or parasites from other country. It
is not an individual decision to import them as we have quarantine regulations
and legislative laws decided by the government. These laws do a variety of jobs
like;
i) It restricts the movement of organisms from one place to another.
ii) Inspection of organism by the committees is done at the port of
entry.
iii) Testing and observation of imported organism in laboratory.
15.11 Types of parasitism

Parasite
Entomophagous parasite (Greek word means insect, eater of) is defined as an
organism that feeds on another organism called host, mostly without killing the
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host. Certain insect species are the vectors of some of human most dreaded
diseases, including malaria, typhus, and plague.
For example mosquitoes, are the most notorious carriers/vectors, of parasites or
pathogens. Female mosquitoes need blood meal for production of their eggs.
During the process of penetrating a host's skin with their long, sucking mouth
parts, virus, protozoan, or helminth can be transferred directly into the blood
stream of its host with its saliva. Among these pathogens are Plasmodium
(protozoan) W. bancrofti (filarial worm), and Flavivirus (a virus). Flies also
harbor many diseases that can be transmitted to humans and other mammals
when they sit or feed to obtain a blood meal for themselves. For example, black
flies can carry river blindness pathogen, sand flies can carry Leishmania, and
tsetse flies carry the Trypanosoma that cause sleeping sickness. Fleas and lice
are two of the most common and irritating parasitic insects of humans and our
livestock. Lice commonly live among the hairs of their hosts, feeding on blood
and are ectoparasitic in nature. Some species are carriers of the epidemic
inducing typhus fever. Fleas usually infest birds and mammals, and can feed on
humans when they are transferred from pets or livestock. Fleas are known to
carry a variety of devastating diseases, including the plague. Some diseases are
of veterinary importance but they get transferred to human beings when they
come in contact with it.
Vector and Host Relationships
There are three important aspects to produce a disease as pathogen which is the
root cause of disease, vector the agent that carry the pathogen and transfer them
to host; and the host in which the pathogen passes its life cycle and causes
diseases. Disease transmitted by insects depends on their behavior, life history
and suitability of the vector to transmit disease. The parasites may be of many
kinds:
 Ectoparasites: Species that live externally on the host. Example ticks.
 Primary parasite: These are the insects which attack phytophagous insects
(feeding on plants).
 Secondary parasite: When primary parasite is attacked by another parasite
considered as secondary/ hyperparasites.
 Endoparasites: These are internal parasites. Example, Dipteran larvae.
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 Obligatory Parasites: If a parasite can only live on a given host species the
relationship is called obligate, e.g., head lice are obligate ectoparasites of
man.
 Fluctuate Parasite: If a parasite does not live exclusively on a given host
species, then the relationship is said to fluctuate, e.g., cat fleas are
facultative parasites of humans. Additionally, some parasites may be
continuous on a host (like lice) but others may be temporary (like fleas).
 Hyperparasite: If a parasite live on other parasite. Hyperparasites are less
restricted to their host selection. They are generally the ectoparasites and
causes slow onset of death in host. It is being very rare that it causes
castration as in case of parasitism by Strepsiptera. Example, chalcid
Perilampus is a parasite of Ichneumonoid genera Microgaster and
Apanteles which is further the parasite of Lepidoptera caterpillars. Female
Aphilinidae is a primary pest of male of some other species which is a
secondary pest of other insects. Similar to this case sometimes female
becomes parasite of the same male species, the phenomenon is called
autoparasitism. Genetic variation always occurs in hyperparasites so; are
likely to produce new strains which are able to attack newly evolved
resistant/virulent strains of the host pathogen. The hyperparasites are living
agents which are able to adopt themselves to changes with the plants.
 Brood parasitism/Cleptoparasitism: Smuggling of eggs into the brood
nest of another insects. Example, robber flies (Miltogramma sp.) and
cuckoo wasp.
 Multiparasitism: If same host is attacked by different species of parasites.
It is a rare phenomenon seen in certain circumstances as in Autographa
californica which attributes to the partial host consumption. Multiparasitism
is seen in case of larvae of moth Ephestia serecarium attackes by parasite
Horogenes chrysostictos and Nemeritis canescens. Both the species lays
eggs independent of each other and when the larva hatch at the same time
they compete and attack each other either of them can win. But if the instars
are of different ages then the older instars will win. So the factors effecting
them are age of instars, environmental temperature, species and rate of
development.
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 Superparasitism: It is a kind of parasitism where many different
individuals of same species attack same host. It generally can be seen in the
larval stages as caterpillar which is attacked by number of parsitoids. For
example, a social wasp named Ropalidia romandi is an endoparasite of
Strepsiptera (females of family Stylopidae). The female Stylopid is an
obligatory parasite of larva that makes their way through the cuticle. After
entering the host it consumes almost 80% of the tissue in the abdomen and
makes a sac around them to protect it from the host defenses. It causes
sterility in larva because ovaries and spermatheca sometimes unrecognized
due to its parasitism. They do not kill the host but they change the host
behavior, morphology and normal life processing.
 Social parasitism: Guest in the nest of various social insects. In case of
ants certain species takes special form of nutrition called slavery. The slave
driving ants capture the pupae so that they can breed their own brood. The
ants Anergates cannot feed on their own so they invade nest of
Tetramorium.
Vector and Pathogen Relationships
The ability of a pathogen to survive and remain infective in or on a vector
species is a critical factor in disease transmission. The mechanisms of
transmission are of two kinds:
1. Direct contact: These pathogens are actually inhabit the host as
ectoparasite and majorly they cause disease primarily by their sucking
blood, irritation, itching and excreta and secondarily causes diseases by
carrying pathogens as in case of Pediculus spp. The two hosts are in direct
contact with each other.
2. Mechanical transmission: It is the transfer of a pathogen from an
infectious source to a susceptible host by a vector, without any
reproduction or developmental changes in the pathogen. Generally,
mechanical transmission is an inefficient mechanism for disease
transmission. Many insects carry disease by clinging pathogens on their
body parts, mouth parts, hairs, scales but relatively few are known to be
associated with disease outbreaks. Such a transmission is usually non-
persistent since the pathogen survives for only a short period, example
aphids, housefly.
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3. Biological transmission/Circulatory transmission: When the pathogen
either reproduce, undergoes developmental changes, or both in the vector.
Biological transmission is the most effective and significant mechanism for
disease transmission by arthropods. It is also divided into three categories
as:
 Cyclodevelopmental: In this type of transmission the pathogen
spends a part of its life cycle in a vector, grow and develop inside,
can change their body form or shape but do not multiply in host. For
example Waucheria bancrofti transmitted by Culex female mosquito
and causes Filariasis or elephantitis in human.
 Cyclopropagative: In this mode of transmission the pathogen
undergoes cyclic changes and multiplication inside the vector.
Malaria pathogen Plasmodium transmitted by female Anopheles
mosquito.
 Propagative: When the organism simply multiply and grows as in
Plague causing pathogenYersinia pestis transmitted by rat fleas.
The relationships between vectors, pathogens, and hosts are complex.
15.12 Summary
Biocontrol is a term which can include anything that can be used as insects,
protozoa, nematode, virus, bacteria of biological origin to control weeds or
harmful insects. In other words biocontrol means complete eradication or
removal of the unwanted organism from the level of economic injury. The
principals way for biocontrol are collection and use of biotic agents, their
isolation and using microbial organisms containing bacteria, fungi, viruses,
nematodes, protozoa etc. which are known as microbial pesticide. The
microorganisms which are naturally occurring enemies used in biocontrol of
infested plant diseases are termed as Bioagents or Antagonists.
Microbial insecticides are different with specific mode of action to kill the
organism. Luck concluded that all are “to one degree or another inadequate”.
He shows different processes associated with predation or parasitism.
15.13 Glossary
 Ectoparasites: Species that live on the host.
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 Endoparasites: These are internal parasites.
 Obligatory Parasites: If a parasite can only live on a given host
species.
 Fluctuate Parasite: If a parasite does not live exclusively on a given
host species.
 Social parasitism: Guest in the nest of various social insects.
 Superparasitism: It is a kind of parasitism where many different
individuals of same species attack same host.
 Multiparasitism: If same host is attacked by different species of
parasites.
 Cleptoparasitism: Smuggling of eggs into the brood nest of another
insects.
 Biological transmission: When the pathogen either reproduce,
undergoes developmental changes, or both in the vector.
 Mechanical transmission: It is the transfer of a pathogen from an
infectious source to a susceptible host by a vector.
 Daner juvenile: The third stage juvenile is infective called daner
juvenile.
 Biological control: It is the study and utilization of parasite, predator
and pathogens for the regulation of pest population densities.
Section -A (Very Short Answer Type):
1. Name one example of Rickettsia to control insect?
2. Write full form of CIBC?
3. Name example of direct contact transmission?
4. Write the trade name and manufacturer of B. popilliae?
5. What is the trade name of B. thuringiensis subsp. thuringiensis and used
against which insect?
6. Give two example of nematode that control insect?
7. Which disease is caused by Bacillus popilliae in white grubs of Japanese
beetle?
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8. Lantana camara is controlled by which insects?
1. Define biocontrol agents?
2. Differentiate between multiparasitism, superparasitism and
hyperparasitism?
3. Write short note on pathogenic nematode and its mode of action?
4. What are entomophagous pathogens?
5. Give in brief the role of protozoa in controlling insects?
6. How the fungi cause death in insects when infected?
1. What are various aspects of biological control?
2. Write different types of parasitism?
3. How the predators and parasites find their host and what changes occur in
host?
4. Explain the mechanism of control of weeds biologically with examples?
5. Write about fungi bioagent, its mode of action and examples?
1. Rickettsiella popilliae against Japanese beetle
2. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control
3. Pediculus
4. Doom and Fairfex
5. Muscabac against houseflies
6. Neoplectana glaseri and Heterorhabiditis bacteriophora
7. milky disease
8. lantana bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa) and lantana seedfly (Ophiomya
lantanaea)
15.15 References
 Cedric Gillot : Entomolgy
 Kachhwaha N.: Principles of Entomology-Basic and Applied
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Unit - 16
Biological control of crop pests and weeds – III
16.1 Objectives
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Mass production of Quality agents
16.3.1 Techniques
16.3.2. Formulations
16.3.3 Economics
16.3.4 Field Release/Application
16.3.5 Evaluation
16.4 Successful Biological Control Projects
16.5 Trends and Future Possibilities of Biological Control
16.6 Importation of Natural Enemies
16.6.1 Quarantine Regulation
16.7 Biotechnology in Biological Control
16.8 Semiochemicals in Biological Control
16.9 Summary
16.11 References
16.1 Objectives
This unit is the third part of the biological control of crop pests and weeds , you
have already gone through the first and second part in which you studied about
the its history, principles and the scope . The various groups of parasitoids,
predators and pathogens were described in the first part and the classical
biological control principles were studied .The second part comprised of
Biology, adaptation, host seeking behavior of predatory and parasitic group of
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insects . The role of insect pathogens, nematodes, viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa etc and their mode of action was studied .In the last part we dealt with
biological control of weeds using insect.This Unit is a further advance of the
previous units and will help learner understand how the mass production of
quality agents takes place , the techniques involved in their formulations
,economics ,field release and evaluation. The unit also cites successful
biological control projects in India ,trends and future possibilities of biological
control. At the end importation of natural enemies and the legal constraints in it
are described. The role of Biotechnology and Semiochemicals in biological
control have been incorporated too.
16.2 Introduction
It should first of all be pointed out that biological control tends to have its
strong supporters and vehement detractors; it tends to pass through alternate
phases of popularity and loss of esteem. After 1945, biological control was, of
course, somewhat eclipsed by the over optimistic hopes generated by DDT and
other organic insecticides. We now recognize that insecticides offer no patent
solution for all of our insect pest problems, and that indeed they generate
considerable problems.
Since the mid 1960's, certain areas have received greater research emphasis:
Insect pathology and biological weed control have developed rapidly as
specialties within the field. Further research has been advanced in developing
methods of evaluating the effectiveness of natural enemies. Also there have
been significant advances in quantitative field population studies; inquiry into
the extent of naturally occurring biological and research on the augmentation
and conservation of natural enemies.
We may expect that much of the biological control work during the next decade
will remain similarly uninfluenced. Biological control workers are dealing with
problems of extreme complexity. They are carrying out field experiments
involving an enormous number of unknowns. They are usually charged with
solving several pest problems concurrently, and they usually operate with
limited manpower and financial resources.
Although population dynamics has had little effect on biological control
practice, it has created a new climate of opinion with regard to biological
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control. Increasing importance is being attached to biotic elements in pest
control. Biological control, like chemical control, will increasingly come to be
regarded as part of a comprehensive investigation of the total ecology of pests.
The importance of one or more key factors in regulation is borne out by
biological control, as the introduction of single species of natural enemies
lowers the average density of a pest.
16.3 Mass production of Quality agents
The first major concern in commercial production systems involves the
achievement of adequate growth of the biocontrol agent. In many cases biomass
production of the antagonist is not easy owing to the specific requirement of
nutritional and environmental conditions for the growth of organism. Mass
production is achieved through solid and liquid fermentation techniques. The
commercial success of biocontrol agents requires:
i) Consistent and broad spectrum action.
ii) Safety and stability.
iii) Longer shelf life.
iv) Low capital costs.
v) Easy availability of career materials.
vi) Economical and viable market demand.
16.3.1 Techniques
Biological control practices involve three major techniques:
1. Introduction
2. Conservation
3. Augmentation
1) Introduction
It is advisable to introduce an exotic species of a natural enemy either when
there is an unoccupied a niche and is required to be displaced by a more
efficient exotic species. The former is a common situation in newly
introduced pest in a country. Foreign explorations for parasites and
predators have been made primarily to introduce parasites from the place of
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origin of the pest and sometimes to introduce exotic natural enemies of the
indigenous pest species.
Recently, many international organization have been established to facilitate
the movement of beneficial species from one country to another and the
largest of the organization is the ‘International Institute of Biological
Control’ which has laboratories in Switzerland, Trinidad, Malaysia and
Pakistan. About 40% of the introduced natural enemies have established in
the introduced countries and provided partial to complete control of
important insect pests at the global level. In India, since the launching of
‘All India Coordinated Research Project on Biological Control of Crop
Pests and Weeds’ (AICRPBC) in 1977, 79 species on natural Enemies have
been imported out of which 53 have successfully multiplied and 21 have
been established in the field.
2) Conservation
Conservation means the avoidance of measures that destroy natural enemies
and the use of measure that increase their longevity and reproduction of the
attractiveness of an area to natural enemies. If the natural enemies are
properly conserved the need for other control measures is greatly reduced.
Various strategies of conservation as given below:
i) Preservation of Inactive Stages : This is most critical when there is
small reservoir of natural enemies outside the cropped area e.g.
Pupae of Epipyrops are found in large numbers on the trashes of
sugarcane leaves at the time of harvesting. These are left around
harvested fields to augment the supply of natural enemies in the pre-
monsoon season against Pyrilla.
ii) Avoidance of Harmful Cultural Practices : Cultural practices like
burning can be harmful to natural enemies e.g. burning of sugarcane
trash destroy the resting stages of Epipyrops. Such practices can be
modified to avoid harmful effects.
iii) Maintenance of Diversity : The concept more the diversity more is
the stability holds true because diverse system may provide alternate
hosts as source of food, ever wintering sites, refuges etc. e.g. mixed
cropping, intercropping etc.
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iv) Natural Food, Artificial Food Supplements and Shelters : Many
parasitoids and predators require food frequently not available in
monoculture. The availability of predatory mites was related to the
availability of pollen. Artificial honey dew and pollen in the form of
food sprays induced early ovipositor of Chrysopera spp.
v) Protection from Pesticides : All pesticides have adverse effects on
natural enemies. The solution lies in the use of relatively resistant
strains of natural enemies and selective use of pesticides.
3) Augmentation
Augmentation includes all activities designed to increase numbers or effect
of existing natural enemies. These objectives may be achieved by releasing
additional numbers of a natural enemy into a system or modifying the
environment in such a way as to promote greater number or effectiveness.
These releases differ from introduction of imported natural enemies in that
these have to be repeated periodically. The periodic releases may be either
Inoculative or Inundative.
i) Inoculative Release : Inoculative release may be made as
infrequently as once a year to re-establish a species of natural which
is periodically killed out in an area by unfavorable conditions part of
a year.
ii) Inundative Release : Inundative release involves mass culture and
release of natural enemies to suppress the pest population directly.
These are most economical against pests that have only one or few
discrete generations every year e.g. massive release
of Trichogramma spp.
16.3.2. Formulations
Formulation is blending of active ingredients such as fungal spores with the
inert material such as diluents and surfactants in order to alter the physical
characteristics of to a more desirable form. A final formulation must:
i) Be easy to handle.
ii) Be stable over a range of -5 to 35°C.
iii) Have a minimum shelf-life of two years at room temperature.
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Development of formulations with increased shelf life and broad spectrum of
action with consistent performance under field conditions could pave the way
for commercialization of the technology at a faster rate.
Major research on biocontrol is centered with the use of spores of quality agents
directly to seed. Technologies become viable only when the research findings
are transferred from the lab to field. As example, Trichoderma has a very good
potential in the management of diseases, it could not be used as spore
suspension under field conditions. Thus, the culture of Trichoderma should be
immobilized in certain carriers and should be prepared as formulations for easy
application, storage, commercialization, and field use.
Characteristics of an ideal formulation
i) Should have increased shelf life.
ii) Should not be phytotoxic to the crop plants.
iii) Should tolerate adverse environmental conditions.
iv) Should be cost effective and should give reliable control of plant
diseases.
v) Should dissolve well in water.
vi) Carriers must be cheap and readily available for formulation
development.
vii) Should be compatible with other agrochemicals.
Methods for the mass production of Formulation
Commercial application of quality agents either to increase crop health or to
manage plant diseases depend on the development of commercial formulations
with suitable carriers that support the survival of formulating species (eg.
Trichoderma) for a considerable length of time. Various methos are described
for development of formulation as follows:
1. Talc based formulation: In India, talc based formulations of T. viride
was developed at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore for
seed treatment of pulse crops and Trichoderma is grown in the liquid
medium is mixed with talc powder in the ratio of 1:2 and dried to 8%
moisture under shade. The talc formulations of Trichoderma has shelf
life of 3 to 4 months. It has become quite popular in India for
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management of several soil-borne diseases of various crops through
seed treatment at 4 to 5 g/kg seed. Several private industries produce
large quantities of talc formulations in India for supply to the farmers.
The annual requirement of Trichoderma has been estimated as 5,000
tones to cover 50 per cent area in India (Jeyarajan, 2006).
2. Vermiculite-wheat bran based formulation: Trichoderma is
multiplied in molasses-yeast medium for 10 days. 100 g vermiculite and
33 g wheat bran are sterilized in an oven at 70°C for 3 days. Then, 20 g
of fermentor biomass, 0.05 N medium and concentrated or entire
biomass with HCl are added, mixed well and dried in shade.
3. Alginate prills based formulation: Sodium alginate is dissolved in one
portion and distilled water (25 g/750 ml) and food base is suspended in
another portion (50 g/250 ml). These preparations are autoclaved and
when cool are blended together with biomass. The mixture is added drop
wise into CaCl solution to form spherical beads, which are air-dried and
stored at 5°C (Fravel et al., 1985).
4. Press mud based formulation: Press mud is available as a byproduct
of the sugar factory and this can be used as a substrate for mass
multiplication of Trichoderma. The method involved uniformly mixing
of 9 days old culture of T. viride prepared in potato dextrose broth into
120 kg press mud. Water was sprinkled intermittently in to keep it
moisten. This was covered by gunny bags to permit air movement and
trap moisture under shade. Within 25 days, nucleus culture for further
multiplication becomes ready. The same was added to 8 tons of press
mud, mixed thoroughly and incubated for 8 days under shade condition
before being applied in the field. By this we added 8000 times more
inoculums in the soil than the recommended doses of biopesticides
which rapidly get established showing rapid and visible effect.
Similarly, other substances could also be effectively used for the
multiplication of different bioagents at the mass level.
5. Coffee huskbased formulation: In Karnataka Sawant and Sawant
(1996) developed a Trichoderma formulation based on coffee husk
which is a waste from coffee curing industry. This product was very
effective in managing Phytophthora foot rot of black pepper and is
widely used in Karnataka and Kerala.
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6. Oil-based formulations: They are prepared by mixing the conidia
harvested from the solid state/liquid state fermentation with a
combination of vegetable/mineral oils in stable emulsion formulation. In
such formulations, microbial agents are suspended in a water immiscible
solvent such as a petroleum fraction (diesel, mineral oils), and vegetable
oils (groundnut etc.) with the aid of a surface active agent. This can be
dispersed in water to form a stable emulsion. Emulsifiable concentrates
require a high concentration of an oil soluble emulsifying agent, to give
an instantaneous formation of a homogenous emulsion on dilution in
water. The oils used should not have toxicity to the fungal spores,
plants, humans and animals. Oil-based formulations are supposed to be
suitable for foliar sprays under dry weather and to have prolonged shelf
life. The spores can survive for longer time in the plant surface even
during the dry weather as the spores are covered by oil that protects
them 5°C from drying. Batta (2005) developed an emulsion formulation
of T. harzianum for the control of post harvest decay of apple caused by
Botrytis cinerea. Invert-emulsion formulation of T. harzianum with a
shelf life of 8 months has been developed using indigenous constituents
at the erstwhile Project Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC), in
India and this his formulation has been and found to be effective against
soil borne diseases of groundnut.
16.3.3 Economics
Abundant empirical evidence shows that biological control, as practiced by
professionals is among the most cost effective methods of pest control. Because
of its highly positive social and economic benefits, biological control should be
among the first pest control tactics to be explored.
Biological control workers must not be indiscriminate in introducing exotic
organisms, however. Biological control is a serious endeavor for professionals:
it cannot become a panacea for enthusiasts having little of the formal training
and understanding of the basis of this discipline. In pest control the rights of
society and the environment are increasingly in conflict with private profit.
Classical biological control and other forms of natural control, plus other
environmentally and economically sound methods must fill the gap. Biological
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control has the best pest control record and remains a considerable untapped
future resource
16.3.4 Field Release/Application
Where import of biological control agents or beneficial organisms are made for
the first time, the Directorate of PPQS may grant permission for carrying out
evaluation studies under confinement or in isolated fields. After evaluating the
performance of limited/experimental trials, the Directorate of PPQS may grant
permission for inundative release. PPA may consult the technical panel before
granting permission for inundative release into fields.
16.3.5 Evaluation
The Directorate of PPQS shall ensure the monitoring of the release of
biological control agents or beneficial organisms in order to assess the impact
on the target and non-target organisms. Where appropriate, it should include a
marking system to facilitate recognition of the biological control agent (e.g.
sterile insects) or beneficial organism in contrast to the wild organism.
16.4 Successful Biological Control Projects in India
Classical biological control aims at introducing the exotic natural enemies of
introduced alien organisms(which have become pests in the absence of natural
checks in the new environment) in order to re-establish the balance between the
pests and natural enemies. Introduction of host specific organisms from the
country of origin of the pests offers some highly effective and environment
friendly solutions to the problem of invading alien pests.
Introduction of Material; Methodologies /Approaches adopted:
Correct identification of the introduced exotic pest is determined .Literature is
surveyed and information on the origin and distribution of the exotic pest
determined. In fact complete dossiers are prepared on the pest and its natural
enemies. Based on information collected ,the decision for introduction of
suitable natural enemy (ies) is made. Letters are addressed to international and
national institute of the country from where the natural enemy is intended to be
imported. The terms and conditions and the time schedule are fixed .Once the
consent and complete information from the exporter is received , application
along with dossiers and full justification is sent to the Plant Protection Advisor
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to the Government of India for processing and grant of import permit. After
obtaining the permit ,a copy of it is supplied to the exporter with necessary
information for fast track receipt of natural enemy. The natural enemy on
receipt is qurantified and multiplied for one or two generations and then
evaluated in the net house and field. For non-specific pathogens , and weed
killers elaborate host specificity tests are required to be conducted in the
quarantine before the natural enemy is declared fit for field test. Even the field
test are not conducted directly ; first these are evaluated in glass/net house and
then in a specified area. Finally if it passes the entire set of tests it is permitted
for field testing .This is just a brief out line of a detailed procedure. By and
large similar procedure is followed in other countries with slight variation to
meet the local needs.
In India of 166 exotic biological control agents introduced 33 could not be
released in the field, 71 recovered after release, 6 providing excellent control, 7
substantial control and 4 partial control .Some of them are enlisted below :
A. Providing Excellent Control
1. Biological Control of Prickly pear ,Opuntia elater ,O.stricta and
O.vulgaris by cochineal insect,Dactylopius ceylonicus.
2. Biological Control of Water fern, Salvinia molesta by the weevil,
Cyrtobagous salviniae.
3. Biological Control of Water Hyacinth ,Eichhornia crassipies by hydrophic
weevils- Neochetina bruchi and N. eichhorniae , and galumind mite
Orthogalumna terebrantis.
4. Biological Control of Cottony Cushion Scale, Icerya purchase by
coccinellid bettle ,Rodolia cardinalis.
B. Providing Substantial Control
1. Biological Control of Mealybugs by the coccinellid predator
,Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.
2. Biological Control of Common Mealybug, Planococcus citri by encytrid
parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii.
3. Biological Control of San Jose Scale ,Quadraspidiotus perniciosus by
aphelinid parasitoid Encarsia perniciosi.
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4. Biological Control of Spiralling Whitefly,Aleurodicus dispersus by
Encarsia guadeloupae.
5. Biological Control of Subabul Psyllid ,Heteropsylla cubana by Curinus
coeruleus.
6. Biological Control of Carrot weed, Parthenium hysterophorus by
chrysomelid beetle Zygogramma bicolorata.
C. Providing Partial Control
1. Biological Control of Lantana camara by seedfly ,Ophiomifia lantana.
2. Biological Control of Siam weed ,Chromolaena odorata by
Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata.
3. Biological Control of Croftan weed, Ageratina adenophora by gallfly,
Procecidochares utilis.
4. Biological Control of Submerged Aquatic Weed by grass carp
Ctenopharyngodon idella.
16.5 Trends and Future Possibilities of Biological Control
One future goal for biological control will be to define the characteristics of a
natural enemy that are required to control a given pest in a given area and to
measure against these requirements the characteristics of the natural enemies
available for this purpose in nature. At present this can be done only very
crudely. To accomplish this we need to catalog and categorize the biological
control potential of the various entomophagous insects attacking economic
insects and their relatives throughout the world: the task has just begun,
actually.
Biological control investigations should provide a stimulating source of ideas
for studies of population dynamics and plant and animal ecology. Population
dynamicists will probably profit more in the short run from the ideas and
stimulus provided by contact with field workers, than biological control
workers will benefit from laboratory studies of the population dynamicists.
Although many of the procedures employed in biological control will largely
remain empirical; that is, based on experience derived from trial and error; as
more of the groundwork of population theory is adequately laid and is more
broadly accepted, we can expect population theory to increasingly influence
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biological control practice and dictate areas requiring greater research
emphasis.
The future undoubtedly will also see continued emphasis on foreign exploration
and international exchange of beneficial organisms. We can expect the so-
called "Amount of Effort" rule to hold. Increased political and financial support
will be required (mixed signs of this already beginning to show). For example,
the U. S. Department of Agriculture has been expanding in biological control.
The World Health Organization supports biological control approaches to
subdue pests of medical importance. The National Institutes of Health and
National Science Foundation support research on biological control organisms.
Future of Integrated Control
Integrated control's future is very bright, especially with its new title
"Integrated Pest Management," that is more generally understood by scientists
and the public alike. There is no doubt expressed concerning the importance
and value of the integrated control concept. But, much work remains to be done
in order to implement integrated control on a wider scale. A broad
interdisciplinary approach is needed, pooling talents of research teams. This
also means incorporating economic considerations.
There are special difficulties of establishing integrated control in crops where
excessive demands for eye appeal as a measure of quality, are great. There are
also great difficulties in grower and extension personnel education. Integrated
control programs will by necessity prove to be complicated and in some
instances will require trained supervisors; and perhaps rely on computers for
decision making. Governments can take a more active role in stimulating
development of integrated control by instituting advisory services for
promoting the merits of integrated control, supporting intensified research in
ecology, systematics, population dynamics, and in the development of selective
insecticides, attractants, repellents, etc. Governments should take over from the
chemical industry the cost of the non-paying part of selective insecticide
development. The conclusion is that we have a long way to go before integrated
control gains widespread effective application.
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Future of Insect Pathology
More must be learned about the role of disease among insects, the effect of
disease on insect populations, how to accurately distinguish one disease from
another, and the nature of the pathogens themselves: the basic nature of insect
diseases. More must be learned about how to control and suppress diseases
among insects beneficial to humans (e.g., in culture and mass-rearing). Also
ways must be found to better use microorganisms to control insect pests: mass
production, dissemination, and in combination with insecticides and with
entomophagous insects.
Future of Biological Weed Control
Biological weed control's future is extremely optimistic if environmental
groups concerned with endangered species can weigh the gains and detriments
accurately. Pathogenic microorganisms have only been used in very limited
situations, but they offer excellent possibilities, especially native pathogens to
avoid the risk of importation. The combined use of disease organisms and
insect vectors. For example, an introduced insect might serve to transport and
inoculate a weed pathogen during its feeding or ovipositional activities. Insects
incapable of causing adequate damage might be made more effective if
artificially inoculated with a pathogen.
Since there are more than 1,000 introduced weed species in America, and only
ca. 25 weeds are presently targets for the technique, there are still relatively
unlimited opportunities for future efforts. As new weed species invade, new
programs of biological weed control can develop. We have just begun to
understand the diversity and roles of natural enemies of aquatic weeds. Since
phytophagous insects are thought to be only secondarily and incompletely
adapted to aquatic life, doubt has been expressed regarding their application as
biological control agents in aquatic weed control. But, before any
generalizations are made, however, further evaluation of the insect faunas of
aquatic weeds is necessary. Natural enemies other than insects show more
promise, however: aquatic snails, herbivorous fish and disease organisms.
Future of Biological Control of Medically Important Pests
Great possibilities exist, especially where chemicals are not practical to apply
(Legner & Sjogren 1984. The prospects of importation of natural enemies have
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just begun to be explored. Where importation has been done, results were often
spectacular. The problem of financing this research is great since economic
losses are not neatly tied to the problem. Local financing is available, but rarely
are there adequate funds for importing exotic beneficial organisms. The greatest
successes are with predators and parasitoids; pathogens look excellent, but
results in a practical sense have been poor to date.
16.6 Importation of Natural Enemies
16.6.1 Quarantine Regulation
The import of insects, microbial cultures including mushrooms and algae or
biological control agents regulated by ‘Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import
into India) Order, 2003 issued under
the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 and amendments issued thereunder.
As per the provision of clause 7 (1) of the above said Order, no import of
insects or microbial cultures including mushrooms and algae or biological
control agents shall be permitted without a valid permit issued by the Plant
Protection Adviser.
The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage, on behalf of the
NPPO, shall carry out pest risk analysis of intended import of biological control
agents and beneficial organisms prior to allowing the import and before
recommending for inundative release; ensure to hold them under containment
facilities, while under quarantine testing before granting clearance for release
into the environment; and maintain appropriate records relevant to import and
release of biological control agents and beneficial organisms.
16.6.1.1 Responsibilities of Exporter
The exporter of biological control agents or other beneficial organisms should
ensure that:
 All conditions specified in the regulations of the importing country or on
the import permit are complied with consignments, upon export, are
accompanied by appropriate documentation.
 Packaging is secure in order to prevent escape of the contents.
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 The sterile insects have been irradiated with the required minimum
absorbed dose suitable for sterile insect technique (SIT) purposes and
appropriately marked to recognize from natural population.
 Exporters of biological control agents or other beneficia l organisms for
commercial purpose or inundative release further should take all
necessary steps to ensure that exported biological control agents or other
beneficial organisms conform to import regulations specified and to
relevant international agreements.
 Provide documentation on measures undertaken to ensure that
acceptable levels of contaminating organism(s) are not exceeded.
16.6.1.2 Responsibilities of Importer
Prior to the first importation, the importer of biological control agents or
other beneficial organisms for any purpose should prepare documentation
for submission to the Directorate of PPQS, with the information on the
targeted pest (s) to be controlled, including:
 Accurate identification of the target pest (s), its world distribution and
probable origin, its known biology and ecology.
 Assessment of its economic importance and environmental impact.
 Consideration of possible benefits of the target and conflicting interests
surrounding its use.
 Its known natural enemies, antagonists and other biological control
agents or competitors already present or used in the proposed release
area or in other parts of the world.
16.6.1.3 Inspection at the point of entry
All the consignments of biological control agents or other beneficial
organisms upon import at the concerned point of entry should be referred
for inspection at a specified quarantine facility.
16.6.1.4 Quarantine clearance
The PQ officer at concerned point of entry should allow certain biological
control agents or beneficial organisms to be granted quarantine clearance
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directly for release, if appropriate and provided that all conditions have been
complied with and required documentary evidence is made available.
16.6.1.5 Temporary holding in Quarantine
Where the import of biological control agents or beneficial organisms is made
for the first time from the specified origin, the PQ officer should ensure that
biological control agents or beneficial organisms are cultured in quarantine for
at least one generation in appropriate post-entry quarantine facility established
by the importer, to ensure free from natural enemies or hyper parasites or
pathogens.
16.6.1.6 Notification of Non-compliance
The Directorate of PPQS shall promptly inform concerned/appropriate
authority in the event of detection of presence of natural enemies or should the
biological control agent or beneficial organism display unexpected adverse
properties or contaminants exceeded the level of acceptance or the regulations
of importing country not met with.
16.7 Biotechnology in Biological Control
Biotechnology could provide solutions to a number of basic and applied
problems that limit the use of insect natural enemies as biological control
agents. Mass rearing of insect natural enemies for classical or augmentative
release is the main task of this insect control strategy. Maintaining quality in
laboratory-reared insects is difficult due to possible genetic changes caused by
accidental selection, inbreeding, genetic drift and founder effects.
Biotechnological techniques used in Biological control
New DNA-based methods for monitoring genetic variations are now available
such as: mitochondrial DNA analysis, DNA sequencing, restriction fragment
length polymorphism (RFLP), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR and ribosomal DNA analysis. Some
of these methods are also of potential value for identifying and monitoring
establishment and dispersal of specific biotypes of insect natural enemies.
Currently maintaining insect natural enemies is only by continuous rearing or
holding specimens in diapause. The development of cryobiological method for
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preserving embryos of insects can significantly save the rearing costs, and the
valuable collection of insect natural enemies could be maintained indefinitely.
Genetic improvement is a potential approach to increase the efficacy of insect
natural enemies. Transgenic techniques provide the opportunity to introduce
and express foreign genes and/or disrupt existing gene functions so that the
desirable characteristics may be inherited by subsequent generations, thus
reducing frequent mass releases.
Introduction of DNA into insect germ cells can be achieved by using physical
means such as microinjection, biolistics and electroporation or by using
biological means in which several transposable elements, Sindbis viruses and
retrovirus are used as gene vectors. Microinjection is the best method for
penetrating insect chorions and delivering vector DNA to the germ cells.
Efforts have been most intense and successful with Drosophila melanogaster.
Micro-injecting DNA carried in Plasmid-element vectors had been used for
gene transfer in several insect species.
A technique called maternal microinjection in which the exogenous DNA
microinjected through the cuticle of gravid females without the aid of any
transposable-element vector, is developed for certain species of insect. The four
transposable-element vectors, Minos element from D. hydei, Hermes element
from the housefly, Musca domestica, MosI element from D. mauritiana and
piggy Bac element from the cabbage looper, Trichoplusiani, have been
developed for the generation of transgenic insects and for stable genetic
transformation in non-drosophilid insect species.
The power of biotechnology on genetic manipulation of insect natural enemies
is enormous, however, public concerns on the release of transgenic insect
emphasized the need to assess the biological consequences of such a release;
for example, the risk of any transgene being transferred to non target species.
Releases of transgenic insect natural enemies into the environment should be
planned and strictly following the appropriate regulatory oversight system set
by responsible persons or institutes.
Bacillus thuringiensis and transgenic insect resistant plants
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a ubiquitous, spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-
positive bacterium that produces massive amounts of one or more proteins that
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crystallize intracellularly during sporulation stage. These proteins (Cry
proteins) are toxic mainly to insect larvae in order Lepidoptera, Diptera, and
Coleoptera, but isolates with toxicity toward Hymenoptera, Homoptera,
Orthoptera and Mallophaga and against nematode, mites, lice and protozoa
have been recently discovered (Lacey and Goettel, 1995).
The genes encoding the insecticidal proteins known as cry genes have been of
particular interest. The genetic manipulation of cry genes in Bt offers promising
means of improving the efficacy and cost effectiveness of Bt-based
bioinsecticide products. In Asian countries, Bt products have been used almost
exclusively as direct spray for the control of foliar-feeding lepidopteran insects.
Poor persistence under field condition and the dissemination of large amount of
spores are two limitations of Bt for spray application. Cell Cap technology had
been developed in which Bt toxin genes were cloned into a common plant-
colonizing bacterium, Pseudomanas fluorescens. The bacteria were killed,
resulting in encapsulated insecticidal proteins that had enhanced residual
property in the field and had no Bt spores.
These novel formulations provide environmentally safe and stabilized Bt-based
bioinsecticides. The gene encoding Cry1Ac protein has been engineered into
the endophytic, xylem-inhabiting bacterium, Clavibacter xyli. The engineered
bacterium was then introduced into corn, and damage caused by stem borer was
significantly reduced. In this alternative approach, the endophytic microbe
helps to enhance delivery of toxin to leaf and stem-feeding lepidopteran insects.
Combining genes from different strains of Bt to increase the activity and
broaden their host range is underway using nonrecombinant and recombinant
technologies.
Recombinant Baculoviruses for Insect Control Entomopathogenic viruses have
been employed as bioinsecticides for a wide range of situations from forest and
field to food stores and greenhouses. Baculoviruses, particularly the
nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) are the most commonly used or considered for
development as microbial insecticides mainly for the control of lepidopteran
insects on field and vegetable crops. NPVs are formulated for application as
sprays in the same fashion as chemical insecticide and Bt strains. However,
only moderate success has been achieved due to several key limitations, which
include a relatively slow speed of kill, a narrow spectrum of activity, less
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persistence in the field, and lack of a cost-effective system for mass production
in vitro. Fermentation technology for their mass production on a large-scale
commercial basis is extensively investigated to reduce the production cost.
Despite tremendous benefits of biotechnology in insect pest management, there
are still questions that required answers especially in Asian countries where
biotechnology could be most profitable. Specific examples are the uncertainty
of the technology in terms of successful research and adoption by the end users;
high start-up investment; public awareness and acceptance; national policies on
bio-safety and intellectual property issues; technology dissemination and proper
implementation; human resource and institutional development; and limited
funding due to long-term and continuous nature of the research. Responsible
national institutes and other affiliated research centers should engage in
educational and training programs aimed at the general public for better
understanding of the risks and benefits of biotechnology application.
16.8 Semiochemicals in Biological Control
Definition
Semiochemicals (literally, “signaling chemicals”) are chemical compounds
emitted by one organism that modify the behaviour of an organism receiving
the signal.
Rodriguez and Niemeyer (2005) defined semiochemicals as molecules involved
in chemical communication within and between insect species and employed
for pest control.
Types of semiochemicals
These compounds can be classified in two groups considering whether they act
as intraspecific i.e. within members of same species such chemical are known
as pheromones and if they act as interspecific i.e. within the two different
species known as allelochemicals mediators. Allelochemicals include
allomones (emitting species benefits), kairomones (receptor species benefits)
and synomones (both species benefit). However, a single chemical signal may
act as both as pheromone and allelochemical.
There are different types of pheromones according to the response they induce
on the perceiving individuals. The most common are presented hereafter
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(Brossut, 1997; Cork, 2004): – Sex pheromones are generally produced by
females of a species in order to attract males of the same species for mating.
Some exceptions exist where male butterflies (e.g. Bicyclus anynana) produce
sex pheromones to seduce females during the courtship. Sex pheromones
consist in individual molecules or specific blend of compounds in a given ratio.
The most studied, and used in IPM, sex pheromones are that emitted by
Lepidoptera; – Aggregation pheromones are released by one gender of a species
to attract individuals (both sexes) of the same species in order to exploit a
specific resource (food, appropriate mating site, etc.).
They are mainly emitted by Coleopterous species; – Alarm pheromones alert
conspecifics in case of threats. Generally the response behavior results in
dispersion of congeners. These pheromones, characteristic of social or
gregarious insects, occur in some important insect pests including Aphididae
and Thripidae.
This class of pheromones has potential in IPM as:
 Trail pheromones are present in social colonies to indicate the trail to be
followed when some scout insects locate food resource.
 Walking insects, like ants, typically produce these pheromones.
 Host marking pheromones reduce the competition between members of
the same species, like it is observed in parasitoids that mark a host in
which they have laid an egg.
Chemistry and properties of semiochemicals
Pheromones and semiochemicals in general, consist in a wide range of organic
molecules which could be volatile or non-volatile. Non-volatile semiochemicals
include cuticular hydrocarbons, acting in mate recognition or in cannibalism
regulation of several insect species. Wilson et al. (1963) suggested that the
volatile pheromones naturally exploited in insect communication have between
5 and 20 atoms of carbon with molecular weights ranging from 80 to 300.
Those having a molecular weight above 300 are not sufficiently volatile to
allow a communication at long distance. Cork (2004), in his Pheromone
manual, cites the major pheromones identified in moths and butterflies
according to their chemical classes.
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IPM strategies using semiochemical
There are many benefits to formulate semiochemical substances in integrated
pest management outline. These molecules are naturally occurring and are
generally environmentally friendly.
Various strategies exist depending on the goals and scopes to achieve. Some of
them are described hereafter:
1. Monitoring: Monitoring of insect populations has generally three
purposes: to detect the presence of invasive pests; to estimate the
relative density of a pest population at a specific site; to indicate the
first emergence or peak flight activity of a pest species in a given
area.
2. Trapping: Trapping with pheromone lures is a mechanical control
action that consists in removing large number of pests in an area
after monitoring step. The traps can be used simultaneously with a
killing substance (“lure and kill” strategy) which has the benefit of
not being in direct contact with the crop. This technique is also
useful in stored-product pest control.
3. Mating disruption: The technique of mating disruption by using
species-specific sex pheromones in large quantity is principally
applied to control moth populations in orchards. In moth, females
generally release sex pheromones to attract males, at relatively long
distances (several kilometers), for reproduction. The females lay
their eggs on orchard trees and larvae develop inside fruits which are
then no more eatable.
4. Push-pull strategy: Also called stimulo-deterrent diversion, push-
pull strategy is a more recent approach than the other described IPM
practices. It consists in a combination of repellent and attractive
stimuli modifying the behavior of insect pests and/or of their natural
enemies. The insects are deterred or repelled away from the crops
(push strategy).
Slow release of semiochemicals (Dispensers)
Major volatile semiochemicals being extremely unstable due to their chemical
structure, it is necessary to formulate them so that they are protected from
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degradation by UV light and oxygen. Moreover, the formulation must ensure a
controlled release of semiochemicals. To be efficient in IPM strategies,
semiochemical slow-release devices must have particular specifications: the
aerial concentration after release must be sufficiently high to be detected by
insects; the release of semiochemicals must be effective during all the period of
insect occurrence; the production of dispenser must be reproducible. The
application of dispensers must be realized early in the season when the pest
density is not too high, given that their release rates, for the majority of devices,
decrease with time (Witzgall, 2001).
Several formulations and dispensers have been developed and commercialized
with various slow release capacities. Some examples of dispensers are
described hereafter. The majority of them involve mating disruption of moth.
Three groups can be distinguished: solid matrix dispensers, liquid formulations
to spray and reservoirs of formulations. On an historical point of view, the first
related and the most commonly used pheromone dispenser is the natural rubber
septum.
Significance of semiochemicals
The perspectives of semiochemicals use in IPM programs seem to be promising
with the increasing worldwide biological agriculture. Slow release dispenser
and formulation improvement will continue with the contribution of multiple
scientific fields of research (entomology, chemistry, ecology, etc.) and the crop
farmer skills.
16.9 Summary
Since the mid 1960's, certain areas have received greater research emphasis:
Insect pathology and biological weed control have developed rapidly as
specialties within the field. Further research has been advanced in developing
methods of evaluating the effectiveness of natural enemies. Also there have
been significant advances in quantitative field population studies; inquiry into
the extent of naturally occurring biological and research on the augmentation
and conservation of natural enemies.
Mass production systems involves the achievement of adequate growth of the
biocontrol agent. Mass production is achieved through solid and liquid
fermentation techniques. In many cases biomass production of the antagonist is
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not easy owing to the specific requirement of nutritional and environmental
conditions for the growth of organism.
Introduction is techniques used to introduce an exotic species of a natural
enemy either when there is an unoccupied a niche and is required to be
displaced by a more efficient exotic species. Conservation means, the
avoidance of measures that destroy natural enemies and the use of measure that
increase their longevity and reproduction of the attractiveness of an area to
natural enemies. Augmentation includes all activities designed to increase
numbers or effect of existing natural enemies. Formulation is blending of active
ingredients such as fungal spores with the inert material such as diluents and
surfactants in order to alter the physical characteristics of to a more desirable
form.
Economically biological control, as practiced by professionals is among the
most cost effective methods of pest control. Because of its highly positive
social and economic benefits, biological control should be among the first pest
control tactics to be explored.
Biological control investigations should provide a stimulating source of ideas
for studies of population dynamics and plant and animal ecology. Population
dynamicists will probably profit more in the short run from the ideas and
stimulus provided by contact with field workers, than biological control
workers will benefit from laboratory studies of the population dynamicists.
Although many of the procedures employed in biological control will largely
remain empirical; that is, based on experience derived from trial and error; as
more of the groundwork of population theory is adequately laid and is more
broadly accepted, we can expect population theory to increasingly influence
biological control practice and dictate areas requiring greater research
emphasis.
Semiochemicals have great future prospective, they are uses in IPM programs
seem to be promising with the increasing worldwide biological agriculture.
Slow release dispenser and formulation improvement will continue with the
contribution of multiple scientific fields of research (entomology, chemistry,
ecology, etc.) and the crop farmer skills.
16.10 Self learning Exercise
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1. What do you mean by mass production quality agents?
2. List out the techniques used in biological control.
3. Name any two formulative substances.
4. Give name of any two semiochemicals.
5. What are pheromones?
6. What is difference between pheromone and hormones?
7. Name any two biotechnological techniques used in biological control.
8. What do you mean by quarantine?
1. Write short notes on following.
i) Formulation
ii) Evolution
iii) Field release
2. Explain the various methods for the mass production of formulation.
3. What are the quarantine regulations?
4. Explain importation of natural enemies.
5. What is Bacillus thuringiensis and its role in transgenic insect
resistant plants?
1. Explain the role of biotechnology in biological control of pest.
2. Explain the quarantine regulation and process.
3. Write an essay on semiochemicals.
16.11 References
 Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher, 1996. Handbook of Biological
Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
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 Bellows, T. S., Jr. & T. W. Fisher, 1999. Handbook of Biological
Control: Principles and Applications. Academic Press, San Diego,
CA. 1046 p.
 Guidelines for regulating export, import & Release of biological control
agents & other Beneficial organisms Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, New Delhi. Draft
report,2006.
 Kumar,S., Thakur, M. and Rani, A. 2014. Trichoderma: Mass
production, formulation, quality control, delivery and its scope in
commercialization in India for the management of plant diseases. Afr.
J. Agric. Res. Vol. 9(53), pp. 3838-3852.
 http://www.agriinfo.in/
 http:/Wikipedia.com
 Lenteren, J.C. van 2012. IOBC Internet Book of Biological Control,
Version 6. 1-182
 Some Success Stories in Classical Biological Control of Agricultural
Pests in India by Dr. S.P.Singh
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Unit - 17
Pesticide Application Equipments
17.1 Objectives
17.2 Introduction
17.3 Types of Appliances: Sprayers, dusters, fog generators, smoke
generators, soil injecting guns, seed treating drums, flame throwers,
17.4 Types of nozzles and their uses
17.5 Maintenance of appliances
17.6 Aerial adaptation of pesticides, principles of aerial application, factors
affecting the effectiveness of aerial application. Advantages and
disadvantages of aerial application.
17.7 Summary
17.9 References
17.1 Objectives
After reading this unit student will be able to:
 Describe the types of sprayers and dusters.
 Describe fog generators, smoke generators, soil injecting guns, seed
treating drums and flame throwers.
 Know, describe and understand different types of nozzles and their uses.
 Know and describe the maintenance of pesticide appliances.
 Describe the role of Aerial adaptation of pesticides, principles of aerial
application and factors affecting the effectiveness of aerial application.
Advantages and disadvantages of aerial application.
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17.2 Introduction
It might be said that the choice of equipment for pesticide applications is only
as efficient as the knowledge of the person using that equipment. In other
words, it is imperative that the pest control operator acquaint himself with the
limitation of whatever device he chooses, so the ultimate in control can be
accomplished. Ignoring this simple axiom causes, perhaps, more failure in the
control of pests that any other factor.
In order that the information in this publication may be more intelligible, it is
sometimes necessary to use trade names of the product or equipment rather than
complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. However, no endorsment
of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products
which are not mentioned.
Pesticide applicators utilize many methods in the application of pesticides.
Most of these have been developed as the result of years of studying the most
effective methods. Some of the methods, however, may result in problems such
as over application, not reaching the pest habitat while using a minimum
amount of pesticide, and depositing unsafe residues. Proper techniques of
application not only aid in effectiveness but also ensure workers' safety, public
protection, and protection of the environment.
17.3 Types of Appliances: Sprayers, dusters, fog
generators, smoke generators, soil injecting guns, seed
treating drums, flame throwers,
Competence in pest control includes basic knowledge of pests and pest
problems, the ability to choose the right pesticide and equipment and equipment
and a knowledge of proper methods of application. The proper technique of
application probably plays a greater part in a successful job than all the others.
The applicator tends to take short cuts in application. He may use too much
pressure in power spraying which creates voids in the spray pattern. He may
fog when a careful needle point spray directed in the proper place would be
more effective. Fancy fogging machines will not substitute for a thorough
search of all cracks and hiding places and the application of just the right
amount of pesticide with even a crude hand-held sprayer. A brief resume of the
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types of pesticide equipment and techniques of application is presented in the
following section.
1. Sprayer
Most of the pesticides are applied as sprays. The liquid formulations of
pesticide either diluted (with water, oil) or directly are applied in small drops to
the crop by different types of sprayers. Usually the EC formulations, wettable
powder formulations are diluted suitably with water which is a common carrier
of pesticides. In some cases however, oil is used as 698diluents or carrier of
pesticides.
Spraying is employed for a variety of purposes such as application of:
i. Herbicides in order to reduce competition from weeds,
ii. Protective fungicides to minimize the effects of fungal diseases,
iii. Insecticides to control various kinds of insects pests,
iv. Micro-nutrients such as manganese or boron,
The important factors for spray volume consideration are:
The volume of spray liquid required for certain area depends upon the spray
type and coverage, total target area, size of spray droplet and number of spray
droplets. It is obvious that if the spray droplets are coarse-size then the spray
volume required will be larger than the small size spray droplets. Also if the
thorough coverage (eg. Both the sides of leaves) is necessary then the spray
volume requirement has to be more.
On the basis of volume of spray-mix the technique of spraying is classified as:
1. High volume spraying
2. Low volume spraying
3. Ultra low volume spraying
The range of volume of spray mix in each of the above case is arbitrary.
Usually for
Field crop spraying the following spray volume ranges are taken as guide.
High Volume Spraying 300 – 500 L/ha
Low Volume Spraying 50 – 150 L/ha
Ultra Low Volume Spraying < 5 L/ha
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The main function of a sprayer is to break the liquid into droplets of effective
size and distribute them uniformly over the surface or space to be protected.
Another function is to regulate the amount of insecticide to avoid excessive
application that might prove harmful or wasteful.
1. High volume spraying
This is very common and popular method of pesticide spraying. The spray
solution is prepared by mixing water with pesticide formulation in appropriate
quantities. This diluted mixture is sprayed through hydraulic nozzles. The
spraying is usually to the point of drip from foliage. In this method large
volume of spray liquid is applied. Usually the spraying volume is 300-500 L/ha.
The spray volume is not always rigid. The spray volume requirement depends
on many factors e.g. sprayer capability, nozzle characteristics, stage of growth
of crop, type of crop etc.
A variety of high volume sprayers are available in the market. Almost all types
of high volume sprayers have some kind of pump to supply pressurised spray
liquid to the hydraulic nozzle which breaks the liquid into spray droplets and
throws the spray away from it. The high volume sprayers are both manually
operated or power operated type.
Slide pump or hand sprayers
This is a simple sprayer. It creates hydraulic pressure by forcing spray solution
to a nozzle by the direct action of hand pumping. The spray solution is filled in
a plastic can (5-10 L) which is usually shoulder slung. A dip-tube draws liquid
from the tank due to hand actuation of the plunger. Held by both the hands the
piston pump is worked by sliding action. For want of a pressure chamber it is
not possible to retain pressure and therefore the operator has to pump
continuously without break. Due to constant engagement of both the hands it is
difficult for the operator to ensure thorough coverage. Further due to pressure
fluctuation the nozzle performance is not stable.
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Fig. Slide pump or Hand sprayer
The discharge rate varies, spray angle changes and spray droplets size
fluctuates. This sprayer is suitable for small scale application in nursery or
kitchen gardens etc. It is not a good sprayer for large area treatment. The
capacity of this sprayer is about 0.5 acre per day.
Stirrup pump sprayer
This is a simple hydraulic sprayer. It consists of hand operated hydraulic pump.
The suction part of the pump is immersed in the spray solution kept on floor in
a bucket. The pump is operated by hand by one person while the other person
holding the delivery line, tigger cut-off device and lance nozzle sprays
pesticide. In few models an air chamber is also provided in the pump system
which helps continuous spraying. Also in some models provision of hydraulic
agitation is made. This sprayer is used both for public health spraying and
agricultural spraying purposes. The field capacity of the sprayer is 0.3 ha/day.
Fig. Stirrup pump sprayer
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Compression sprayer
It comprises of a cylindrical metal tank for holding the spray liquid, a hand
operated piston type air pump, a filler hole in the tank out let with delivery pipe,
cut-off, lance and hydraulic nozzle. There is metal or plastic skirit as the base of
the tank. A pair of adjustable shoulder straps is provided for mounting the
sprayer on the back of the operator. The sprayers with tanks of different
capacities are manufactured, but 18 litre capacity sprayers are commonly used
for field spraying. The filtered spray solution is filled to 2/3 of the tank
capacity. Then the air pump is operated by hand and air pressure (50-60 psi) is
built up. The compressed air exerts pressure to move spray liquid to the nozzle
via delivery pipe, cut-off device & lance system.
Fig. Compression sprayer
The spray design is strong and strudy. It is also easy to operate. The operater
need not pump continuously so that he can divert his attention to better
coverage. However, as the pressure cannot remain constant due to gradual
decrease of pressure, the nozzle discharge rate changes so also angle of spray
and droplet size. This sprayer is not recommended for herbicide spraying due to
high initial pressure. The field capacity is 0.75 - 1.0 acre/day. The hand
compression sprayer is used in kitchen gardens, nurseries, vegetable gardens,
flower crops and field crops.
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Foot operated sprayer
The pump of the sprayer is worked by operating a pedal lever by the foot of the
operator. It requires two persons to work. The spray liquid is kept in bucket or
container and it is sucked by a suction hose through a filter (strainer) due to
piston movement.
Fig. Foot operated sprayer
A suitable ball valve is provided in the piston assembly to serve as suction

valve. The liquid from the pump cylinder is then delivered into a pressure
chamber where from the pressurized liquid reaches hydraulic nozzle. Minimum
two person team is required to work on this machine. Hydraulic pressure of 10
kg/cm2 can be achieved which is necessary to project the jet of spray to tall
trees simultaneously from two spray nozzles.
The foot operated sprayer is basically for orchard and tree spraying. The design
is strong and sturdy. Hydraulic pressure of 10 kg/cm2 can be achieved which is
necessary to project the jet of spray to tall trees simultaneously from two spray
nozzles. An adjustable type hydraulic nozzle (Tripple Action Nozzle) is
generally used which can generate different types of spray patterns viz., fine
spray (hollow cone), medium spray and coarse spray (jet). The fine and
medium spray are suited for low height orchards, jet spray are necessary for
tree spraying. The spray jet can reach height of 15 - 20 feet. For spraying taller
trees an extra extension like bamboo lance may be used to gain additional
height by 8 - 10 feet. It is diffcult to treat field crops by foot sprayers because
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the sprayer is kept on ground and pesticide solution tank is also kept on ground
separately and so movement of the long delivery hose becomes very difficult.
Rocker sprayer
It is very much similar to the foot sprayer. The main difference is the operation
of pump. The pump actuation is done by hand of the operator. The rocker
sprayer is a long lever high pressure sprayer designed for operation with one or
two lances. The complete assembly is mounted on a wooden board, which is
held to the ground by the foot of the operator. The sprayer consists of a single
or double acting piston pump for developing high pressure, an air chamber,
spray lance with shut off valve and strainer, 5 m suction line fitted with strainer
and delivery line.
Fig. Rocker sprayer
The principal components are made from brass aIloy. The lance is fitted with
gooseneck bend and nozzle and the length of lance may vary from 60 to 90 cm.
The pump is operated with long lever to and fro in a rocking motion which suck
the liquid from the inlet pipe submerged in the spray liquid. The other person
holds the lance and directs the spray chemical to the target. If two lances are
used, then it may require in all three persons for the spraying operation. The
adjustable type hydraulic nozzle (Triple Action Nozzle) is normally used. With
high jet spray gun or bamboo lance the spray chemical can be delivered to a
height of up to 10m. For spraying on tall trees like coconut, areca nut,
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sugarcane, rubber plantations, orchards, vineyards and field crops, vegetable
gardens, flower crops etc.
Lever operated knapsack sprayer
It is commonly known as knapsack sprayer. The sprayer is mounded on the
back of operator with help of a pair of mounting straps. The pump of the
sprayer is actuated by working a hand lever up and down by one hand of the
operator and the other hand holds the cut off device for spraying purpose. This
sprayer consists of liquid tank, hydraulic pump, operating lever, pressure
chamber, agitator, delivery hose, spray lance and nozzle. A bean shaped plastic
tank of 14-16 liters capacity is commonly used. It is necessary to operate the
hand lever continuously at the rate of 15-20 strokes per minute. The normal
working pressure is 40 psi.
Fig. Liver operated knapsack sprayer
High pressure power sprayer

These are high capacity power operated hydraulic sprayers. They are the high
volume spraying machines good for large scale application in orchards and tree
crops. The source of power is engine or electrical motor. A pressure regulator is
used to control the pressure in the discharge lines and bye-pass from the
pressure regulator is used for hydraulic agitation in spray tank. High pressure
like 400 psi can be built up and large spray discharge rate like 30 L/min. can be
obtained. The engine or electrical motors 3 - 5 H.P capacity power the sprayer.
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Fig. High pressure power sprayer

2. Low volume spraying
The high volume spraying is labour intensive and time consuming. In water
scarcity area it is difficult to practice high volume spraying. Also in situation
where large area treatment in very short time is important, the high volume
spraying has limitations. The low volume spraying methods essentially reduce
quantity of spray solution. Spraying as against 300 to 500 L/ha in H.V. spraying
technique is reduced to 50 to 150 L/ha in L.V. spraying technique.
Motorised knapsack sprayer, also called Mist blower is a L.V. sprayer in which
gaseous energy nozzle is used for fine breakup of spray liquid. This type of
nozzle is also called Air blast nozzle. The force of escaping air at high velocity
is utilised to shear down the spray liquid into fine spray droplets. The size of
spray droplets depends upon:
1. Air velocity and volume
2. Liquid flow rate
3. Properties of spray liquid
The spray droplets are then blown away from the nozzle outlet. The blast of air
disperses the droplets over wide area and helps penetration of spray into the
crop canopy. The gyrating movement of droplets in the canopy improves the
underleaf depositing of the spray particles.
A two-stroke petrol engine (35 cc capacity) is used as prime mover to run a fan
blower. The engine runs usually at 5000 - 6000 RPM and the blower emits at
nozzle outlet about 5 m3 air per minute and at about 170 km/hr velocity. The
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spray droplets are about 150 - 220 micron VMD size. The nozzle flow rate can
be adjusted by a regulator provided in the liquid line. The regulator can be a
variable restrictor type or different size fixed aperture type. The later type is
better because in the variable restrictor type regulator, it is difficult to achieve
exact repeat application rates. The flow rate up to 2 L/min can be obtained.
While operating this sprayer the engine should be run at full throttle and the
operator should take advantage of prevailing cross-wind for wider dispersal of
the spray and also to keep away the spray from himself. The spray nozzle
should be held and aimed at rows which are about one meter away from the the
nozzle and the operator should try to create a little fluttering of leaves to
improve coverage. In a day 2 - 3 hectare area treatment is possible with this
machine. Since fine particles in concentrated form are sprayed out, the operator
should wear adequate protective clothing and he should especially guard
against inhalation hazards.
The motorized knapsack sprayer can be converted into power duster also. Then
it is called motorised knapsack sprayer-cum-duster. In most of the machines the
spray tank itself is used as dust hopper.
Fig. Motorised knapsack sprayer
In such a tank (dust hopper) suitable dust agitator attachment is fixed inside the
hopper and dust-ejector tubes are fitted in the outlet of the discharge pipe. It is
necessary to avoid compaction of pesticide dust while filling it in the hopper.
The rate of flow of the dust from hopper to the discharge tube is controlled by
variable restrictor aperture. In some models this is achieved by placing a
butterfly type restrictor.
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For low volume spraying the aircrafts are also used to spray pesticides at 20 -
25 L/ha. Tractor mounted air carrier sprayers are also used for low volume
spraying in orchard and tree spraying. For tall tree spraying like Rubber
plantation a mist blower type system run by 3 H.P engine and carried by two
persons on stretcher poles is available, called turblow-sprayer.
3. Ultra low volume spraying technique
The ULV spraying is the method of pesticide application at minimum volume
to achieve economic pest control. In this technique of pesticide application the
volume applied per hectare is less than 5 liters which is extremely low as
compared to the conventional High Volume and Low Volume spraying
methods.
The spray droplets in ULV spraying methods are very fine in size. Therefore,
the nozzles used in these methods are different. Various designs of rotory
atomiser are used to generate droplets of 70 to 100 μ VMD. The vortex nozzles
produce droplets in aerosol range i.e. 20 μ VMD. For large area ULV spraying
as in the case of locust control exhaust nozzle sprayer which is mounted on a
vehicle is used where thermal energy of the engine exhaust gases is used to
atomise the pesticide liquid in droplets of 20–50 μ. The thermal foggers using
pulse jet engines are used for indoor ULV application. The fogging machines
are also used by public health personnels for mosquito control.
The rotary atomiser utilises centrifugal energy to break the pesticide liquid into
droplets. The range of spray droplet diameter produced by centrifugal nozzle is
generally narrow sprectrum. Therefore, this method of ULV spraying with the
help of centrifugal energy nozzle is also called as Controlled Droplet
Application (CDA).
The movement of extremely fine spray droplets depends upon natural air
movement. These small particles usually take long time to settle and very much
influenced due to prevailing wind. The spray therefore is not direct type but it is
drift spraying. Obviously for small field treatment the pesticide spray may be
drifted to outside the target. Thus the drift hazard is always present in this
technique of spraying.
The spray droplets which are fine in size are also subjected to higher rate of
evaporation due to increased surface area. Therefore, pesticide spraying diluted
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with water is not recommended for ULV technique. The rate of evaporation
increases if the temperature is more. Also the relative humidity influences
evaporation. Due to evaporation the effective aquoes droplet size which
actually reaches the target becomes smaller and therefore concentrated pesticide
droplets are deposited. The extremely fine size droplets may completely
evaporate before landing and can cause pollution. It is, therefore, recommended
to apply only special ULV formulation which is basically oil-bound and non-
volatile. Some authors have reported use of sugar or mollases solution with the
EC formulation to reduce the evaporation losses.
A hand held battery operated model of ULV sprayer is very simple and
convenient. This sprayer consists of a spray head which includes an electric
motor with a spraying disc and liquid container mounted on the spray head, a
holding stick, source of battery power and off-on switch. The electrical motor is
a 6 V or 12 V DC motor. The motor drives a directly fitted spinning disc
usually plastic 2" to 3" diameter revolving at 6000 - 10000 RPM. The spinning
disc is very light weight plastic disc flat or cup shaped having fine serrations
cut on its periphery. In certain designs fine feeder channels are also provided on
the disc such that the liquid is fed uniformly through these channels to the disc
serrations. The pointed edge at the disc periphery serves as zero issue point so
that uniform size spray droplets are released from the disc. The pesticide
container is usually one liter capacity plastic bottle which is screwed on the
spray head. The flow of pesticide from the container is simply due to gravity
and depends upon the size of opening provided in the spray head. However, in
certain models the rate of flow of liquid can be changed by replaceable orifice
plates of different diameter or by changing liquid flow tubes of different size
opening.
The dry cells (4 or 8 Numbers) or rechargeable storage battery supply 6 V or 12
V DC power to run the electric motor which rotates the plastic disc. The
chemical moves by gravity to the spinning disc and due to centrifugal energy
the liquid is broken into very fine spray droplets. The rate of flow of chemical
liquid is from 50 to 100 ml/min. The ULV spraying is good in dry land areas
where water is scare and therefore conventional high volume spraying is not
feasible. This technique is also called waterless spraying due to special ULV
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formulations. But as the ULV formulations are not available, the advantage of
this method is not being availed at present.
Electrostatic spraying
The conventional high volume spraying is labour intensive and time consuming
process. The hydraulic nozzles produce wide spectrum of spray droplets and
more than 40-60% of sprayed pesticide does not really deposit on the foliage.
Neither the very small drops nor very big drops are useful due to drift and run
off problems. The Controlled Droplet Application (CDA) method improves
pesticide deposits and lower application volumes of less than 5 L/ha can be
achieved. The ULV application method has serious problem of pesticide drift
too.
The electrostatic spraying system reduces the application volume substantially
and greatly improves pesticide deposites. The liquid atomisation is achieved by
utilizing electrostatic forces. The spray particles of about 50 μm size having
high electrostatic charge are issued from the nozzle. It is reported that the
depositing increases by three times, or more.
This system has great potential. By imparting electrostatic charge to spray
droplets of hydraulic nozzles and spinning disc nozzles also depositing
improves much. There are following three systems of electrostatic charging of
sprays:
1. Corona charging
2. Contact charging
3. Induction charging
A high voltage pointed electrode issues ions of similar polarity to the liquid
droplets which become electrically charged. The sprays from hydraulic nozzle
and rotary nozzle can be charged by these methods. The electrostatic
application of paints industrially is also based on Corona charging.
In Contact charging system the high voltage potential is directly connected to
the nozzle or to the spray liquid system. The electrical charge transfer occurs by
conduction to spray liquid and finally to the spray droplets during
disintegration. This system works well with the conductive liquids. The total
system needs very good insulation.
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In the Induction charging system the electrical field force is used to charge the
spray droplets. This system needs good insulation between the conductive
liquid and the charging electrodes. The Electrodyne sprayer (developed by ICI)
is good for electrostatic charged spraying of pesticides. A high potential of 13
to 24 KV is applied to the spray head having pesticide bottle and electrodyn
nozzle combination (called BOZZLE) resulting in dis-integration of spray in
very fine charged droplets of 30-50 μm size. The application volume is
drastically reduced to 0.5 to 1.0 L/ha besides much improved deposition of
pesticide. The charged droplets leaving the nozzle repel each other owing to
similar charge and thereby forming spray cloud. These charged droplets are
readily deposited to foliage being earthed object. The power requirement is met
by 6 V DC (4 torch cells) sources which are multiplied to 24 KV by a solid
state electronic generator. The power consumption is very low. The collection
of spray is so efficient that penetration into the canopy can be poor. The nozzle
is held 40-50 cm above the crop canopy. Because of good depositing properties,
the drift of pesticide is very minimum, so also the wastage.
Advantages of electrodyne spraying
1. Better deposit of pesticide
2. Minimum drift losses/wastage
3. Low power consumption
4. Narrow spectrum of droplet size
5. Labour and time saving
6. Minimum volume per hectare
Limitations of electrodyne sprayer
1. Top few leaves are deposited heavily but not the lower leaves.
2. Good for broad leaf crops and not so efficient for narrow-leaf crops like
paddy.
3. Special Electrodyne formulations are suitable.
4. Electrodyne formulations of various Pesticides are not available.
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2. Dusters and dust applications
The dusting powders are low concentration ready to use type, dry formulations
containing 2 to 10% pesticide. The inert material or dry diluents is talc,
soapstone, attapulgite, etc., and it is non toxic. The sulphur dust is not diluted
with inert material.
The advantages of pesticide dusting application are:
1. Ready to use product reduces field tasks concentrate handling and
further dilution (as in case of spraying)
2. In dry land agriculture where water is scare.
But the important disadvantage is pesticide drift. The fine dust particle cause
serious drift problems and the operator and field labourer are exposed to dermal
and inhalation hazards, besides pesticide being carried to neighbouring
field/area and causing pollution. This is the main reason why the herbicides are
not formulated as Dusting Powders. Precise metering and even distribution of
dusting powders in field conditions is very difficult. The dusts are applied at 20
- 50 kg/ha. It should be noted that the application is done in highly concentrated
form, as compared to high volume or low volume spraying technique.
Therefore, adequate precautions must be taken in handling the dust and during
the application in field. The dusters are available both manually operated and
power operated models.
Manually operated dusters
Plunger duster
They are very simple, low cost machines and useful in a limited way. The field
application capacity is low. They hold 200 to 400 g of dust in a chamber into
which air is pushed by an adjoining piston type air pump operated by hand. The
dust cloud is issued from the discharge outlet.
Fig. Plunger duster
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Bellows type duster

This is also a simple design low cost dusting machine. A collapsible bellows
pushes air into a dust hopper of 1-2 kg capacity and dust is discharged from the
nozzle outlet.
Fig. Bellows type duster

Hand shake duster
This too is low cost very simple equipment which can be locally made by
village artesian. It is particularly good for spot application of dust in rice crop
and BPH control. These dusters are good for small scale application and spot
treatment and they do not cause much drift problems, metering lacks in these
equipment.
Hand rotary duster
This type of duster makes use of a fan or blower to flow large volume of air at
high speed. The dust powder is fed into the stream of air and blown from the
outlet tube. The fan or blower rotates at high speed by hand cranking handle,
which is geared to it. The higher gear-ratio and better blower design provide
easy cranking and good volume of air is emitted.
The dust hoppers are generally cylindrical and are provided with agitator,
feeders and dust metering mechanism. Such rotary dusters are either shoulder
slung type or belley mounted type. The shoulder-slung models are better
balanced when the dust hoppers are filled. But it becomes inconvenient to
operate in crops like sugarcane and cotton. The belley mounted type can be
used in such situations. A hand rotary duster can discharge dust powder from 0
– 150 g/min and displace air about one m3/min at 35 RPM. Such machine can
treat 1 to 1.5 ha /day.
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Fig. Hand rotary duster
Power duster
These are bigger machines run with the help of engine or electrical motor.
Some power dusters are tractor mounted type and are driven by tractor P.T.O.
The equipment is mounted on iron frame (stretcher) and can be carried by 2-3
men. The engine/motor drives a centrifugal fan usually via V-belt drive. The
engine is petrol/ diesel run and 3 - 5 H.P. The fan displaces 20 m3 air/min or
more at 100-250 km/hr air velocity. These dusters are good for large area
treatment and suitable for application on tall trees. In this type of duster design,
usually the dust powder is not rotated in the fan-case but dust powder is
aspirated in the delivery channel by air blast. The dust hopper capacity is 10-20
kg and dust can be discharged at a rate of 1 to 8 kg/min. A power duster can
cover about 10 ha/day.
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Fig. Power duster
Knapsack duster
The motorised knapsack sprayer can be converted to a duster by replacing some
plastic fittings inside the hopper. Almost all mist blowers have provision of
converting them from spraying unit to dusting unit. The two stroke petrol
engine runs a blower fan and delivers the air through a hose pipe system. The
dust is agitated and lifted by the blast of air in the hopper and it is fed into the
main air hose or a long dusting hose (40-50 ft long polythene perforated hose)
can also be attached to knapsack duster. Such an attachment is very good for
large area treatment in less time. The dust output can be adjusted from 0 to 1.5
kg/min. The motorised knapsack sprayer-cum-duster unit is therefore useful for
both low volume spraying and dusting operation.
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Fig. Knapsack duster
Precautions
The dusting powers are very finely divided particles which can remain air-
borne for long time and can drift far distances. The fine particles can very easily
enter into body system by inhalation. Therefore, the operator should wear
protective clothing. He must cover his nose and mouth in order to avoid
inhalation of pesticide drift.The operator should never operate against the wind
direction. Also if the wind velocity is more or wind turbulence exists, the
dusting application should not be done.It is better to apply the dust power in
early morning hours and in late evening hours, avoidind the mid-day and
afternoons.
Maintenance
The dry and well sieved dust power should be loose filled in hopper. It should
not be hand compacted. The dust powders often absorb atmospheric moisture
and clods are formed, such clods should be crushed before filling into the
hopper. After the completion of the work the dust powder should be removed
from the hopper carefully. The dust materials which still remain in the hopper,
feeders, discharge tube should also be removed by briskly cranking and
blowing action. Finally, a dry brush should be used to dust off from inside the
hopper, etc. The lubricating oil should be applied on moving parts e.g.,
gearbox, crank handle, agitator, fan bearing, etc.
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3. Fog generators and Smoke generators
Fog generators
Power aerosol and fog generators break liquid pesticides into aerosol droplets.
Reducing the liquid into droplets is done either mechanically (cold foggers) or
by using heat (thermal foggers). Caution should always be taken to protect the
applicator's respiratory system when these generators are used.
a) Cold foggers
Cold foggers break an insecticide into aerosolized droplets and propel them into
the air in a light cloud or fog. Large, ultra low dosage (ULD) and ultra low
volume (ULV) cold foggers are mounted on trucks and used in mosquito
control programs, to control pests in large warehouses, and for fly control in
some operations. Cold fog generators drive pesticidal fog over a relatively large
area. Droplets fall on flying or resting mosquitoes or are deposited in very small
amounts on plant leaves on which mosquitoes rest.
Fig. Cold foggers

Hand-held cold foggers are used inside buildings where they fill rooms, small
warehouses, etc., with aerosol droplets. These floating droplets kill flying
insects as well as exposed insects on horizontal surfaces. Fogs do not enter tight
spaces or cracks and crevices. While some aerosol generators are used for crack
and crevice applications, they also produce aerosol droplets that float in the air.
b) Thermal foggers
Thermal foggers use heat to vaporize oil in an oil-based insecticide formulation.
Large truck-mounted thermal aerosol generators are used in mosquito control
programs where the insecticide fog rolls across open spaces killing flying
insects as air currents move it. Indoors, portable thermal foggers work like cold
foggers except droplets are smaller.
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Fig. Thermal foggers

Smoke generators
The fumigation of infested materials or building structures is a very specialized
form of pest control, involving the use of a highly volatile gas having a great
power of penetration. The insecticide diffused homogeneously. Smoke
generators are used to treat air volumes to control flying insects and to treat
surfaces (by deposition) to control crawling insects. Before use, a particular
attention should be paid to the protection outside the building or structure to be
treated.
Fig. Smoke generators
Smoke generators could be used in rooms with furniture, but sometimes it’s
preferred to move up some equipment. After treatment, a long ventilation
period is recommended e.g. 4 to 8 hours in some cases.
4. Soil injecting guns, Seed treating drums and Flame throwers
Soil injecting guns
Pesticides can be injected into the soil by pumping a pesticidal liquid through a
metering orifice to a jet firmly attached to the rear of a tine on a cultivator so
that the pesticide is delivered below the soil surface. This technique employs a
long hollow, pointed probe connected to a spray rig and a shut-off valve at the
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top of the injector. It is useful in placing termiticides deep into the soil around
the exterior foundation.This type of equipment has been used mainly for
applying soil fumigants to control nematods and because of the volatility of the
chemicals the soil surface should be covered immediately with a plastic sheet to
reduce the lose of pesticide. The technique is expensive and many of the
chemicals are no longer acceptable environmentally so preference is given to
granule application if chemical control required.
Fig. Soil injecting guns

Seed treating drums
Seed treaters are used to coat seeds with a pesticides. The amount of pesticide
the seed receive is important – too little will not control the pest but too much
can injure the seed. There are three basic types of commercial seed treaters.
Dust treaters mix seed with a pesticide dust in a mechanical mixing chamber
until every seed is thoroughly covered.
Slurry treaters coat seeds with wettable powder pesticide formulations in the
form of a slurry. Only a small amount of water is used with the pesticide so that
the seed does not start to germinate or deteriorate.
Fig. Seed treating drums

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Liquid or direct treaters are designated to apply a small amount of pesticide
solution to a large quantity of seeds.
Advantages
Allows more choice in the variety to be treated and in the pesticides to be used,
treats only as many seeds as you need.
Disadvantages
Requires purchase of equipment instead of just buying pretreated seeds,
pretreated seeds are easier to use, more chance of seed injury.
Seed treatment represents one of the most efficient means of targeted
application of pesticides. Commercial bulk mechanisms include: spraying onto
conveyer belts, rotating perforated drums, seed coating (pelleting) and fluidised
bed coating. The pedal driven 'Rotosat' shown here is especially suitable for
introducing the concept of seed treatment into remote areas.
The selective use of seed treatments can protect seeds from early-season disease
and insect pests affecting crop emergence and growth. Occasionally, seed
treatments can be used to stimulate production over a longer term, using
biological agents such asbiopesticides and Rhizobium spp. (for nitrogen fixing).
Flame thrower
Compressed air type of sprayer filled with kerosene oil for producing flame.
Lance modified to carry burner which is heated before allowing oil to flow
through. It is commonly used for burning settled swarms of locusts.
Fig. Flame thrower
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17.4 Types of nozzles and their uses
All types of sprayers generally speaking emit pesticide solution in very fine
spray form. Spraying nozzle thus is a device for emitting spray liquid, breaking
it up into small droplets and throwing the droplets away from the nozzle orifice.
Different designs of nozzle are used to produce appropriate droplet size
spectrum. In order to break the liquid into droplets energy is needed. The spray
nozzles therefore are classified as:
1. Hydraulic energy nozzles
2. Adjustable nozzles
3. Gaseous energy nozzles
4. Centrifugal energy nozzles
5. Thermal energy nozzles
Almost all sprayers used for high volume spraying methods are fitted with
hydraulic nozzles. The knapsack type low volume sprayers are generally
worked with air blast nozzle or gaseous energy nozzle. The hand held battery
operated sprayers also called CDA sprayers are fitted with spinning disc type
nozzle which works on centrifugal energy. Thermal energy nozzle also called
hot tube nozzles are used with fogging machines for ULV applications.
Recently electrical energy has also been used to produce charged spray droplets
for ULV application of pesticides.
1. Hydraulic energy nozzles
The hydraulic nozzles are most commonly used spray nozzles for pesticides
application. Almost all the hydraulic sprayers use this type of nozzle. The
following types of hydraulic nozzles are used for spraying pesticides:
a) Hollow cone type
b) Fan type
c) Impact type
a) Hollow cone nozzles
This is a very popular type of hydraulic snozzle for spraying insecticides and
fungicide. It produces a hollow cone pattern of spray consisting of mixture of
different sizes droplets. In its simplest design this type of nozzle is made of
brass metal having orifice hole drilled in it and a rotral with tangential cut
grooves provides swrill motion to spray liquid which breaks down into droplet
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when emerging from the nozzle under pressure. This simple brass nozzle is
screwed onto a hand lance/ boom. There are different designs of hollow cone
nozzle. Other designs of nozzles consist of a stainless steel disc with a central
circular hole through which the spray emerges from a swirl chamber behind it.
The disc and the swirl plate (core) are suitably fitted in the body of the nozzle
which has threads for screwing (fitting) it to the lance/ boom. The normal
working pressure of hollow cone nozzle is about 40 psi.
Hollow cone nozzles are good for treating complex targets because spray
particles move in infinite angles and various planes providing better penetration
of spray. These nozzles are generally not recommended for herbicide
application due to possible drift of fine spray particles and difficulty in
obtaining an even distribution of spray across the swath. The variation of liquid
pressure can vary discharge rate, spray angle and also droplet size. The nozzles
are made from brass, stainless steel and plastic materials. The nozzles tips wear
due to chemical corrosion and abrasive action. The stainless steel tips or plastic
tips are better wear resistant and help consistant spraying.
b) Fan nozzle
They are also called flat fan nozzles. The spray liquid is thrown from an orifice
which is elliptical to give a flat shaped sheet of spray. These are used for band
spraying. These nozzles are generally used on booms with propor distance in
between and overlapping to give even distribution. The normal working
pressure is about 40 psi. However these fan nozzles can also be used for
herbicide application but the application is done at low pressure like 15 - 20 psi
to avoid drift of fine droplets.
c) Impact nozzle
These nozzles are also known as deflector nozzles or floodjet nozzles. In these
nozzles, the spray liquid emerging from a circular hole strikes an inclined
smooth face and is deflected at an angle. The liquid thus spreads as a sheet in a
wide angled fan pattern. These nozzles are used for herbicide spraying and are
low pressure (15 - 25 psi). The spray pattern essentially consists of coarse
droplets.
2. Adjustable nozzle
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These are also called as tripple action nozzle. They are so called because of
varying patterns of sprays that can be obtained by manipulating the swirl
velocity of spray liquid in the eddy chamber. The hollow cone spray pattern
consisting of fine spray particles, or a jet spray for orchard/ tree spraying and a
medium coarse spray petterns can be obtained by simple adjustments. These
nozzles are generally used with foot operated sprayers, rocking sprayers or high
pressure hydraulic sprayers for spraying trees.
3. Gaseous energy nozzles
In this type of nozzle spray liquid is injected into a stream of high velocity air.
The force of the air streches the liquid to form ligaments which ultimately break
into fine spray droplets. The airstream further transports the droplets to the
target. The liquid flow into the airstream is metered. Motorized knapsack
sprayer or mist blower is fitted with this type of air blast nozzle. The spray
droplet size depends upon the nozzle design. The positioning of liquid flow and
air velocity is very important. By increasing the liquid flow rate the droplet size
also increases. In larger models of sprayer’s hydraulic nozzle atomise the liquid
first and then the droplets are further sheared by the air blast. Vertical nozzles
also work on gaseous energy for ULV spraying.
4. Centrifugal energy nozzles
If liquid is fed on fast rotating disc, then it is carried by centrifugal force to the
outermost edges of the disc and spray droplets are issued. Rotating cylindering
cage of fine mesh also produce fine spray if liquid is fed into it. The revolving
speed of the disc or cage is very important for size of droplets. The disc has
serrated teeth on the periphery which make droplet spectrum narrow. The
physical properties of the spray liquid are important for droplet size besides the
speed of rotation. These types of nozzles are generally used for ULV spraying
and for L.V spraying methods.
5. Thermal energy nozzles
Fogging machines work with thermal energy nozzles, also called hot tube
nozzles. Spray liquid is injected into stream of hot gases (exhaust of engine)
where it vaporises due to high temperature but then it condenses when issued
out of the nozzle due to outside temperature and forms fog of fine droplets.
Exhaust nozzle sprayers (vehicle mounted) are used for ULV application in
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locust control operation. Pulse jet engine models are used for pesticide fogging
for public health purposes.
17.5 Maintenance of appliances
There are three important reasons for maintaining and cleaning equipment:
To save money
Proper maintenance of equipment will reduce the need for replacement parts.
Good maintenance makes it easier to control the application of pesticides.
Before any sprayer can be reliably calibrated, it must be in good mechanical
condition. In fact, inspecting your equipment is the first step in calibration. If
you mix a pesticide in equipment that has a residue of a different pesticide, you
may damage your crops or injure your livestock. For these reasons, you should
clean all pesticide equipment immediately after use.
To prevent pesticide poisoning
Pesticide application equipment will normally have some residual pesticide left
in the tank, hoses and boom and on the surface of the equipment. This residue
can harm humans, animals and crops. If someone comes into contact with this
residue, it can result in serious poisoning. Well maintained equipment is less
likely to have something go wrong that could put the applicator or others at risk
of pesticide exposure.
To protect the environment
Pesticide residues in, on or released by application equipment can harm non
target organisms and wildlife. Keeping equipment well maintained reduces the
chance for a burst hose or other equipment failure resulting in a pesticide
incident that may contaminate soil or water or crops.
General maintenance:
1. Clean outer surface with brush or cotton waste by using kerosene oil or
plenty of water.
2. Oil the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts with lubricating oil (SAE
30) or grease, if needed.
3. Filter or strain the chemical solution/ fuel oil mixture while pouring into
the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof with gaskets.
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4. Flush the equipment with clean water to wash inside parts of containers,
tubes and nozzles to be free from chemicals.
Care and upkeep of hand sprayer & duster:
1. Dry and sieved dust should be used for dusters.
2. Grease the duster gear box once in a month.
3. Clean the duster after the work by removing all dust from the hopper.
4. Oil the cup washers and bucket washers of sprayer frequently.
5. Spray tank discharge lines and nozzles should be flushed with clean
water after the day's work.
6. Lances and nozzles should not keep on the ground. Nozzle parts should
be cleaned with a brush.
Care and upkeep of power sprayers and dusters:
1. Lubricating oil level should be checked and maintained in four stroke
engines daily.
2. Mixture of engine oil and petrol in correct proportions should be used
for two stroke engines, duly stirred and strained.
3. Clean the Air and Fuel filters with petrol frequently.
4. All the nuts and bolts should be tightened once in a week.
5. Check up the pressure gauges and safety valves frequently.
6. Drain the fuel tank after the day's work.
7. Stop two stroke engines by closing the petrol cock.
8. Belts should be kept tightened always, to be free from slip and
slackness.
9. Keep proper inflated pressure in the tyred wheels of power sprayers.
10. Rubber tyre equipment should be rested on steel props when stationed.
11. Rubber hoses should not be bent at angles and dragged on the ground.
12. Equipment should be stored in clean, dry, cool store room.
Care and upkeep of pp equipment when not in use:
1. Plant Protection Equipments should be arranged properly in a store
house. They should be protected from sunlight.
2. Equipment of one category should be kept at one place and not in a
mixed up fashion i.e., do not dump the equipment.
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3. Attachment like discharge lines, lances, and nozzles should not be kept
attached to the equipment.
4. The equipment should be cleaned with cotton waste every day and
polished once in a month.
5. The rubber/ plastic delivery hose should be coiled forming a big circle
instead of small spool. Otherwise the hose pipes break or crack when
they are straightened.
6. All nozzles should be kept neat and clean separately.
7. The moving parts and washers are to be oiled or greased well once in a
week.
8. The equipment should be tested for its normal performance once a week.
Even the engines should be run for a short while.
9. The equipment in store should be classified and labeled to indicate its
conditions as:
i) Working condition
ii) Needs servicing & repairs
iii) Needs parts & repairs
iv) Not serviceable
10. Rubber tires should be inflated regularly or they should be jacked and
propped.
Care and upkeep of pp equipment when taken to field:
1. Always carry tools required for attending to field troubles.
2. Carry some spares like washers, filters, gaskets & pins to the field.
3. Carry small quantity of kerosene, petrol, engine oil, grease, cotton
waste, and containers.
4. Carry the Plant Protection Equipment properly and carefully.
5. Do not drop the equipment or attachments on the ground.
6. Clean the equipment before and after work is over.
7. Flush the equipment with clean water, after work is over.
8. Oil the moving parts and apply grease on gears and in grease cups.
9. Filter the chemical liquids and fuel oil mixtures before filling.
Care and upkeep of pp equipment in transportation:
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1. All knapsack equipment should be carried on operator's back, for short
distances.
2. All the rubber tiered equipments should be pulled on roads with full
inflation in the tier.
3. For longer distances, the equipment should be packed in a crate or box.
The accessories should be dismantled and packed separately before
placing in the box/ crate.
4. Secure literature like parts catalogue, servicing manuals and special
tools etc., for the equipment and keep them handy for ready reference.
17.6 Aerial adaptation of pesticides, principles of aerial

application, factors affecting the effectiveness of aerial
application. Advantages and disadvantages of aerial
application
The first practical use of the airplane for insect control was in the application of
lead arsenate dusts to control the catalpa sphinx, Ceratomia catalpa, in Ohio in
1921. The advantage of aircraft applications in rapidity, cheapness, and ease of
treatment were readily apparent and the uses increased rapidly. During the next
20 years most aircraft operations employed dusts because of the difficulties in
formulating suitable sprays with the water insoluble arsenicals.
Aircraft have been employed extensively for the control of locusts and
grasshoppers by a variety of means. The aircraft operations have also made
insecticidal applications possible in many areas which were previously
inaccessible. These include swamps and marshes where mosquitoes and other
biting insects breed, jungles and forests vast plains areas where grasshoppers
and locusts are found and certain cultivated crops such as rice, sugarcane,
mature corn, and cotton where ground treatment is impractical or destructive.
Physical principles of aircraft application
The use of the airplane or helicopter for the application of insecticides
introduces an additional dimension of complexity into the operation that of the
turbulences imparted to the air by the rotation of the propeller and the
downdraft resulting from the flight of the aircraft. The influence of these factors
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on sprays and dusts has been given a great deal of study and the principles
involved are well understood although they are often ignored in practice. A
thorough appreciation of these factors is very important in designing and
operating aircraft application equipment which will have the maximum
effectiveness on the insects to be controlled and reduce hazardous or
objectionable drift to a minimum.
Airflow about the aircraft
The lift of an aircraft in flight is obtained by imparting a downward motion to
the air. This downwash or downdraft may amount to about 600 feet per minute
for the ordinary biplane flying at 80 to 100 miles per hour and as much as 1100
feet per minute for the helicopter. The downdraft helps to carry the insecticidal
discharge toward the ground and also moves foliage which aids in penetration
and distribution of the insecticide. The lift is secured by the airfoil of the wing
and results in a decreased air pressure area above the wing producing a rotary
movement at each wing tip the trailing wing tip vortex, which may persist for
several seconds after the passage of the aircraft. Superimposed on these forces
is the rotary slipstream of the propeller, which displaces the airflow in a counter
clockwise direction. The velocities of the downdraft and the wing tip vortices
increase as the speed of the aircraft decreases since the downward displacement
of the air must equal the lift required to support the aircraft.
With the helicopter the forces are very similar. Pronounced vortices with
outward and upward components occur at the ends of the rotor, while the
downdraft is most pronounced under the central section of the rotor. The
strength of these forces is greatest when the helicopter is hovering and they are
materially decreased under conditions of normal forward flight.
Effects of particle size of discharge
The air currents following in the wake of an aircraft largely determine the
movement of particles released in spraying or dusting. Small particles of
aerosol dimensions with their very slow settling velocities follow the airflow
almost perfectly and when realised in the region of the wing tip vortices may be
thrown upward to heights of several thousand feet and will travel vast distances
in very low wind currents. Larger particles such as coarse sprays, pelletized or
granular insecticides or baits respond much more directly to gravitational forces
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and have a high settling velocity. Nevertheless the distribution of these is also
influenced by the flight turbulence.
Fig. Theoretical path of various sixed spray droplets released by

aircraft flying at 85 miles per hour and 10 foot altitude in still air.
The swath cross section

The practical assessment of the aircraft distribution of insecticides depends
upon the dimensions of the swath of deposit. These are determined by such
variables as the type, altitude and speed of the aircraft, the particle size
spectrum of the discharge the nature of the venture, spray boom or other device
for producing the discharge and by the meteorological conditions. The swath
cross section is far from uniform, since the largest particles tend to fall most
directly underneath the aircraft while the small ones are more readily deflected
by air currents and are dispersed further in the lateral directions or may escape
the treatment area altogether. Typically the resulting swath cross section is that
of a bell shaped distribution curve skewed in the direction of the rotation of the
propeller or where a long boom is employed more of a modified trapezoid. In
some cases with airplane spraying using nozzles near the wing tips a bimodal or
two peaked swath cross section results.
These curves are generally plotted as the averages of a number of
determinations since the cross section is somewhat variable, especially because
of corkscrew pattern produced by the rotation of the propeller and the presence
of occasional large droplets in sprays. It will be noted that the total recovery of
insecticide over a 50 to 200 feet swath, which represents the maximum
treatment widths generally obtained in various operations is only a fraction of
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the total amount of material discharged. Many of the fine particles drift for
relatively enormous distances as has been graphically demonstrated with 2,4-D
herbicidal applications, which have severely damaged cotton fields more than a
mile from the intended treatment area. With dusts, careful recovery studies have
shown that only about 27 percent of a dust with a Dm of about 20 microns was
recovered over a 200 foot swath, while increasing the particle size to a Dm of
30 to 40 microns increased the recovery to about 43 percent. Recoveries with
oil based aerosols and sprays have ranged from 9 percent for an aerosol of Dm
of 35 microns to about 32 percent for a spray of Dm of 200 microns based on a
200 foot swath. Even with water based sprays having a Dm of 300 microns the
recovery over a 100 foot swath was only 50 percent.
Fig. Swath cross sections from airplane applications of sprays and

dusts, showing relation of particle size to percent recovery. A, dust
with 88 percent in 20 to 50 micron range at 20 feet; B, oil aerosol with
Dm of 35 microns at 20 feet; C, water spray with Dm of 300 microns at 5
feet above the ground.
From a consideration of the parameters of the swath cross section it is clear that
for the successful application of any relatively uniform coverage of the
treatment area it will be necessary to overlap the edges of the swaths so that the
total deposits will everywhere exceed the minimum lethal dosage. Therefore the
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distance between swath centers (line of flight) must be gaged on the recovery
pattern as shown in fig.
In as much as the dynamic catch of the dust or spray particles on vegetation will
greatly influence the deposit this factor must be considered in gaging the rate of
discharge. This factor acts in a positive or a negative way, depending upon
whether the application is to form a residual deposit on vegetation or to
penetrate through vegetation to kill flying insects or insect larvae breeding in
water. The importance of the dynamic catch on dosage is shown by the fact that
six times as much paris green dust was required in heavy plant cover to produce
the same larvicidal effectiveness as occurred under light cover and that while 2
pounds of paris green per acre per 100 foot swath produced 90 percent kill of
anopheline larvae over a width of 115 feet in light plant cover the same dosage
in heavy cover produced no kill.
Width aircraft sprays a similar relationship exists: the recovery of a spray of Dm
of 110 microns was approximately seven times the mass in the open of that
recovered under heavy cover and the Dm of the material recovered under the
heavy vegetation was 50 microns showing that the larger droplets were filtered
out by the vegetation.
The swath dimensions are not materially affected by changes in air speed or
height of flight in low level applications. As has been indicated the air currents
around the plane are strongest at slow speeds and in practice the swath width in
airplane spraying was about 10 feet wider at 50 miles per hour than at 80 miles
per hour. An increase in height (to the wheels) from 1 to 10 feet did not
appreciably change the swath width but the pattern was somewhat more regular
at the higher altitude.
It should be noted that in most aircraft operations for the control of insect pests
of field and vegetable crops, the maximum practical swath width is about 40
feet since the deposits achieves beyond the wing tips are not generally heavy
and uniform enough to secure practical insect control. To complete the
coverage of a treated field it is essential for the pilot to ‘dress out’ the ends by
flying one or two swaths across the ends of the rows at right angles to the
regular treatment swaths. For accurate work in large fields the use of flagman to
indicate the desired line of flight is essenetial.
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Equipment for aerial application
Equipment for aerial application of pesticides must be able to lift, transport and
disperse pesticides safely and accurately to the target area. You need to
understand how your equipment affects the application so that you can ensure
effective treatment under any conditions you encounter.
Choice of aircraft
You can apply pesticides aerially using either a fixed wing airplane or a
helicopter, although most applicators use airplanes. Airplanes are fast,
manoeuvrable, and have a large payload capacity per dollar invested.
Helicopters are even more manoeuvrable, can be operated over a range of
speeds, and may be operated in almost any area because a regular landing strip
isn’t needed. However, helicopters are more expensive to operate per unit of
flying time, so the pilot must minimize the time lost in turnarounds and
refilling.
Weick has summed up the desirable characteristics of applicator airplanes as
 Ability to carry a spray or dust load of at least 35 to 40 percent of
gross weight
 Ability to take off and climb to 50 feet within ¼ mile with full load
 Safe operating speed of 60 to 100 miles per hour and minimum safe
flying speed of 45 miles per hour
 Easy handling controls with high maneuverability
 Excellent forward and lateral visibility
 Special design to protect the pilot in a slow speed crash
 Facilities for quick and easy loading and
 Simple rugged construction and simplicity in maintenance and repair.
Dust distribution
The components for aircraft dusting are as follows:
The hopper is sloping sided, holding from 200 to 2000 pounds (15 to 50 cubic
feet) and should be constructed of aluminium or better of stainless steel or
plastic reinforced with fibre glass for corrosion resistance. It should contain a
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large, easily accessible loading door with tight sealing gasket an air vent and a
small window to serve as a gage for the pilot.
The agitator is located directly above the throat of the dust hopper and consists
of a rotating reel to sweep the dust into the hopper throat, powered by a wind
driven propeller through a gear box to reduce the speed by about 50:1. The
agitator should be equipped with a brake operated from the cockpit. The rate of
dust discharge is controlled by a sliding gate at the bottom of the hopper and
operating from the cockpit. The gate should be made of aluminium to reduce
the fire hazard from sulphur. A venture type distributor is commonly used to
disperse the dust into the air stream. This employs the principle of the venture
tube to produce increased air velocity and lower static pressure at the hopper
throat which aids the flow of dust. An accurate metering device such as a
variable auger or conveyer surface, although not generally used would be
highly desirable to promote the even flow of dust from the hopper.
Spray distribution
The generalized components for aircraft spraying are as follows:
The spray tank which is made of aluminium , stainless steel or plastic
impregnated with fiber glass and may have a capacity of 35 to 200 gallons. It
should have a large, conveniently located filler opening with a screen, a large
protected vent, a gage and sump and drain petcock. The spray pump is
preferably of the centrifugal type and should be corrosion resistant with
adequate seals and sufficient capacity to produce agitation by bypass action into
the tank. Centrifugal pumps of suitable type operate at a maximum of about 70
pounds per square inch and at 3000 to 4000 revolutions per minute. Gear
pumps are also satisfactory for emulsions and solutions but are badly worn by
suspension of wettable powders. The simplest method for driving the pump is
the wind driven propeller mounted in the airplane propeller slipstream and
connected to the pump by a universal joint. The pump assembly should be
equipped with a brake. Hydraulically driven spray pumps are also used in some
installations.
The spray boom is usually a 5/8 to 1 ¼ inch diameter aluminium or steel tube
and is best mounted about a foot below the lower wing or from 4 to 6 inches aft
of the trailing edge of the wing. It should be approximately three quarters as
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long as the wing span to minimize the amount of spray entering the wing tip
vortices. The type and position of the nozzles is of great importance in
determining the particle size of the discharge and the swath cross section. A
typical spray boom for agricultural spraying has from 20 to 30 nozzles.
These4 should be mounted progressively closer together toward the boom tips
with a cluster of two to three at each tip. To compensate for the air currents
from the counter clockwise rotation of the propeller ,which displace much of
the spray from a distance of 1 to 4 feet right of center of the left of center, four
or five nozzles should be massed close together 2 to 4 feet right of center of the
boom and a corresponding reduction made by eliminating the nozzles in the 4
feet of space to left of center.
For insecticide distribution where sprays with a Dm of 50 to 200 microns are
most desirable, hollow cone or flat spray nozzles are most desirable, operated at
30 to 40 pounds per square inch. The direction of nozzle placement with regard
to the slip stream has an important effect on the degree of liquid breakup.
Other means of liquid breakup and distribution have been used in aircraft
spraying. The rotating brush disk or drum uses a wind driven propeller to
produce the centrifugal force necessary to break up the liquid which is fed by
gravity. This equipment will distribute a wide variety of liquids including those
containing a high degree of suspended matter.
The venture exhaust generator has been used to produce aerosols in the 10 to
100 micron range which have been used successfully for the control of adult
and larval mosquitoes.
The most desirable particle sizes for aircraft spraying vary with the type of
operation. In the control of adult mosquitoes, black flies or tsetse flies where
jungle or forest canopy is to be penetrated an aerosol of 10 to 50 microns is
most useful and this provides swath width up to 250 feet, but gives very low
recoveries on vegetation and is highly sensitive to meteorological effects.
For the direct spraying of locust swarms s particle size range of 50 to 100
microns seems to be most suitable and will give swath widths up to 200 feet.
For agricultural spraying for maximum deposit under conditions of low flight a
range of 100 to 300 microns combines the best dynamic catch and the lest drift
away from the treatment area but the effective swath width is only about 100
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feet. Coarse sprays of 200 to 500 microns produce narrow swath widths of
about 50 feet.
Meteorological effects
Wind and air currents appreciably affect the performance of aircraft in dusting
and spraying operations. In general the most satisfactory results are obtained
under conditions of very low wind velocity and when vertical currents or
turbulence are at a minimum. These conditions usually occur from the early
morning hours and again until about 1 hour before sunset. At these times the
ground surface and the air immediately above it are cooler than the upper layers
of air, and a stable condition of inversion, free from rising air currents exists.
When the sun warms the ground so that the lower air level is warmer than the
air above a condition of lapse results and the rising air currents or turbulence
occurs. Inversion conditions can be measured by the difference of 1 to several
degrees in temperature readings on two thermometers, one near ground level
and the other at head height, or can be observed by the use of smoke, for
everyone has seen the layering of smoke from bonfires or steam engines which
commonly occurs at dawn and dusk. Because of the sensitivity of dust and
spray clouds to distribution by turbulence most aircraft operations of this nature
are carried out under inversion conditions.
Surface winds also play an important role and these are generally minimal
under inversion conditions. An 8 year study in California showed that wind
velocities in June to August were least from 3 to 7 am and that at sunrise, lulls
of less than 2 miles per hour wind velocity occurred on approximately 15 days
per month.
Aerial application of pesticides offers several advantages over ground
application:
You can cover large areas quickly. You can treat crops or areas (such as mid-
season corn or forest stands) for which ground equipment isn’t suitable. The
application cost per acre is comparatively low. To reap the full benefit of these
advantages, you and your client must cooperate to develop a pest-control plan
that will ensure a safe and effective operation. Your plan must be based on full
knowledge of the pest-pesticide relationship, pesticide activity and restrictions,
and the capabilities and limitations of your aircraft under prevailing conditions.
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You must also be aware of hazards to people, livestock, other crops, and the
environment.
Several factors limit the use of aerial application. These include weather
conditions, fixed obstacles such as power lines, field size, and the distance from
the landing strip to the target area. Your challenge is to know when and how
you can overcome these limitations and, just as importantly, when these
limitations make aerial application impractical.
17.7 Summary
 On the basis of volume of spray-mix the technique of spraying is
classified as:
 High volume spraying, 2. Low volume spraying, 3. Ultra low
volume spraying.
 High volume spraying is very common and popular method of
pesticide spraying. The spray solution is prepared by mixing water
with pesticide formulation in appropriate quantities. This diluted
mixture is sprayed through hydraulic nozzles.
 The ULV spraying is the method of pesticide application at
minimum volume to achieve economic pest control. In this technique
of pesticide application the volume applied per hectare is less than 5
liters which is extremely low as compared to the conventional High
Volume and Low Volume spraying methods.
 Power aerosol and fog generators break liquid pesticides into aerosol
droplets. Reducing the liquid into droplets is done either
mechanically (cold foggers) or by using heat (thermal foggers).
 Spraying nozzle thus is a device for emitting spray liquid, breaking it
up into small droplets and throwing the droplets away from the
nozzle orifice.

1. Write any three characters of high volume sprayer.
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2. Write the name of different types of sprayers.
3. Define cold foggers.
4. What is a soil injecting gun?
5. Write the name of different types of dusters.
6. Write the name of different types of nozzles.
1. Write short notes on hydraulic energy nozzles.
2. Describe fogg gneraters and soil treating drums.
a) Rocker sprayer
b) Knapsack duster
a) Gaseous energy nozzles
b) Foot operated sprayer
5. Describe low volume spraying in detail.
1. Describe various types of sprayers.
2. Give a detailed account on various types of nozzles and their uses.
3. Write short notes on :
a) Fogg generators and smoke generators
b) Maintenance of appliances
c) Soil injecting guns
4. Give a detailed account on aerial application of pesticide.
17.9 References
 http://www.nmpest.com/trainingman/using_equipment.htm
 https://books.google.co.in/books?id=P-
XMW6jruk8C&pg=PA73&lpg=PA73&dq=fog+generators+used+for+pesticides
+application+equipments&source=bl&ots=p3aGtzGyW4&sig=KjPNBssLNKfxq
wTonoPPxQd55rM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwibi9ubjc3KAhUKC44KHeX0A
UA4ChDoAQgjMAI#v=onepage&q=smoke%20generators%20used%20for%20
pesticides%20application%20equipments&f=false
 http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.dropd
ata.org/DD/sprayers.htm&gws_rd=cr&ei=-cgLV463Bsjw0ATam4qgAw
 https://books.google.co.in/books?id=-
pVsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30&dq=smoke+generators+us
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ed+for+pesticides+application+equipments&source=bl&ots=RUAvv
-mkGv&sig=vUNuu--
eko6IDBaVFjPJ1ienWMQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikgcbf94b
MAhXDnpQKHZC9Ck84ChDoAQg_MAc#v=onepage&q=smoke%
20generators%20used%20for%20pesticides%20application%20equip
ments&f=false
 http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/pesticide-
safety/ppat_manual/Chapter%209.pdf
 http://niphm.gov.in/Recruitments/PHE-ASO-Manual-22042013.pdf
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Unit – 18
Techniques in plant protection
18.1 Objective
18.2 Introduction
18.3 Seed treatment
18.3.1 Role of seed treatment
18.3.2 History of seed treatments
18.3.3 Seed Dressing/seed soaking
18.3.4 Seedling root dip
18.3.5 Seed Coating
18.3.6 Seed Pelleting
18.3.7 Sett treatment
18.3.8 Soil drenching
18.3.9 Seed treating equipment
18.4 Soil sterilization
18.3.1 Steam Sterilization
18.3.2 Soil solarisation
18.5 Deep ploughing
18.6 Flooding
18.7 Techniques to check the spread of pests (Plant quarantine/Treated the
materials before movement)
18.8 Electron microscopy
18.8.1 Light microscopy (LM)
18.8.2 Scanning electron microscopy
18.8.3 Transmission electron microscopy
18.9 Protein isolation from the pest and host plant and its quantification using
spectrophotometer and molecular weight determination using
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SDS/PAGE
18.9.1 Spectrophotometer
18.9.2 Poly-Acrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE):
18.9.2.1 Principles
18.9.2.2 Methodology
18.9.2.2.1 Electrophoresis instruments
18.9.2.2.2 Reagents used in PAGE
18.9.2.2.3 Protocol
18.9.2.2.4 Staining and de-staining of gels
18.9.2.3 Uses/Application of PAGE in entomological research
18.10 Use of tissue culture techniques in plant protection
18.11 Computer application for predicting/forecasting pest attack and
identification
18.11.1 Simulation models
18.11.2 Imaging Technologies
18.11.4 Electronic nose
18.11.3 Acoustic and other tools
18.12 Summary
18.13 Glossary
18.15 References
18.1 Objective
 Why seed treatment is essential?
 What are different techniques for insect pest management?
 What is importance of electron microscopy?
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 What are difference between Scanning electron microscopy and
Transmission electron microscopy?
 How we use of computer application for pest prediction and forecasting?
 What is the importance of PAGE techniques?
18.2 Introduction
Several plant protection techniques are available for management of insect
pests and diseases in various crops. These protection techniques are used in
single or in combination for management of the pests in fields. IPM emphasises
the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-
ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms”. Various cultural
practices viz., deep ploughing, soil solarisation, flooding etc. can be used as a
primary tool in a successful Integrated Pest Management Program for
sustainable agriculture since they target the pests and diseases and have no
adverse effects on environment.
18.3 Seed treatment
Seed treatment: Seed quality is dependent on several environmental factors
such as moisture, temperature, humidity and storage conditions. Seed quality
may still be destroyed by insects and other pests or reduced by certain seed
borne diseases, even though these factors are maintain properly. Several studies
have shown that seed treatment is the most economical and efficient way to
protect seed from pests and improve the seed quality. Since pesticides are
hazardous, extra care and safety precautions must be taken when applying them
and in handling seed after it has been treated. The term "treated" means "to give
an application of a pesticide or subject seed to a process designed to reduce,
control or repel disease organisms, insects, or other pests which attack the seed
or seedlings.”
18.3.1 Role of seed treatment
Diseases and pests affecting crops can have devastating consequences in
agricultural and horticultural production if not properly managed. Breeding is
an excellent tool to build resistances against pests and diseases in the plants.
However, breeding alone does not address all of the agronomic challenges;
therefore crop protection products are often needed and used for good crop
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management. These crop protection products can be applied during the growth
of the crop but can also be added to the seed as a seed treatment. Seed
treatments have played and are still playing a vital role in the history of
mankind, in staving off hunger and starvation by improving the establishment
of healthy crops.
18.3.2 History of seed treatments
Some of the first recorded seed treatments are the use of sap from onion (Allium
sp.) and extract of Cypress in the Egyptian and Roman periods. Salt water
treatments have been used since the mid-1600s and the first copper products
were introduced in the mid-1700s. Other key milestones were the introduction
of arsenic, used from 1740 until 1808 and the introduction of mercury, used
from 1915 until 1982.
The first systemic fungicide product was launched in 1968. This systemic
fungicide had not only seed surface activity but also moved into the plants
protecting the young seedlings from airborne pathogens. Since the 1990s the
crop protection and seed industries have developed and adopted new classes of
fungicide, insecticide, and nematicides chemistry, expanding pest control while
reducing user and environmental impact.
18.3.3 Seed Dressing/seed soaking
This is most common method of seed treatment. The seed is either dressed with
a dry formulation or wet treated with a slurry or liquid formulation. Dressings
are applied both on-farm or in specialised seed treatment facilities. Ex.
Sorghum seeds are treated with chlorpyriphos 20 @ EC 4 ml/kg with 20 ml of
water and shade dried to control shoot fly.
18.3.4 Seedling root dip
This method is used to control early stage pests (ex.) in rice to control sucking
pests and stem borer in early transplanted crop. For this a shallow pit lined with
polythene sheet is prepared in the field. And filled with 0.5 kg urea in 2.5 litre
of water and 100 ml chlorpyriphos in 2.5 litre of water prepared separately are
poured. The solution is made up to 5.0 lifters with water and the roots of
seedlings in bundles are dipped for 20 min before transplanting.
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18.3.5 Seed Coating
A special binder is used with a formulation to enhance adherence to the seed
and begin to impact seed size and shape. Coatings require advanced treatment
application technology.
18.3.6 Seed Pelleting
It is most sophisticated seed treatment technology, resulting in changing the
physical shape of a seed to enhance plantability and handling. Pelleting requires
specialised application machinery and techniques and is the most expensive of
the applications.
18.3.7 Sett treatment
To protect sugarcane crop from scales pests, treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05%
Malathion for 15 minutes, whereas for termites management, treat the
sugarcane setts in 0.05% Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 175 g/ha or 7 g/l dipped for 16
minutes.
18.3.8 Soil drenching
In this method, chemical is diluted with water and the solution is used to drench
in the soil to control certain subterranean pests. Ex. for management of root rot
and wilt diseases in cumin, soil drenching with the solution of carbendazim @ 2
g/ litre of water is effective.
18.3.9 Seed treating equipment
There are three types of commercial seed treaters, generally, available in the
market. These are dust treaters, slurry treaters and direct treaters. The Panogen
and Mist-O-Matic treaters are examples of direct seed treaters. Seed treaters are
designed to apply accurately measured quantities of pesticides to a given weight
of seed.
18.4 Soil sterilisation
Soil sterilisation makes soil completely clean and free from harmful soil
microorganism, insect pests and weeds. Sterilisation may be done through
rising the soil temperature by steam or sun.
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18.4.1 Steam Sterilization
Steam sterilization is used for management of insect pests and diseases in high-
value horticultural crops. Soils and cultural composts contaminated with plant
pathogens were sterilized by injecting steam (60-80ºC for 30 minutes). Plant
diseases such as lily yellowing caused by Fusarium oxysporium, bacterial wilt
caused by Ralstonia solanacearum and blight of ornamentals caused by Athelia
rolfsii (Curzi) were controlled significantly by steam sterilization. The quality
of ornamental products and weeds control were also improved by this method.
Use of steam pipe line systems is further improving the efficiency of operation
in fields and screen houses. This method is time consuming and labour-costly
but reducing use of pesticides and their adverse impacts on the environment
especially in the ornamental industry.
18.4.2 Soil solarization
It is a non-chemical disinfestation practice that may serve as a component of a
sustainable IPM programme. Solarization effectively controls a wide range of
soil-borne pathogens, insect pests and weeds. Soil solarization is based on the
exploitation the solar energy for heating wet soil mulched with transparent PE
sheets to 40–55ºC in the upper soil layer. The duration of soil mulching that is
required for successful effect is usually four to six weeks, depending on the
pest, soil characteristics, climatic conditions and the PE properties. Thermal
killing is the major factor involved in the pest control process, but chemical and
biological mechanisms are also involved. The efficacy of the thermal killing is
determined by the values of the maximum soil temperature and amount of heat
accumulated (duration x temperature). The use of organic amendments
(manure, crop residues) together with soil solarization (bio-fumigation) elevates
the soil temperature by 1–3ºC, and improves pest control due to a generation
and accumulation of toxic volatiles. Although cheaper than most chemicals
used as soil fumigants, not all crops can afford the PE prices, particularly in
developing countries. Not all soil-borne pests and weeds are sufficiently
controlled. Economical and eco- friendly accepted mulching technologies are
needed before expanding the range of the controlled pests by solarization.
18.5 Deep ploughing
Cultural practice like deep ploughing influence directly the survival of soil
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inhabiting pests. This routine agricultural operation exposes soil inhabiting
insect-pests and other arthropods and nematodes to harsh weather and to natural
predators. Soil provides a protective habitat for pupation and diapausing of
many insect-pests. Birds like the king crow, the myna, the starling, etc. pick up
the exposed pupae following this cultural operation. Some insects e.g.
grasshoppers, crickets, mole-crickets and borers lay their eggs in the upper
layers of the soil. Their eggs are exposed during soil preparation and
subsequently desiccate. Many insects like cutworms, grubs of the root borer and
white grubs which feed on the root system of plants are also exposed to the
vagaries of the elements during inter-culture operations. Deep ploughing
carried out during winter helps in reducing the overwintering populations of
several pests.
18.6 Flooding
Flooding with water in soil, affect larval diapausing, pupal survival and adult
emergence. Flooding of the field at the time of pupation reduces the pupal
survival, and thus leads to decreased population densities in the next generation
and crop season. For example, when nursery beds of rice are flooded, the rice
hispa float up and is killed in water. Though this is an effective method, it is not
very efficient in terms of water use.
18.7 Techniques to check the spread of pests (Plant
quarantine/Treated the materials before movement)
Man even in nomadic period carried with him the required seeds and plants
wherever he moved. This practice is still continuing in the civilized settlements
of mankind. As a consequence, many plant types have moved from their centres
of origin, to an entirely new regions / continents, where they got well
established and naturalized. The pests associated with plants and seeds also
moved along unnoticed into a new region, where they caused severe damage,
not only to the plants with which they associated but started to infect / infests
many other plant types in the introduced region. The realization of the
economic, social consequences happened due to indiscriminate and unscientific
movement or trade of plants, seeds and plant materials, necessitated the
countries or provinces to start regulating the movement of plants and plant
material. Plant quarantine is effective method in which legal restriction of
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movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the
country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in
areas where they do not exist. In addition to this, all the plant materials should
be treated with chemical or and fumigated before movement from one place to
another place to check the spreading of insect pests, diseases, nematodes and
weeds.
18.8 Electron microscopy
Electron Microscopy (EM) can be defined as a specialized field of science that
employs the electron microscope as a tool and uses a beam of electrons to form
an image of a specimen. EM is operated in the vacuum and focuses the electron
beam and magnifies images with the help of electromagnetic lenses. As we
know that electrons are particulate constituents of atoms, circling the nucleus in
a series of concentric orbits. Also in appropriate conditions electrons display
wave properties. In other words they have some of the characteristics of other
forms of wave motion such as visible light, ultraviolet light and X-rays. The
orbiting electrons in the outermost orbit are known as Valence electrons which
are loosely held by the attracting force of inner electrons. These valence
electrons can be easily detached and these are used in the electron microscope.
The first functional transmission electron microscope was developed in the
early 1930s by Ruska who constructed a two stage electron microscope with
three magnetic lenses, condenser, objective, and projector. There are two types
of electron microscopes, viz., transmission electron microscope (TEM) and the
scanning electron microscope (SEM). The schematic structures of these
microscopes are presented in figure1.
18.8.1 Light microscopy (LM)
which uses visible light as a source of illumination and optical (glass) lenses to
magnify specimens in the range between approximately 10 to 1000 times from
their original sizes.
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Figure 1. Scheme of a simple electron microscope

18.8.2 Scanning electron microscopy
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is an important technique for the
investigation of surface structures of specimen. This technique provides a large
depth of field i.e. the area of the sample that can be viewed in focus at the same
time is actually quite large. SEM has also the advantage that the range of
magnification is relatively wide allowing the investigator to easily focus in on
an area of interest on a specimen that was initially scanned at a lower
magnification. Furthermore, the three-dimensional appearing images may be
more appealing to the human eye than the two-dimensional images obtained
with a transmission electron microscope. Therefore, an investigator may find it
easier to interpret SEM images. Finally, the number of steps involved for
preparing specimens for SEM investigation is lower and thus the entire process
is less time consuming than the preparation of samples for investigation with a
transmission electron microscope. However, SEM specimen preparation
harbours various risk factors that can easily distort the integrity and ultra
structure of the specimen. The basic steps involved in SEM sample preparation
include surface cleaning, stabilizing the sample with a fixative, rinsing,
dehydrating, drying, mounting the specimen on a metal holder, and coating the
sample with a layer of a material that is electrically conductive.
18.8.3 Transmission electron microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) has added advantage over SEM that
cellular structures of the specimen can be viewed at very high magnifications.
However, TEM sample preparation for mollicutes is longer and more difficult
than that for SEM and includes additional steps such as post-fixation, the
embedding of mollicutes in a resin, the sectioning of samples, and the staining
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of semi-thin and ultra-thin sections. Bozzola and Russell emphasized that
perhaps the least forgiving of all the steps in TEM is the sample processing that
occurs prior to sectioning. In other words, a poorly prepared specimen is
useless to the investigator, whereas problems during the sectioning can be
relatively easily fixed by simply cutting and staining more sections.
Specimen preparation of mollicutes for TEM includes eight major steps i.e.
cleaning, primary fixation, rinsing, secondary fixation, dehydration, infiltration
with a transitional solvent, infiltration with resin and embedding, and sectioning
with staining. The first two steps are essentially the same as those described for
SEM specimen preparation.
18.9 Protein isolation from the pest and host plant and its
quantification using spectrophotometer and molecular
weight determination using SDS/PAGE
18.9.1 Spectrophotometer
The term “spectroscopy” comes from the word “spectrum” which originally
referred to the multiple colours of light apparent in an analysis of white light
using a prism. “Spectroscopy” therefore implies the use of multiple
wavelengths of light. Spectrophotometry is an important analytical technique
that can be applied in all areas of modern biology including entomology either
for qualitative or quantitative analysis. This technique is based on the
measurement of absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation. It
assumes many forms and most recognisable one is the light. The radiation
obtained from single source consists of several waves which may be equal or
unequal. Electromagnetic radiation having all the waves of single wave length
is known as ‘monochromatic radiation’ i.e. one coloured whereas radiation with
many wave lengths are called as ‘polychromatic radiation’. Spectrophotometers
have the ability to specifically measure absorbance at specific wavelengths. The
most commonly used method to allow this involves a “monochromator”, a
device (either a prism, or more commonly, a diffraction grating) that splits the
incident light into its component wavelengths, and permits only light of the
desired wavelength to reach the sample. The ability to measure absorbance at
different wavelengths is very useful, because the extinction coefficient of a
compound varies with wavelength. In addition, the absorbance spectrum of a
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compound can vary dramatically depending on the chemical composition of the
compound, and depending on the environment (such as the solvent) around the
compound.
The Beer-Lambert law states that:
A = cl
Where A is the absorbance of the sample at a particular wavelength, is the
extinction coefficient for the compound at that wavelength in (M•cm)-1, c is the
molar concentration of the absorbing species, and l is the path length of the
solution in cm.
Thus, if the extinction coefficient of an absorbing species is known, the
absorbance of the solution can be used to calculate the concentration of the
absorbing species in solution. (This assumes that the species of interest is the
only material that absorbs at the wavelength being measured.)
Figure 2. Absorbance spectrum of a protein

The protein has a strong absorbance peak near 280 nm, but exhibits very little
absorbance at longer wavelengths. For this protein, the only chromophores
(chemical groups within a compound that absorb light) are the aromatic amino
acids tryptophan and tyrosine (Figure 2).
For many proteins, these two residues are the only chromophores; because
tryptophan and tyrosine only absorb in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum,
such proteins are colourless molecules. Coloured proteins, such as hemoglobin,
exhibit their colour due to chromophores (heme, in the case of hemoglobin) that
absorb in the visible portion of the spectrum. The extinction coefficient of a
molecule at a given wavelength can be calculated using the Beer-Lambert
equation from absorbance measurements for solutions of known concentration.
Absorption spectrophotometry is a means for determining the concentration of
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a substance in solution. A dissolved substance will absorb light of specific
wavelengths characteristic of that substance. When light of those wavelengths
is passed through the sample, some of the light is absorbed by the solute,
decreasing the amount of light that passes through the sample (Figure 3). A
spectrophotometer is used to measure the difference in the amount of light
entering and leaving the sample. The light that passes through the sample (not
absorbed) is called transmitted light. This difference in the original and
transmitted light is called the absorbance. Absorption spectrophotometry can be
used to study the properties of many types of biological molecules, such as
pigments, enzymes, DNA, and many small organic molecules.
Figure 3. Absorption of light as it passes through a solution.
Protein concentration is typically measured by combining a small sample of the

homogenate with a chemical reagent that changes colour in proportion to the
amount of protein present. Several commercially prepared protein assay
reagents are available.
18.9.2 Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)
PAGE stands for Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Basically it is used to
analyse protein samples from any tissue in native as well as sub-unit forms.
SDS PAGE allows assessment of purity of the preparation, estimation of
approximate quantity of the protein, and measurement of the size of the protein.
Acrylamide is used to make polyacrylamide gel with the help of other
polymerising components.
18.9.2.1 Principles: Polyacrylamide gels are formed by polymerising
acrylamide with a cross linking agent (bisacrylamide) in the presence of a
catalyst (persulphate ion i.e. ammonium persulphate) and a chain initiator
TEMED (N,N,N,N, tera methyl ethylene diamine). The porosity of the gel is
determined by the relative proportions of acrylamide and bis acrylamide. SDS
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(anionic detergent) binds to most protein (hydrophobic interaction) in amount
largely proportional to the molecular weight of the protein about one molecule
of SDS for every two amino acid residue. The protein-SDS complex carries net
negative charges hence move towards the anode and the separation is based on
the protein size. Factors which affect the gel are percentage of gel ionic
concentration of buffer, temperature and electric currents: voltage ratio.
18.9.2.2 Methodology:
18.9.2.2.1 Electrophoresis instruments: An instrument is made up of acrylic
material with two separate reservoirs each having an electrode. There is a
gasket to which two plates are sandwitched with the help of a spacer. To form
wells in the gel, there is toothed plastic comb.
18.8.2.2.2 Reagents used in PAGE:
Running gel Stacking gel Electrode Sample buffer
buffer buffer buffer (x10) (Loading dye)
Tris 1.5 10.0 mlAcrylamide 1.7 Tris 2.0 M (pH Tris HCL 5.0
(pH 8.8) stock 30% ml 8.3) buffer 1.0 M ml
(pH 6.8)
Acrylamide 14.0 mlTris 1.0 M 1.25 Glycine SDS 0.5
stock (30% (pH 6.8) ml 1.9 M g
w/v)
Destaining
Solution
Distilled 33.2 mlDistilled 6.8 Methanol 40 Sucrose 5.0
water water ml % g
Acetic
acid 8%
SDS 10% 0.4ml APS 10% 0.1 Staining 2- Mercapto- 0.25
ml solution ethanol ml
APS 10% 0.4 ml SDS 10% 0.4ml Coomassie 1 Bromophenol 1.0
Brilliant % blue (0.5% ml
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blue R 250 w/v)
TEMED 0.1 ml TEMED 0.05 Methannol 40 Distilled water 10.0
ml % ml
Total 40.0 ml Total 10.0 Acetic 8%
ml acid
18.9.2.2.3 Protocol: PAGE is essential done as prescribed by Laemmli (1970).

We first, clean the glass plates thoroughly. Now we place glass plate (rabbit
eared) over the other sandwitching the spacer on the two sides. The assembly is
held by bulldog clip. Now seal to lateral sides and the lower sides with
cellotape without any gap. Use small amount of molten agar (1%) to seal the
lower and lateral side.
Degas separating gel mix and add to the chamber by pouring over the top 2/3rd
volume of the chamber (NB: degassing helps to remove oxygen which
otherwise inhibits polymerization). Gently pour some water on the top of
separating gel mixture. Water forms a thin layer over the separating gel. This
prevents meniscus formation of the separating gel. Leave to set for one to two
hours. Drain of water from the top of the polymerised gel and then add stacking
gel carefully by pipetting. Insert the desired comb without delay. After the
stacking gel gets polymerised, remove the comb carefully. (NB: Formed wells
can be marked with glass marking pen, which will help in localising the well
while loading the sample). After polymerising of stacking gel, remove the comb
and flush the well with 1x electrode buffer to remove unpolymersied acrylic
acid.
Assemble the plate to the electrophoresis set after removing the cellotape put at
the bottom of the plate. Fill both upper and lower buffer chambers. Meanwhile
prepare sample by mixing protein with sample buffer. The sample mixture is
then placed in a microcetrifuge tube with a hole on the top and placed in boiling
water for 5 minutes. Put the electrode buffer in the upper and lower tank.
Remove boiled sample and cool. Give a quick spin and load the clear
supernatant in the well. After loading the sample, adjust the current and
electrophoreses till bromophenol blue dye reaches the bottom. Usually 20 mA
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constant current is used for 1.0 ml gel.
18.9.2.2.4 Staining and de-staining of gels:
Disassemble the plates which were sandwitched and remove gel carefully and
keep in tray containing 100 ml stain. Allow gel to shake gently overnight in a
rocking platform. Remove the gel next day and rinse briefly in distilled water
and place in distaining solution. Allow the gel to destain on a rocking platform
with several changes of destaining solution.
18.9.2.3 Uses/Application of PAGE in entomological research
1. Biodiversity analysis of insects.
2. Pest resistance management by studying isozyme/ enzyme profile.
3. Sex determination by differentiating protein component.
4. Understanding metabolic disorder when an insect carries some parasite
such as and NPV.
18.10 Use of tissue culture techniques in plant protection
Tissue culture method reduces the pest/pathogen introduction risk in two ways:
(i) the size of the consignment is very much reduced since the introductions
are represented by meristem tips, excised buds or embryos, and
(ii) the aseptic plantlet system has built-in pest/pathogen detection
capability. All insects, mites, nematodes and most fungi can be
eliminated. Symptoms on young seedlings, and growth of the organisms
on the agar medium, if any, may be visible through the transparent
culture tubes, and these could be discarded. However, certain
systemically infecting pathogens like rusts, downy mildews, bacteria,
viruses, viroids and MLOs, may still get transported.
18.11 Computer application for predicting/forecasting pest
attack and identification
The techniques of image analysis are extensively applied to agricultural
science, and it provides maximum protection to crops, which can ultimately
lead to better crop management and production. Monitoring of pests infestation
relies on manpower, however automatic monitoring has been advancing in
order to minimize human efforts and errors.
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Expert systems have developed from a branch of computer science known as
artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence is primarily concerned with
knowledge representation, problem solving, learning, robotics, and the
development of computers that can speak and understand human like
languages. Thus, expert systems are computer programmes designed to mimic
the thought and reasoning processes of human expert.
Expert system can be developed for many kinds of applications involving
diagnosis, prediction, consultation, information retrieval, control, planning,
interpretation and instruction. In USA, computer based diagnostic systems for
diseases, insect-pests and physiological disorders are available. In citrus and
selected tropical fruit crops, the TFRUIT. Xpert and CIT.Xpert computer based
diagnostic programmes can quickly assist commercial producers, extension
agents and home owners in the diagnosis of diseases, insect-pest problems and
physiological disorders. The systems’ methodology reproduces the diagnostic
reasoning process of the experts. The diagnostic programme operates under
Microsoft-Windows. Users can also refer to summary documents and retrieve
management information from the University of Florida’s Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences extension publications through hypertext links. The
programmes are available separately on CD-ROM and each contains over 150
digital colour images of symptoms.
18.11.1 Simulation models
These models can give some theoretical explanations of the effect of damages
or competitive organism’s viz., insect pests on crops. In general, computer
models depend on a few known variables that influence plant growth,
development and production. Plants respond, in reality, to damage or changes
occur in the environment in a very complex manner. Therefore, such
complexity cannot be incorporated into the models to simulate an actual
situation. However, good simulations or computer models can improve the
theoretical understanding of the major effects of injuries or damages of pests on
plants and their yield.
18.11.2 Imaging Technologies
Improvements in existing technologies and development the new technologies
the ways to view the object is changing. With the proliferation of mobile
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computing hardware and personal communications devices, for example, the
possible development of portable imaging systems is becoming more realistic.
These changes are not just taking place in the computing arena. Small, portable
microscopes are now available that support digital photomicrography and are
still capable of providing the same levels of magnification as their bench-top
counterparts. When photographs or image recordings from a tower, balloon,
plane, or satellite are available, they can give a useful indication of the area and
intensity of dead or wilting plants or leaves and differences in crop yield caused
by pest attack. Remote sensing techniques such as radar can automatically
monitor the height, horizontal speed, direction, orientation, body mass and the
shape of arthropods intercepting the radar beam. It can provide information of
aerial migration of pests and natural enemies. It can be particularly useful for
monitoring locust swarms. Radar entomology was first used in 1968 and since
then comprehensive and intensive studies have been conducted in the UK,
USA, Australia and China and it was predicted that fully automatic, season long
and real time monitoring will be feasible with the vertical-looking radar (Zhai,
1999). Remote sensing technique relies on changes in the absorbance or
reflectance of plants in response to pest attack. An instrument sensitive to
specific wave lengths of radiation is used to detect such changes. Remote
sensing in conjunction with ‘3S’ technique can help in achieving three-
dimensional real time visualization of insect pest populations (Wang et al. ,
2003). Imagery provided by remote sensing satellites could be utilized in
identifying pest affected areas and intensity of pest damage. This could be
particularly useful for pests which produce visible symptoms of crop damage
over large area for example hopper burn symptoms in paddy, blacking of cotton
leaves caused by sooty moulds growing on honey dew secreted by aphid and
whitefly, etc. Similarly, satellite data have also been used to identify areas of
vegetation capable of supporting desert locusts. Further, such data can also find
application in studying the effect of environmental changes on build-up, long
distance migration and flight behaviour of air-borne pests.
18.11.3 Acoustic and other tools
Sensors which can detect the sounds of hidden insects like wood borers,
termites, stored grains pests etc. are finding applications in the advanced
countries. Similarly, portable X-Ray machines are being employed for detection
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of insects attacking forest trees.
18.11.4 Electronic nose
Electronic devices programmed for detecting particular odour or smell is being
evaluated in Oregan state of USA. One of these devices, Cyranose 3201, a
portable electronic nose, has shown good promise in determining stink bug
damage by external properties. The volatile compounds given off by sink bugs
were identified and E-nose was trained to identify stink bugs’ (presence) smell
prints. There was a strong correlation (R2 = 0.95) between the number of stink
bugs in a sample and the Cyranose sensor’s response (Henderson et al., 2006).
18.12 Summary
Seed treatment is a simplest and quicker method to manage pest and diseases of
crops. Similarly, deep ploughing, soil sterilization, flooding etc. are also useful
plant protection techniques for management of insect pests of crops without
hampering the environment and compatible with other control techniques of
IPM. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is useful technique for the
investigation of surface structures of specimen whereas Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM) techniques is useful for studies of cellular structures of the
specimen at very high magnifications. Expert systems are computer
programmes designed to mimic the thought and reasoning processes of human
expert. SDS PAGE allows assessment of purity of the preparation, estimation of
approximate quantity of the protein, and measurement of the size of the protein.
PAGE is also used for studies of biodiversity analysis of insects, pest resistance
studies, sex determination by differentiating protein component etc.
18.13 Glossary
 Treated seed: The term “treated” means “to give an application of a
pesticide or subject seed to a process designed to reduce, control or repel
disease organisms, insects, or other pests which attack the seed or
seedlings.”
 Monochromatic radiation: Electromagnetic radiation having all the
waves of single wave length i.e. one coloured is known as
‘monochromatic radiation’.
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 Electron Microscopy (EM): EM can be defined as a specialized field
of science that employs the electron microscope as a tool and uses a
beam of electrons to form an image of a specimen.
 Plant quarantine: It is a legal restriction of movement of plant
materials between countries and between states within the country to
prevent or to check introduction and spread of pests and diseases in
areas where they do not exist.

Section –A (Very Short Answer Type)
1. ____________________makes soil completely clean and free from harmful
soil microorganism, insect pests and weeds.
2. Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and
between states within the country to prevent or check introduction and
spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist is known as
__________________.
3. Electron Microscope is operated in the vacuum and focuses the electron
beam and magnifies images with the help
of__________________________.
4. The first functional transmission electron microscope was developed in the
early 1930s by __________________________.
5. ____________________have the ability to specifically measure absorbance
at specific wavelengths.
6. PAGE stands for _____________________________.
7. Radar entomology was first used in year _______________.
Section –B (Short Answer Type)
1. Define seed treatment?
2. How flooding is useful in rice crop?
3. What are difference between TEM and SEM?
4. Explain Imaging Technologies?
5. Name the different content of running gel buffer?
6. What is the principle of PAGE?
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7. What is electronic nose?
Section –C (Long Answer Type)
1. What are different techniques for insect pest management?
2. What is importance of seed treatment?
3. How cultural practices are useful for pest management?
4. How we use of computer application for pest prediction and forecasting?
5. How we use tissue culture techniques in plant protection?
1. Soil sterilization
2. Plant quarantine
3. Electromagnetic lenses
4. Ruska
5. Spectrophotometers
6. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
7. 1968
18.15 References
 Rabindra, R. J.; Kennedy, J. S.; Rajasekaran, B.; Natarajan, N. and
Gunasekaran, K. (2001).Techniques in Entomological Research, TNAU,
Coimbatoor.
 Baruch Rubin, Oded Cohen and Abraham Gamliel (2007). Soil
solarization-an environmentally-friendly alternative, Hungary.
 M. Sabesh (2007) Computer applications in agricultural research.
Central Institute for Cotton Research, Coimbatore.
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Unit - 19
Innovative approaches in pest control
19.1 Objective
19.2 Introduction
19.3 Behavioral control
19.3.1 Definition
19.3.2 Types of behavior
19.3.4 Advantages
19.3.5 Disadvantages
19.4 Pheromones
19.4.1 Definition
19.4.2 Properties
19.4.3 Types of pheromones
19.4.4 Insect control
19.4.5 Advantages
19.5 Hormonal control
19.5.1 Definition
19.5.2 Types of insect hormones and their associated glands
19.5.3 Insect growth regulators (IGRs)/ hormone mimics
19.5.5 Advantages
19.6 Insect repellants
19.6.1 Definition
19.6.2 Properties
19.6.3 Types of repellants
19.6.4 The common insect repellants
19.6.5 Groups of repellants
19.6.6. Effectiveness of repellants
19.6.7 Advantages
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19.7 Insect attractants
19.7.1 Definition
19.7.2 Properties
19.7.3 Types of attractants
19.7.4 Some common attractants used towards insect
19.7.5 Advantages
19.8 Chaemosterilants
19.8.1 Definition
19.8.2 Objective
19.8.3 Mode of application
19.8.4 Advantages
19.9 Antifeedants
19.9.1 Definition
19.9.3 Sources and chemistry
19.9.4 Classification
19.9.5 Some antifeedants against insects
19.9.6 Advantages
19.10 Genetic control
19.10.1 Definition
19.10.3 Advantages
19.11 Plant proteinase inhibitors
19.12 Summary
19.13 Glossary
19.15 References
19.1 Objective
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What are the innovative approaches to control pest population?
Different types of methods used recently.
All the methods are safer, biodegradable and eco-friendly.
Advantages over pesticides.
What are the problems regarding these techniques?
19.2 Introduction
There are many ways to control insect pest in Insect Pest Management like
chemical control, mechanical control, physical control, cultural control,
biological control and microbial control. With all these control methods stated
above we are not in a condition to manage pest population below economic
injury level. So, there is a need to grow more innovative approaches and
techniques to fight against. Here in this unit several new methods are discussed
which are now a day’s included in Integrated Pest Management due to their
species specificity, non hazardous techniques, non resistance properties and
safe to human beings. Innovative approaches now formed foundation of modern
insect control strategies.
19.3 Behavioral Control
19.3.1 Ethology is the study of animal behavior and how the animal reacts to
specific stimulus.
Definition: Behavioral control is a method in which some chemicals are used
to modify or stimulate the behavior of a pest and control them without harming
or killing them.
19.3.2 Types of Behavior
Behaviors are of two type instinct and learned. Some common behavior seen in
insects includes irritability (response to any stimulus), predatory, eusociality,
mimicry, swarming, communicating behavior, parental care etc.
1. Mimicry
Mimicry is the close resemblance between one insect (the mimic) and another
insect or a plant part (the model).
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 Batesian mimicry (Bates, 1862): It is the palatable or harmless but is
protected by virtue of its similarity to an unpalatable model, example
Viceroy Butterfly (Limenitis archippus) which is a batesian mimic of
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus).
 Mullerian mimicry (Müller, 1879): Mullerian mimicry differs from Batesian
in that both mimic and model are un palatable.
 Wasmannian mimicry/Parasitic mimicry (Rettenmeyer, 1970): These insects
live in close association with ants and closely resemble their host, example
different types of ants that live together and are similar, and parasite
resemble its host.
2. Crypsis
Crypsis refers to different form (Homotypism), color (Homochromism) and
shape (Homomorphism) that make them resemble environment and not
identified by predator. Example, industrial melanism (Kettlewell, 1959; Bishop
and Cook, 1975) observed in the peppered moth, Biston betularia in England.
3. Aposematic / Warning Coloration
Blister beetles (Family: Meloidae) contains cantharidin in integuments that is a
mucous member irritant which causes blisters. Bombardier beetle, Brachinus
spp. secretes defensive secretion as explosive emission. The internal defensive
reservoir contains hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide. These chemicals when
come in contact with cuticular chamber in presence of enzymes convert into
quinine and oxygen which is visible as a cloud outside.
4. Epimeletic Behavior
Epimeletic behavioris is a behavior when an individual cares or helps another
individual. Example bees, wasps.
Several species show a more advanced behavior of providing food resources as
well as a guarding behavior. In the family Membracidae, females use
aggressive guarding as well as an alarm pheromone that is emitted from an
injured nymph. This communication from offspring to parent is another type of
presocial behavior.
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5. Social Behavior
Eusociality is a term used for social organization in social insects. The lowest
level of social organization, presociality is classified using many related terms,
including presocial, parasocial, subsocial, semisocial and quasisocial. Social
insects, such as termites, ants, bees and wasps are the most common species of
eusocial animal. They live together in large well organized colonies and
genetically similar.
6. Swarm Behavior
In honey bee when a colony becomes overcrowded it is necessary to make more
cells, therefore old queen with some workers move another place to make a
new hive.
7. Orientation Behavior
Following are the common taxes:
 Geotaxis: Directed movement in respect to gravity, ants are positively
geotaxic
 Anemotaxis: Movement in respect to wind direction or insects orienting to
pheromones.
 Phototaxis: Many diurnal insects are positively phototactic
 Astrotaxis: Orienting towards sun or moon.
 Chemotaxis: Orientation towards taste or odor.
 Phonotaxis: Orientation in respect to sound.
8. Learning Behavior
Insect learns due to a region located in protocerebrum and in the mushroom
bodies. In cockroach it is found in thoracic ganglia in cockroach and called
ganglionic learning. Example, honeybees learn colors and various shapes,
orientation flights, capture techniques.
9. Communication Behavior
The study of communications, between insects of same species for example,
sounds of insects, language of honey bees, trails of ants, stinging behavior of
bees. All these acts are called communication signals and are stereotyped. Most
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of the insects release an olfactory pheromone that are species specific and are
received by olfactory organs.
No animal can live alone in planet as it requires specific responses, stimulus to
act in a specific manner and behavior. Insects are also dependent upon each
other for food, mating, reproduction and survival. It plays an important
mechanism in an area wide control systems. Use of pheromones to confuse
male and in trapping them is also a field of interest now a days. For example,
Pectinophora gossypiella, Cydia pomonella, and Eupocellis ambiquella are
controlled by this innovative approach. Along with pheromones, attractants,
antifeedants, repellants are also used to alter or modify insect plant interactions.
Some insect’s shows color preferences, volatile chemicals, auditory stimulus,
olfactory stimulus and visual orientations. These behaviors are being
successfully used to control insect pest population. Mostly females act only as
signalers and the males as receivers. The chemical substance secreted by the
female acts as olfactory stimuli for the male.
Automeris moth (peacock butterfly) beautifully shows its behavior called flash
pattern in offense and defense. Its forewings have no eyespots but on hindwing
large eyes like structure are present. When the moth is disturbed it readily
expose its hindwing to protect itself (FIG 19.1).
FIG19.1 : Automeris moth in resting position with and after being

disturbed.
Aggregation pheromones are the chemicals which stimulates group of
individuals to move together at the same place for food, defense in mass attack
and overcoming host resistance. It can comprise one sex or both sexes on the
basis of insect type. The stored grain pest weevils, Sitophilus zeamais (L.),
Sitophilus granaries (L.) and Sitophilus oryzae (L.) infest a variety of food like
corn, wheat, rice, sorghum etc. and releases aggregation pheromones to signal
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other individuals. So by mixing aggregation pheromones with bait weevils can
be easily trapped. Likewise bean weevil, Sitonia lineatus (L.) secrete
aggregation pheromone 4-methyl-3,5-heptanoid which has been utilized in
mass trapping of weevils.
19.3.4 Advantages
1. Low dose is sufficient to trap the insect.
2. Species specific, ecofriendly.
3. New approach to control insect
4. Time saving technique.
5. It is commercially available
1. The insect must respond effectively.
2. The behavior modifying agent must be fully identified.
3. It is expensive to made and need sophisticated understanding.
4. Must protect parasites and predators.
19.4 Pheromones
19.4.1 Definition
The term pheromone was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher
(1959) and is based on the Greek word pherein (to transport or to carry) and
hormon (to stimulate or to excite) is a chemical that triggers a natural
behavioral response in another member of the same species. In other words
Pheromones or ectohormones we can say that chemicals secreted into external
environment by an insect or animal which elicit specific reaction in a receiving
individual of the same species.
Their behavior among insects has been particularly well known, although many
animals, chordates and plants also communicate using pheromones.
Pheromones define a way that enables an insect to communicate with other
members of its own species. Knipling and Viroza were first to identify,
extracted, synthesized artificial pheromones. Among the insect orders it is
observed in orthoptera, heteroptera, diptera, isoptera, neuroptera, siphonoptera,
coleoptera, hymenoptera and Lepidoptera (FIG 19.2). Knipling observed in
Periplaneta americana (cockroach), Pectinophora gossypiella (cotton pink boll
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worm), Carpocaspa domorella (codling moth), cucumber beetle, tobacco
hornworm, cabbage hoppers etc.
19.4.2 Properties
1. They are called ectohormones as they are secreted by exocrine glands.
2. It may be volatile or non volatile.
3. They are species specific and also sex specific.
4. It can be artificially synthesized.
19.4.3 Types of Pheromones
There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and
many others that affect behavior or physiology.
a) Based on sense organ influenced it can be
i. Olfactory acting pheromones
ii. Orally acting pheromones
b) According to the response it can be categorized into
i. Releaser substances: Those chemicals that produces an
immediate change in the behavior of the recipient.
ii. Primer substances: Those chemicals which trigger off a chain of
physiological changes in recipient without any immediate change
in behavior.
c) On the basis of biological functions:
i. Sex Pheromones (Aphrodisiaces)
In insects sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for mating.
Male insects may also secrete pheromones that convey signals or message to
their partners. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate and
many Lepidopterans can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10 km (6.2
miles). Pheromones can be used in gametes to trail the opposite sex’s gametes
for fertilization. Male and female communicate to locate each other. Sex
attractants pheromones used to locate mate from a distance (eg. Bombyx mori
secretes bombykol, musculure from Musca domestica) followed by courtship
pheromones used before mating (male cockroach secretes seducin). It is
retricted to one sex only mostly females but in Lepidopterans and Mecopterans
males are the releasers. Butterfly Danus gilippus have several abdominal hairs
that acts as pencils which produces pheromones ,dusted on antenna of male
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while both are flying. Female then folds her wings and allows copulation. This
pheromone is named as danaidone which is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid.
ii. Trail Pheromones
These pheromones are common in social insects. For example, ants mark their
paths with these pheromones to communicate their members for food finding
which are basically non volatile hydrocarbons. Dolichoderine ants synthesize
pheromones in their pavan’s gland, Solenopsis fireants in dufour’s gland and
Myrmicinae ants in poison glands. In termites trail pheromone is secreted by
sternal gland located on 5th abdominal segment. Example Zootermopsis
secretes caproic acid.
Some of the ants secretes initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest
with good quality of food. This trail attracts other members of ants and serves
as a path to reach the goal. If the food source remains sufficient, the pheromone
trail will be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the
supply of food declines, the trail making ceases.
In case of scout bees of Melipona species produces a series of droplets by
mandibular secretion at specific intervals on pathway on vegetation.
iii. Alarm/Alerting Pheromones
Some individual of species release a volatile substance if attacked by a predator
and trigger flight (in aphids) or aggression (in bees) in members of the same
species. This behavior is commonly seen in Hymenoptera and Isoptera and
appears to be chemical releasers for social behavior.
If the ant is disturbed, it releases a pheromone that can be detected by other
members from several centimeters away. As they get nearer to their disturbed
nest mate, their response changes to one of alarm. The higher concentration
causes them to run about as they work to remedy the disturbance. It is provoked
by the presence of predators as in Pogonomyrmex badius these pheromones
behave as attractants in low concentration and as alarm pheromone in high
concentration. Once the emergency is over, the ants return quietly to their
previous work.
Honeybees also have an alarm pheromone eg. Melipona stingless bees and
Trigona bees secrete citral pheromone and formicine ants secrete undecane.
The workers of Coromyrma pyramica produces alarm pheromone 2-heptanone.
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Honey bees’ leaves traces of isoamyl acetate at sting region to induce other
bees to sting on it.
iv. Queen Mandibular Pheromone
Honeybee queens show their presence to worker bees by secreting pheromone
9-hydroxy-decinoic acid or 9-oxodecenoic acid from her mandibular glands.
The pheromone is a mixture of alcohols and organic acids. The pheromone is
essential for
 inducing the workers to feed and groom her;
 maintains colony by realizing the presence of queen;
 prevent the workers from building large queen cells and rearing new
queens;
 Suppresses ovary development in the workers.
v. Aggregation Pheromones
The chemicals are secreted by conspecific insects of both sexes to secure
themselves from predators, maximum utilization of food source, and attraction
of social insects and to mate. They are produced by one or the other sex; these
pheromones attract individuals of both sexes. Examples bark beetles and
Ambrosia beetle (Scotylinae).
vi. Territorial Pheromones (Area Making Pheromone)
These pheromones are laid down in the environment and mark the boundaries
of an organism’s territory. In dogs, these hormones are present in the urine,
which they deposit on landmarks serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed
territory. Example male bumble bee secretes 2, 3-dihydro-6-trans farnesol by its
mandibular gland to mark their territory sites.
vii. Epideictic Pheromones

These pheromones are not so common in insects but they are not confused with
territory pheromones. According to Fabre, those females who lay their eggs in
these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to
signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere.
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viii. Spacing pheromones
These are produced by some immature and adults that may be tactile or
olfactory, may release to oviposition. Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggot fly)
females produces these chemicals to deter oviposition by other females.
Oecophylla longinoda (African weaver ant) secretes for even dispersal of
colonies. Pieris brassica larva secretes to inhibit egg laying of adult females in
same place.
ix. Caste regulating pheromone
Several caste differentiations is regulated by corpora allata/ Juvenile hormone
that acts as pheromones in termites.
d) On the basis of advantages or disadvantages
i. Semiochemicals: The word is derived from a Greek word simeon =
signal given by Law and Regnier (1971). These are chemicals
communicating between individuals of the same species, example
pheromones.
ii. Allelochemicals: The word is given by Whittaker (1970). These
are chemicals communicating between individuals of the different
species.
 Allomones (+, 0): A compound released by one organism which evokes a
reaction in an individual of a different species that is favorable to the emitter
and not to the receiver, example chemicals produced by a plant to prove
itself distasteful, repellants, antifeedants, toxicants comes under this
category.
 Kairomones (0, +): A compound released by one organism which evokes a
response beneficial to a member of another species but not to the emitter,
example Ponderosa pine tree produces myrecene when damaged by
Western pine beetle which acts as a synergist with aggregation pheromone
to attracts more beetles. Also Dead elm tree weakened by fungus
Ceratocystis ulmi produces α-cubebene and attracts elm bark beetle
(Scolytus spp.). Attractants, arrestants, excitants and stimulants comes under
this division.
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 Synomones (+, +): A substance released by organisms which benefits both,
the sender and receiver, example, -pinene and myrecene produced by
damaged pine for beetle to attract parasitoid pteromalid hymneopteran.
Alpha-cubebene produced by Dutch elm fungus is synomone for braconid
hymenopteran parasitoid of elm bark beetle.
 Antimones (-, -): A substance produced by an organism when it contacts an
individual of another species in the natural context evokes in the receiver a
behavioural or physiological reaction that is maladaptive to both the emitter
and the receiver. Example, trichome of some wild Nicotiana species
contains nicotine, nicotine alkaloid known to be toxic to a variety of insects
including parasitoids of tobacco herbivores.
 Apneumones: A chemical released by nonliving substance that is beneficial
to the receiver but detrimental to other organism in the substance.
19.4.4 Insect control
1. Pheromones can be used in Insect Control Programmes for survey work,
to study behavior, distribution, abundance of pest.
2. Sexual behavior may be stimulated or completely inhibited.
3. Pheromones traps are made to catch insect and are useful in population
peaks or egg hatching times applied in codling moth, pink bollworm,
black cutworm.
4. Pheromones may bring insects at a place where they may be killed by
odorless insecticides mostly applied on field crops, forest crops.
5. Main reproductive forms can be attracted with synthetic pheromones
and population bring below injury level. Example, sex pheromone of
pink bollworm named gossyplure (10-propyl-trans-5,9,tridecadinel
acetate) used to control its population.
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FIG 19.2: Pheromonal control

19.4.5 Advantages:
1. There is no residual effect.
2. Do not affect non target species.
3. No health hazards and no development of resistance.
4. It is highly specific.
5. They are effective in low concentration.
19.4.6 Disadvantages:
1. In some cases like alarm pheromones are required in large amount.
2. Effective in short distances.
3. They are short lived and disappear with time.
4. Sometimes several correlated species shows cross specificity.
19.5 Hormonal control
19.5.1 Definition
The word hormone was given by C. M. Williams and it is also called third
generation pesticide/ Insect Growth Regulators (IGR). These are the chemicals
which are secreted by endocrine glands and its function is to regulate internal
environment of body.
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19.5.2 Types of insect hormones and their associated glands
1. Brain Hormone and Neurosecretory cells
Neurosecretory cells of the brain and ganglions (pars intercerebralis of
protocerebum) secrete hormone called brain hormone peptide in nature and are
stored in neuro-haemal organs and bind to the protein molecules (carrier)
named neurophysin. Neuro-haemal organs on stimulation releases
neurohormone which diffuses into the blood, and activate other endocrine
gland. Brain hormones directly or indirectly control all the life processes of
insect. Brain hormone stimulates feeding in blood sucking bug Rhodnius and
stretch receptor in pharyngeal wall in grasshopper and locust.
2. Prothoracicotropic Hormone (PTTH)/ Ecdysone and Ecdysial gland/
Prothoracic gland
Moulting a process when the cuticle is shed and larva converts into next larval
satge and pupation a process when last larval stage pepare itself for next stage
pupa. Both the moulting and pupation require the hormone, PTTH, secreted by
a two prothoracic glands. These two prothoracic glands/ecdysial gland are
ectodermal in origin and are located in the ventrolateral areas of prothorax. It is
also associated with lateral longitudinal tracheal trunks and absent in
apterygotes (wingless insects). Under the influence of PTTH, they secrete the
steroid hormone ecdysone also known as moulting hormone. Moulting
hormones are of two types : α-ecdysone and β-ecdysone (FIG 19.4). PTTH
trigger every moult, larva to larva as well as pupa to adult. It maintains the
changes during metamorphosis.
If these glands are cut out in a full grown larva, pupation does not takes place.
And if transplanted somewhere else in the larval body, pupation occurs
normally. PTTH is a homo-dimer of two polypeptides of 109 amino acids
originated from protocerebrum targeted to ecdysial gland for ecdysone
production. PTTH does not drive pupation directly but, as its name suggests,
acts on the prothoracic glands. Ecdysone secreted by ecdysial gland target to
epidermis for shedding the cuticle (FIG 19.3).
Insects have rigid exoskeleton and can grow only by periodically shedding their
exoskeleton called moulting. Moulting occurs repeatedly during larval
development. At the final moult, the adult emerges or in some insects via pupa
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adults emerges. In several insect orders, the adult looks entirely different from
the larval and pupal stages.
FIG. 19.3 : Moulting hormone in insect.

This marked conversion of larva and larva to pupa is called metamorphosis.
FIG 19.4: Molecular structure of ecdysone

3. Juvenile Hormone (JH)/ Neotenin and corpora allata
Juvenile hormone (FIG 19.5) is secreted by two small glandular bodies named
corpora allata present on either side of corpora cardiac on sides of the
esophagus. They are non sterolic compound generally terpenoid. These are
mostly paired but they are single in Dermeptera and Heteroptera order.
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FIG 19.5 : Molecular structure of juvenile hormone.

JH target fat body, accessory reproductive glands and follicle cells. Its function
to control metamorphosis that it maintains larval stages. It is responsible for
yolk deposition of in eggs, egg maturation, vitellogenin production and tanning
of cuticle. They are also involved in green brown polymorphism in locust. And
sometimes it is noted that mating behavior in social insects are due to neotenin.
As long as there is much amount of JH, ecdysone promotes larva to larva molts.
As the amounts lowers, ecdysone promotes pupation. Complete absence of JH
results in formation of the adult. Therefore, if the corpora allata are removed
from an immature silkworm, it immediately spins a cocoon and becomes a
small pupa. A miniature adult eventually emerges. On the contrary, if the
corpora allata of a young silkworm are place in the body of a fully mature larva,
metamorphosis does not occur. The next molt produces an extra large
caterpillar.
4. Corpora cardiaca gland
It acts as a neurohaemal organ lying behind the brain on dorsal part of foregut
associated with cephalic aorta. It is absent in Collembola. It regulates the heart
beat, oxygen consumption and affects respiratory metabolism. In male
cockroach copulation movement depends upon this gland and its secretion.
5. Weismann’s Ring/ Ring gland
Endocrine glands like corpus cardiacum, corpora allata, prothoracic gland and
hypocerebral galglion form a ring like structure in maggot stages of house fly,
flesh fly, blow fly.
6. Other hormones
 Bursicon/ tanning hormone: secreted by brain of moths target to
abdominal ganglion and regulate synchronization of eclosion with
photoperiod.
 Diuretic hormone: secreted by thoracic glands target to malphigian
tubules and regulates diuresis.
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 Mating inhibition hormone: originated from accessory reproductive
gland of males target to brain and prevents remating.
 Oviposition inhibiting hormone: originated from accessory reproductive
gland of females target to oviduct and initiate oviposition.
 Cardioaccelerator hormone: secreted by brain or corpora cardiaca target
to myocardium and regulate muscle contraction.
 Proctolin: secreted by corpora cardiaca target to hindgut, heart, oviduct
and regulate muscle contraction, defecation, oviposition and heart beat.
 Eclosion hormone: originated from median neurosecretory cells
(MNSC) in several moths causes ecdysis/ eclosion of pupa to adult.
19.5.3 Insect Growth Regulators (Igrs)/ Hormone Mimics
Definition: Insect Growth Regulators (IGR) are the chemicals which can be
synthesized and mimics to natural hormones. These are also known as third
generation pesticides. They can interrupt the life cycle of insect by our own
will.
First of all Wigglesworth performed experiment to control insect growth by
using hormones. Williams (1956) suggested that juvenile hormones could be
accurately identified, then synthesized and used as insecticides. His prospects
have been achieved since several commercial compounds called insect growth
regulators or IGRs, have been used in insect pest control for more than 25
years. Slama and William discover “paper factor” named juvabion extracted
from North American trees such as balsam fir, Abies balsamea. This plant is
usually used to prepare paper therefore named paper factor. Now it is also being
used to control insect as its components mimic’s juvenile hormones. These
insecticides of the third generation appeared after the first generation pesticides
including arsenates like inorganic compounds and the second generation
pesticides of organic synthetic compounds such as DDT.
19.5.4 Mode of Action
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are one of the fastest growing chemical
groups of insecticides in the past few years. They are considered a reduced risk
pesticide because they are soft on beneficial insects and primarily are target
specific for juvenile stages. This product does not affect insect nervous system
like other insecticides, therefore more eco-friendly and have minimal exposure
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to dermal inhalation. They can be foliar, mixed with soil and used alone or in
combination with adulticide. The mode of action of IGRs is quite simple as
they are not stomach poisons and only disturb moulting process in larva. If the
insect do not reach its adulthood it is incapable to reproduce. This can control
the infestation made by adult insects. The IGRs may be hormonal, enzymatic
and chitin synthesis inhibitor. It inhibits metamorphosis by blocking the
maturation of imaginal disc which is a primordial of many integumentary
structures in holometabolous insects. Imaginal disc occurs in larva as tiny sacs
of epithelial cells that directly come from embryo. Example In Lepidoptera
imaginal wing disc present in larva gives pupal and adult wings. As the
concentration of JH reduces rapid morphogenesis of imaginal disc occurs and
wings develop. JHA prevents this morphogenesis and cuticle synthesis of disc.
For an insect to develop and moult into next stage, the correct ratio of juvenile
hormone and ecdysone is required is important. If the dose of 0.001 mg of JHA
is applied to last instar larva it inhibits to metamorphose into adult in
Pyrrhocoris apterous. One gram of crude extract of balsam fir tree is sufficient
to kill 100 million bugs, 0.1 mg of JHA act as ovicide and sterilize the adult
female.
Ecdysone is a moulting hormone that is necessary for insects to develop from
the larval to pupal stage. It affects the insect at all stages from newly hatched to
adult. Beta ecdysone in 25 gm dose converts pupa into pupa stage and adult is
not formed. It can be applied as solvent as it penetrate the skin and as fumigant.
Phytoecdysone, Bracken fern, Cyastrone, Piperonyl butaoxide (PBO) are
ecdysone analogue that causes diapause in many insects. The dose of 0.2
microgram of cyastrone causes diapause in Cynthia (moth) pupa and 10
microgram leads to death of pupa. These ecdysone activity substances are
found in many vascular plants account for 1% dry weight of certain plant tissue
IGRs Mechanis Positive Negative common Insect

m name/trade control
name
JH interferes Decreases correct Methoprene/al Flies,
mimics/ moulting no. of timing is tosid, mosquito,be
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analogu process, generations essential Kinoprene/ etle, moth,
es deformed so to affect enstar, bugs
wings and compatible juvenile Hydroprene/
reproductiv with insects, Gencor, Aphids,
e parts,. beneficials. unstabile Juvabione,
whiteflies,
produce in UV Juvadecene
infertile light cockroach
eggs
JH Precocious Shortens Effective Precocene -I Milkweed
antagon metamorph the life only and precocene- bug
ist/ osis of cycle when II, compactin
inhibito immature endogen
r stages, ous JH
female of insect
sterilizatio is low
n,
Ecdyso Hormonal Several sps. - Cyasterone, Cynthia
ne imbalance, Of PBO, moth,
mimics/ results in pteridophyt Phytoecdysone Plodia
analogu moulting es, (Berken fern), interpunctel
es promotion gymnosper ecdysterone la
and death mae,
angiosperm
ae posssess
ecdysone
mimics
Ecdyso Blocks More broad May Azatin- thrips,
ne ecdysone spectrum require azadirachtin aphids,
inhibito which than the Ornazin- scales,
r signals the JHM,affect addition azadirachtin whitefly,
insect to both larvae of Ajugarin plant, fungus
molt. This and pupae, horticult plumbagin
gnats, shore
causes also deters ural oil
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pupae to feeding in to be flies,
die some most mealybugs,
insects. efficient
Chitin Inhibit Most stable Can Diflubenzuron thrips,

synthesi chitin compound negativel / gypsy moth
s synthesis, y affect Dimilin, whitefly,
inhibito larva die predaceo boll weaver,
Citation-
r due to us cotton
cyromazine
malformati insects strainer,
on of as well caterpillars,
cuticle as
leafminers
arthropo
ds and gnats
some Citation-
fish. leafminers
.
 Precocene- It is the newly discovered compound and also called IV
generation insecticide. Precocene I and Precocene II are 7-methoxy,2,2-
dimethyl chromene and 6,7-dimethoxy,2,2-dimethyl chromene.
 Brain hormone mimics- proctolin against cockroach, isolated by Starratt
and Brown.
 Novel non steroidal IGR is RH 5849 rich in ecdysone mimics in
Lepidoptera.
 Sclerotization disruptors- DDC against blowfly, cyromazine against
housefly, Leucilia.
 Sterol utilization inhibitors- β-sitosterol, azasterols.
19.5.5 Advantages
1. It is specific, non polluting and has no residual effect.
2. It can be used as fumigants as well as solvents as it can penetrate into
cuticle.
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3. It acts directly on target cell and widespread as found in plant sources.
4. It does not require mediation of any specialized organ.
5. Has a significant role in embryonic development of the insect.
6. Can terminate diapauses when host is not available.
7. It can brought development in wrong season thus committing ecological
suicide.
1. It is time consuming.
2. The proper life cycle and time of application must be known well.
19.6 Insect repellants
19.6.1 Definition
An insect repellent are probably the substance or chemicals that can be applied
to skin, clothing, or other any other surfaces which discourages the insects from
landing or climbing on that surface. In short the chemical substances that repel
away the insects.
19.6.2 Properties
1. The repellent exhibits the nature of negative chemotropism.
2. They must be volatile in nature.
3. It depends upon where it is applied and if applied to skin whether it is
diluted or not by perspiration, to be oxidized, hydrolyzed or removal by
abrasion. Thus the skin is protected from the insects for few hours.
4. It depends on whether the clothing may retain these repellants for few
hours, days or weeks.
5. Mostly these are used against blood sucking insects, crawling insects,
egg laying insects.
6. They must not be confused with anti-feedants as it causes directed
movements away from the source.
7. It works by stimulating chemo-receptors, olfactory receptors or
gustatory receptors.
19.6.3 Types of repellants
1. Physical repellants: It can be simply by water barriers, oil bands around
tree trunks.
2. Chemical repellants: That is being chemically synthesized.
3. Natural repellants: there are some plants that repel insects naturally.
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4. Synthetic repellants: Those which can be made of chemicals, botanicals,
or mixture of products.
There are also insect repellent products which are based on sound production,
particularly the ultrasounds that means that high frequency sounds which is
inaudible to insects. These electronic devices have been shown to have no
effect as a mosquito repellent by studies done by many researchers and
scientists. Insect repellants help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-
borne diseases such as malaria, chikunguinya, Lyme disease, Dengue fever,
yellow fever, bubonic plague, kala azar, West Nile fever etc. Pest animals
commonly serving as vectors for disease include the insect’s flea, fly, mosquito,
arachnid tick, mites, louse and many more.
19.6.4 The common insect repellants include:

1. DEET (N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide). It is most widely used and considered to
be the best repellent having LD50 2000mg/kg of rat. It is a most effective
repellants against mosquitoes, ticks and other biting insects. It is used by
USDA and US military soldiers.
2. Essential oil of citronella (extracted from Andropogon sps.), the lemon
leaves, eucalyptus (Corymbia citriodora), peppermint, lavender, cedar wood
oil etc are commercially used to prepare repellants.
Insect Repellants from Natural Sources: There are many botanicals from
which naturally occurring sources are extracted that act as a repellent to
certain insects. Some of these act as insecticides while others are only
repellent.
 Achillea alpina , Carvacrol , alpha-terpinene of some plants, Castor oil
(Ricinus communis), Catnip oil (Nepeta species), Celery extract (Apium
graveolens)- an extract of celery was demonstrated to be at least equally
effective to 25% DEET, Clove oil, Fennel oil (Foeniculum vulgare),
Peppermint (Menthax piperita), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) are used
against mosquitoes.
 Camphor, Cedar oil against mosquitoes, moths.
 Eucalyptus oil /cineol against mosquitoes, flies, dust mites.
 Garlic (Allium sativum) against rice weevil, wheat flour beetle or other
stored grain insects.
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 Geranium oil (Pelargonium graveolens), Lavender, Lemongrass oil
(Cymbopogon species), Marigolds (Tagetes species) against many insects.
 Marjoram against spider mites Tetranychus urticae and Eutetranychus
orientalis.
 Neem oil (Azadirachta indica) which has many properties is also a natural
repellent.
 Oleic acid repels bees and ants by simulating the "Smell of death" produced
by their decomposing corpses. It is a 400 million years old natural
mechanism helping to sanitize the hives or to escape predators.
 Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) against fleas but it is very much toxic to
pets.
 Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum species, particularly C. cinerariifolium and C.
coccineum) which actually causes the knock down effect in mosquitoes.
 Spanish Flag Lantana camara against Tea Mosquito Bug, Helopeltis
theivora.
3. Bordeaux mixture: It is the first synthetic chemical repellent which is made

by the combination of 2.5 kg CuSO4,+2.5 kg hydrated lime+250 L water. It
is used against fleas, beetles and leaf hoppers. The sprayed plants become
distasteful, can be acts stomach poison for chewing insects.
4. MGK-326 is found to be best for repelling flies, gnats and is needed only in
small amount.
5. MGK-11 is repellent against cockroaches and house hold insects.
6. PDB/ paradichlorobenzene and napthalene against cloth moths.
7. Pentaflurophenol against termites.
8. Coal tar/ creosote/ 4,6- Dinitro-O- cresol it’s a derivative of napthalene and
carbolic acid repels cloth moth, bugs, flies, beetles, termites.
9. Tetramethylthiurea disulphide against foliage beetles.
10. Mixture of benzyl benzoate, butylacetanilide, 2-butyl-2-ethyl-1,3-
propanediol against mosquitoes, fleas, ticks, chiggers.
11. Butoxy polypropylene glycol is a suitable repellent for livestock protection.
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19.6.5 Groups of repellants:
1. For crawling insects: usually consist of repellent barrier between insect
and food. For example creosote against chinch bugs.
2. For feeding insects: it repel insect from feeding by blocking the
attractants to which pest species responds. Ex. -DEET
3. For egg laying insects: Like pine tar oil and diphenyl amine used to
repel screw worm flies to lay eggs.
19.6.6 Effectiveness of Repellent
Synthetic repellants are comparatively to be more effective, longer lasting than
botanicals as repellants. In comparative studies, IR3535 was as better as and
more efficient than DEET in protection against mosquitoes. Essential oils are
actually short-lived in their effectiveness as essential oils are volatile in nature.
All the commercially synthesized products gave almost 100% repellency for the
first 2 hours, whereas the natural repellent products were most effective for the
first 30-60 minutes, and required to apply again and again.
Permethrin is recommended for clothing, gear, or bed nets. On the contrary oil
of lemon eucalyptus is more effective than other plant-based treatments, with a
similar effectiveness to low concentrations of DEET. Neem oil is best mosquito
repellent for up to 12 hours since years ago.
Anyway several repellent products are used by people but, it is recommended
that the label is read before use and directions are carefully followed. Usage
instructions for repellants vary from country to country. Some insect repellants
are not recommended for use on younger children.
19.6.7 Advantages
1. It is safe to use.
2. It is non-toxic to man.
3. It is not unpleasant to use.
4. It can be used as spray by making synergist with pyrethrins.
5. Insects do not eat and die due to starvation.
6. It can be safely used on skin and most fabrics.
7. It is economic and not time consuming.
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1. Its efficiency depends on ability to deter greatest number of species from
feeding for longest period.
2. All kinds of insects cannot be repelled by the same chemical.
3. It does not kill the insect if it is required.
4. Insects able to return to their normal activities if repellent is lost as the
repellants are active only for a short period.
5. They are required in large amount like 20-40mg/cm2 of skin.
6. They are oily in nature and have disagreeable odor.
7. They may damage plastics and painted surface.
19.7 Insect attractants
19.7.1 Definition
These are the chemicals towards which the insect makes oriented movements.
Thuron Industry made poison bait containing a fly attractant Muscemone which
is the first insecticidal product that has attractant component.
19.7.2 Properties
1. The attractants influence the insect from a distance therefore these are
also volatile.
2. Insect attractants and traps are useful asset to monitor insect populations
to determine the need for control.
3. These substances are olfactory stimulus.
4. The nature of attractants can be chemical, pheromonal, sound waves,
visual or light waves.
5. The insect responds to attractants because of reasons like if there is a
need of searching the food, for oviposition, for mating and locating the
opposite sex.
6. It must be sticky material.
7. Mostly males are attracted towards the attractants.
8. All these attractants are mixed with food to make poison baits, trap baits
or specially designed traps.
In some instances, attractants and traps are the direct way to control insect
population by trapping the insect in mass population or mating disruption. It
can also improve the effectiveness of insecticide applications as we can find out
the population left after the controlling measure and sometimes it proves that
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the present controlling practice is of less use and reduce the use of broad-
spectrum, more toxic compounds.
Because these attractants are eco-friendly as they do not injure other animals or
humans or result in residues on foods or feeds, they can be used in
environmentally non disturbing agents in Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
programs. The effective use of attractants and traps requires knowledge of basic
biological principles and the pest- or crop-specific details involved in individual
applications. The substances possess attractants are sugar molasses, yeast
extracts, singlure (sec-butyl-6-methyl-3-cyclohexane-1-carboxylate), amyl
acetate, trimedlure (t-butyl-4-chloro-2-methyl cyclohexane carboxylate), ethyl
alcohol and Q-lure.
19.7.3 Types of Atttractants:
1. Chemical Attractants
Insects use many different semio-chemicals which are the chemicals that
convey messages between organisms. (The Greek word semeio = sign.)
Chemicals that act as attractants or carry other messages across distances are
quick to evaporate i.e volatile compounds. When chemical attractants get
released into the air, they can be detected by insects (those receptive to a
specific compound) a few inches to hundreds of yards away. Chemicals that
carry messages over considerable distances are most often used in pest
management.
Practical use of pheromones or feeding attractants for pest management usually
requires that specific active chemicals be isolated, identified, and produced
synthetically. The synthetic attractants usually copies of sex or aggregation
pheromones or feeding attractants are used in any of four ways previously
described as a lure in traps used to monitor pest populations; as a lure in traps
designed to trap out a pest population; as a broadcast signal intended to disrupt
insect mating; or as an attractant in a bait containing an insecticide.
2. Attractant Baited Traps
The most common use of attractants is in traps to monitor insect populations.
Although not all of the compounds used in this manner are pheromones, many
publications refer to all attractant baited traps as pheromone traps. In
monitoring or surveillance chemical attractants usually are impregnated/
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encased/ covered in a rubber or plastic lure that slowly releases the active
component(s) over a period of several days or weeks. Traps containing these
lures are constructed of paper, plastic, or other materials. Most traps use an
adhesive coated surface or a funnel-shaped entrance to capture the target insect
so that once captured don’t fly outside.
Attractant baited traps are used instead of other sampling methods because of
two major reasons. Firstly, these traps are very sensitive and may capture pest
that are present at very low density to detect. It is used as an important
technique if we have to detect foreign or exotic pests (an immigrant pest that’s
not previously known to inhabit a region, state or country) as soon as they enter
in an area so that control measures can be started immediately. Secondly, traps
baited with chemical attractants capture only targeted species or a narrow range
of species (FIG 19.6). Sensitivity and specificity make these attractant baited
traps more efficient and labor saving tools. It also detects first emergence or
peak flight activity of a pest species in a given area, often to time an insecticide
application or to signal the need for additional scouting.
A) B)
FIG 19.6: A)Pheromone traps and yellow sticky traps with high
effectiveness B) phermonal trap
The addition of attractants to many types of bait will attract large numbers of
specific insects. Baited pitfall traps are generally common collecting devices.
The bait is (FIG 19.7) placed at the bottom of the collecting device which is
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covered with a screen, or it is suspended into or over the trap. Dead animals,
rotting foods and dry cereals are considered to be as good baits for various
crawling insects. One type of pitfall trap is made from a cereal bowl filled with
70% ethanol and sunk into the ground. The bait is suspended in a small cup
over the trap, supported by a mesh wire coat. Once the insect get into the bowl
it is unable to escape.
FIG. 19.7: Bait trap.
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3. Visual attractants
Specific colors behave as attractive to some insects. For example, yellow
objects attract many insects and are often used in traps designed to capture
winged aphids and adult whiteflies. Red spheres and yellow cards attract apple
maggot flies. Like other attractants, colored objects can be used in traps for
monitoring or mass trapping. Yellow plastic tubs filled with water, for example,
are used to monitor the flights of aphids in crops where these insects are
important vectors of plant viruses. Aphids attracted to the yellow tub land on
the water and are unable to escape. Yellow color sticky coated cards/ plastic
cups/ or any other material are widely used in mass trapping programs to help
control whiteflies in greenhouses. Although recommended trap densities in
greenhouses are based on studies involving only a few crops, recommendations
of 1 trap per 5 square yards or 1 trap every 3 to 4 feet along benches are
common. Almost all the visual traps are made by knowing the biology and food
of specific insect. Therefore these generally control the flying pest more easily
and quickly than the larval stages or other crawling insects.
4. Barrier attractant Traps
When insects hit a barrier having attractants in their flight path, they will either
fly upward or drop downwards. Barrier traps (FIG 19.8) placed in flyways rely
on such behaviors to capture flying insects. One simple barrier trap is the
window pane trap, which consists of a piece of clear glass or plastic with a
shallow trough filled with 70% ethanol attached at the bottom. When the trap is
hung across a path, in a flyway, or at the edge of the woods, flying insects crash
into it. Those that drop after hitting the glass fall into the trough and are killed.
FIG. 19.8: Barrier traps model

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5. Light attractants
A great number of insect species generally the light emitting insects are
attracted towards light of various wavelengths (FIG 19.9). Several species
respond uniquely to specific portions of the visible and non visible spectrum.
They are attracted by fluorescent bulbs or bulbs that emit ultraviolet
wavelengths (black lights). Certain species of moths, flies, beetles and other
insects are attracted to artificial light as they shows mating behavior in
bioluminescent insects and some insects are attracted in search of food. They
may fly to lights throughout the night or only during certain hours. Key pests
that are attracted to light include the European corn borer, codling moth,
cabbage looper, many cutworms and armyworms, diamondback moth, sod
webworm moths, peach twig borer, several leaf roller moths, potato leafhopper,
bark beetles, carpet beetles etc.
FIG 19.9: Light trap
Lights attractants are likewise useful with varying degrees of success in

monitoring populations and in mass trapping. But because pheromone
attractants and traps are much more specific and more convenient, light traps
are no longer as widely used. Certain limitations of light attractants are like
1. Many insects that are attracted to the area around the light traps do not
actually fly into the trap inspite of they remain nearby, indirectly increasing
the total number of insects in the immediate area.
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2. These light attract and kill a wide variety of insects much of them are non
targeted pests, biological controlling insects or beneficial insects.
6. Malaise
Basically it’s not attractant but it’s a way to capture those flying insects that
move upward when they strike a barrier. This trap is a tent-like structure made
of netting with a collecting chamber at the top filled with alcohol. Insects
entering the trap eventually fly or crawl upward while attempting to escape.
Instead of escaping, they become trapped in a killing jar or a container of
ethanol. Malaise traps placed across paths of most insects fly upward.
7. Pheromone based Attractant or Sex Attractants
Hundreds of pheromones are known with which one sex (usually the female)
of an insect species attracts its mates. Many of these sex attractants or their
close chemical relatives are available commercially. For example, male
cockroach secrete seducin, Danus butterfly secretes musculure. They have
proved useful controlling agents against insect pests in two ways:
Male Confusion: Distributing a sex attractant which can be artificially
prepared distributed throughout an area masks the insects own attractant and
thus may prevent the sexes getting together for mating. This communication
disruption has been used as one way in IPM. For example, the sex attractant of
the cotton boll weevil has reduced the need for conventional chemical
insecticides by more than half in some cotton growing areas.
Insect Monitoring: Insect sex attractants are also valuable in monitoring pest
population. By baiting traps with the appropriate pheromone, a build-up of the
pest population can be spotted in early stages. Even if a conventional
insecticide is the weapon chosen, its early use reduces:
 the amount needed
 damage to the crop
 cost to the grower
 Possible damage to the environment.
The pheromone attractants are effective for catching insects; numerous traps
placed in environment can sometimes remove many insects to substantially
reduce the local population and limits the injury it causes. Efforts to trap out
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insect pest called removal trapping or mass trapping have utilized species
specific aggregation pheromones that attract both male and female beetles and
there are also the attractants that are not only species specific but also sex
specific. When aggregation pheromones are used to attract adult beetles of both
sexes, traps may reduce the feeding damage caused by the adult insects and
reduce reproduction by capturing adults before they lay eggs. When sex
pheromones are used to capture moths, success depends upon capturing males
before mating occurs, after mating there is no use of pheromone based
attractants.
19.7.4 Some attractants used towards insect:
 Methyl eugenol against Dacus sps (Oriental fruit fly)
 Eugenol+geraniol (1:9) against Popillia sps. (Japanease beetle)
 Eugenol+Q-lure+trimedlure against melon fly
 Anethol against Cydia pomonella (codling moth)
 Gyplure against male Porthetria dispar (gypsy moth)
 Butyl sorbate against chafer beetles
 Singlure against Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly)
 Heptyl butyrate against Vespula spp. (yellow jacket wasp)
19.7.5 Advantages
1. All these attractants are mixed with food to make poison baits, trap baits etc.
2. They have no harmful effects, non polluted, and biodegradable in nature.
3. It shows specificity and sensitivity.
4. Insect do not develop resistance against attractants.
5. Environment containing attractants do not able the male to locate its mate so
it is also called Male Confusing Technique.
6. Main reproductive forms attracted and population decreases below the
economic injury level.
1. It is very costly and time consuming technique.
2. Individual respond to stimuli according to relationship between the intensity
of stimulus and their response threshold.
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3. It varies according to physiological condition and may change with time to
time.
4. Many insects have migratory phase during which they are less responsive to
this control.
5. It produces variable results.
6. Temperature, rainfall, wind speed, direction and other physical factors
influence attractant release, insect flight and control efficiency. Many
insects fly and respond to semio-chemicals only at certain time (dawn,
midday, dusk, night, etc.), and then only if temperatures at that time exceed
a minimum level (often 50 to 60° F). Wind speed and direction determine
the extent of insect movement from surrounding areas to traps within a field
or orchard.
7. It is affected if any other controlling measures run simultaneously.
19.8 Chaemosterilants
19.8.1 Definition
Chemosterilants, i.e., chemical compounds that reduce or eliminate the
reproductive capacity of the organism to which they are applied.
19.8.2 Main objective

1. To sterilize wild population of pests
2. To release large number of sterile individual so that wild population is
outnumbered or suppressed.
3. To minimize the reproductive potential of the insects, keep the
population below their threshold levels.
According to LaBrecque chemosterilants are that
 Causes sterility by preventing developments of sperms or ova
 Causes death of ova
 Injure genetic makeup of sperms or ova that fertilized results in sterile
progenies
Practical application depends upon
 Nature of active compound;
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 Mode of administration and
 Diversity of insect species.
19.8.3 Mode of application
 Orally: by ingesting food containing chemosterilants when treated food
placed in infested area.
 Topically/ contact: direct spray of dust of chemosterilants, direct contact
or sterile male release method.
 Injection: best procedure for evaluating the insect activity but limited to
water soluble compounds.
It is a chemicobiological method in which insect sterilized by chemicals and on
mating with normal ones do not produce offspring. It can affect one or both sex.
Many insects procure the pest status as reproductive capacity is too high and
their exploding population creates pressure on man's environment and food
resources. Any process that interfere pest's reproduction capacity can be a
significant useful control method. The successful eradication of the screwworm,
Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel), from certain islands in the West Indies
and from the southeastern United States (1) was a convincing example of a
novel approach to pest control in which interference with reproduction played a
key role. Firstly Knipling sterilize screwworm males by gamma irradiation
(Laboratory ARS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
20705). April 1976 areas in which the sterility concept could be utilized: the
sterile male technique, in which artificially reared male insects would be
sterilized by radiation or chemicals and released into infested areas; the direct
sterilization technique, in which chemosterilants would be applied like
insecticides to sterilize rather than to kill pest insects; and the genetic technique,
in which special mutant strains would be released to suppress the natural
population. Chemosterilants, i.e., chemical compounds that reduce or eliminate
the reproductive capacity of the organism to which they are applied, may be
utilized in each of the three areas mentioned, though only in the direct
sterilization technique are they essential and irreplaceable. In the other two
techniques, sterilization by ionizing radiation is the most common alternative.
On the basis of their structural and chemical characteristics important
chemosterilants are:
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1. Alkylating agents: It is effective against males; alkylation is a substitution
of alkyl group from hydrogen atom.
 Aziridined and non aziridines like Tepa, Metepa, Thiotepa,
Apholate;
 Sulphuric acid esters;
 Nitrogen mustard.
2. Antimetabolites: It’s a female sterilants like
 Folic acid;
 analogues of amino acids;
 analogues of purines and pyrimidines, etc.
3. Miscellaneous compounds: Biological effects closely resemble those
produced by irradiations. Such compound contains radioactive isotopes of
carbon and phosphorous, phosphoramide (hempa), tin derivatives
(triphenyltin chloride), colchicines, comuarin, methionine etc.
19.8.4 Advantages
1. Reproductive potential of insect decreases with killing.
2. It can be applied as baits or mixed with attractants.
3. Bonus effect: Sterilized population competes with unsterilized population.
4. Space effect: Sterile individuals move and affect the reproductive potential
of an individual outside the area treated.
5. Population crash: Treated individuals compete with untreated for food,
space, shelter and other requirements.
6. Time effect: For long lived individuals sterilization is very much significant
as it compete for subsequent generations.
1. It is effective or can be applied as far as insect is alive.
2. Technique is very much costly and laborious.
3. The chemicals used are hazardous and toxic can affect handlers or workers.
4. Field experiments are restricted.
5. Less significant for short lived individuals.
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19.9 Antifeedants
19.9.1 Definition
These are the chemical compounds that possess the property of inhibiting the
feeding of insects or other pest. In short, an antifeedant is any substance that
tastes bad to insects.
According to some authors, any substance that reduces feeding by an insect can
be considered an antifeedant/ deterrents. They are behavior modifying
substance that deters eating through a direct action on taste organs/peripheral
sensilla in insects. This definition excludes chemicals that suppress feeding by
acting on the central nervous system followed by stopping of ingestion and
absorption or a substance that has sub lethal toxicity to the insect.
It acts as inhibitors of gustatory organs. Maxilla and maxillary palps are the
most important sense organ for recognition of inhibitory chemicals and the
receptors of mouth parts. Organometallic compounds like fentins found to
inhibit the taste receptors of mouth region and ultimately insect fails to
recognize treated plants or food and stop feeding may die due to starvation. It
also affects the secretion of enzymes in the digestive tract of insects.
The need to protect our food, standing crops and storage stations from pest
insect attack using ecofriendly acceptable methods has led to a rapidly growing
interest in behavioral modifying chemicals from natural sources. Use of
antifeedants has also become a part of IPM as other sources are toxic, broad
spectrum insecticides with negative impacts on natural enemies, pollinators and
other non-target organisms. And continuous use of specific insecticides also
leads to secondary resurgence of pest.
19.9.3 Sources and Chemistry
Plants produce a diverse group of secondary metabolites; there is compelling
evidence that at least some of these are important in the defense of plants
against herbivores. It is not surprising, that the majority of substances
documented to deter feeding by insects have been isolated from plants.
Antifeedants can be found amongst all the major classes of secondary
metabolites – alkaloids, phenolics and terpenoids (Frazier, 1986). It has great
diversity of antifeedants, and the most potent, have been found are chemically
speaking, triterpenoids. Based on a thirty carbon skeleton, these substances
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often occur as glycosides and are often highly oxygenated. Especially well
studied in this regard are the limonoids from the neem (Azadirachta indica) and
chinaberry (Melia azedarach) trees, exemplified by azadirachtin and
toosendanin, and limonin from Citrus species. Other antifeedant triterpenoids
include cardenolides, steroidal saponins and withanolides. Several types of
diterpenes (based on a twenty carbon skeleton) are well known as antifeedants,
including the clerodanes and the abietanes. Sesquiterpenes (15-carbon skeleton)
with potent antifeedant action include the drimanes, and the sesquiterpene
lactones. One particularly well-studied example is the drimane polygodial,
which occurs in foliage of the water pepper, Polygonum hydropiper.
19.9.4 Classification
There are five classes on the basis of chemicals manifesting antifeedants
properties.
1. Triazenes: AC20455
2. Organotins: Fentin acetate (Brestan), fentin hydroxide (Duter), fentin
chloride (Brestanol)
3. Carbamates: Baygon
4. Botanicals: Plant phenolics, the best known antifeedants include the
furanocoumarins, neolignans, pyrethrum, neem seed which are highly
potent contact insecticides.
5. Others: cycocel, phosphore, copper resinate, mercuric chloride.
19.9.5 Some antifeedants against insects
 ZIP: zinc salt/ dimethyl dithiocarbonic acid with cyclohexylanine. It was
the first antifeedants used in agriculture on barks and twigs against
rodents and dear.
 Fentin acetate against Pericallia sps. (black headed caterpillar), Athalia
sps. (mustard saw fly), Prodenia (tabacco caterpillar), Agrotis
(cutworms) generally pest of castor, mustard, seasam, sunflower, maize
and cucurbits.
 Fentin chloride against tobacco caterpillar, paddy army worms, mustard
saw fly.
 Fentin hydroxide against black headed caterpillar, cutworms
 Neem formulation against Amascata sps., Schistocerca spp., Pieris spp.
, Spodoptera spp. and stored grain pests.
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 Calotropis against Schistocerca spp.
 Triazenes against Lepidoptera larvae.
 Methyl salicylate against aphid populations.
19.9.6 Advantages
1. It can be as water or oil based spray in the same manner used to apply an
insecticide.
2. Many antifeedants do not kill pests out right as insect may die due to
starvation.
3. They are specific in nature and do not disrupt biotic balance as parasites,
pollinators and predators remains unaffected.
4. They show complete coverage of plants and have short residual action.
5. No harmful effects and show low mammalian toxicity.
6. It’s a modern technique to control pest.
1. Only surface feeding insects can be prevented by antifeedants.
2. Piercing and sucking insects are not affected.
3. Much knowledge is needed to ensure the results
4. There are very little chemicals known showing antifeedants properties.
5. Antifeedants suffer from greater interspecific differences in bioactivity.
19.10 Genetic control
19.10.1 Definition
Genetic control is a kind of biological control in which insect pest population
are controlled by to creating genetic abnormalities or mutations.
19.10.2 `Mode of action
Insects are responsible for the transmission of number of vector borne diseases
and other infectious diseases. The innovative approach of insect control
includes one of the methods by modifying insect genomics and transformation
technology that created a new technique in IPM and insect pest management.
Insects are genetically modified with genes that block pathogen development.
The other way is to suppress insect populations by releasing either sterile males
or males carrying dominant lethal genes into the environment. This insect
control strategy has offered many advantages over insecticide based strategies.
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The effectiveness of genetic control depends upon released radiation-sterilized
males in an area where they compete with non sterilized males for mating,
reproductive potential and rate of immigration into the target population. This
technique is now being considered as a good control method applied against
agricultural pests especially in Mexico, Egypt and Japan. Sterile male approach
to control pest was firstly discovered by Knipling (1955). He noted that female
screwworm flies mat only once and he sterilized two billion male screwworm
fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax, with Co60 radiation. It is a serious pest of cattle
and the result showed the control of screwworm fly in 13 weeks after the sterile
males are released.
Genetic manipulation can be done by any of the methods using cytoplasmic
incompatibility, chromosomal rearrangements, hybrid sterility, developmental
alteration, irradiations, creating lethal mutation and meiotic drive mechanism.
19.10.3 Advantages
1. There is no disturbance in food chain and food web as the insects are not
killed. The genetically modified individuals show normal life table.
2. If any insect is a biological control agent, these modifications shows no
disturbance in their feeding.
3. Sterile male is not different as compared to non sterile male; therefore, they
can compete for mating.
4. This technique can be used against those insects that are pesticide resistant.
1. Mass rearing cannot be done if insect is much more complicated.
2. Insects having short life cycle is not feasible to control genetically.
3. It is very expensive as it requires sophisticated instruments and well settled
laboratory.
4. The release of genetically modified insects into the environment should
proceed with great caution, after ensuring its safety, and acceptance by the
target populations.
5. The reproductive biology and sex separation of the test insect must be
known.
6. The test insect must be mass reared in the laboratory in a short period to
release large number of individuals in an area.
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7. If large number of insects is to be released they should not impose any
serious economic impact in the ecosystem.
8. The reared individuals must be able to compete with the non-sterile
individual.
19.11 Plant Proteinase Inhibitors
Many of the plant contain proteinase inhibitors (PIs) and can be isolated from
various cereal, leguminous species and their storage organs like seeds and
tubers. These proteinase inhibitors are effective against various insect pest
species. Recent work is being carried out which is basically focused to isolate
as well as sequencing the PI genes so that we can get protection against
different insect species that damage crop plants like pigeon pea, cotton, maize,
soybean and chick pea (Agrobios Newsletter, October, 2010).
In nature, plants also protect themselves against pests by synthesizing specific
macromolecules derived from secondary metabolic pathways. The α-amylase
inhibitors can act specifically when the insect depends primarily on
carbohydrate metabolism. Specific lectins also show resistance to pests
infesting seeds.
Proteinase inhibitors are low molecular weight proteins components that are
present in seeds and offer natural defense. It is one of the most abundant classes
of proteins in plants. Storage organs like seeds of family Leguminosae,
Graminae and tubers of family Solanaceae contain 1 to 10% of their total
protein as PIs, which inhibit different types of enzymes. Based on the amino
acid is active during reaction centre the catalytic mechanisms they are classified
as serine, cysteine, aspartic and metallo-proteinase inhibitors. There are at least
12 PI families found in which Soybean trypsin inhibitor was the first PI isolated
and characterized. Mickel and Standish observed that larvae of certain insects
were not able to develop on soybean products. Later they found that soybean
trypsin inhibitors were toxic to Tribolium confusum larvae.
Insects require a process proteolysis to degrade proteins they consume.
Proteinase inhibitors inhibit the action of the digestive enzymes and hence they
are considered anti-nutritional. When such proteins are abundant in consumed
food of animals, they interfere with growth and development.
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These studies strongly implicate plant PIs to interfere with the growth and
development of many phytophagous insects including members of Lepidoptera
(Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera), Coleoptera (Diabrotica sp.,
Callosobruchus chinensis and Anthonomus sp.) and Hemiptera (Myzus persicae
and Aphids).
19.12 Summary
Behavioral control of pest by modifying their behavior, pheromones help to
trace pest, hormone mimics or antagonist to change their development and
growth accordingly are some recent discoveries made by scientist. Also,
antifeedants, chaemosterilants, attractants, repellants are integrated to control
targeted pest.
After going through this unit you are able to answer the importance of
innovative approaches, their significance and use. However, all the techniques
mentioned above has some advantages and disadvantages at their places but
they are also the solution of many problems like pest resistance , residual effect,
high lethal concentrations of many chemicals, biomagnifications of hazardous
component in our food chain and food web. Recent advances are now the basis
of applied entomology.
19.13 Glossary
 Antifeedants- are chemical that inhibit the feeding of insects.
 Attractants- chemicals which makes oriented movements towards a
substance.
 Chaemosterilants- chemicals used to sterilize male or female insect.
 Hormones analogues- synthesized chemicals which are similar in
function to hormones.
 Hormones antagonist- synthesized chemicals function against
hormones.
 Hormones- are chemicals secreted by endocrine glands to maintain
internal environment of body.
 Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)- that regulate growth and
development on insect.
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 Pheromones- chemicals secreted by insect to communicate within the
species.
 Protein inhibitors- that inhibit protein to work normally.
 Repellants- chemicals which makes oriented movements away from a
substance.
Section A- Very short answer type questions
1. Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are also called …………generation
pesticides.
2. Name pheromone secreted by honeybee queen?
3. Name one sex pheromone and aggregation pheromones?
4. What is the trade name of methoprene and hydropene?
5. Give botanical name of plant paper factor/ balsam fir?
6. Name one chemical and botanical repellent?
7. Muscemone is an attractant to……………?
8. Which organ is inhibited to respond by antifeedants?
9. Glypure is used to control which pest?
Section B- Short answer type questions
1. Give difference between attractant and repellent?
2. Define antifeedants and chaemosterilants?
3. Give some advantages of genetic control?
4. How can you differentiate between hormones mimics and antagonist?
5. Give a note on Knipling discovery related to male sterile approach?
6. Name fourth generation pesticides?
7. Define kairomones, allomones and synomones?
Section C- Long answer type questions
1. Give a brief note on types of pheromones?
2. Explain different types of insect hormones and their associated glands?
3. Write a note on genetic control?
4. How behavior is important to control insects?
5. Make a note on repellents, types, advantages and disadvantages of it?
Answer key of section A
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1. Third generation pesticide
2. 9-hydroxy-decinoic acid
3. Bombyx mori secretes bombykol and pheromone secreted by Ambrosia
beetle.
4. Altosid and Gencor
5. Abies balsamea
6. DEET and oil of Citronella plant
7. Musca domestica
8. Gustatory i.e maxillae and palps
9. Gypsy moth, Prothetria dispar
19.15 References
 Little, V.A.: General and applied entomology
 Nayar, K.K, Anantkrishnan, T.N and David, B.V.: General and applied
entomology
 Kumar, A. and Nigam, P.M: Economic and applied entomology
 Kachhwaha N.: Principles of Entomology Basic and Applied
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Unit - 20
20.1 Objective
20.2 Introduction
20.3 Integrated Pest Management
20.3.1 Definition of IPM
20.3.2 History of IPM
20.3.3 Concept of IPM
20.3.4 Principles of IPM
20.4 Component of IPM
20.4.1 Host plant resistance
20.4.2 Agronomic manipulations
20.4.3 Mechanical and physical methods
20.4.5 Bio control agents
20.4.6 Genetic control
20.4.7 Behavioral control
20.5 IPM strategy for field and horticultural crops
20.5.1 IPM for cotton
20.5.2 IPM in cruciferous vegetables
20.6 IPM case histories
20.7 Concept of damage levels
20.7.1 Economic injury levels (EIL) & its determination
20.7.2 Economic threshold levels (ETL) & its determination
20.8 System approach
20.9 Agro-ecosystem
20.9.1 Cropping system versus IPM
20.10 IPM implementation
20.10.1 Constraints of IPM implementation
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20.10.2 Strategies of IPM implementation

20.11 Pest survey and surveillance forecasting
20.11.1 Pest Surveillance and forecasting
20.11.2 Types of surveys
20.11.3 Remote sensing methods
20.11.4 Factors affecting surveys
20.12 Risk analysis
20.12.1 Pest Risk analysis
20.12.2 Pesticides risk analysis
20.13 Pesticides risk analysis
20.14 Cost benefit rations and partial budgeting
20.14.1 Cost benefit ration
20.14.2 Benefit risk ration
20.14.3 Partial budgeting
20.15 Summary
20.16 Glossary
20.18 References
20.1 Objective
 Why IPM is essential?
 What are the concept and principles of IPM?
 What are the components of IPM?
 How to determine the ETL and EIL level of pests?
 What is the importance of pest surveillance and forecasting?
 What are the constraints and strategies of IPM implementation?
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 What are the importance of pest risk analysis, pesticide risk analysis,
cost benefit ration and partial budgeting for IPM?
20.2 Introduction
Green revolution has attained self sufficiency in food through introduction of high
yielding varieties and hybrids. Intensive cultivation of HYV invited or demanded
more of inputs in the form of fertilizers especially inorganic which in turn attracted
more number of pest and diseases. This necessitated intensive control measures to
curtail the losses caused to the crops and the control was achieved mainly through
inorganic pesticides. The strategy of exclusive reliance on insecticides for all insect
pests problem led to pest resurgence, resistance, outbreaks of secondary pests,
pesticides residues and ecological imbalance by killing predators and parasitoids
thus affecting prey predator dynamics and resulting in environmental pollution.
The combined impacts of all these problems together with the exponentially rising
the costs of pesticides provided the necessary feedback for limiting the use of
broad spectrum biocides and led to the development of the concept of IPM.
20.2 Integrated Pest Management
20.2.1 Definition of IPM
IPM refers to an ecological approach in pest management in which all available
necessary techniques are consolidated in a unifies programme, so that pest
populations can be managed in such a manner that economic damage is avoided
and adverse side effects on environment are minimized. Various scientists gave
different definition of IPM in different context. According to FAO (1967), IPM
was defined as “a pest management system in the context of associated
environment and population dynamics in pest species. It utilizes all suitable
techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the
pest population at levels below those cause economic injury. Protective
management of the noxious pest in which all available techniques should be
evaluated and consolidated to manage pest population so that economic damage is
avoided and adverse side effects on the environment are minimized (Geier and
Clark, 1961).
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20.3.2 History of IPM

The term “integrated control” coined by Michel Bacher and Bacon in 1952. Later
on Barlett (1956) first to coin the expression “integrated pest control” through
which he meant to combine (integrated) biological agents with insecticides in the
control of insect pests. Obviously, these methods stood in direct conflict with each
other since the insecticides were likely to kill the biological agents. V. M. Stern
and his co-workers (1959) defined integrated control as “applied pest control
which combines and integrates biological and chemical control”. Stern and co-
workers also gave the concept of economic injury level and economic threshold
level. Later on the concept of pest management has gained importance .The idea of
managing pest population was proposed by Geier and Clark 1961 who called their
concept as protective management which later was shortened as pest management.
Later on Smith and Van Den Borsch in 1967 mentioned that the determination of
the insect numbers is broadly under the influence of total agro ecosystem and the
role of the principle element is essential for integrated pest management. Council
on Environmental Quality (CEQ, 1972) gave the term “Integrated Pest
Management”. In 1985 India declared IPM as official Ministerial Policy. In 1989,
IPM Task Force was established and in 1990, IPM Working Group (IPMWG) was
constituted to strengthen implementation of IPM at international level. In 1992, L.
P. Pedigo and L. G. Higley gave the concept of environmental economic injury
levels. In 1994, Global IPM Facility established with the Secretariat located at
FAO, Rome by a Task Force consisting of FAO, the World Bank, UNDP and
UNEP. In 1997, Ray F. Smith and Perry Adkisson got the World Food Prize for
their pioneering work in development and implementation of IPM. National Centre
for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) was established at Faridabad in 1988 to
cater to the emerging plant protection needs of different agro-ecological zones of
the country. Later it was shifted to New Delhi in 1995.
20.3.3 Concept of IPM
There are two main factors i.e hazards of insecticides and economy of pest control
in view of the high cost of insecticides lead to the origin and evolution of the
concept of IPM. It seeks to minimize the disadvantages associated with use of
pesticides and maximizing socio, economic and ecological advantages. The
concept of IPM is as follows:-
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 Understanding the agricultural ecosystem

 Planning of agricultural ecosystem
 Cost /benefit and Benefit/risk ratio
 Tolerance of pest damage
 Leaving a pest residue
 Timing of treatments
 Public understanding and acceptance
20.3.4 Principles of IPM
Basic principles of Integrated Pest Management are as follows:-
 Consideration of Ecosystem: Control of insect pest population is a
function of the ecosystem itself by means of natural enemies and other
factors. Knowledge of the role of the principle elements of the units is
essential to an understanding of population phenomenon. The study of
individual is of prime importance, their biology behaviour response to other
members of the same species and to other organisms and to biotic factors in
the environment. The study of individuals offers a potent method for this
analysis of population change. The most effective system for controlling
pests can be derived only after understanding the principles responsible for
the population fluctuation in the ecosystem.
 Pest Surveillance: Pest Surveillance and forecasting are having an
important part in the integrated pest management for constant observation
on a subject i.e., a crop or pest, and recording the factors observed,
compilation of information obtained and prediction of future events about
pest population. Hence, pest surveillance comprises of three basic
components.
o Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species.
o Determination of what loss the incidence will cause.
o Determination of economic benefits or other benefits the control will
provide.
The above information would be immense use in determining the need for a
pest control measure. Only presence of a few numbers of pest species
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should not be the criterion for pesticide application and there should be
sufficient justification. This can provide the necessary information to
determine the feasibility of a pest control programme.
 Utilization of Economic Threshold Levels (ETL): The level of pest
population is very important consideration for taking up control measures.
Pest population must be maintained at levels below those causing economic
injury. The economic threshold is the pest density at which control
measures should be determined to prevent an increasing pest population
from reaching economic injury level. The determination of these thresholds
is a pre-requisite to the development of any pest management strategy.
 Application of minimum selective hazards: The application of chemical
measures to pest population has to be in such a manner that target pest
populations are just kept below economic injury thresholds. By observation
of this principle the development of resistant populations of pest is avoided
or delayed, the possibility of resurgence of treated population is decreased,
adverse effect on non target organism and amount of environmental
contamination are reduced, and the cost of control is also lowered.
20.4 Component of IPM
20.4.1 Host plant resistance
Resistance is an inheritable character possessed by a plant which influence the
ultimate degree of damage done by the insect. Lesser damage than average damage
is taken as resistance while more damage than average damage constitutes
susceptible. A resistant variety produces higher yield than a susceptible variety
when both are subjected to the same extent of infestation by same insect at the
same time. Resistance is a relative term only compared with less resistance or
susceptibility. Absolute resistance or Immunity refers to the inability of a specific
pest to consume or injure a particular variety under any known-condition. R. H.
Painter (1951) has grouped the mechanisms of host plant resistance into three main
categories.
1. Non-preference (Antixenosis) 2. Antibiosis 3. Tolerance
However several scientists have attempted to classify the mechanisms of
resistance, the terms defined by Painter (1951) – non-preference, antibiosis and
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tolerance were widely accepted. However, Kogan and Ortman (1978) proposed
that the term non preference should be replaced by antixenosis because the former
describes a pest reaction and not a plant characteristic. The three types of
resistance are described in the context of the functional relationships between the
plant and the insect.
 Non-preference or Antixenosis: The term ‘Non-preference’ refers to the
response of the insect to the characteristics of the host plant, which make is
unattractive to the insect for feeding, oviposition or shelter. Kogan and
Ortman (1978) proposed the term ‘Antixenosis’, as the term ‘Non-
preference’ pertains to the insect and not to the host plant.
Some plants are not choose by insects for food shelter or oviposition
because of either the absence of desirable characters in that plant like
texture, hairiness, taste, flavour, or presence of undesirable characters. Such
plants are less damaged by that pest and the phenomenon is called non
preference. Ex. Presence of hairs on soybean and cotton varieties is not
preferred by leafhoppers for oviposition.
 Antibiosis: Antibiosis refers to the harmful effects of host plant on the
insect due to the presence of some toxic substances or absence of required
nutritional components. Such plants are said to exhibit antibiosis and hence
do not suffer as much damage as normal plants. The adverse effects may be
reduced fecundity, decreased size, long life cycle, failure of larva to pupate
or failure of adult emergence, and increased mortality. Indirectly, antibiosis
may result in an increased exposure of the insect to its natural enemies. Ex:
The classical example of host plant resistance is DIMBOA (2, 4 Di hydroxy
-7- methoxy – 1,4 benzaxin – 3) content in maize which imparts chemical
defence against the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis.
 Tolerance: Some plants withstand the damage caused by the insect by
producing more number of tillers, roots, leaves etc in the place of damaged
plant parts ,such plants are said to be tolerant to that particular pest. Ex:
Early attack by the sorghum shoot fly on main shoot induced the production
of a few synchronous tillers that grow rapidly and survive to produce
harvestable ear heads.
20.4.2 Agronomic manipulations
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The manipulation of cultural practices at an appropriate time for reducing or

avoiding pest damage to crops is known as cultural control. The cultural practices
make the environment less favourable for the pests and or more favourable for its
natural enemies. This approach is also known as ecological management or
environmental control. It is the cheapest of all methods.
There are two categories of cultural methods,
(a) Normal agricultural practices, which incidentally ward off certain pests:
By adopting these, the farmers get two-fold benefits
 Improvement of crop yields and
 The population of certain pests do not increase abnormally
a) Proper preparatory cultivation: Several insects which live or hide in the
soil get exposed to sun as well as predators like birds etc due to Proper
preparatory cultivation. Ex. Larvae, pupae and adults of moths, maggots,
roots grubs etc.
b) Clean cultivation: Removal of weeds which act as alternate hosts. Ex.
Spotted bollworms Earias vitella, E. insulana also breeds on weeds such as
Abutilon indicum, Malvastrum tricuspidatum etc. Fruit sucking moth larvae
Eudocima ancilla on weeds of Menispermaceae family.
c) Systematic cutting and removal of infested parts: Keeps down
subsequent infestation. Eg. Cutting and removal of infested parts of brinjal
attacked by Leucinodes orbonalis, Pruning of dried branches of citrus
eliminates scales and stem borer. Pests like coccids get carried over to the
next season through stubbles, which should be promptly removed.
d) Crop rotation: Crop rotation is most effective practice against pests that
have a narrow host range and dispersal capacity. Eg. Cotton should be
rotated with non hosts like ragi, maize, rice to minimize the incidence of
insect pests. Groundnut with non leguminous crops is recommended for
minimizing the leaf miner incidence.
e) Mixed cropping: Intended for getting some return when one crop is
attacked, the other escapes. Eg. Sesame with green gram
f) Growing resistant varieties: certain varieties resist pest attack. Eg: PMS 8
and AE 57 resistance to shoot and fruit borer E. vitella in okra, Surekha
variety to gall midge and Saket and Ratna for stem borer in rice.
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(b) Cultural practices specially adopted for certain pests

a) Adjusting planting or sowing or harvesting times to avoid certain pests:
Manipulation of planting time helps to minimize pest damage by producing
asynchrony between host plants and the pest or synchronizing insect pests
with their natural enemies. Eg Early sown sorghum in kharif reduces the
infestation of shoot fly and timely and synchronous planting has been found
to reduce bollworm damage in cotton.
b) Trap cropping: Growing of susceptible or preferred plants by important
pests near a major crop to act as a trap and later it is destroyed or treated
with insecticides. Trap crop may also attract natural enemies thus enhancing
natural control. Ex: Marigold grown as trap crop with cotton for the
management of Helicoverpa armigera.
c) Trimming field bunds: Grasshopper eggs, which are laid in field bunds,
are destroyed by trimming field bunds
d) Flooding: Flooding of fields is recommended for reducing the attack of
cutworms, army worms, termites, root grubs etc.
e) Draining the fields: In case of paddy case worm Nymphula depunctalis
which travel from plant to plant via water. It can be eliminated by draining
or drying the field.
f) Alternate drying and wetting at 10 days interval starting from 35 DAT
reduces the BPH and WBPH.
g) Alley ways: Formation of alley ways for every 2 m in rice field reduces the
BPH Nilaparvata lugens.
20.4.3 Mechanical and physical methods
Mechanical methods: Reduction or suppression of insect pest population by
means of manual devices or labour is known as mechanical control methods. There
are following methods
 Handpicking is most ancient method which can prove fairly effective under
certain conditions. Egg masses, larvae or nymphs and sluggish adults can
be handpicked and destroyed. Ex. Egg masses of paddy stem borer
(Scirpophaga incertulas) and groundnut hairy caterpillar. Collection and
destruction of fallen fruits is effective against fruit flies and fruit borers.
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 Manual collection and destruction of pink bollworm attacked rosette

flowers, withered and drooped terminals infested by spotted bollworm can
reduce the incidence of these pests in cotton.
 Digging of 30 -60 cm wide and 60 cm deep trenches or erecting 30 cm
height tin sheets barriers around the fields is useful against pests like hairy
caterpillars. Bagging / wrapping of pomegranate and mango fruits in paper
bags avoids the infestation of pomegranate butterfly Virachola isocrates
and mango fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis Tin bands are fixed over coconut
palms to prevent damage by rats.
 Use of an alkathene band around the tree trunks of mango to check the
migration of first instar nymphs of mealy bugs and red ants.
 Sticky bands around tree trunks against red tree ant (Oecophylla
samaragdina)
 Shaking of red gram plants to collect and destroy later instars of
Helicoverpa armigera
Physical Methods: Minimize the pest populations with the use of certain physical
forces is known as physical methods
 Light traps are arranged for attracting the insects, which are trapped by
keeping water or oil in a container or a killing bottle below the light trap.
Light traps are useful for monitoring the population of important insect
pests in an area. Ex: Most of the moths and beetles.
 Flame thrower is a compressed air sprayer with kerosene oil for producing
flames. There is a lance, which is fitted with a burner. When the burner is
heated, the kerosene oil is released and it turns into flames. Used for
burning locust populations, congregation of caterpillars, patches of weeds
etc.
 Male insects can be made sterile by exposing them to gamma radiation or
by using chemicals. When sterile males are released in normal population
they compete with normal males in copulation and to that extent reductive
capacity of the population are reduced. By sterilizing the pupae of
screwworm, livestock pest (Cochliomyia hominivorax) with radiations,
sterile males were obtained. They were released @ 400/sq mile for 7
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weeks. By this method total eradication was achieved in South East parts
of America and in the Curacao islands in case of screwworm.
 Artificial heating and cooling of stored products will prevent insect damage.
Usually high temperatures are more effective than low temperatures.
 Stored products can be exposed to 55 0C for 3 hours to avoid stored product
pests- Steam sterilization of soil kills soil insects
 Oxygen stress and carbon dioxide concentration: In air tight containers
small volume of air is enclosed, the available oxygen is quickly utilized by
insects and raise concentration of carbon dioxide. High concentration of
carbon dioxide leads to death of stored products insects.
 Vapour Heat Treatment (VHT): Heated air is saturated with water (>RH
90%) for specified period of 6 to 8 hours for raising pulp temperature to
43-44.5°C in case of mango against fruit flies.
Control of insects with chemicals is known as chemical control. The term pesticide
is used to those chemicals which kill pests and these pests may include insects,
animals, mites, diseases or even weeds. Chemicals which kill insects are called as
insecticides. Insecticide may be defined as a substance or mixture of substances
intended to kill, repel or otherwise prevent the insects. Similarly pesticides include
nematicides – which kill nematodes, miticides or Acaricides which kill mites,
Rodenticides – which kill rats, weedicides- that kill weeds, Fungicides- that kill
fungus etc. Insecticides are the most powerful tools available for use in pest
management. They are highly effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most
situations, flexible in meeting changing agronomic and ecological conditions and
economical. Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is reliable for
emergency action when insect pest populations approach or exceed the economic
threshold. A major technique such as the use of pesticides can be the very heart
and core of integrated systems. Chemical pesticides will continue to be essential in
the pest management programmes.
20.4.5 Bio-control agents
The successful management of a pest by means of another living organism
(parasitoids, predators and pathogens) that is encouraged and disseminated by man
is called biological control. In such programme the bio-control agents (natural
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enemies) are introduced, encouraged, multiplied by artificial means and

disseminated by man with his own efforts instead of leaving it to nature.
Techniques in biological control: Biological control practices involve three
techniques viz., Introduction, Augmentation and Conservation.
 Introduction or classical biological control: It is the deliberate
introduction and establishment of natural enemies to a new locality where
they did not occur or originate naturally. When natural enemies are
successfully established, it usually continues to control the pest population.
 Augmentation: It is the rearing and releasing of natural enemies to
supplement the numbers of naturally occurring natural enemies. There are
two approaches to augmentation.
o Inoculative releases: Large number of individuals are released only
once during the season and natural enemies are expected to
reproduce and increase its population for that growing season.
Hence control is expected from the progeny and subsequent
generations and not from the release itself.
o Inundative releases: It involves mass multiplication and periodic
release of natural enemies when pest populations approach
damaging levels. Natural enemies are not expected to reproduce and
increase in numbers. Control is achieved through the released
individuals and additional releases are only made when pest
populations approach damaging levels.
 Conservation: Conservation is defined as the actions to preserve and
release of natural enemies by environmental manipulations or alter
production practices to protect natural enemies which are already present in
an area or non use of those pest control measures that destroy natural
enemies.
Important conservation measures are
• Use selective insecticide which is safe to natural enemies.
• Avoidance of cultural practices which are harmful to natural enemies
and use favorable cultural practices
• Cultivation of varieties that favour colonization of natural enemies
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• Providing alternate hosts for natural enemies.

• Preservation of inactive stages of natural enemies.
• Provide pollen and nectar for adult natural enemies e.g. for predator
wasp etc.
Parasite: A parasite is an organism which is usually much smaller than its host
and a single individual usually doesn’t kill the host. Parasite may complete their
entire life cycle (e.g. Lice) or may involve several host species. Or Parasite is one,
which attaches itself to the body of the other living organism either externally or
internally and gets nourishment and shelter at least for a shorter period if not for
the entire life cycle. The organism, which is attacked by the parasites, is called
hosts.
Parasitism: It is the phenomena of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the
host to which the parasite is attached.
Parasitoid: It is an insect parasite of an arthropod, parasitic only in immature
stages, destroys its host in the process of development and free living as an adult.
E.g.: Braconidae wasps
Some successful examples
 Control of cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi on fruit trees by its
predatory vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis in Nilgiris. The predator was
imported from California in 1929 and from Egypt in 1930 and multiplied
in the laboratory and released. Within one year the pest was effectively
checked.
 Biological Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes ,three exotic
natural enemies were introduced in India viz. hydrophilic weevils –
Neochetina bruchi and N. eichhorniae (Argentina) and galumnid mite
Orthogalumna terebrantis (South America) in 1982 for the biological
suppression of water hyacinth.
 Apple woolly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum in Coonor area by Aphelinus mali
(parasitoid)
 Centrococcus isolitus on brinjal; Pulvinaria psidi on guava and sapota;
Meconellicoccus hirsutus on grape and Pseudococcus carymbatus on
citrus suppressed by Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.
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20.4.6 Genetic control

The basic principle in genetic control of insects is to utilize factors which will lead
to reproductive failure. Genetic control of insects is not limited to the use of insects
sterilized by radiation or chemicals but also include cytoplasmic incompatibility,
induced sterility, hybrid sterility etc.
A) Induced Sterility
i) Sterile male release technique:
When a sterile male mates with normal female there will be no progeny. If
adequate number of vigorous and competitive sterile males is introduced
systematically into natural population the population will soon cease to exist. This
theory of Male Sterile Technique was conceived by E F Knipling as early as 1937
and was published in 1955. He suggested two procedures,
o Rearing, Sterilization and Release (@ 9:1 sterile to fertile insects) of
sterile insects to compete with the normal population.
o Sterilizing a portion of the natural population Eg: Screw-worm
(Cochliomyia hominivorax) a cattle pest was completely eradicated
from Curacao Islands and south eastrun parts of USA by male
sterilization by irradiation with gamma rays (C060).
Limitation: Applicable only to species, where the female mates only once in its
lifetime.
ii) Aspermia: Inactivation of sperms. In some cases, as in mosquitoes the sperm of
the incompatible male is blocked before it could fuse with the nucleus of the egg of
native female. This principle was employed for eradication of Culux pipens
quinquifasciatus in Rangoon. The possibility is, the incompatible strain could be
identified, multiplied in large numbers and released in infested areas for
eradicating the pests.
iii) In fecundity: Sterile eggs by dominant lethal mutations
iv) Use of non-mutagenic chemicals: To induce sterility by preventing mating by
developing monogamous females, inhibition of spermatogenesis/oogenesis or by
sperm inactivation
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B) Cytoplasmic Incompatibility
Sterility is due to a cytoplasmic factor transmitted through the egg, which kills the
sperm of incompatible male after its entry into the egg. Crosses between certain
populations give no off-spring at all, in other cases females of one population may
cross with males of another population and off-spring are produced, but the
reciprocal cross is completely sterile. Recently it has been observed that in the case
of some species of insects, there exist different strains with different genetic set up.
When males of one such strain mate with females of another such strain, the
offspring fails to develop because of incompatibility between the genes of the egg
and the sperm. At an inter-specific level the sperm of hetero-specific males are
often disadvantaged in competition with those of con-specific males.
C) Hybrid Sterility:
In some insect cross-types or races which produce fertile females but sterile males
among progeny. These sterile hybrids are excellent material for use in insect
control. These sterile males are more vigorous and competitive than the sterile
males produced after radiation or chemo-sterilization.
D) Population Replacement:
The ability of disease transmission of vectors i.e. replacement of specific vector
populations can as well be changed by genetic methods.
E) Auto-Sterilization:
Sterilization of native insects in their natural environment by using chemosterilants
along with the species specific attractants / lures/ bait traps. Through this both the
sexes can be sterilized, and also negate the reproductive ability of those insects
which have escaped the lure/bait treatment.
20.4.7 Behavioral control
The utilisation of chemicals that affect insect behaviour, growth or reproduction,
for suppression of insect populations is often referred to as bio-rational control.
I) Chitin synthesis inhibitors disrupt molting by blocking the formation of chitin,
the building block of insect exoskeleton. Without the ability to synthesize chitin,
molting is incomplete, resulting in malformed insects that soon die. It suppresses
egg-laying and causes egg sterility in treated adults through secondary hormonal
activity.
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II) Insect Repellents: Chemicals which cause insects to move away from their
source are referred to as repellents (or) Chemically that prevent insect damage to
plants (or) animals by rendering them unattractive, unpalatable (or) offensive are
called repellents.
III) Insect Antifeedants: Antifeedant is a chemical that inhibits feeding but does
not kill the insect directly; the insect often may remain on the treated plant material
and possibly may die of starvation. These are also caused as “Feeding deterrents”.
There are three main sites for the sense of taste in insects located in the mouth, on
the tarsi and on the antennae. Insect feeding deterrents may be perceived either by
stimulation of specialized receptors (or) by distortion of the normal function of
neurons which perceive phago-stimulating compounds. Since the sugars are very
important components of an insect sustained feeding, the inhibition of its receptors
is an effective antifeedant action
IV) Insect Attractants: Chemicals that cause insects to make oriented movements
towards their source are called insect attractants. They influence both gustatory
(taste) and olfactory (smell) receptors (or) sensilla.
Types of Attractants
1. Pheromones 2. Natural food lures 3. Oviposition lures and 4. Poison baits
1) Pheromones: In 1959, Karlson and Butenandt coined the term pheromone. For
a Chemical that is secreted into the external environment by an animal and that
elicits a specific response in a receiving individual of the same species. It is also
referred to as “ectohormone”. Depending on their mode of action pheromones are
divided into two general classes. i) One which gives a releaser effect – an
immediate and reversible behavioural change is produced in the receiving animal.
ii) One which gives a primer effect - a chain of physiological changes is triggered
off in the receiving animal. E.g. Gustatory stimulation, controlling caste
determination and reproductive control in social Hymenoptera (Ants and Bees),
Isoptera (Termites). Behaviour – releasing pheromones are typically odorous and
act directly on the central nervous system of the receiving animal.
a) Sex pheromones: A Sex pheromone released by one sex only triggers off a
series of behaviour patterns in the other sex of the same species and thus facilitates
mating. The male insects respond to the odorous chemical released by the female.
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In certain species of insects the males are known to produce the sex pheromone
which attracts the females. E.g. In the cotton boll weevil Anthonomus grandis
The sex pheromones are specific in their biological activity, the males responding
only to a specific pheromone of the female of the same species, and their reactions
are directed towards the air currents carrying the odour. The time of release of the
pheromones by the females and response by male to them appears to be specific
for
each species. The following sex pheromones have been isolated and identified.
Bombycol: Silkworm, Bombyx mori
Gyplure: Gypsy moth, Perthetria dispar;
Gossyplure: Pink bollworm, Pectionophora gossypiella
Trimedlure: Meditarrnian fruifly, Ceratitis capitapa
Cuelure: Melon fly, Bactroceracucurbitae
Litlure: Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura
Helilure: Red gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera
Amlure: Chaffer beetle, Amphimallon sp
Looplure: Cabbage looper ,Trichoplusia ni
Ferrolure: Coconut Red Palm Weevil , Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Leucilure: Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer, Leucinodes orbonalis
Sex pheromones in insect pest management
o Monitoring of insect pests: Traps baited with synthetic sex pheromones
is useful in estimating population and detecting early stages of pests.
Four pheromone traps per acre is recommended.
o Mass-trapping: (Male annihilation technique): Large number of
pheromones baited traps can be used in the fields to capture male moths
of newly emerged and reduce the number of males for mating.
o Control of pest by mating disruption: By permeating the atmosphere
with higher concentration of the pheromone the opposite sex is rendered
confused and unable to locate their mates.
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b) Aggregation pheromones: The pheromone released by one sex only elicits

response in both sexes of a species. In scolytid (or) bark beetles the males secrete
the pheromone into the hind gut which gets incorporated in to the faecal pellets and
through them attracts flying males and females towards the galleries. In
Trigoderma granaria mixture of fatty acid esters and methyl and oleate function as
aggregation pheromones.
c) Trail marking pheromone: At low concentrations mostly used by foraging ants
and white ants. In ants Formica rupa, formic acid while in termites, Zootermopsis
nevadensis hexanoic acid functions as the trail marking pheromone.
d) Alarm pheromones: These substances are elaborated by mandibular glands,
sting apparatus, anal glands which typically results in fight or aggression.
Dolichoderine ants – release a fruity odour by the worker that results in an erratic
behaviour of workers, when this is discharged into mandibles onto intruding
insects that becomes marked as aggressor.
 Natural Food lures: These are Chemicals present in plant and animal hosts
that attract (lure) insects for feeding. They stimulate olfactory receptors and
may be
 A floral scent in case of the nectar feeding insects
 Essential oils for the phyto-phagous insects.
 Carbon dioxide, lactic acid and water for the blood sucking insects.
 Oviposition Lures: These are chemicals that govern the selection of suitable
sites for oviposition by the adult female for example, P-methyl acetophenone
attracts adult female rice stem borers to oviposit.
 Poison Baits: Poison baits are a mixture of food lures and insecticides. The
effort is made to make the bait more attractive to insects than their natural food
and also a smaller quantity should be able to attract the largest number of
insects. Baits are used when for some reason spraying (or) dusting of
insecticides is not practicable. For instance, when insects live hidden under the
soil, inside the fruits and vegetables (or) for household insects like ants,
cockroaches and houseflies.
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20.5 IPM strategy for field and horticultural crops

20.5.1 IPM for cotton
Several numbers of pests like aphids, leafhoppers, thrips, whiteflies etc and
bollworms (Pink, Spotted and American bollworms) infest cotton during early
vegetative growth to maturity of crops. Hence strategies for managing these pests
have direct impact on success of IPM strategies which emphasize survival and
build up of natural enemies in cotton ecosystem. The IPM practices are:
 Selection and use of resistant/tolerant varieties against major pests
 Use of light trap to monitor hoppers, bollworms, cutworm
 Use of pheromone traps for monitoring/mass trapping bollworms
 Collection and destruction of infested plant parts, squares and bolls
 Growing trap crop (e.g.) Castor for Spodoptera litura
 Manual collection and removal of egg masses of S. litura
 Hand picking of bollworm larvae
 Use of insect viruses SlNPV and HaNPV against Spodoptera litura and
Helicoverpa armigera respectively
 Avoid ratoon and double cotton crop
 Avoid staking of stalks in the field
 Synchronize sowing time at village level
 Follow crop rotation with unrelated crops
 Removal of alternate hosts
 Judicious use of nitrogen and water to manage hoppers and white flies
 Use of yellow sticky traps for whiteflies
 Observe IRM (Insecticide Resistance Management) practices like
o Treat seeds with Imidacloprid 7.5 g/kg seed of cotton to manage early
stage sucking pests
o Use of predators like Chrysoperla carnea
o Use of egg parasitoid Trichogramma sp. against bollworms
 Apply insecticides only based on need, when pest population/damage
reaches
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20.5.2 IPM in cruciferous vegetables

Cole crops are invariably infested with diamond back moth, leaf webber, cabbage
borer and cabbage butterfly; Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera also
appear as head borers at times. IIHR has developed the effective IPM package
mainly using mustard as a trap crop. The IPM practices are:
 Removal and destruction of crop residues to break the cycles of painted
bugs as well as leaf webbers in specific localities,
 Selecting the derivatives of PI 234599 in cabbage having shiny leaves
with moderate resistance to diamond back moth.
 Growing mustard as trap crop in cabbage or cauliflower fields. Mustard
should be sown in paired rows (one row 15 days after planting and another
30 days after planting cabbage or cauliflower) for every 25 rows of
cauliflower/cabbage.
 Application of neem seed kernel extract (5%) in synchrony with the
incidence of diamond back moth/leaf webber on cabbage, which is found
safer to parasitoids like Cotesia plutellae
 Resorting to cartap hydrochloride /Bt formulation applications, if head
borers (Hellula / Spodoptera / Helicoverpa) appear.
 Opting for insecticide like dichlorvos only when situation warrants and
sufficient time gap is available between spraying and harvesting.
20.6 IPM case histories
IPM programme successfully implemented in different countries. The following are
few examples of successful IPM programmes worldwide
 In Philippines, in 1993, IPM farmers obtained 4.7 to 62% higher rice
yield and reduced pesticide use by 15% compared to non-IPM.
 In India in 1995, IPM farmers obtained 6.2 to 42.1% increased rice
yield, and reduced pesticide use by 50% compared to non-IPM farmers.
 In Thailand in 1993 adoption of IPM technology resulted in 145%
increase in net profit in IPM fields over non-IPM fields in cruciferous
vegetables.
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 In India on cotton crop, adoption of IPM technology resulted in 73.7

and 12.4% reduction in the number of insecticide sprays against sucking
pests and bollworms. In spite of reduction in pesticide sprays 21-27%
increase in seed cotton yield was obtained in IPM areas compared to
non-IPM. Natural enemy population also increased 3 folds.
 IPM is useful and economical in high value, plantation crops like
Coconut, Coffee, Tea, Cashew nut and Areca nut.
20.7 Concept of damage levels
Presence of insects in crop field does not mean that it needs chemical control. Low
infestation sometimes is beneficial to yield by stimulating plant growth or by
allowing fewer fruits to develop greater size. Therefore, it is the important decision
of how far a particular pest population can be allowed to grow before the
application of insecticides. Economic damage was defined as the amount of injury
which will justify the cost of control measures. It should be kept in mind that there
is a difference between injury and damage. Injury is the effect of pest activities on
host physiology that is usually deleterious. Damage is a measurable loss of host
utility, most often including yield quantity, quality, or aesthetics.
20.7.1 Economic injury levels (EIL) & its determination
EIL is lowest population at which the pest will cause economic damage or it is the
pest level at which the damage can no longer be tolerated and therefore it is the
level at or before which the control measures are initiated. EIL is usually expressed
as the number of pests per unit area. EIL can be determined using following
formula
EIL = C/V x I x D x K (or) C/ VIDK
Where
EIL = Economic injury level in insects/production (or) insects/ha
C = Cost of management activity per unit of production (Rs./ha)
V = Market value per unit of yield or product (Rs./tonne)
I = Crop injury per insect (Per cent defoliation/insect)
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D = Damage or yield loss per unit of injury (Tonne loss/%

defoliation)
K = Proportionate reduction in injury from pesticide use
20.7.2 Economic threshold levels (ETL) & its determination
It is the index for making pest management decisions. ETL is defined as the
population density at which control measures should be applied to prevent
increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level. It indicates the
number (density) of the potential pest at which management action should be
taken. For this reason, it is also called the action threshold level. Although
expressed in insect numbers, the ETL is a really time parameter. Just as with EILs,
ETLS also can be expressed in insect equivalents. E.g. ETL value for BPH in rice
is 25 insects/hill; Grasshoppers or cutworms is 1 insect/hill; rice stem borer -5%
dead hearts; Gall midge of rice-5% silver shoots.
Relationship between EIL and ETL can be expressed as when no action is taken at
ETL the population reaches or exceeds EIL. ETL represents pest density lower
than EIL to allow time for initiation of control measure. The market value of crop
and management costs are the primary factors and degree of injury per insect and
Crop susceptibility to injury are secondary factors Influencing ETL and EIL.
20.8 System approach
Control of insect pest population is a function of the ecosystem itself by means of
natural enemies and other factors. Knowledge of the role of the principle elements
of the units is essential to an understanding of population phenomenon. The study
of individuals is of prime importance, their biology behaviour response to other
members of the same species and to other organisms and to biotic factors in the
environment. The study of individuals offers a potent method for this analysis of
population change. The most effective system for controlling pests can be derived
only after understanding the principles responsible for the population fluctuation in
the ecosystem.
The important rational planning for effective land use to promote efficiency is well
recognized. The ever increasing need for food to support growing population @
2.1% (1860 millions) in the country demand a systematic appraisal of our soil and
climatic resources to recast effective land use plan. Since the soils and climatic
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conditions of a region largely determine the cropping pattern and crop yields.
Reliable information on agro ecological regions homogeneity in soil site conditions
is the basic to maximize agricultural production on sustainable basis. This kind of
systematic approach may help in planning and optimizing land use and preserving
soils, environment.
India exhibits a variety of land scopes and climatic conditions those are reflected in
the evolution of different soils and vegetation. There also exists a significant
relationship among the soils, land form climate and vegetation. All crops cannot be
grown in all types of agro climatic zones. Some crops can be possible to grow in
all zones and some crops will be grown in some zones.
Every plant has its own agro-ecosystem.
Decision making in IPM requires an analysis of the ecosystem. Sampling and
thresholds are important parts of this analysis. Some parts of the ecosystems
interact. Now we will begin to use a method of ecosystem analysis(ESA) to
facilitate discussion and decision making.
20.9 Agro-ecosystem
Agro-ecosystem is mainly created and maintained to satisfy human wants or needs.
It is not a natural ecosystem but is manmade. Agro-ecosystem is the basic unit of
pest management. It is a branch of applied ecology. A typical agro-ecosystem is
composed of more or less uniform crop-plant population and has weed, animals
(including insects) and micro-biotic communities which reacted with physical
environment.
Unique features of Agro-ecosystem: It is dominated by plants selected by man
and there is no diversity in species and no intra-specific diversity and is genetically
uniform. Phenological events like germination, flowering occurs simultaneously.
Lack of temporal continuity - due to various agricultural operations carried out by
man like ploughing, weeding, pesticide application etc. Plants contain imported
genetic material and nutrients are added. Outbreak of pests, weeds and diseases
occur frequently.
20.9.1 Cropping system versus IPM: AESA is an approach which can be
gainfully employed by extension functionaries and farmers to analyse field
situations with regard to pests, defenders, soil conditions, plant health, the
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influence of climatic factors and their interrelationship for growing healthy crop.
Such a critical analysis of the field situations will help in situations will help in
taking appropriate decision on management practices. The basic components of
AESA are:
i. Plants health at different stages. Monitor symptoms of diseases and
nematodes.
ii. Built-in-compensation abilities of the plants.
iii. Pest and defender population dynamics.
iv. Soil conditions.
v. Climatic factors.
vi. Farmers past experience.
20.10 IPM implementation
Although IPM has been accepted in principle as the most attractive choice for the
protection of agricultural crops from the ravages of insect and non insect pests, yet
implementation at the farmer’s fields is limited.
20.10.1 Constraints in IPM implementation
The Consultant Group of the IPM Task Force found following cconstraints in
implementation of IPM in farmer’s fields and these are listed below:
 Institutional constraint: IPM requires interdisciplinary approach to solve
pest problem. Lack of coordination among different institutions is a main
constraint. Lacking of farmer’s need based research programme.
 Informational constraint: Lack of information or training on IPM among
farmers and extension workers.
 Sociological constraint: Some farmers feel it is risky to adopt IPM
compared to use of pesticides alone. Our farmers are habituated to using
more pesticides.
 Economic constraint: Lack of funding for research, extension and farmer
training needed for and accelerated programme is one of the major
constraints.
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 Political constraint: Vested interest associated with pesticide trade and

pesticide subsidy given by Government.
20.10.2 Strategies for IPM implementation
Acceleration of IPM implementation requires the following
 Farmer’s participation: Farmers must be encouraged to participate in IPM
and give their views through trainings,
 Government support: Government can remove subsidies on pesticides and
allot more funds for IPM implementation.
 Legislative measures: Suitable legislation (law) may be passed for
adopting IPM by all farmers (IPM will be successful only if adopted on
community basis).
 Improved institutional infrastructure: National level institution for
implementation of IPM is a must. Data base on role of biotic and abiotic
factors on pest population, crop yield are required.
 Improved awareness: Awareness should be generated at all levels on IPM
i.e. Policy makers, farmers, consumers and general public. NGOs (Non
Governmental Organization) should be made aware of the advantages of
IPM.
20.11 Pest survey and surveillance forecasting
20.11.1 Pest Surveillance and forecasting
Pest surveillance is the systematic monitoring of biotic and abiotic factors of the
crop ecosystem in order to predict the pest outbreak or it is the study of the ecology
of the pest which provides the necessary information to determine the feasibility of
a pest management programme. By the Pest surveillance programmes, the
population dynamics and the key natural mortality factors operating under field
conditions can be known which in turn helps in devising the appropriate
management strategies. The important components of pest surveillance are
 Identification of the pest.
 Distribution and prevalence of the pest and its severity.
 The different levels of incidences and the loss due to the incidences.
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 Pest population dynamics.

 Assessment of weather.
 Assessment of natural enemies etc.
This study will give advance knowledge of probable pest infestation and will help
to plan cropping patterns and to get best advantage of pest control measures.
Forecasting for Pest Management: The Pest surveillance programmes are highly
useful in forecasting of the pests. It is the advance knowledge of probable
infestation by the pests in a crop. Forecasting is made through studies of
population carried over several years, pest life history, effect of climate on the pest
and its environment in fields and empirical data on the pests of the previous season
in predictions form. Pest forecasting may serve to predict the forthcoming
infestation levels of a pest which is very useful in taking control measures and to
find out the critical stages at which the application of insecticides would afford
maximum protection. Forecasting is mainly of two types.
 Short term forecasting: Covers one or two seasons mainly based on the
populations of the pest within the crop by sampling methods.
 Long term forecasting: It covers large areas and based mainly on the
possible effects of weather on the insect abundance. Ex. Locust warning
stations.
Pest surveillance and monitoring in India: Pest surveillance and monitoring
form an integral part of IPM technology. Directorate of Plant Protection ,
Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), Faridabad, is organizing regular rapid roving
pest surveys on major field crops in different agro ecosystems in collaboration with
ICAR and SAU’s and a consolidated report then issued by Plant Protection
Adviser (PPA) to the Government of India.
20.11.2 Types of surveys
Survey is conducted to study the abundance of a pest species in particular crop in
particular time and space. Qualitative survey is useful for detection of pest whereas
quantitative survey is useful for enumeration of pest.
There are two types of survey is generally conducted.
(1)Roving survey (2) Fixed plot survey
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Roving survey: in this survey, assessment of pest population/damage from

randomly selected spots representing larger area in short period and provides
information on pest level.
Fixed plot survey: Assessment of pest population/damage from a fixed plot
selected in a field. The data on pest population/damage recorded periodic from
sowing till harvest.
20.11.3 Remote sensing methods
Remote sensing is collection of data from a distance. Data sensors can simply be
hand-held devices, mounted on aircraft or satellite-based. Remotely-sensed data
provide a tool for evaluating crop health. Plant stress related to moisture, nutrients,
compaction, crop pests and other plant health concerns are often easily detected in
overhead images. Electronic cameras can also record near infrared images that are
highly correlated with healthy plant tissue. New image sensors with high spectral
resolution are increasing the information collected from satellites. Remotely sensed
images can help determine the location and extent of crop stress. Analysis of such
images used in tandem with scouting can help determine the cause of certain
components of crop stress. The images can then be used to develop and implement
a spot treatment plan that optimizes the use of agricultural inputs, rationally.
20.11.4 Factors affecting surveys
A successful survey programme consideration has to be given to the nature of the
sample, mode of the samplings, the size and number of samples. The precision of a
pest population estimate based on a given sampling technique would depend upon
both the properties of the population in terms of its density and degree of
aggregation and upon the characteristics of the sampling plan i.e. the number and
size of the samples. Surveys are influenced by number of factors like variation in
 Behavior of an insect with change in age
 Level of activity of the pests as influenced by its diurnal cycle
 Responsiveness of sexes to trap stimuli
 Efficiency of the trap or the searching method, besides the pest
population.
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20.12 Risk analysis

20.12.1 Pest Risk analysis
It is an evolving and dynamic field which informs about decisions for regulatory
plant protection, from domestic activities such as prioritizing pests for surveillance
to making quarantine decisions regarding the importation of the products. Analysis
of pest risk in plant introduction is essential to decide as to whether a particular
planting material could be permitted entry or not. Such risk analysis provides
sound biological basis to decide quarantine policies. The attitude towards 'entry
status' of a material may be liberal or conservative depending on the risks involved
in its introduction. If risks are low, quarantine would be liberal in permitting the
entry.
20.12.2 Pesticides risk analysis
Risk can affect pesticide decision making either because of risk aversion or
because of its influence on expected profit. Risk does not necessarily lead to
increased pesticide use by individual farmers. Uncertainty about some variables,
such as pest density and pest mortality, does lead to higher optimal pesticide use
under risk aversion. However, uncertainty about other important variables, such as
output price and yield, leads to lower optimal levels of pesticide use. In general,
the pesticide dosage which maximizes expected profit is lower under risk than
under certainty. Depending on the balance of forces to increase and decrease
pesticide use under risk, in many circumstances the net effect of risk on optimal
decision making for pest control may be minimal.
20.13 Cost benefit rations and partial budgeting
20.13.1 Cost benefit ration
As we improve the capability for predicting pest appearance, we can determine
precisely the ETLs a, and know exactly when to apply control measures. There is a
need to emphasize costs and benefits. The preparation of crop life tables provides a
solid foundation for analysis of pest damage and, cost /benefit ration in pest
management. If a crop is grown more than once in a year in the same field we
should work out the crop-season life tables. In most pest control activities, the
benefits are usually not known, because those cannot be measured, hence the cost
of prevention becomes the cost of production. In other word the use of pesticides
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can rarely contribute for an increase in yield and, at best, it can prevent the loss of
yield, making the benefit both indirect and incalculable.
20.13.2 Benefit risk ration
It provides the means for assessing relevant economics versus risks in pest control.
The judicious use of insecticides should be the philosophy of pest management. It
is estimated that generally, 1 per cent of the insecticides applied reaches the target
pest and the rest merely contaminate the environment as residue or causes
mortality of the non target or even useful species. Some non degradable
insecticides, such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons, attain biological magnification
in the environment through food chains. Thus a grower while ensuring safety in
handling and applying a higher toxic pesticide should also consider its injurious
effects in the environment.
20.13.3 Partial budgeting
It is also known as marginal analysis or incremental analysis. This is an estimate of
the net benefit from a small change to a farm operation in order to guide a farm
decision. It focuses only on the things that change to increase the net profit. In this
budgeting, build on enterprise budgets only, do not make budget for each
enterprise completely. In this budget, holds all else fixed and evaluate effect of a
small change is done in practice. In IPM, partial budgeting is made for specific
management practices change for particular pest.
20.14 Summary
IPM is the development of a set of management tactics or practices (cultural,
physical, mechanical, biological, chemical, genetic, behavioural etc.) that maintain
pest populations at economically low level with as little disturbance to the
ecosystem particularly the beneficial insects and natural enemies as may be
absolutely necessary. Chemical intervention is minimal or a last device and other
measures are given due consideration. It is essentially non-prescriptive, which
means that the farmers must understand it and practise it intelligently. The IPM
practices vary with plants; therefore, we need to develop IPM strategies against
pests of each crop in every habitat. Understanding of EIL and EIL and pest
surveillance are important aspects for implementation of IPM. Pest and pesticides
risk analysis are also essential parameters for making quarantine decisions
regarding the importation of the products.
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20.15 Glossary
 Antibiosis: It refers to the harmful effects of host plant on the insect due to
the presence of some toxic substances or absence of required nutritional
components
 Aspermia: Inactivation of sperms
 Augmentation: It is the rearing and releasing of natural enemies to
supplement the numbers of naturally occurring natural enemies.
 Auto-Sterilization: Sterilization of native insects in their natural
environment by using chemosterilants along with the species specific
attractants / lures/ bait traps.
 Economic Threshold Level: It is the population density at which control
measures should be applied to prevent increasing pest population from
reaching the economic injury level.
 Ecto-hormone: Chemicals that is secreted into the external environment by
an animal and that elicits a specific response in a receiving individual of the
same species.
 Incremental analysis: It is an estimate of the net benefit from a small
change to a farm operation in order to guide a farm decision.
 Parasite: It is an organism which is usually much smaller than its host and
a single individual usually doesn’t kill the host.
 Poison Baits: These are a mixture of food lures and insecticides.
1. The density of pest population at which control measures should be applied is
known as _______________.
2. Pest population that produces incremental damage equal to the cost of
preventing the damage is called as_________________.
3. NCIPM is situated at ________________.
4. Who got World Food prize in the field of IPM?
5. ______________ is the phenomena of obtaining nourishment at the expense of
the host to which the parasite is attached.
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6. Crop rotation is most effective practice against pests that have a

narrow________________ and ______________.
1. Define EIL and ETL?
2. Differentiate between cost benefit and benefit risk ration?
3. What is pest surveillance?
4. Explain pesticide risk analysis?
5. What are the types of survey?
6. Write a short note on genetic control?
7. Write differences between aggregation and trail pheromone?
1. Outline various practices applied in the insect pest management?
2. What are the strategies for implementation of IPM?
3. Write down in brief the IPM practices should follow in cotton agro-ecosystem?
4. Define the IPM and write down the concept and principles of IPM?
5. Write in detail about insect attractants?
1. Economic Threshold Level
2. Economic Injury Level
3. New Delhi
4. Ray F. Smith and Perry Adkisson
5. Parasitism
6. host range and dispersal activity
20.17 References
 Nayer, K. K.; Ananthakrishnan, T. N. and David, B. V. (1976): General and
Applied Entomology, McGraw-Hill Offices, New Delhi.
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MZO-09

Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota

Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota

Coordinator and Members

Academic and Administrative Management

Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota

Vardhman Mahaveer Open University, Kota

 Era of optimism (from 1946 to 1962)

7) It should have low toxicity to beneficial insects or non target species.

FIG 1.1: Pie chart showing consumption of insecticide throughout world

FIG 1.2: Pie chart showing consumption of insecticide throughout India

Methomyl Methyl bromide (fumigant)

basic concentrated chemical compound) and the other is formulations from

FIG 1.3: General insect showing mode of entry of insecticides

i) Nacrotics: It induces unconsciousness in insects; they are fat

used as dust. Example:tricalcium arsenate against cut worms,

2. Fluorine compounds: it is relatively safer to plants as compared to

all botanicals but highly toxic to honeybees. Used against

 Organic thiocyanites- Trade name is Loro against aphids, spider

 Eldrin/octalene- It is white crystalline solid, insoluble in

breakdown in presence of light into non toxic compound therefore it

 Dichlorovos/ DDVP (Trade name- Nuvan, Dedevap,

ORGANOPHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDE P- valency 5, R- short chain

 Carbamates- It is a derivative of carbamic acid having –

iv) Hydrocarbons such as petroleum, oil, kerosene used to wide

1.8 Concept of Ist, IInd, IIIrd generation of insecticides

 They are species specific and less harmful to human.

FIG 1.6: Food chain showing different trophic levels biomagnification of

IIIrd Generation Pesticides

1. Differentiate I, II and III generation pesticide?

2. Define toxicology and its types?

Answer Key of Section-A

productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter

a) DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane)

Chemical formula – C14H9C15l

It is a very powerful insecticide which exercise a prolonged lethal residual

b) BHC or HCH (Benzene hexachloride)

IUPAC name – 1,2,3,4,5,6- hexachorocyclohexane

Chemical formula – C6H6Cl6

It is a crystalline tasteless perfectly stable powder of sand colour, having a

Chemical formula - C12H8Cl6

e) Endosulfan (Thiodan/ Endosel)

Chemical formula - C9H6Cl6O3S

Chemical formula - C10H10Cl8

drinking water. Their ability to degrade made them an attractive alternative to

Chemical formula - C10H19O6PS2

Chemical formula – C10H14NO5PS

Chemical formula - C8H10NO5PS

Chemical formula – C4H7Cl2O4P

Chemical formula – C9H12P5NPS

Chemical formula - C12H21N2O3PS

It is a non systemic insecticide with some acaricidal action. It may be

Chemical formula – C7H14NO5P

Chemical formula - C12H11NO2

Chemical formula - C7H14N2O2S

Chemical formula - C12H15NO3

Chemical formula - C5H10N2O2S

Chemical formula - C19H26O3