CHAPTER 4
DC CIRCUITS
1. TROUBLESHOOTING is the process of identifying and locating a failure or problem in a
circuit. It is finding out why a circuit is not doing what it is supposed to do.
1.1 Open is caused by excessive power dissipation (burns out the interior of the device),
cold-solder joint, loose connections, or broken conduction path.
1.1.1 Open in a Series Circuit
(a) An open device (R2 open)
R1
I2 = 0 I1 = I 3 = I = 0
E R2 V2 = E V1 = V3 = 0
R2 = R = infinity R1 and R3 = Nominal Value (NV)
R3
(b) An open wire
R1
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = I = 0
E R2 V2 = V1 = V3 = 0
R1, R2, and R3 = NV R = infinity
R3
NOTE
The current through an open device or wire is zero. The voltage
across all the good resistors is zero because there is no current in
all parts of the series circuit. The voltage across an open device
or wire is equal to the total voltage as seen through the open
terminal.
1.1.2 Open in a Parallel Circuit
(a) An open device (R2 open)
I2 = 0 I = I1 + I3
E R1 R2 R3 V2 = V1 = V3 = E
R2 = R = R1 // R3 (in-circuit)
R2 = infinity (out-of-circuit)
NOTE
When an open device occurs in a parallel branch, the total resistance
increases and the total current decreases and the same current flows
through each of the remaining branches. An open resistor cannot be
located by voltage measurement because the same voltage exists across all
the branches. If a visual inspection does not reveal the open resistor, it
must be located by current measurement.
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(b) An open wire
I2 = I 3 = 0 I1 = I
E R1 R2 R3 V2 = V3 = 0 V1 = E
R2 = R3 = R2 // R3 R = R1
I2 = 0 I = I1 + I3
E R1 R2 R3 V2 = 0 V1 = V3 = E
R2 = NV R = R1 // R3
I2 = I 1 + I 3 = I = 0
E R1 R2 R3 V2 = V1 = V3 = 0
R2 = R1 = R3 = R1 // R2 // R3
1.1.3 Open in a Series-Parallel Circuit
(a) An open device (R3 open)
R1
I3 = 0 I1 = I 2 = I
E R2 R3 V3 = V2 = (E x R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)
R3 = R2 R = R1 + R2
(b) An open wire
R1
I3 = 0 I1 = I 2 = I
E R2 R3 V3 = 0 V2 = (E x R2) ÷ (R1 + R2)
R1, R2, and R3 = NV R = R1 + R2
1.2 Short occurs when two conductors touch or a foreign object (solder bridge, metallic
dust, or wire clipping) connects two sections of a circuit together.
1.2.1 Short in a Series Circuit (R2 shorted)
R1
I2 = I 1 = I 3 = I
E R2 V2 = 0 V1 + V3 = E
R2 = 0 R = R1 + R3
R3
NOTE
The voltage across a shorted device or circuit is zero. The
current through a shorted device or circuit is high. A shorted
device or circuit has a zero resistance. A portion of the series
resistance is bypassed (all of the current goes through the
short) causing the current to increase and the total resistance
to decrease.
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1.2.2 Short in a Parallel Circuit (R2 shorted)
I2 = I = infinite 0 I1 = I 3 = 0
E R1 R2 R3 V2 = V1 = V3 = 0
R = R2 = R1 = R3 = 0 (In-circuit)
NOTE
A short circuit has zero resistance, resulting in excessive
current. When one branch is short-circuited, all parallel paths
are also short-circuited. The entire current is in the shorted R 2
and bypasses the short-circuited branches, R1 and R3. The
fuse in the supply voltage will burst and open, thus E = 0 V.
1.2.3 Shorted in a Series-Parallel Circuit (R3 shorted)
R1
I3 = I 1 = I I2 = 0
E R2 R3 V3 = V2 = 0 V1 = E
R3 = R2 = 0 R = R1
2. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS is formulated by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.
To solve for the voltages and currents in a given circuit using Kirchhoff’s Laws, the first step
is to identify the polarity of the voltage across each resistor and the corresponding directions
of the current.
I4 R4
I1 R1 B R2 I2
A C
EX R3 EY
I3
IX D IY
2.1 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):
In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of all the voltages (drops and sources) is equal to
zero.
Loop ABDA: V 1 + V 3 – EX = 0 Loop ABCA: V1 – V 2 – V 4 = 0
Loop BCDB: -V2 + EY – V3 = 0 Loop ABCDA: V 1 – V 2 + E Y – EX = 0
2.2 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):
2.2.1 The sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing away from that same junction.
Junction A: IX = I1 + I4 Junction B: I1 + I 2 = I 3
Junction C: IY + I4 = I2 Junction D: I3 = I X + I Y
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2.2.2 A junction is any point in a circuit where two or more circuit paths are connected
together.
3. SUPERPOSITION METHOD is a way to determine currents and voltages in a circuit that
has two or more voltage sources by taking one source at a time.
R1 R2
V1 = E 1 – V3
E1 R3 E2 V2 = E 2 – V3
V3 = V13 + V23
STEP 1: Identify the resistor that is shared by the voltage sources. It is R 3.
STEP 2: Take one source voltage (E1) and short the other voltage source (E2).
STEP 3: Determine the voltage across the resistor R3.
R1 R2
E1 x (R2 // R3)
E1 R3 V23 = ------------------
(R2 // R3) + R1
STEP 4: Take the other source voltage (E2) and short the voltage source (E1).
STEP 5: Determine the voltage across the resistor R3.
R1 R2
E2 x (R1 // R3)
R3 E2 V13 = ------------------
(R1 // R3) + R2
Step 6: Add or subtract the voltages (V13 & V23) due to each individual source. If voltages are of the
same polarities, add them. If the voltages are of opposite polarities, subtract them.
4. THEVENIN'S THEOREM
A circuit with many voltage sources and components can be represented by a single
resistance RTH in series with a single voltage source VTH.
R1 R2 RTH
E1 R3 E2 VTH R3
The Circuit Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
4.1 Thevenin’s Resistance RTH is also known as open-load resistance:
STEP 1: Open the resistor (R3) whose voltage is to be computed.
STEP 2: Short all the source voltages.
STEP 3: Compute for the total resistance or the Thevenin’s resistance, R TH.
R1 R2
RTH RTH = R1 // R2
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4.2 Thevenin’s Voltage VTH is also known as open-load voltage:
STEP 1: Open the resistor (R3) whose voltage is to be computed.
STEP 2: Determine the voltages across the resistors R1 and R2.
STEP 3: Compute the voltage (VTH) across the open resistor.
R1 R2 Assuming E1 > E2
(E1 - E2) x R1
E1 VTH E2 V1 = ---------------- V 2 = E 1 – V1 – E 2
R1 + R2
VTH = E1 – V1 = V2 + E2
4.3 Voltage and Current Computation Using the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
VTH x R3 VTH
V3 = ---------- I3 = ----------
RTH + R3 RTH + R3
6. NORTON'S THEOREM
A circuit with many voltage sources and components can be represented by a single
resistance in parallel with a single current source.
R1 R2
E1 R3 E2 IN RM R3
The Circuit Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
6.1 Norton's Resistance, RN
STEP 1: Open the resistor (R3) whose current is to be computed.
STEP 2: Short the source voltages (E1 and E2).
STEP 3: Compute for the total resistance (RN) across the open resistor.
R1 R2
RN RN = R1 // R2
6.2 Norton's Current IN is also known as shorted-load current:
STEP 1: Short the resistor (R3) whose current is to be computed.
STEP 2: Compute the current (IN) through the shorted resistor.
R1 R2
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
V1 = E1 and V2 = E2
E1 IN E2
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
I1 I2 IN = I 1 + I 2
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6.3 Thevenin To Norton Circuit Conversion
R3
VTH
VTH RTH IN R3 RN RN = RTH IN = -----
RTH
6.4 Voltage and Current Computation Using the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
RN x R 3 IN x R N
V3 = IN ---------- I3 = -----------
RN + R 3 RN + R3
6.5 The arrow in the Norton current source points in the direction of the conventional
current.
7. MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGES WITH RESPECT TO GROUND
7.1 The negative test probe is always connected to the circuit ground and the positive test
probe is connected to the points at which the voltages are to be measured.
7.2 The voltage at any point in a circuit with respect to the ground is equal to the sum of the
series-aiding voltages minus the sum of the series-opposing voltages.
STEP 1 Identify, which of the source voltages (E1 and E2) is greater
STEP 2 Determine the direction of the current flow.
STEP 3 Identify the polarities of the voltages across each resistor.
STEP 4 Solve for the total resistance, the total source voltage and the total current.
STEP 5 Compute the voltage drop (V1, V2, V3, V4 , V5 & V6) across each resistor.
STEP 6 Determine the voltage at a point in the circuit with respect to the ground.
R2 B R3 E 2 – E1
A C I = ---------------------------------
R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + R6
R1 E2
G VA = -V2 – V3 + E2 = V1 + E1 + V6 + V5 + V4
K VB = -V3 + E2
E1 R6 R5 R4 VC = E 2
VD = V4
H F D VF = V5 + V 4
VH = V6 + V5 + V4
Assume: E1 < E2 VK = -V1 – V2 – V3 + E2 = E1 + V6 + V5 + V4
7.3 Ground is the common or reference point in a circuit.
7.3.1 Earth Ground is a method of grounding used in ac power lines in which one side
of the line is connected to a metal rod driven into the ground.
7.3.2 Chassis Ground is the common or reference point is connected to the metal
chassis that houses the circuit assembly.
7.3.3 Circuit Ground is the common or reference point is connected to a large
conductive area on a printed circuit board (PCB).
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8. WYE TO DELTA CONVERSION
RA
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2R3
R3 R2 RA = ------------------------
R1
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2R3
RB RC RB = -----------------------
R1 R2
R1R2 + R1R3 + R2R3
RC = -----------------------
R3
9. DELTA TO WYE CONVERSION
RA
RBRC
R3 R2 R1 = -----------------
RA + RB + RC
RARC
RB RC R2 = -----------------
R1 RA + RB + RC
RARB
R3 = -----------------
RA + RB + RC
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