Heat & Mass Transfer (Book)
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QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
Heat & Mass Transfer
By
Shubham Tyagi
TM
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Heat & Mass Transfer (ME : Sem-5)
1st Edition : 2010-11 11th Edition : 2020-21
2nd Edition : 2011-12
3rd Edition : 2012-13
4th Edition : 2013-14
5th Edition : 2014-15
6th Edition : 2015-16
7th Edition : 2016-17
8th Edition : 2017-18
9th Edition : 2018-19 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
10th Edition : 2019-20
Price: Rs. 90/- only
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CONTENTS
KME–501 : HEAT & MASS TRANSFER
UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER (1–1 B to 1–50 B)
Introduction to Heat Transfer: Introduction of thermodynamics and Heat
Transfer, Modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction, convection and radiation,
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of different types of materials,
Introduction to combined heat transfer mechanism, General differential
heat conduction equation in the rectangular, cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems, Initial and system boundary conditions.
Steady State one-dimensional Heat conduction: Simple and Composite
Systems in rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinates with and
without energy generation, Concept of thermal resistance, Analogy between
heat and electricity flow, Thermal contact resistance and over-all heat transfer
coefficient, Critical radius of insulation for cylindrical, & spherical bodies.
UNIT-2 : FINS & TRANSIENT CONDUCTION (2–1 B to 2–31 B)
Fins: Heat transfer through extended surfaces & its classification, Fins of uniform cross-
sectional area, Error in measurement of temperature of thermometer wells. Transient
Conduction: Transient heat conduction, Lumped capacitance method, Time constant,
Unsteadystate heat conduction in one dimension only, Heislercharts& theirapplications.
UNIT-3 : FORCED & NATURAL CONVECTION (3–1 B to 3–28 B)
Forced Convection: Basic concepts: Hydrodynamic boundary layer, Thermal
boundary layer, Approximate integral boundary layer analysis, Analogy between
momentum and heat transfer in turbulent flow over a flat surface, Mixed boundary
layer, Flow over a flat plate, Flow across a single cylinder and a sphere, Flow inside
ducts, Thermal entrance region, Empirical heat transfer relations, Relation between
fluid friction and heat transfer, Liquid metal heat transfer. Natural Convection:
Physical mechanism of natural convection, Buoyant force, Empirical heat transfer
relations for natural convection over vertical planes and cylinders, horizontal
plates, cylinders and sphere, combined free & forced convection, Effect of turbulence.
UNIT-4 : THERMAL RADIATION (4–1 B to 4–24 B)
Basic concepts of radiation, Radiation properties of surfaces, Black body radiation
Planck’s law, Wein’s displacement law, Stefan-Boltzmann law, Kirchhoff’s
law, Gray body, Shape factor, Black-body radiation, Radiation exchange
between diffuse non-black bodies in an enclosure, Radiation shields, Radiation
combined with conduction & convection; Absorption & emission in gaseous
medium; Solar radiation; Greenhouse effect, Radiation network analysis.
UNIT-5 : HEAT EXCHANGER (5–1 B to 5–42 B)
Different types of heat exchangers, Fouling factors, Overall heat transfer
coefficient, Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method,
Effectiveness-number of transfer unit (NTU) method & Compact Heat
Exchangers. Condensation & Boiling: Introduction of condensation
phenomena, Heat transfer relations for laminar film condensation on vertical
surfaces & on outside & inside of a horizontal tube, Effect of non condensable
gases, Drop wise condensation, Heat pipes, Boiling modes, pool boiling,
Hysteresis in boiling curve, Forced convection boiling. Introduction to
Mass Transfer: Introduction of Fick's law of diffusion, Steady state equimolar
counter diffusion, Steady state diffusion through a stagnant gas film, Heat
& Mass Transfer Analogy-Convective Mass Transfer Correlations.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1B to SQ-15B)
SOLVED PAPERS (2013-14 TO 2019-20) (SP-1B to SP-39B)
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MECHANICALENGINEERING
SubjectCode:KME501 HeatandMassTransfer LTP:310 Credits:4
Blooms
Thestudentswillbeableto
Taxonomy
COͲ1 Understandthefundamentalsofheatandmasstransfer. K2
COͲ2 Applytheconceptofsteadyandtransientheatconduction. K3
COͲ3 Applytheconceptofthermalbehavioroffins. K3
COͲ4 Applytheconceptofforcedandfreeconvection. K3
COͲ5 ApplytheconceptofradiationforblackandnonͲblackbodies. K3
COͲ6 Conductthermalanalysisofheatexchangers. K4
UNITͲ1
IntroductiontoHeatTransfer (LͲ5Hours)
IntroductionofthermodynamicsandHeatTransfer,ModesofHeatTransfer:Conduction,convection
andradiation,Effectoftemperatureonthermalconductivityofdifferenttypesofmaterials,Introduction
tocombinedheattransfermechanism,Generaldifferentialheatconductionequationintherectangular,
cylindricalandsphericalcoordinatesystems,Initialandsystemboundaryconditions.
SteadyStateoneͲdimensionalHeatconduction (LͲ3Hours)
Simple and Composite Systems in rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinates with and without
energygeneration,Conceptofthermalresistance,Analogybetweenheatandelectricityflow,Thermal
contactresistanceandoverͲallheattransfercoefficient,Criticalradiusofinsulationforcylindrical,and
sphericalbodies.
UNITͲ2
Fins (LͲ3Hours)
Heattransferthroughextendedsurfacesanditsclassification,FinsofuniformcrossͲsectionalarea,Error
inmeasurementoftemperatureofthermometerwells.
TransientConduction (LͲ3Hours)
Transientheatconduction,Lumpedcapacitancemethod,Timeconstant,Unsteadystateheatconduction
inonedimensiononly,Heislerchartsandtheirapplications.
UNITͲ3
ForcedConvection (LͲ5Hours)
Basicconcepts:Hydrodynamicboundarylayer,Thermalboundarylayer,Approximateintegralboundary
layer analysis, Analogy between momentum and heat transfer in turbulent flow over a flat surface,
Mixed boundary layer, Flow over a flat plate, Flow across a single cylinder and a sphere, Flow inside
ducts, Thermal entrance region, Empirical heat transfer relations, Relation between fluid friction and
heattransfer,Liquidmetalheattransfer.
NaturalConvection (LͲ5Hours)
Physical mechanism of natural convection, Buoyant force, Empirical heat transfer relations for natural
Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page6
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MECHANICALENGINEERING
convectionoververticalplanesandcylinders,horizontalplates,cylindersandsphere,combinedfreeand
forcedconvection,Effectofturbulence.
UNITͲ4
ThermalRadiation (LͲ8Hours)
Basicconceptsofradiation,Radiationpropertiesofsurfaces,BlackbodyradiationPlanck’slaw,Wein’s
displacementlaw,StefanͲBoltzmannlaw,Kirchhoff’slaw,Graybody,Shapefactor,BlackͲbodyradiation,
Radiation exchange between diffuse nonͲblack bodies in an enclosure, Radiation shields, Radiation
combinedwithconductionandconvection;Absorptionandemissioningaseousmedium;Solarradiation;
Greenhouseeffect,Radiationnetworkanalysis.
UNITͲ5
HeatExchanger (LͲ5Hours)
Differenttypesofheatexchangers,Foulingfactors,Overallheattransfercoefficient,Logarithmicmean
temperature difference (LMTD) method, EffectivenessͲnumber of transfer unit (NTU) method and
CompactHeatExchangers.
CondensationandBoiling (LͲ3Hours)
Introduction of condensation phenomena, Heat transfer relations for laminar film condensation on
verticalsurfacesandonoutside&insideofahorizontaltube,EffectofnonͲcondensablegases,Dropwise
condensation, Heat pipes, Boiling modes, pool boiling, Hysteresis in boiling curve, Forced convection
boiling.
IntroductiontoMassTransfer (LͲ2Hours)
IntroductionofFick'slawofdiffusion,Steadystateequimolarcounterdiffusion,Steadystatediffusion
throughastagnantgasfilm,HeatandMassTransferAnalogyͲConvectiveMassTransferCorrelations
ReferenceBooks:Ͳ
1.FundamentalsofHeatandMassTransfer,byIncroperra&DeWitt,JohnWileyandSons
2.HeatandMassTransferbyCengel,McGrawͲHill
3.HeatTransferbyJ.P.Holman,McGrawͲHill
4.HeatandMassTransferbyRudramoorthyandMayilsamy,PearsonEducation
5.HeatTransferbyGhoshdastidar,OxfordUniversityPress
6.AtextbookonHeatTransfer,bySukhatme,UniversityPress.
7.HeatTransferbyVenkateshan,AneBooksPvtLtd
8.Schaum'soutlineofHeatTransferbyPitts&SissonMcGrawͲHill
9.HeatandMassTransferbyRYadav,CentralPublishingHouse
Curriculum&EvaluationSchemeV&VIsemester Page7
Heat & Mass Transfer
www.aktutor.in 1–1 B (ME-Sem-5)
1 Introduction to
Heat Transfer
Part-1 ............................................................................ (1–2B to 1–14B)
• Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Modes of Heat Transfer
• Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity of Materials
• Introduction to Combined Heat Transfer Mechanism
• General Differential Heat Conduction Equation in Rectangular,
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinate Systems
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 1–2B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 1–2B
Part-2 ......................................................................... (1–14B to 1–41B)
• Initial and Boundary Conditions
• Simple and Composite Systems in Rectangular, Cylindrical and
Spherical Coordinates With and Without Energy Generation
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 1–14B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 1–15B
Part-3 ......................................................................... (1–41B to 1–49B)
• Concept of Thermal Resistance
• Analogy between Heat and Electricity Flow
• Thermal Contact Resistance
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Critical Radius of Insulation
A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 1–41B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 1–41B
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–2 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer, Modes of Heat Transfer :
Conduction, Convection and Radiation, Effect of Temperature on
Thermal Conductivity of Materials, Introduction to Combined
Heat Transfer Mechanism, General Differential Heat
Conduction Equation in Rectangular, Cylindrical and
Spherical Coordinate Systems.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1
Thermodynamics : It is the science which deals with the relations
among heat, work and properties of system which are in equilibrium.
It describes state and changes in state of physical systems.
Heat Transfer : It is defined as the transmission of energy from one
region to another as a result of temperature gradient.
Modes of Heat Transfer :
1. Conduction,
2. Convection, and
3. Radiation.
Thermal Conductivity : The amount of energy conducted through
a body of unit area and unit thickness in unit time when the difference
in temperature between the faces causing heat flow is unity.
Combined Heat Transfer : This is the case which involves the use
of two or more than two modes of heat transfer.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer ? How are
they distinguished from each other ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer : Following are the three modes of
heat transfer :
a. Mechanism of Heat Transfer through Conduction :
1. Thermal conduction is a mechanism of heat propagation from region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature within a medium
or between different mediums in direct physical contact.
Heat & Mass Transfer
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2. Conduction does not involves any movement of macroscopic portion of
matter relative to one-another.
3. The conduction is done by :
i. Due to random molecular motion i.e., vibration of molecules about
its equilibrium position and the concept is termed as micro form of
heat transfer and is usually referred as diffusion of energy.
ii. The thermal energy may be transferred by means of electrons
which are free to move through the lattice structure of the material.
4. Heat transfer by conduction is prescribed by Fourier law :
dt
Q = – kA
dx
Where, k = Conduction heat transfer coefficient,
A = Cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction
of heat flow, and
dt
= temperature gradient.
dx
b. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Convection :
1. Thermal convection is a process of energy transport affected by the
circulation or mixing of a fluid medium.
2. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with
the transport of medium itself.
3. The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon
the mixing motion of the fluid.
4. There are basically two types of convection :
i. Natural or free convection, and
ii. Forced convection.
5. Convective heat transfer is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling i.e.,
Q = hA(ts – tf)
Where, h = Convection heat transfer coefficient,
ts = Surface temperature,
tf = Fluid temperature, and
A = Area exposed to heat transfer.
c. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Radiation :
1. The mechanism of heat transfer by radiation consists of three distinct
phase :
i. Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into electromagnetic
wave.
ii. Passage of wave motion through intervening space.
iii. Transformation of wave into heat.
2. Radiation heat transfer is governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law :
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Eb = b AT4 (for black body)
Where, Eb = Energy radiated per unit time,
b = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4, and
T = Absolute temperature.
B. Difference between Conduction, Convection and Radiation :
S. No. Conduction Convection Radiation
1. Heat flows from hot Each particle Heat flows
e nd to co ld e nd. abso rbing he at is without any
Particle s o f the mobile. intervening
medium simply medium in the form
oscillate but do not of electromagnetic
leave their place. waves.
2. Medium is necessary Medium is necessary Me dium is no t
for conduction. for convection. necessary for
radiation.
3. It is a slow process. It is also a slo w It is a ve ry fast
process. process.
4. Path o f heat flow Path may be zig-zag Path is a straight
may be zig-zag. or curved. line.
5. Co nductio n take s Co nve ctio n take s Radiatio n take s
place in solids. place in fluids. place in gase o us
and transpare nt
media.
6. The temperature of In this process also There is no change
the medium the temperature of in the temperature
increases thro ugh medium increases. of the medium.
which heat flows.
Que 1.2. Define thermal conductivity. Discuss the effect of
temperature on thermal conductivity.
Answer
A. Thermal Conductivity :
1. The amount of heat conducted through a body of unit area, and unit
thickness in unit time when the difference in temperature between the
faces causing heat flow is unity.
2. The unit of thermal conductivity is W/mK or W/m °C.
Heat & Mass Transfer
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B. Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity :
1. Thermal conductivity of most of the metals decreases with increase in
temperature.
2. Due to increase in temperature the density of solid decreases and
consequently thermal conductivity also decreases.
3. In most of the liquids, the values of thermal conductivity tends to decrease
with temperature due to decrease in density and with increase in
temperature.
4. But in case of gases thermal conductivity increases with temperature
because the thermal conductivity is directly proportional to the mean
free path of the molecules.
5. So, gases with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal
conductivity than those having lower molecular weight.
6. The dependence of thermal conductivity on temperature is as given below,
k = k0 (1 + t)
Where, k0 = Thermal conductivity at 0 °C.
= Te mperature co -e fficie nt o f thermal
conductivity which is positive for non-metal
and insulating material and negative for
metallic conductor.
7. Thermal conductivity of porous material depends upon the type of gas
or liquid present in the voids.
Que 1.3. Briefly explain the combined heat transfer mechanism.
Answer
1. In actual conditions, more than one mode of heat transfer is involved.
2. For example, consider a plate of emissivity maintained at temperature
Ts. The heat transfer from this plate will take place through both
convection and radiation.
3. The heat loss from this plate is
q = qconv + qrad
q = hA(Ts – T) + A (Ts4 – T4 )
T
qconv qrad
Ts
Fig. 1.3.1.
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Que 1.4. A brick (k = 1.2 W/m-K) wall 0.15 m thick separates hot
combustion gases of a furnace from the outside ambient air which
is at 25 °C. The outer surface temperature of the brick wall is found
to be 100 °C. If the natural convection heat transfer coefficient on
the outside of the brick wall is 20 W/m2-K and its emissivity is 0.8,
calculate the inner surface temperature of the brick wall.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : k = 1.2 W/m-K, L = 0.15 m, t = 25 °C = 25 + 273 = 298 K
t2 = 100 °C = 273 + 100 = 373 K, h = 20 W/m2-K, = 0.8
To Find : Inner surface temperature of brick wall.
1. As we know that,
Qcond. = Qconv. + Qrad.
t t
k 1 2 = h (t2 – t) + (t24 – t4)
L
t 373
1.2 1 = 20 (373 – 298) + 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.8 × [(373)4 – (298)4]
0.15
= 2020.3
2020.3 0.15
t1 = + 373 = 625.5 K = 352.5 ºC
1.2
Que 1.5. A carbon steel plate (k = 45 W/m-K) 600 mm × 900 mm ×
25 mm is maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the hot plate.
If convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2-°C and 250 W is lost
from the plate surface by radiation. Calculate the inside plate
temperature. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : A = 600 mm × 900 mm = 0.6 × 0.9 = 0.54 m2
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m, ts = 310 °C, tf = 15 °C, h = 22 W/m2-°C
Qrad.= 250 W, k = 45 W/m-°C
To Find : Inside plate temperature.
1. In this case the heat conducted through the plate is removed from the
plate surface by the combination of convection and radiation.
Heat conducted through the plate = Convection heat losses
+ Radiation heat losses
Qcond. = Qconv. + Qrad.
dt
–kA = hA (ts – tf) + 250
dx
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(ts ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × = 22 × 0.54 × (310 – 15) + 250
L
(310 ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × = 22 × 0.54 × 295 + 250
0.025
972 (ti – 310) = 3754.6
3754.6
ti = 310 = 313.86 °C
972
Qrad.
tf = 15 °C
Air
(fluid)
Qconv. = hA(ts - tf) ts = 310 °C
L = 25 mm
Heat conducted through wall, Qcond.
Fig. 1.5.1. Combination of conduction, convection
and radiation heat transfer.
Que 1.6. Derive the general heat conduction equation in
rectangular or cartesian coordinates.
Answer
1. Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelopiped (volume element)
of sides dx, dy, and dz parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in
a medium in which temperature is varying with location and time as
shown in Fig. 1.6.1.
2. Let, t = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this
temperature may be assumed uniform over the
entire surface, since the area of this face can be
made arbitrarily small, and
dt
= Rate of change of temperature along X-direction.
dx
t
Then, dx = Change of temperature through distance dx,
x
and
t
t dx = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a
x
distance dx from the left face ABCD).
Further, let, kx, ky, kz = Thermal conductivities along X, Y and Z axes.
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Y
Q(y + dy ) Qz
A (x , y , z )
D H
y
O X
z
x C G dy
Z Q(x + dx )
Elemental Qx A (x , y , z )
volume E
(rectangular
parallelopiped)
dz
Q(z + dz) B F
dx
Qg = qgdxdydx
Qy
Fig. 1.6.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis - Cartesian coordinates.
3. Quantity of heat flowing into element from the left face ABCD during
the time interval d in X-direction is given by
t
Heat influx, Qx = – kx (dydz)
d ...(1.6.1)
x
4. During the same time interval d the heat flowing out of the right face
of control volume (EFGH) will be
Heat efflux, Q(x + dx) = Qx
(Qx )dx ...(1.6.2)
x
5. Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,
subtracting eq. (1.6.2) from eq. (1.6.1), we get
dQx = Qx Qx (Qx )dx
x
= (Qx ) dx
x
t
= kx ( dydz) d dx
x x
t
= kx dxdydzd
x x
6. Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y
and Z-directions in time d will be :
dQy = ky t dxdydzd
y y
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t
dQz = kz dxdydzd
z z
7. So, net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from
all the coordinate directions is given as,
t t
= kx dxdydzd + ky dxdydzd
x x y y
t
+ kz dxdydzd
z z
t t t
= kx ky kz dxdydzd
x x y y z z
...(1.6.3)
8. The total heat generated in the element is given by
Qg = qg(dxdydz)d ...(1.6.4)
9. Energy stored in element,
t
= ( dxdydz)c
d ...(1.6.5)
10. Now using energy balance for the element, we have
t t t
x kx x y ky y z kz z dxdydzd + qg(dxdydz)d
t
= ( dxdydz)c d
11. Dividing both side by dxdydzd, we have
t t t t
kx ky kz + qg = c
x x y y z z
This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-
homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-
dimensional heat flow’.
12. In case of homogeneous and isotropic material (kx = ky = kz= k),
2 t 2 t 2 t qg c t
=
x 2 z2 z2 k k
2 t 2 t 2 t qg 1 t
or =
x 2 y 2 z2 k
k
where, = = Thermal diffusivity
.c
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Que 1.7. Derive the general heat conduction equation in
cylindrical coordinates. AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 10
Answer
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinate (r, , z) for three
dimensional heat conduction analysis as shown in Fig. 1.7.1.
2. The volume of the element,
dv = r d dr dz.
Let qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume
per unit time.
k = Thermal conductivity.
= Density.
c = Specific heat capacity.
Q(z + dz)
d z
rd
Z
Q ( + d )
(r , , z ) Qr (r – )
A plane
dr
dz (z – ) Elemental
plane
Q volume
z Y (r – z)
A (r , , z )
r plane dz
Q(r + dr )
dr r
X
Qz
Fig. 1.7.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cylindrical coordinates.
3. The heat flowing in the control volume in radial direction i.e., (z – )
plane :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k(rd dz) d
r
Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr +(Qr) dr
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr)
t
=– (Qr) dr = – [– k(r d dz) d] dr
r r r
t
= k(dr d dz) r d
r r
Heat & Mass Transfer
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2 t 1 t
dQr = k(dr rd dz) 2 d
r r r
4. Heat flow in tangential direction i.e., (r-z) plane
t
Heat influx, Q = – k(dr dz) d
r
Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q + (Q) rd
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
t
=– (Q) rd = – k(dr dz) r d rd
r r
1 2t
dQ = k(dr rd dz) d
r 2 2
5. Heat flow in axial direction i.e., (r-) plane
t
Heat influx, Qz = – k(rd dr) d
z
Heat efflux, Q(z + dz) = Qz + (Qz) dz
z
Heat stored in the element,
dQz = Qz – Q(z + dz)
t
=– k( rd dr ) z d dz
z
2 t
dQz = k(dr rddz) d
z2
6. Net heat stored in the element
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
= k. dr rddz 2 · 2 2 2 d
r r r r z
7. Heat generated within the control volume,
Qg = qg dr rd dz d
8. The increase in thermal energy in the element equal to
t
= dr rd dz c d
9. From the principle of conservation of energy :
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
kdr rd dz 2 d + qg dr rd dzd
r r r r 2 2 z2
t
= dr rd dzc d
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2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2t q g c t 1 t
or = = ...(1.7.1)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z2 k k
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates.
1. For steady-state, unidirectional heat flow in the radial direction, and
with no internal heat generation, eq. (1.7.1) reduces to
2 t 1 t
2 =0
r r r
1 d dt
or r =0
r dr dr
1
Since 0
r
d dt dt
r = 0 or r = constant
dr dr dr
Que 1.8. Derive the general heat conduction equation in
spherical coordinates.
Answer
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (r, , ), for three
dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig. 1.8.1.
2. The volume of the element = dr rdrsin d
3. Let, qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume per unit time.
We assume that thermal conductivity (k), density () and specific heat
(c) are uniform.
4. Heat flow through r- plane (-direction) :
t
Heat influx, Q = – k (dr rd) d ...(1.8.1)
r sin
Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q + (Q ) r sin d ...(1.8.2)
r sin
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the -direction,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
1
=– (Q ) r sin d
r sin
1 1 t
=– k( dr rd) d r sin d
r sin r sin
1 2t
= k (dr rd r sin d) d
r sin 2
2 2
5. Heat flow in r- (plane -direction) :
t
Heat influx, Q = – k (dr r sin d) d ...(1.8.3)
r
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Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q +
(Q ) rd ...(1.8.4)
r
Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the
-direction,
dQ = Q – Q(+d) [Subtracting eq. (1.8.4) and (1.8.3)]
=– (Q) rd
r
t
=– k( dr r sin d) d r d
r r
k dr rd rd t
= sin d
r r
1 t
= k (dr rd r sin d) sin d
r 2 sin
6. Heat flow in - plane (r-direction) :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k (rd r sin d) ...(1.8.5)
r
Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr +
(Qr)dr ...(1.8.6)
r
Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in the
r-direction,
dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr) = – (Qr ) dr
r
t
=– k (rd r sin d) d dr
r r
2 t
= k d sin d dr r d
r r
1 2 t
= k (dr rd r sin d) 2 r d
r r r
Z Q( + d)
A( r, , ) r sin d
Qr
r Q( + d)
A (r , , ) Elemental
rd
Y volume
Q Q(r + dr )
X dr
Q
Fig. 1.8.1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-spherical coordinates.
7. Net heat accumulated in the element
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1 2t 1 t 1 2 t
= k dr rd r sin d 2 sin 2 r d
r 2
sin 2
2
r sin r r r
8. The total heat generated within the element is given by,
Qg = qg (dr rd r sin d) d
9. The increase in thermal energy in the element
t
d
= (dr rd r sin d) c
10. From the principle of conservation of energy,
1 2t 1 t 1 2 t
k dr rd r sin d 2 2 sin 2 r d
r sin 2
r sin r r r
t
+ qg (dr rd r sin d) d = (dr rd r sin d) c d
11. Dividing both sides by k(dr rd r sin d) d, we get
1 2t 1 t 1 2 t qg c t
2 2 sin 2 r =
2
r sin
2
r sin r r r k k
2
1 t 1 t 1 2 t q g 1 t
or 2 2 2
2 sin 2 r =
r sin r sin r r r k d
...(1.8.7)
This equation is known as general heat conduction equation in spherical
coordinates.
12. In case there are no heat sources present and the heat flow is steady
and one-dimensional, then eq. (1.8.7) reduces to
1 d 2 dt
r =0
r 2 dr dr
PART-2
Initial and Boundary Conditions, Simple and Composite
Systems in Rectangular, Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
With and Without Energy Generation.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2
Initial and Boundary Conditions : To solve the differential
equation, initial conditions are required to be in unsteady state heat
conduction at (t = 0). Boundary conditions are referring to physical
conditions existing at the boundary of the medium.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
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Que 1.9. Define initial conditions and boundary conditions.
Explain the different types of boundary conditions applied to heat
conduction problem.
Answer
A. Initial Conditions :
1. The initial conditions describe the temperature distribution in a medium
at the initial moment of time, and these are needed only for the transient
(time-dependent) problems.
2. The initial conditions can be expressed as
At = 0; t = t (x, y, z) ...(1.9.1)
3. For a uniform initial temperature distribution, a simple but typical form
of the above identity can be recast as
At = 0; t = t0 (x, y, z) ...(1.9.2)
B. Boundary Conditions :
1. The boundary conditions refer to physical conditions existing at the
boundaries of the medium, and specify the temperature or the heat flow
at the surface of the body.
C. Types of Boundary Conditions :
The different types of boundary conditions applied to heat conduction
problems are as follows :
a. Boundary Condition of First K ind (Prescribed Surface
Temperature) :
1. The temperature distribution, ts is given at a boundary surface for each
moment of time.
ts = t(x, y, z, )
2. A typical example of boundary condition of the first kind for a slab is
shown in Fig. 1.9.1.
t(x, y, ) = 0, at x = 0
t(x, y, ) = 0, at y = 0
t(x, y, ) = f1(y), at x = a
t(x, y, ) = f2(x), at y = b
Y
ty = b = f2(x)
b
t x=0 = 0 t(x, y, ) tx =a = f1(y)
O a X
ty = 0 = 0
Fig. 1.9.1. Boundary condition of the first kind.
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b. Boundary Condition of the Second Kind (Prescribed Heat Flux) :
1. In this case, the heat flux at a boundary is prescribed.
kt( x, )
= q0, at x = 0
x
t q0
or = = F0, at x = 0
x k
t
= 0, at x = 0
x
t
2. Here, = 0 at x = 0 describes an insulated or adiabatic boundary such
x
a condition can also exist at the plane of symmetry.
t
= F0
x x=0 t(x, )
or X
– k t
= q0
x x=0
Fig. 1.9.2. Boundary condition of the second kind.
c. Boundary Condition of Third Kind (Convective Condition) :
1. This condition is encountered at a solid boundary when there is equality
between heat transfer to the surface by conduction and that leaving the
surface by convection.
2. At x = 0,
t
h1(t1 – tx = 0) = k
x x 0
t
or k h1t = h1t1 = F1
x x 0
3. Similarly at x = L,
t
– k = h2 (tx = L – t2)
x x L
t
or k h2 t = h2t2 = F2
x xL
t1
tx =L
t
qx = h1(t 1 – tx = 0) = – k tx t
x x = 0 =0 qx = h2 (tx = L – t2) = – k
x x = L
t2
Fig. 1.9.3. Boundary condition of the third kind.
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Que 1.10. Derive the expression for heat conduction through a
plane wall with uniform thermal conductivity for one-dimensional
steady state, homogeneous and isotropic material.
Answer
1. Consider a plane wall of homogeneous and isotropic material through
which heat is flowing only in X-direction. The general heat conduction
equation is,
2t 2t 2t qg 1 t
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ = ...(1.10.1)
x y z k
t
2. If the heat conduction takes place under steady state 0 , one-
2 t 2t
dimensional 2 2 0 and with no internal heat generation
y z
qg
0 . Then, the eq. (1.10.1) reduced to,
k
2t
=0 ...(1.10.2)
x 2
T
t1 Plane wall
k
Q dt Q
x Q t1 t2 Q
dx
t2 L
(Rth)cond. =
1 kA
L X
2
(a) (b )
Fig. 1.10.1. Heat conduction through a plane wall.
3. By integrating the eq. (1.10.2) twice, we get
dt
= C1 and t = C1 x + C2 ...(1.10.3)
dx
Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.
4. By applying boundary conditions in eq. (1.10.3),
At, x = 0, t = t1
At, x = L, t = t2
t t
We get, t1 = C2 and C1 = 2 1
L
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5. By putting the value of C1 and C2, in eq. (1.10.3),
t t
t = 2 1 x + t1
L
It indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is
independent of thermal conductivity.
6. Now, by using Fourier’s equation,
dt d t2 t1
Q = – kA = – kA x t1
dx dx L
(t2 t1 ) (t t )
= – kA = kA 1 2
L L
(t1 t2 ) t t
or Q= 1 2
L ( Rth )cond .
kA
Que 1.11. Derive expression for heat conduction through a
composite wall.
Answer
1. Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting
of a number of slabs as shown in Fig. 1.11.1.
2. Let LA, LB, LC = Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C respectively
(also called path length),
kA, kB, kC = Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B, and C
respectively,
t1, t4 (t1 > t4) = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4
respectively, and
t2, t3 = Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3
respectively.
3. Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each slab/
layer is same, so we have
kA A(t1 t2 ) kB A(t2 t3 ) kC A(t3 t4 )
Q=
LA LB LC
(Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no
temperature drop occurs across the interface between the materials).
4. Rearranging the above expression, we get
QLA
t1 – t2 = ...(1.11.1)
kA A
QLB
t2 – t3 = ...(1.11.2)
kB A
QLC
t3 – t4 = ...(1.11.3)
kC A
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t1 Interfaces
t2
Q t3 Q
Temperature
profile
A B C t4
kA kB kC
1 2 3 4
LA LB LC
(a)
Q t1 t2 t3 t4 Q
Rth-A Rth-B Rth-C
LA LB LC
Rth – A = , Rth – B = , Rth – C =
k AA kBA kC A
( b)
Fig. 1.11.1. Steady state conduction through a composite wall.
5. Adding eq. (1.11.1), eq. (1.11.2) and eq. (1.11.3), we have
L L L
(t1 – t4) = Q A B C
k
A A kB A kC A
A(t1 t4 ) ( t1 t4 ) (t1 t4 )
or, Q = =
LA LB LC LA LB LC [ Rth A Rth B Rth C ]
k k k k A k A k A
A B c A B C
6. If the composite wall consists of n slab/layers, then
[t t ]
Q = 1 n ( n1)
L
1 kA
Que 1.12. Derive the expression for steady state heat conduction
through a hollow cylinder with uniform thermal conductivity,
whose inner surface is exposed to hot fluid and outer surface is
exposed to a cold fluid.
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Answer
1. Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant thermal
conductivity and insulated at both ends.
2. The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinate is,
2 t 1 t 1 2t 2t qg 1 t
2 + + 2 2
+ + = ...(1.12.1)
dr r r r z2 k
t
3. For steady state 0 , unidirectional (t f [, x]) heat flow with no
internal heat generation (qg = 0), then the eq. (1.12.1) becomes
d 2 t 1 dt
=0
dr 2 r dr
1 d dt
or r =0
r dr dr
1
Since 0,
r
d dt
r =0 ...(1.12.2)
dr dr
(Cold fluid (t2)
Hollow cylinder
(length = l ) Element
No heat flows in the axial
Hot
r2 direction
fluid (t1)
r
r1
t1 dt
t2
Q t1 t2 dr Q
r
Rth = 1 ln 2
2kL r1
Fig. 1.12.1.
4. On integrating the eq. (1.12.2) two times, we get
dt dr
r = C or dt = C
dr r
or t = C ln r + C1 ...(1.12.3)
5. Applying boundary condition :
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At, r= r1, t = t1
At, r= r2, t = t2
We get, t1 = C ln r1 + C1 ...(1.12.4)
and t2 = C ln r2 + C1 ...(1.12.5)
6. From eq. (1.12.4) and eq. (1.12.5), we get
t1 t2
C=–
r
ln 2
r
1
t1 t2
and C1 = t1 + ln r1
ln (r2 / r1 )
7. Substituting the value of C and C1 in eq. (1.12.3) we get
(t1 t2 ) (t t )
t = t1 + ln (r1) – 1 2 ln (r)
r2 r
ln ln 2
r1 r1
r
ln
t t1 r1
or = ...(1.12.6)
t2 t1 r
ln 2
r1
This gives the temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder which is
varying logarithmically and is a function of radius only.
8. Now, the heat transfer rate is given as,
r
( t2 t1 ) ln
dt d
t1 r1
Q = – kA = – kA
dr dr r
ln 2
r1
[From eq. (1.12.6)]
(t1 t2 ) (t1 t2 ) t
= 2 kL = =
r2 ln (r2 / r1 ) Rth
ln
r1 2 kL
ln (r2 / r1 )
Rth 2kL
t1 t2
So, Q=
ln (r2 / r1 )
2kL
This is the expression for rate of heat transfer through hollow cylinder
which is insulated at both ends.
Que 1.13. Derive the expression for heat conduction through a
composite cylinder.
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Answer
1. Consider heat flows radially through a composite cylinder as shown in
Fig. 1.13.1.
2. Let, th and tc = The temperature of hot fluid and cold fluid
f f
respectively,
hhf and hcf = Convective heat transfer coefficient of hot fluid
and cold fluid respectively,
kA and kB = Thermal conductivity of inside layer A and of
outside layer B, and
t1, t2, t3 = Temperatures at point 1, 2 and 3.
3. The rate of heat transfer,
kA (2 L)( t1 t2 )
Q = hh 2r1 L (th – t1) =
f f r
ln 2
r1
kB 2 L (t2 t3 )
= = hc 2r3 L (t3– tc )
r f f
ln 3
r 2
4. By rearranging, we get
Q
th – t1 = ...(1.13.1)
f hhf r1 2 L
Cold fluid
(air) tcf
Q
hcf
B
Hot thf A
fluid
hhf t1 t2 t3
r
r2 1
r3
Fig. 1.13.1.
Q
kA 2L
t1 – t2 = ...(1.13.2)
r
ln 2
r1
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Q
kB 2L
t2 – t3 = ...(1.13.3)
r
ln 3
r2
Q
t3 – tcf = ...(1.13.4)
hcf r3 2L
5. Adding eq. (1.13.1), eq. (1.13.2), eq. (1.13.3) and eq. (1.13.4), we get
1 1 1 1
h r k
k
h
Q hf 1 A B c f r3
= th – tc
2L r r f f
ln 2 ln 3
r
1 r
2
2L (thf tcf )
or Q=
1 1 1 1
h r k
k
h
A B c f r3
hf 1
r r
ln 2 ln 3
r r
1 2
2L (thf tcf )
or Q=
r r
ln 2 ln 3
1 r1 r2 1
hh r1 kA kB hcf r3
f
6. If there are n concentric cylinders, then
2L (thf tcf )
Q= ...(1.13.5)
1 n
1 rn 1 1
ln
hhf r1 n1 kn rn hcf rn 1
7. If inside and outside heat transfer coefficient are not considered, then
eq. (1.13.5) can be written as,
2 L(t t( n1) )
Q= n
1 r
ln n 1
k
n 1 n rn
Que 1.14. Derive expressions under one dimensional steady state
heat conduction for temperature distribution for the sphere.
OR
Starting with an energy balance on a spherical shell volume
element, derive the one dimensional transient heat conduction
equation for a sphere with constant thermal conductivity and no
heat generation [Fig. (1.14.1)].
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r + r
r
O R r
Fig. 1.14.1.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. Let thermal conductivity of a hollow sphere is uniform.
2. Let r1 and r2 are inner and outer radius and t1 and t2 are temperatures
of inner surface and outer surface and k be thermal conductivity of the
material with the given temperature range.
Q, Heat flows radially
outwards ( t1 > t2)
Hollow sphere
dr
Element
r2
r
r1 t1 t2
Q t1 t2 Q
(r2 – r1)
Rth =
4kr1r2
Fig. 1.14.2. Steady state conduction through a hollow sphere.
3. Applying the general heat conduction equation in spherical co-ordinates,
1 2 t 1 2t 1 t q g 1 t
r 2 sin =
r r r r sin 2 r 2 sin
2 2
k
...(1.14.1)
t
4. For steady state
0 , unidirectional heat flow in the radial
direction and with no heat generation, eq. (1.14.1) reduces to
1 2 dt
r =0
r 2 r dr
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d 2 dt 1
r =0 2 0
dr dr r
dt
or r2 = Constant = C ...(1.14.2)
dr
5. On integrating eq. (1.14.2) twice, we have
C
t= + C1 ...(1.14.3)
r
6. Applying boundary condition,
At r = r1, t = t1
At r = r2, t = t2
C
We get, t1 = + C1 ...(1.14.4)
r1
C
and t2 = + C1 ...(1.14.5)
r2
7. From eq. (1.14.4) and (1.14.5), we get
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2
C=
r1 r2
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2
and C1 = t1 +
r1 (r1 r2 )
8. Substituting the values of C and C1 in eq. (1.14.3), we have
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2 (t t ) r r
t=– + t1 + 1 2 1 2
r (r1 r2 ) r1 (r1 r2 )
(t1 t2 ) (t1 t2 )
t=– + t1 +
1 1 1 1
r r1
r2 r1 r2 r1
t1 t2 1 1
t = t1 + ...(1.14.6)
1 1 r1 r
r r
2 1
1 1
t t1 r r1
or =
t2 t1 1 1
r2 r1
t t1 r r r1
or = 2 ...(1.14.7)
t2 t1 r r2 r1
Eq. (1.14.7) shows that temperature distribution associated with radial
conduction through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
9. Now, from Fourier’s equation,
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Q = kA dt k4 r 2 d t1 t1 t2 1 1
dr dr 1 1 r1
r
r2 r1
t t 1 t t 1 ( t t )rr
= k4 r2 1 2 2 = k4 r 2 1 2 2 = 4 k 1 2 1 2
1 1 r r1 r2 r (r1 r2 )
r2 r1 r1r2
t1 t2 t t
Q= = 1 2
(r2 r1 ) Rth
4 kr1r2
r2 r1
Where, Rth =
4 kr1 r2
Que 1.15. A steam pipe is covered with two layers of insulation.
The inner layer (k = 0.17 W/m-K) is 30 mm thick and outer layer
(k = 0.023 W/m-K) is 50 mm thick. The pipe is made of steel
(k = 58 W/m-K) and has inner diameter and outer diameter of 160
and 170 mm, respectively. The temperature of saturated steam is
300 °C and the ambient air is at 50 °C. If the inside and outside heat
transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2-K and 5.8 W/m2-K respectively,
calculate the rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : r1 = 80 mm , ti = t1 = 300 ºC, r2 = 85 mm, t4 = 50 ºC
r3 = 85 + 30 = 115 mm, r4 = 115 + 50 = 165 mm
k1 = 58 W/m-K, k2 = 0.17 W/m-K, k3 = 0.023 W/m-K
hi = 30 W/m2-K, ho= 5.8 W/m2-K
To Find : Rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe.
1. There are three concentric cylinders, hence n = 3, thus
1 1 1 1 r 1 r 1 r
R = ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
2L r1 hi hor4 k1 r1 k2 r2 k3 r3
1 1 1
=
2 1 0.08 30 0.165 5.8
1 85 1 115 1 165
ln ln ln
58 80 0.17 85 0.023 115
= 3.014 K-m/W
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ho t4
to
Air film
t3
k3
t2
k2
Physical system
k1 t1 St
r2 fil eam
m
r1
0.5
8
cm
cm
3
cm
5
cm
Thermal circuit
ti t1 t2 t3 t4 to
q q
Ri R1 R2 R3 Ro
Fig. 1.15.1.
ti t4 300 50
2. Heat loss per unit length of the pipe, q =
R 3.014
q = 82.95 W/m
Que 1.16. Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double pane window
consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glass (k = 0.78 W/m-°C) separated
by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space (k = 0.026 W/m-°C). Determine
the steady rate of heat transfer through this double pane window
and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the
room is maintained at 20 °C while the temperature of the outdoors
is – 10 °C. Take the convection heat transfer coefficients on the
inner and outer surface of the window to be h1 = 10 W/m2-°C and
h2 = 40 W/m2-°C, which includes the effects of radiation.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : w = 1.5 m, H = 0.8 m, x1 = x3 = 4 mm = 0.004 m
x2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m, ta = 20 °C, ha = 10 W/m2-°C,
k1 = k3 = 0.78 W/m-°C, t = – 10 °C, h = 40 W/m2-°C, k2 = 0.026 W/m-°C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of inner surface.
1. Under steady state,
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ta t
Q=
1 x1 x x 1
2 3
ha A k1 A k2 A k3 A h A
20 (10)
=
1 0.004 0.01 0.004 1
10 1.2 0.78 1.2 0.026 1.2 0.78 1.2 40 1.2
= 69.24 W
2. Also, Q = hiAs(ti – t1)
69.24 = 10 × 1.2 × (20 – t1)
t1 = 14.23 °C
Que 1.17. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes
compris es three layers . A 12 cm thick layer of gras s
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of plywood
(k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is achieved with glue
which does not offer any resistance of heat flow. If the side surfaces
of board are maintained at 40 °C and 20 °C temperature, determine
the heat flux. How would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue
the three pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : k1 = 0.22 W/m-K, k2 = 0.15 W/m-K,
kb = 40 W/m-K, Db = 1.2 cm, A = 1 m2
To Find : i. Heat flux.
ii. Change in heat flux when three pieces are fastened
by bolts instead of glue.
i. When Pieces are Fastened by Glue :
3 cm 3 cm
40 °C
k2 k1 k2
20 °C
12 cm
Fig. 1.17.1.
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1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :
40 °C 20 °C
R2 R1 R2
Fig. 1.17.2.
L2 0.03
2. Now, R2 = 0.2
k2 A 0.15 1
L1 0.12
R1 = 0.545
k1 A 0.22 1
Reff. = 2R2 + R1 = 2 × 0.2 + 0.545
= 0.4 + 0.545
= 0.945
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q1 = = 21.164 W/m2
Reff 0.945
ii. When they are Fastened by Bolts :
3 cm 3 cm
1.2 cm
40 °C 1.2 cm
k2 k2
k1
20 °C
1.2 cm
12 cm (a) (b)
Fig. 1.17.3.
1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :
t1= 40 °C t4= 20 °C
R2 R1 R2
Rb
Rb
Rb
Rb
Fig. 1.17.4. Thermal circuit for the system.
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Lb 0.18
2. Now, Rb = 2
= 39.78
kb Ab 1.2
40
4 100
1 2 1 2
= {Rs = R1 + R2 + R2}
Reffective Rb Rs Rb
4 1 4 Rs Rb 4 0.945 39.78
= = = 1.16
Rb Rs Rb Rs 0.945 39.78
So, Reff = 1/1.16 = 0.86
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q2 = = 23.2 W/m2
Reff 0.86
4. Change in flux = q2 – q1 = 23.2 – 21.164 = 2.036 W/m2
Que 1.18. A steam pipe of 5 cm inside diameter and 6.5 cm outside
diameter is covered with a 2.75 cm radial thickness of high
temperature insulation (k = 1.1 W/m-K). The surface heat transfer
coefficient for inside and outside surfaces are 4650 W/m2-K and
11.5 W/m 2-K. The thermal conductivity of the pipe material is
45 W/m-K. If the steam temperature is 200 °C and ambient air
temperature is 25 °C, determine :
a. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
b. Temperature at the interface.
c. Overall heat transfer coefficient. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Given : d1 = 5 cm or r1 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
d2 = 6.5 cm or r2 = 3.25 cm = 0.0325 m, x = 2.75 cm,
k2 = 1.1 W/m-K, ho = 11.5 W/m2-K, hi = 4650 W/m2-K,
k1 = 45 W/m-K, ti = 200 °C, to = 25 °C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
ii. Temperature at the interface.
iii. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
1. Equivalent thermal resistance,
1 1 ln (r2 / r1 ) ln (r3 / r2 ) 1
Rth =
2L
hi ri k 1 k 2 h0 r0
1 1 ln (3.25 / 2.5) ln (6 / 3.25) 1
=
2L 4650 0.025 45 1.1 11.5 0.06
0.3216
=
L
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2.75 cm
ti
to
2.5 cm
3.25 cm
Fig. 1.18.1.
t 200 25
3. We know that, Q = =
Rth 0.3216
L
Q
= 544.154 W/m ...(1.18.1)
L
4. Let temperature at interface is t,
t
Q=
Rth
200 t
Q=
1 ln (r2 / r1 )
(hiri )(2L) 2k1 L
200 t
=
1.369 10 3 0.9279 10 3
L L
Q 200 t
= ...(1.18.2)
L 2.2969 10 3
5. Equating eq. (1.18.1) and eq. (1.18.2), we get
200 t
544.154 =
2.2969 10 3
t = 198.75 °C.
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Q = UAt
Q Q 544.154 L
U=
At 2r3 Lt 6
2 L 175
100
= 8.248 W/m2 -K
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Que 1.19. A furnace wall is composed of 220 mm of fire brick,
150 mm of common brick, 50 mm of 85 % magnesia and 3 mm of steel
plate on the outside. If the inside surface temperature is 1500 °C and
outside surface temperature is 90 °C, estimate the temperature
between layers and calculate the heat loss in kJ/hm2. Assume, k (for
fire brick) = 4 kJ/mh- °C, k (for common brick) = 2.8 kJ/mh-°C, k (for
85 % magnesia) = 2.4 kJ/mh-°C, k (steel) = 240 kJ/mh-°C.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : LA = 220 mm = 0.22 m, LB = 150 mm = 0.15 m,
LC = 50 mm = 0.05 m, LD = 3 mm = 0.003 m, t1 = 1500 °C, t5 = 90 °C,
kA = 4 kJ/mh-°C, kB = 2.8 kJ/mh-°C, kC = 2.4 kJ/mh-°C,
kD = 240 kJ/mh-°C.
To Find : i. Heat loss.
ii. Temperature between layers.
1. The equivalent thermal resistances of various layers are as follows :
LA 0.22
Rth–A = = 0.055 m2h-°C/kJ
kA 4
LB 0.15
Rth–B = = 0.05357 m2h-°C/kJ
kB 2.8
LC 0.05
Rth–C = = 0.02083 m2h-°C/kJ
kC 2.4
LD 0.003
Rth–D = = 1.25 × 10–5 m2h-°C/kJ
kD 240
2. Total thermal resistance,
(Rth)total = 0.055 + 0.05357 + 0.02083 + 1.25 × 10–5
= 0.1294 m2h-°C/kJ
(t1 t5 ) (1500 90)
3. Heat loss, q= = 10896.445 kJ/hm2
( Rth )total 0.1294
t4 t5
4. Also, q=
Rth D
or t4 = t5 + q Rth–D = 90 + 10896.445 × 1.25 × 10–5
= 90.136 °C
5. Similarly, t3 = t4 + q Rth–C = 90.136 + 10896.445 × 0.02083
= 317.109 °C
and t2 = t3 + q Rth–B = 317.109 + 10896.445 × 0.05357
= 900.83 °C
Heat & Mass Transfer
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Fire brick (A)
Common brick (B)
Magnesia (C)
Steel plate ( D)
1 2 3 45
1500 °C
(t1) 90 °C
(t5)
220 150 3 mm
mm mm 50
mm
Fig. 1.19.1.
Que 1.20. Derive the expression for maximum temperature
within a plane wall with uniform heat generation when both the
surfaces of the wall having same temperature.
Answer
1. Consider a plane wall of thickness L, of uniform thermal conductivity
k and in which heat sources are uniformly distributed in the whole
volume.
2. Let the wall surface are maintained at temperature t1 and t2.
3. Assume that heat flow is one-dimensional, under steady state conditions
and there is a uniform volumetric heat generation within the wall.
4. Consider an element of thickness dx at a distance x from the left face
of the wall.
5. Heat conducted in at a distance x,
dt
Qx = – kA
dx
Heat generated in the element,
Qg = qg Adx
Heat conducted out at a distance (x + dx),
d
Q(x + dx) = Qx +(Qx) dx
dx
6. From energy balance, we get,
Qx + Qg = Qx + dx
d
Qx + Qg = Qx + (Q ) dx
dx x
d
Qg = (Q ) dx
dx x
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2
d dt dt
qg A dx = kA dx = – kA dx
dx dx dx2
d 2t q
or + g =0 ...(1.20.1)
dx 2 k
7. Integrating eq. (1.20.1) we get
dt q
= – g x + C1 ...(1.20.2)
dx k
8. On integrating eq. (1.20.2), we get.
qg 2
t=– x + C1 x + C2 ...(1.20.3)
2k
9. Now, if both the surfaces are at same temperature then,
at, x = 0, t = t1 = tw
and at, x = L, t = t2 = tw
T
Element
Plane
tmax
wall
tw tw
Qx + dx
Qx
Qg
x=0 x=L
x dx x = L /2
L
Fig. 1.21.1.
10. By applying above boundary conditions we in eq. (1.20.3), get,
C2 = tw
q
and C1 = g L
2k
11. Substituting the value of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.20.3) :
qg qg
t=– x2 +
L x + tw
2k 2k
12. For the location of maximum temperature :
dt dt q
= 0 or = g (L – 2x) = 0
dx dx 2k
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qg L
Since, 0, therefore, (L – 2x) = 0 or x =
2k 2
L
13. The maximum temperature occurs at x = i.e., mid plane of plane
2
wall and its value equals
qg
tmax = ( L x) x + tw
2 k x L
2
q L L
tmax = g L + tw
2 k 2 2
qg 2
tmax = L + tw ...(1.20.4)
8k
14. Heat transfer takes place towards both the surfaces and for each surface
it is given by :
dt qg
Q = – kA = – kA ( L 2 x)
dx x 0 or x L 2k x 0 or x L
AL
i.e., Q= qg
2
15. When both the surfaces are considered
AL
Q= 2× qg = AL qg
2
16. Also heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated to the
surroundings at temperature ta,
AL
Thus, qg = hA (tw – ta)
2
q
or tw = ta + g L ...(1.20.5)
2h
17. Substituting value of eq. (1.20.5) in eq (1.20.4), we get
L L2
tmax = ta + qg
2h 8 k
Que 1.21. Derive the expression for maximum temperature with
in a cylinder with uniform heat generation in one-dimensional under
steady state condition.
Answer
1. Consider a cylindrical rod in which one-dimensional radial conduction
is taking place under steady state condition.
2. Heat conducted in at radius r,
dt
Qr = – k 2rL
dr
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3. Heat generated in the element,
Qg = qg 2r dr L
Heat conducted out at radius (r + dr),
d
Qr + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr
dr
4. Under steady state condition,
d
Qr + Qg = Qr + dr = Qr + (Qr) dr
dr
Element
h
Cylindrical
rod
ta tw
qg
r dr
qg
L
ta
Fig. 1.21.1. Heat conduction in a solid cylinder with heat generation.
d
Qg =(Qr) dr
dr
d dt
qg 2r dr L = k 2 rL dr
dr dr
d dt qg
r =– r ...(1.21.1)
dr dr k
5. Integrating the eq. (1.21.1), we get
dt q r2
r =– g × + C1
dr k 2
dt q r C
=– g × + 1 ...(1.21.2)
dr k 2 r
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6. Again integrating the eq. (1.21.2), we get,
qg r2
t=– ×+ C1 log r + C2 ...(1.21.3)
k 4
7. To get the value of C1 and C2, apply boundary condition :
i. At, r = R, t = tw
dt
ii. At, r = 0, = 0,
dr
iii. Heat generated = Heat loss by conduction at the rod surface.
8. The temperature gradient at the surface is given by,
dt qg R C
dr =– × + 1
r R k 2 R
Also from eq. (1.21.2), we have
dt qg R
dr =– ×
r R k 2
qg R C qg R
– × + 1 =– × or C1 = 0
k 2 R k 2
9. Applying the boundary condition in eq. (1.21.3), we get,
qg R2
tw = – × + C2
k 4
R2
qg
or C2 = tw + ×
k 4
10. Substitute the value of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.21.3), we get
qg r2 qg R2
t=– × + tw + ×
k 4 k 4
qg
t = tw + [R2 – r2] ...(1.21.4)
4k
11. It is evident from eq. (1.21.4) that the temperature distribution is
parabolic and the location of maximum temperature is at r = 0 i.e.,
centre of the cylinder.
qg 2
So, tmax = tw + R ...(1.21.5)
4k
12. By combining eq. (1.21.4) and eq. (1.21.5), we arrive at the following
dimensionless form of temperature distribution,
qg 2
t tw [ R r2 ] ( R2 r 2 ) r
2
= k
4 = 2
=1–
tmax tw qg 2 R R
·R
4k
2
t tw r
i.e., = 1–
tmax tw R
13. Also,
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Energy generated within the rod = Energy dissipated by convection at
the rod boundary
i.e., qg (R2 L) = h 2 RL (tw – ta)
qg
or tw = ta + ×R ...(1.21.6)
2h
14. By putting the value of eq. (1.21.6) in eq. (1.21.5), we get
qg qg
tmax = ta + ×R+ × R2
2h 4k
Que 1.22. Derive the expression for maximum temperature with
in a sphere in one dimensional under steady state condition.
Answer
1. Consider one dimensional radial conduction of heat, under steady state
conditions through a sphere having uniform heat generation.
2. Let, R = Outside radius of sphere,
k = Thermal conductivity (uniform),
qg = Uniform heat generation per unit volume, per
unit time within the solid,
tw = Temperature of the outside surface (wall) of
the sphere, and
ta = Ambient temperature.
3. Consider an element at radius r and thickness, dr as shown in
Fig. 1.22.1.
Element
qg tw
ta
r dr
R
Fig. 1.22.1. Sphere with uniform heat generation.
4. Heat conducted in at radius r,
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dt dt
k 4r 2
Qr = kA
dr dr
Heat generated in the element,
Qg = qg × A × dr = qg × 4r2 × dr
Heat conducted out at radius (r + dr)
d
Q(r + dr) = Qr (Qr ) dr
dr
5. Under steady state conditions, we have
Qr + Qg = Q(r + dr)
d
= Qr (Qr ) dr
dr
d
Qg = (Qr ) dr
dr
d dt
qg × 4r2 × dr = 4 k r 2 dr
dr dr
d 2 dt
qg × 4r2 × dr = – 4 k r dr
dr dr
1 d 2 dt qg
r =0
r 2 dr dr k
1 2 d 2t dt qg
r 2 2r =0
r2 dr dr k
d 2 t 2 dt qg
=0
dr 2 r dr k
d2t dt qg r
r 2 2 =0
dr dr k
d 2 t dt dt qg r
or r 2 =0
dr dr dr k
dt dt dt qg r
or r =0 ...(1.22.1)
dr dr dr k
6. Integrating the eq. (1.22.1), we get
dt q r2
r t g = C1
dr k 2
d q r2
or ( rt) g = C1 ...(1.22.2)
dr k 2
7. Integrating the eq. (1.22.2), we get
r3
qg
rt = C1r + C2
...(1.22.3)
k 6
8. At the centre of sphere, r = 0
C2 = 0
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9. Applying boundary condition, at r = R, t = tw to eq. (1.22.3), we get
qg R3
Rtw = C1R ( C2 = 0)
k 6
qg 2
or C1 = tw
R
6k
10. By substituting the values of C1 and C2 in eq. (1.22.3), we have the
temperature distribution as
qg r3 qg 2
rt = tw R r
k 6 6k
qg q g
or t r 2 = tw R2
6k 6k
qg
or t = tw ( R2 r 2 ) ...(1.22.4)
6k
11. From eq. (1.22.4) it is evident that the temperature distribution is
parabolic; the maximum temperature occurs at the centre (r = 0) and
its value is given by
qg
R2
tmax = tw ...(1.22.5)
6k
12. From eq. (1.22.4) and eq. (1.22.5), we have
2
t tw R2 r 2 r
= 1
tmax tw R2 R
2
t tw r
i.e., = 1
tmax tw R
(Temperature distribution in dimensionless form)
13. Invoking Fourier’s equation (to evaluate heat flow), we have
dt
Q = kA
dr r R
d qg
= k 4 R2 tw ( R2 r 2 )
dr 6k r R
q
= k 4 R2 g ( 2r )
6k r R
qg
= k 4 R2 R
3k
4
R3 q g
Q=
3
(= volume of sphere × heat generation capacity)
14. Under steady state conditions the heat conducted (or generated) should
be equal to the heat convected from the outer surface of the sphere.
4
i.e., qg R3 = h × 4 R2 (tw – ta)
3
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qg R
or tw = ta ...(1.22.6)
3h
15. Putting the value of eq. (1.22.6) in eq. (1.22.5), we get
The maximum temperature,
qg qg
tmax = ta R R2
3h 6k
PART-3
Concept of Thermal Resistance, Analogy between Heat and
Electricity Flow, Thermal Contact Resistance, Overall Heat
Transfer Coefficient, Critical Radius of Insulation.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3
Thermal Resistance : It is the obstruction to the flow of heat
transfer. It is analogous to the electric resistance in electrical system.
Analogy between Thermal and Electrical System :
Thermal System Electrical System
Heat transfer, Q Current, I
Change in temperature, dt Change in voltage, dV
Thermal resistance, Rth Electrical resistance, R
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient : It is defined as the quantity
which gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per unit
degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side
of the substance.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.23. What do you mean by analogous system ? Explain the
thermal resistance in case of conduction, convection and radiation.
Answer
A. Analogous System :
1. When two physical systems are described by similar equations and
have similar boundary conditions, then the system are said to be
analogous.
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2. The heat transfer process may be compared by analogy with the flow
of electricity in an electrical system.
B. Thermal Resistance :
i. For Conduction :
As per Ohm’s law :
Potential difference dV
Current, I= =
Electrical resistance R
By analogy, for conduction
Temperature difference (dt)
Q=
dx / kA
dx
Rth =
kA
Rth = Thermal conduction resistance.
i R i
Q Rth Q
dx
Rth =
kA
Fig. 1.23.1.
ii. For Convection : Convection heat transfer is given by Newton’s law
of cooling i.e.,
Qconv. = h A(ts – tf)
(t t )
Qconv. = s f
1 / hA
1
Rth =
conv. hA
1
Rth =
ts hA tf
Fig. 1.23.2.
iii. For Radiation : Radiation heat transfer is governed by Stefan
Boltzmann law i.e.,
Q = AT4
or Q = A (T14 – T24) (For real surface)
(T1 T2 )
or Q=
1
A (T1 T2 )(T12 T22 )
1
So, (Rth)Rad. =
A (T1 T2 )(T12 T22 )
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Que 1.24. A wire of 1.2 mm diameter and 200 mm length is submerged
horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of 135 A
with an applied voltage of 2.18 V. If the surface of the wire is
maintained at 200 °C, calculate the heat flux.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Given : d = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m, l = 200 mm = 0.2 m, I = 135 A
V = 2.18 V, ts = 200 °C
To Find : Heat flux.
1. The electrical energy input of the wire is given by,
Q = VI = 2.18 × 135 = 294.3 W
2. Surface area of the wire, A = dl
= × 0.0012 × 0.2
= 7.54 × 10–4 m2
Q 294.3
3. Heat flux, q=
A 7.54 10–4
= 0.39 × 106 W/m2
= 0.39 MW/m2
Que 1.25. Explain thermal contact resistance.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
1. In real systems, due to surface roughness and void spaces, the contact
surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus, the area available for
flow of heat at the interface will be small as compared to geometric
face area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large
resistance to heat flow at the interface occurs. This resistance is known
as thermal contact resistance.
Mathematically,
t t
Rc =
Q qA
2. It causes temperature drop between two materials at the interface.
Que 1.26. Derive an expression for overall heat transfer coefficient
through a plane wall.
Answer
1. Heat transfer between hot fluid and surface-1 of the wall take place
due to convection. The amount of heat transfer is given as,
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Q = hhf A (thf – t1) ...(1.26.1)
2. Heat transfer within the wall takes place due to conduction. The amount
of heat transfer is given as
KA (t1 t2 )
Q= ...(1.26.2)
L
Metal
thf wall
t1
Q
h cf
Hot hhf t2 Cold
fluid fluid film
film
tcf
1 2
L
thf t1 t2 tcf
1 L 1
h hf . A k.A hcf . A
Fig. 1.26.1. The overall heat transfer through a plane wall.
3. Heat transfer between surface-2 of the wall and cold fluid takes place
due to convection. The amount of heat transfer is given as
Q = hcf A (t2 – tcf) ...(1.26.3)
4. By rearranging the eq. (1.26.1), eq. (1.26.2) and eq. (1.26.3), we get
Q
(thf – t1) = ...(1.26.4)
hhf A
QL
(t1 – t2) = ...(1.26.5)
kA
Q
(t2 – tcf) = ...(1.26.6)
hcf A
5. By adding eq. (1.26.4), eq. (1.26.5) and eq. (1.26.6), we get
1 L 1
(th – tc ) = Q
f f h
hf A kA hcf A
A (thf tcf )
or Q=
1 L 1
hhf k hcf
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6. If U is the overall coefficient of heat transfer, then
A (thf tcf )
Q = U A(th – tc ) =
f f 1 L 1
hhf k hcf
1
or U=
1 L 1
hhf k hcf
Que 1.27. Derive the expression for steady state overall heat
transfer coefficient for a composite sphere whose inner surface is
at higher temperature and outer surface is at lower temperature.
Answer
1. Considering Fig. 1.27.1 as cross-section of a composite sphere, the heat
flow equation can written as follows
4 kA r1r2 (t1 t2 )
Q = hh 4r12 (th – t1) =
f f (r2 r1 )
4 kB r2 r3 (t2 t3 )
= = hc 4 r32 (t3 – tc )
(r3 r2 ) f f
2. By rearranging, we get
Q
(th – t1) = ...(1.27.1)
f 4 r12 hhf
Q (r2 r1 )
(t1 – t2) = ...(1.27.2)
4 kA r1 r2
Q (r3 r2 )
(t2 – t3) = ...(1.27.3)
4 kB r2 r3
Q
(t3 – tc ) = ...(1.27.4)
f 4 r32 hcf
3. Adding eq. (1.27.1), (1.27.2), (1.27.3) and (1.27.4), we get
Q 1 (r r ) (r r ) 1
(th – tc ) = 2
2 1 3 2 2
f f 4 h r k r r k r r h
hf 1 A 1 2 B 2 3 cf r3
(thf tcf )
So, Q= ...(1.27.5)
1 1 (r2 r1 ) (r3 r2 ) 1
4 hhf r12 kA r1 r2 kB r2 r3 hcf r32
6. If U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. Then, heat transfer is given
as,
Q = U A(th – tc ) ...(1.27.6)
f f
7. Comparing the eq. (1.27.5) and (1.27.6), we get
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1
4
U= 1 (r2 r1 ) r3 r2 1
A
hh r12 kA r1 r2
kBr2 r3 hcf r32
f
Cold fluid (air) t cf
Q
hcf
B tcf
Hot t A
fluid hf
hhf t1 t2 t3
r1
r2
r3
Fig. 1.27.1. Steady state conduction through a composite sphere.
Que 1.28. What is critical thickness of insulation ?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
1. The thickness upto which heat flow rate increases and after which
heat rate flow decreases is termed as critical thickness of insulation.
2. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called critical radius (rc).
i. For cylinder, rc = k / h
ii. For sphere, rc = 2k / h
3. The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal
resistance.
4. But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal
resistance [(Rth)cond.] and convective thermal resistance [(Rth)conv.], the
addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective thermal
resistance due to increase in surface area, as in the case of a cylinder
and sphere, and the total thermal resistance may actually decrease
resulting in increased heat flow.
Que 1.29. Prove that the critical radius of insulation for cylinder
k 2k
is, rc = and for sphere is, rc = ·
ho ho
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Answer
A. Critical Radius of Insulation for Cylinder :
1. Consider a solid cylinder of radius r 1 insulated with an insulation of
thickness (r 2 – r 1).
2. Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the solid cylinder
to the surroundings is,
2 L(t1 tair )
Q= ...(1.29.1)
r
ln 2
r1 1
k ho r2
Solid cylinder
Insulation Fluid film
k h0
t1
tair
r1 r2 – r1
r2
Fig. 1.29.1. Critical radius of insulation for cylinder.
ln (r2 / r1 )
3. From eq. (1.29.1) it is evident that as r2 increases, the factor
k
1
increases but the factor decreases. Then, the required condition
ho r2
is,
r2
ln
d r1 1
=0
dr2 k ho r2
1 1 1 1
+ = 0
k r2 ho r22
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1 1
– =0
k ho r2
hor2 = k
k
r2 = (rc) =
ho
B. Critical Radius of Insulation for Sphere :
1. Consider a solid sphere which is insulated by a thickness of insulation
(r2 – r1).
2. Then the rate of heat transfer from sphere to surrounding is given by,
(t1 tair )
Q=
(r2 r1 ) 1
4 kr r
1 2 4 r22ho
3. For critical radius :
d (r2 r1 ) 1
=0
dr2 4 kr1 r2 4 r22 ho
1 2
=0
kr22 r23 ho
2kr2 = r23ho
2
2k
r2 = rc =
ho
Insulation
Solid sphere
k h0
t1 tair
r1
r2 r2 – r1
Fig. 1.29.2. Critical radius of insulation for sphere.
Que 1.30. A wire of 6.5 mm diameter at a temperature of
60 °C is to be insulated by a material having k = 0.174 W/m-°C.
Convective heat transfer coefficient (ho) = 8.722 W/m 2-°C. The
ambient temperature is 20 °C for maximum heat loss. What is the
minimum thickness of insulation and heat loss per meter length ?
Also find the percentage increase in the heat dissipation.
Heat & Mass Transfer
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Answer
6.5
Given : r1 = = 3.25 mm = 0.00325 m
2
k = 0.174 W/m-°C, ho = 8.722 W/m2-°C, tair = 20 °C, t1 = 60 °C.
To Find : i. Minimum thickness of insulation.
ii. Heat loss per meter length.
iii. Percentage increase in the heat dissipation.
1. We know that, the critical radius of insulation of cylinder
k 0.174
rc = = = 0.01995 m = 19.95 mm
ho 8.722
2. Minimum thickness of insulation = rc – r1 = 19.95 – 3.25 = 16.7 mm
3. Heat loss without insulation,
2L (t1 tair ) 2 1 (60 20)
Q1 = = = 7.124 W/m
1 1
ho r1 8.722 0.00325
4. Heat loss with insulation when critical thickness is used,
2 L (t1 tair ) 2 1 (60 20)
Q2 = =
r 0.01995
ln c ln
0.00325 1
r1 1
k ho rc 0.174 8.722 0.01995
= 15.537 W/m
5. Percentage increase in heat dissipation,
Q2 Q1 (15.537 7.124)
= × 100 = × 100 = 118.09 %
Q1 7.124
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. What are the mechanism of heat transfer ? How are they
distinguished from each other ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.1.
Introduction to Heat Transfer 1–50 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Q. 2. A carbon steel plate (k = 45 W/m-K) 600 mm × 900 mm ×
25 mm is maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the
hot plate. If convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2-
°C and 250 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation.
Calculate the inside plate temperature.flow heat exchanger
by using NTU method.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5.
Q. 3. Derive the general heat conduction equation in rectangular
or cartesian coordinates.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.6.
Q. 4. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7.
Q. 5. Derive expressions under one dimensional steady state heat
conduction for temperature distribution for the sphere.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.14.
Q. 6. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes
comprises three layers. A 12 cm thick layer of grass
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of
plywood (k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is
achieved with glue which does not offer any resistance of
heat flow. If the side surfaces of board are maintained at
40 °C and 20 °C temperature, determine the heat flux. How
would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue the three
pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
Q. 7. Derive an expression for overall heat transfer coefficient
through a plane wall.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.26.
Q. 8. What is critical thickness of insulation ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.28.
Q. 9. Prove that the critical radius of insulation for cylinder is,
k 2k
rc = and for sphere is, rc = ·
ho ho
Ans. Refer Q. 1.29.
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2 Fins &
Transient Conduction
Part-1 ............................................................................ (2–2B to 2–13B)
• Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
• Fins of Uniform Cross-sectional Area
• Errors of Measurement of Temperature in Thermometer Wells
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 2–2B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 2–2B
Part-2 ......................................................................... (2–14B to 2–30B)
• Transient Heat Conduction
• Lumped Capacitance Method
• Time Constant
• Unsteady State Heat Conduction in One Dimension only
• Heisler Charts
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 2–14B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 2–14B
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Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces, Fins of Uniform
Cross-sectional Area, Errors of Measurement of Temperature
in Thermometer Wells.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1
Fins : These are the extended surfaces used for increasing the heat
transfer rate from the surfaces.
Efficiency of Fin (fin) : It is defined as the ratio of the actual heat
transferred by the fin to the maximum heat transferable by fin, if
entire fin area were at base temperature.
Effectiveness of Fin ( fin) : It is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate
to the heat transfer rate that would exist without a fin.
Qwith fin
fin =
Qwithout fin
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.1. What do you understand by fins and also explain types
of fins ?
Answer
A. Fins :
1. These are extended surfaces used for increasing the heat transfer rate
from the surfaces whenever the available surface is found inadequate
to transfer the required quantity of heat with the available temperature
drop and convective heat transfer coefficient.
2. Heat transfer through fin is because of conduction and convection
between its boundary and surrounding.
B. Types of Fins : Fins are of two types :
1. Fins of uniform cross-sectional area :
a. Fins of rectangular profile, and
b. Fins of circular profile.
2. Fins of non-uniform cross-sectional area :
a. Longitudinal fin of trapezoidal profile,
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b. Longitudinal fin of parabolic profile, and
c. Truncated conical spline.
Que 2.2. What is the reason for the widespread use of fins on
surfaces ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
1. Generally fins are used to provide extra surface area to increase rate of
heat transfer from existing surface.
2. In most of practical situation the heat transfer fluids involves liquid and
gas.
3. In such a situation of heat transfer between liquid and gas, as gas is
having less value of heat transfer coefficient it offers greater resistance
for the heat transfer.
4. So to increase the rate of heat transfer on the gas side, extra surface
area is provided by using fins.
5. Use of fins on surfaces is found in case of air-cooled cylinder, condenser
tubes in refrigerator.
Que 2.3. Derive an expression for temperature distribution and
heat transfer rate in a straight fin of rectangular profile, when :
i. Fin tip is insulated.
ii. Heat dissipation from an infinite long fin.
iii. The fin is of finite length and losses heat by convection.
Also write the advantages and application of fins.
OR
What are the applications of fins ? Establish an expression for
temperature distribution in a straight fin of rectangular profile,
when fin tip is insulated. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Derive an expression of rectangular fin in case of heat dissipation
from an infinite long fin. What are advantages and application of
fins ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Temperature Distribution and Heat Transfer Rate for
Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature distribution
along the fin is necessary.
2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
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ii. No heat generation within the fin.
iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a distance
x from the base.
7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
dt
Qx = – kA CS
dx x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),
P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element
x
Fig. 2.3.1. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.
dt
Qx + dx = – kACS
dx x dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and (x + dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2.3.1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
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Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
dt dt
– kA CS = – kA CS + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2.3.2)
dx x dx x dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
dt dt d dt d 2 dt ( dx)2
dx =
dx 2 ... ...(2.3.3)
x dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2.3.2), we have
dt dt d dt
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS dx
dx x dx x dx dx x
d 2 dt (dx)2
– kA CS ... h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2 dx x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx 0,
dt dt d2t
– kA CS =– kA CS – kA CS 2 dx + h (P dx) (t – ta)
dx x dx x dx
d2t
kA CS 2 dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
dx
d2t hP
or – (t – ta ) 0 ...(2.3.4)
dx2 kACS
12. If temperature excess is,
= t – ta ...(2.3.5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or = ...(2.3.6)
dx 2 dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (2.3.5) and eq. (2.3.6) in eq. (2.3.4), we get
d 2
– m2 = 0 ...(2.3.7)
dx 2
hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (2.3.4) and eq. (2.3.7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
= C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(2.3.8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
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Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by using
proper boundary conditions.
Case I : When Fin Tip is Insulated :
1. When the end of fin is insulated, the boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0, = 0
dt
ii. At x = l,
=0
dx
2. Applying these boundary conditions in eq. (2.3.8), we get expression
for temperature distribution,
t ta cosh{m (l x)}
= = ...(2.3.9)
0 t0 ta cosh(ml)
em ( l x) e[ m( l x)]
Where, cosh {m (l – x)} =
2
eml e ml
and, cosh(ml) =
2
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.9), we get
dt sinh {m(l – x)}
= (t0 – ta) (– m)
dx cosh (ml)
dt
dx = – m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml) ...(2.3.10)
x0
4. Rate of heat flow from the fin is given by
dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
Putting the value of eq. (2.3.10) in above equation, we get
Qfin = kA CS m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
[ m hP / kACS ]
Case II : When Heat is Dissipated from an Infinite Long Fin :
1. The fin is infinitely long and temperature at the end of fin is that of
ambient/surrounding fluid. In this case, the boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0, t = t0
t – ta = to – ta
or, at x = 0, = 0
ii. At x = , t = ta
or x = , = 0
2. Substituting these boundary condition in eq. (2.3.8), we get
= 0 e–mx
or (t – ta) = (t0 – ta) e–mx ...(2.3.11)
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.11) w.r.t. x, we get,
dt
= [– m (t0 – ta) e–mx]x = 0 = – m (t0 – ta) ...(2.3.12)
dx x0
4. Rate of heat flow across the base of fin is given by,
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dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
dt
Putting the value of from eq. (2.3.12) in above equation, we
dx x 0
get
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta)
Case III : The Fin is of Finite Length and Losses Heat by Convection :
1. The boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0, = 0
ii. Heat conducted to the fin at (x = l) = Heat convected from the end
to surrounding.
dt
i.e., – kA CS = h ASA(t – ta)
dx x l
Where, ASA is surface area from which the convective heat transfer
takes place and at the tip of fin, A CS = ASA.
dt h
Thus, =– at x = l
dx k
2. Applying these boundary condition in eq. (2.3.8), we get
h
t ta cosh[ m(l x)] [sinh{m (l x)}]
= = km
o to ta h
cosh(ml) [sinh(ml)]
km
...(2.3.13)
3. Differentiating eq. (2.3.13) w.r.t. x, we get
h
dt sinh {ml} km cosh {ml}
dx = – m (to ta ) ...(2.3.14)
x 0 cosh {ml} h sinh {ml}
km
4. Rate of heat flow through the fin is given by :
dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
dt
Putting the value of from eq. (2.3.14) in above equation, we
dx x 0
get
h
tanh( ml) km
Qfin = Ph kACS (to – ta)
1 h tanh (ml)
km
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B. Advantages :
1. By using the fin, heat transfer rate can be increased without any
preventive maintenance.
2. It is the cheapest way for increasing the heat transfer rate from the hot
bodies.
C. Applications :
1. Economisers for steam power plants,
2. Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems,
3. Radiators for automobiles, and
4. Air cooled engine cylinder heads.
Que 2.4. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
Answer
A. Efficiency of Fin :
1. It is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to the
maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin area were at base
temperature.
Actual heat transfer by the fin(Qfin )
fin =
Maximum heat that would be transferred if whole surface
of the fin is maintained at the base temperature (Qmax )
2. For a fin which is infinitely long,
PhkACS (to ta ) kACS 1
fin =
Phl(to ta ) hPl 2 ml
3. For a fin which is insulated at the tip,
PhkACS (to ta ) tanh (ml) tanh (ml)
fin =
Phl( to ta ) ml
B. Effectiveness of Fin :
1. It is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate that
would exist without a fin.
Qwith fin
Mathematically, fin =
Qwithout fin
2. In case of infinitely long fin,
Pk
fin =
hACS
3. For a straight rectangular fin of thickness ‘y’ and width ‘b’,
2k
fin =
hy
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Que 2.5. Two pin fins are identical, except that the diameter of
one of them is twice the diameter of the other. For which fin will the
(a) effectiveness, and (b) fin efficiency be higher ? Explain.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Let the diameter of fin I be d1 and diameter of fin II be d2.
Given : d1 = 2d2
a. Effectiveness :
1. The effectiveness of a fin is given as follows,
h cosh mL mk sinh mL
kAm [ ts t ]
mk cosh mL h sinh mL
=
hA (ts t )
kA1 m(ts t ) h cosh mL mk sinh mL
fin hA(ts t ) mk cosh mL h sinh mL
2. Now, I =
fin II kA2 m(ts t ) h cosh mL mk sinh mL
hA(ts t ) mk cosh mL h sinh mL
2
A d1
fin I = 1 4
fin II
A2 d 2
4 2
fin I (2 d2 )2
= 4
fin II 2
d
4 2
fin I = 4 fin II
3. So, effectiveness of fin I is higher than effectiveness of fin II.
b. Efficiency :
1. The efficiency of a fin is given as follows,
1 A
fin = (t t ) dA
A [ ts t ] 0
1 A
2. Now,
fin I
=
A1 [ ts t ] 0 [t t ] dA A2
fin II 1 A
A2 [ ts t ]
0 [t t ] dA A1
2 2
fin I d2 d2
= 4 4
fin II 2
d (2 d2 )2
4 1 4
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fin I 1 1
= fin I fin II [fin I = 25 % of fin II]
fin II 4 4
3. So, efficiency of fin II is higher than efficiency of fin I.
Que 2.6. A stainless steel fin (k = 20 W/m-K) having a diameter of
20 mm and a length of 0.1 m is attached to a wall at 300 °C. The
ambient temperature is 50 °C and the heat transfer coefficient is
10 W/m2-K. The fin tip is insulated.
Determine :
i. The rate of heat dissipation from the fin.
ii. The temperature at the fin tip. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : d = 20 mm = 0.02 m, l = 0.1 m, to = 300 ºC, ta = 50 ºC,
k = 20 W/m-K, h =10 W/m2-K
To Find : i. The rate of heat dissipation from the fin.
ii. The temperature at the fin tip.
d
ti late
su
p
In
ta
to
0.1 m
0.02 m
Fig. 2.6.1.
hP 10 d 10 4
1. We know that, m=
kACS 2 20 0.02
20 d
4
m = 10
2. Rate of heat transfer,
Qfin = PhkACS (to ta ) tanh (ml)
Qfin = 0.02 10 20 (0.02)2 × (300 – 50) × tanh (10 × 0.1)
4
= 11.96 W
3. We know that,
t ta cosh {m (l x) }
=
o to ta cosh (ml)
Here, x=l
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t ta 1
=
to ta cosh (ml)
t 50 1
=
300 50 cosh (10 0.1)
Temperature at fin tip, t = 212 ºC.
Que 2.7. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick are placed
on 2.5 cm diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface
temperature is 170 °C and the ambient fluid temperature is 25 °C.
Calculate the heat loss per fin for h = 130 W/m2-°C for aluminium.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : b = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, t = 1 mm = 0.001 m,
d = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, t0 = 170 °C, ta = 25 °C, h = 130 W/m2-°C,
k = 200 W/m-°C
To Find : Heat loss per fin.
1. Perimeter, P = d
= × 0.025 = 0.0785 m
2
Area, A = d (0.025)2 4.9 10 4 m2
4 4
0 = t0 – ta = 170 – 25 = 145 °C
2. Heat loss due to infinitely long fin,
Qfin = hPkA 0
Qfin = 130 0.0785 200 4.9 10 4 145
Qfin = 145.17 W
Que 2.8. What do you understand by thermometer well ?
Estimate the error in temperature measurement in a thermometer
well.
Answer
A. Thermometer Well : It is defined as a small tube welded radially into
a pipeline through which a fluid whose temperature is to be measured
is flowing.
B. Estimation of the Error in Temperature Measurement in a
Thermometer Well :
1. Let, l = Length of the well/tube,
d = Internal diameter of the well/tube,
= Thickness of well/tube,
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tf = Temperature of the fluid flowing through the
pipe (which is to be measured), and
to = Temperature of the pipe wall.
2. When the temperature of the fluid flowing through the pipeline is
higher than the ambient temperature, the heat flows from the fluid
towards the tube walls along the well. Consequently the temperature
at the bottom of well becomes colder than the fluid flowing around,
obviously the temperature shown by the thermometer will not be the
true temperature of the fluid.
3. This error may be calculated by assuming the well to be a spine
protruding from the wall of a pipe in which fluid is flowing.
4. It may be assumed, for simplicity, that there is no flow of heat from the
tip of the well (i.e., the tip of the well is insulated).
5. The temperature distribution at any distance x measured from pipe
wall along the temperature well is given by
x t tf cosh [ m(l x)]
= x
o to tf cosh ( ml)
Thermometer
Pipeline
t0 (at x = 0)
oil
Fluid flow
tf
tl (at x = l )
d
Fig. 2.8.1. Thermometer well.
to tl tf
l
l
Well
temperature
x
Fig. 2.8.2. Temperature variation in well.
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6. At x = l, we have
tl tf cosh [ m( l l)] 1
= [Thermometric error]
to tf cosh (ml) cosh (ml)
Where, tl = Temperature recorded by the thermometer at the
bottom of the well.
7. Now, perimeter of the well,
P = (d + 2) d
and cross-sectional area,
Acs = d
P d 1
=
Acs d
hP h
8. Then, m=
kAcs k
Thus, the temperature measured by the thermometer is not affected
by the diameter of the well.
Que 2.9. A mercury thermometer placed in oil well is required
to measure temperature of compressed air flowing in a pipe. The
well is 140 mm long and is made of steel (k = 50 W/m-°C) of 1 mm
thickness. The temperature recorded by the well is 100 °C while
pipe wall temperature is 50 °C. Heat transfer coefficient between
the air and well wall is 30 W/m2-°C. Estimate true temperature of
air.
Answer
Given : l = 140 mm = 0.14 m, = 1 mm = 0.001 m, tl = 100 °C,
to = 50 °C, h = 30 W/m2 °C, k = 50 W/m °C.
To Find : True temperature of air.
h 30
1. We know that, m= = 24.5
k 50 0.001
2. Now, ml = 24.5 × 0.14 = 3.43
3. The true temperature of air is found from the relation,
tl tf 1
=
to t f cosh (ml)
100 tf 1 1
= = 0.0647
50 tf cosh (3.43) 15.4545
(100 – tf) = 0.0647 (50 – tf)
100 – tf = 3.235 – 0.0647 tf
tf = 103.46 °C.
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PART-2
Transient Heat Conduction, Lumped Capacitance Method,
Time Constant, Unsteady State Heat Conduction in One
Dimension only, Heisler Charts.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2
Transient Heat Conduction : Conduction of heat in unsteady
state refers to the transient conditions wherein the heat flow and the
temperature distribution at any point of the system vary continuously
with time.
Newtonian Heating or Cooling : The process in which the internal
resistance is assumed negligible in comparison with its surface
resistance is called the Newtonian heating or cooling process.
Response of Thermocouple : It is defined as the time required for
the thermocouple to attain the source temperature.
Time Constant : It is the time required for the temperature change
to reach 36.8 percent of its final value in response to a step change in
temperature. It is denoted by τ*.
VC
* =
hAS
Sensitivity : The time required by a thermocouple to reach its 63.2
percent of the initial value of temperature difference is called its
sensitivity.
Heisler Charts : These are drawn in order to determine the
temperature distribution in solids.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.10. Explain transient heat conduction.
Answer
1. The term transient or unsteady state designates a phenomenon which
is time dependent.
2. Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to the transient conditions
wherein the heat flow and temperature distribution at any point of the
system vary continuously with time.
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3. Transient conditions occur in :
i. Cooling of IC engine,
ii. Automobile engines,
iii. Heating and cooling of metal billets,
iv. Heat treatment of metals by quenching, and
v. Brick burning.
4. The temperature field in any transient problem is given by,
t = f (x, y, z, )
5. The two types of variation in temperature during an unsteady state
are as follows :
a. Non-Periodic Variation :
1. In a non-periodic transient state, the temperature at any point within
the system varies non-linearly with time.
2. Examples :
i. Heating of an ingot in a furnace, and
ii. Cooling of bars, blanks and metal billets in steel works, etc.
b. Periodic Variation :
1. In a periodic transient state, temperatures undergo periodic changes
which are either regular or irregular but definitely ‘cyclic’.
2. A regular periodic variation is characterised by a harmonic sinusoidal
or non-sinusoidal function, and irregular periodic variation is
characterised by any function which is cyclic but not necessarily
harmonic.
3. Examples : The temperature variations in :
i. Cylinder of an IC engine,
ii. Building during a period of 24 hours, and
iii. Surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.
Que 2.11. What do you mean by lump system analysis ? Derive the
following expression for transient heat conduction
t – t
= exp (–Bi F0)
ti – t
Where symbols have their usual meaning. Discuss the physical
significance of Biot No. and Fourier no. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Prove that for a body whose thermal resistance is zero, the
temperature required for cooling or heating can be obtained from
the relation (t – ta)/(ti – ta) = exp [– Bi Fo], where the symbols have
their usual meanings. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
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Answer
A. Lump System Analysis :
1. The process in which the internal resistance is assumed negligible in
comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian heating
or cooling process. The temperature in this process is considered to be
uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called lumped parameter
analysis because the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function
of its temperature and total heat capacity is treated as one lump.
B. Expression :
1. Let us consider a body whose initial temperature is ti throughout and
which is placed suddenly in ambient air or any liquid at a constant
temperature ta.
2. The transient response of the body can be determined by relating its
rate of change of internal energy with convective exchange at the surface
i.e.,
dt
Q = – VC = h AS (t – ta) ...(2.11.1)
d
Where, = Density of solid, kg/m3,
t= Temperature of the body at any time, °C,
V= Volume of the body, m3,
AS = Surface area of the body, m2,
C = Specific heat of body, J/kg-°C,
ta = Ambient temperature, °C,
h = Unit surface conductance, W/m2 °C, and
= Time, s.
Negligible internal
thermal resistance
Control Eout = Qconv.
surface
Body
System
= 0, t = ti
> 0, t = f( )
Fig.
Fig.2.11.1.
2.9.1. General
Generalsystem
system for
forunsteady
unsteadyheat
heat conduction.
conduction.
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S
ti
1
Cth = VC Rth =
hA s
ta
Fig. 2.11.2. Equivalent thermal circuit for lumped capacitance solid.
3. On rearranging the eq. (2.11.1), we get
dt h AS
=– d
t ta VC
On integrating both sides, we get
dt h AS
tt =
VC
d
a
h AS
ln (t – ta) = + C1 ...(2.11.2)
VC
The boundary conditions are :
At = 0, t = ti (Initial surface temperature)
C1 = ln (ti – ta)
h AS
Hence, ln (t – ta) = + ln (ti – ta)
VC
t ta h AS
or = = exp ...(2.11.3)
ti ta i VC
h AS
4. The power on exponential i.e., can be arranged in dimensionless
VC
form as follows,
h AS hV AS2 k h LC
= kA V 2C = k L2 ...(2.11.4)
VC S c
Where, = [k / C] = Thermal diffusivity of solid.
LC = Characteristic length.
Volume of solid (V )
=
Surfacearea of solid( AS )
5. In eq. (2.11.4),
h LC
i. The non-dimensional factor is called Biot number Bi, and
k
ii. The non-dimensional factor 2 is called the Fourier number Fo.
LC
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6. Using the non-dimensional term, eq. (2.11.3) becomes
t ta
= = e–Bi Fo
i ti ta
C. Significance of Fourier Number and Biot Number :
1. Fourier number signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling
effect through a solid.
2. Biot number gives an indication of the ratio of internal resistance
(conduction) to surface resistance (convection).
Que 2.12. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid
bodies and the air surrounding them. The first solid is being cooled
by a fan while the second one is allowed to cool naturally. For which
solid is the lumped system analysis more likely to be applicable ?
Why ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
1. Lumped system analysis is applicable to the system when the Biot number
is less than 0.1.
hLC
Biot number, Bi =
k
Where, h = Convective heat transfer coefficient,
LC = Characteristics length of a given geometry, and
k = Thermal conductivity of a given material.
2. Now, in the given case, as both the systems having same material and
geometry, Biot number depends only upon the value of heat transfer
coefficient.
3. Now, in the first case the solid body is cooled by blowing a air with fan so
the value of ‘h’ will be more as compared to second case in which the
solid body is cooled by natural means.
4. So, value of Biot number is greater than 0.1 in first case than second
case, hence the lumped system analysis will be applicable more likely to
the solid which is being cooled by natural convection than forced
convection.
Que 2.13. Define the following terms :
i. Time constant.
ii. Response of a thermocouple.
ii. Characteristic length.
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Answer
i. Time Constant :
1. Time constant is the time required for the temperature change to reach
36.8 % of its final value in response to a step change in temperature.
Mathematically,
VC
* =
hAs
ii. Response of Thermocouple :
1. It is defined as the time required for the thermocouple to reach the
source temperature when it is exposed to it.
iii. Characteristic Length :
1. It is the ratio of volume of the solid to the surface area of the solid.
Mathematically,
V
LC =
As
Que 2.14. For a plane wall subjected to uniform volumetric heat
generation and exposed to a fluid at same temperature on both the
sides, derive an expression for temperature distribution within
the wall. Assume one dimensional case.
Answer
1. Consider a plane wall of thickness L of uniform thermal conductivity k
and in which heat sources are uniformly distributed in the whole
volume.
qg
tw
tw
x=0 x=L
L
Fig. 2.14.1.
2. Let the wall temperature be tw, since heat flow is one dimensional
under steady state conditions, and there is a uniform volumetric heat
generation within the wall, so, equation is :
d 2t q
+ g =0 ...(2.14.1)
dx 2 k
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3. On integrating eq. (2.14.1), we get
dt qg
= x + C1 ...(2.14.2)
dx k
4. Integrating eq. (2.14.2), we get
qg 2
t= x + C1 x + C2 ...(2.14.3)
2k
5. On applying boundary conditions, we get
At x = 0, t = tw
At x = L, t = tw
Using these boundary conditions in eq. (2.14.3), we have
tw = C2
qg
C1 = L
2k
6. Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in eq. (2.14.3), we get
qg 2 qg
t= x + L x + tw
2k 2 k
qg
t= (L – x)x + tw ...(2.14.4)
2k
7. For location of maximum temperature, differentiating eq. (2.14.4) w.r.t.
x and equating the derivative to zero, we have
dt qg
= (L – 2x) = 0
dx 2k
qg
0,
2k
L – 2x = 0
L
x=
2
8. Thus the temperature distribution given by eq. (2.14.4) is parabolic
and symmetrical about the midplane. The maximum temperature
L
occurs at x = .
2
q q L L
tmax = g ( L x) x + tw = g L + tw
2 k x L 2 k 2 2
2
qg 2
tmax = L + tw ...(2.14.5)
8k
9. Heat transfer then takes place towards both the surfaces and for each
surface, it is given by,
dt qg
Q = – kA = – kA ( L 2 x)
dx x 0 or x L 2 k x 0 or x L
AL
Q= qg ...(2.14.6)
2
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10. When both the surfaces are considered,
AL
Q= 2× q = AL qg ...(2.14.7)
2 g
This heat dissipates to surrounding atmosphere at temperature ta.
AL
Thus, q = hA (tw – ta)
2 g
q
or tw = ta + g L ...(2.14.8)
2h
11. Substituting value of tw from eq. (2.14.8) in eq. (2.14.4), we get
qg qg
t = ta + L+ (L – x) x
2h 2k
L
At x = i.e., at the midplane
2
qg qg
t = tmax = ta + L+ L2
2h 8k
L L2
tmax = ta + qg
2h 8 k
Que 2.15. A thermocouple junction which can be approximated
as a 1 mm diameter sphere is used to measure a gas stream of
ta= 200 °C. Junction is at initially 25 °C. Determine how long it will
take for the thermocouple to read 199 °C. Properties of the
thermocouple junction are = 8500 kg/m 3, C = 320 J/kg-K, and
k = 35 W/m-K. The heat transfer coefficient between the junction
and the gas is 210 W/m2 -K. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : h =210 W/m2-K, k = 35 W/m-K, C = 320 J/kg-K,
=8500 kg/m3, D = 1 mm, R = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10–3 m,
ti = 25 ºC, ta = 200 ºC, t = 199 ºC
To Find : Time required to read 199 °C on thermocouple.
4
R3
Volume R
1. We know that, LC = 3 2
Surface area 4 R 3
R
h
hLC 3 210 0.5 103
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.001
k k 35 3
As Bi < 0.1, lumped capacitance method can be used.
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t ta hAs
2. Now, = exp
ti ta VC
hAs h 4 R2 3h
=
4
VC R C 3 RC
3
3 210
= = 0.463
8500 0.5 10 3 320
199 200
= e– 0.463
25 200
0.00571 = e–0.463
– 5.1655 = – 0.463
= 11.17 s.
Que 2.16. During heat treatment, cylindrical pieces of 25 mm
diameter, 30 mm height and at 30 °C are placed in furnace at 750 °C
with convective heat transfer coefficient 80 W/m2-°C. Calculate the
time required to heat the pieces to 600 °C. What will be shortfall in
temperature if pieces are taken out from the furnace after
280 seconds ? Assume the following properties : k = 40 W/m-°C,
C = 480 J/kg-K and = 7850 kg/m3. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : d = 25 mm, r = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m, H = 30 mm, ti = 30 °C,
ta = 750 °C, h = 80 W/m2-°C, t = 600 °C, k = 40 W/m-°C, C = 480 J/kg-K,
= 7850 kg/m3
To Find : i. Time required to heat the pieces.
ii. Shortfall in temperature.
1. For a cylindrical piece, the characteristic length is,
Volume r2 H rH
LC =
Surface area 2r (r H ) 2(r H )
0.0125 0.03
= 4.41 10 3 m
2(0.0125 0.03)
hLC 80 4.41 10 3
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.00882 < 0.1
k 40
Since Bi < 0.1, the lumped parameter model can be adopted.
t ta hA
= exp
ti ta VC
hA h A h 80
=
VC C V CLC 7850 480 4.41 10 3
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= 0.004814
600 750
= exp [– 0.004814 ]
30 750
30 750
= exp [0.004814 ]
600 750
30 750
or 0.004814 = ln = 1.5686
600 750
Time required for heating,
1.5686
= = 326 sec
0.004814
3. Let, t = Temperature attained when the pieces are taken out from the
furnace after 280 seconds.
t 750 1
Then, = exp [– 0.004814 × 280] = exp [– 1.348] =
30 750 3.849
30 750
or t= 750 = 563 °C
3.849
4. Shortfall in temperature = t – t = 600 – 563 = 37 °C.
Que 2.17. What is time constant ? The steel ball bearings of 40 mm
diameter and initially at uniform temperature of 600 °C are quenched
in an oil bath maintained at 50 °C temperature. The heat transfer
coefficient between the ball bearing and oil is 325 W/m2-K and the
thermodynamics properties of the bearing can be taken as :
k = 45 W/m-K and thermal diffusivity = 1.25 x 10–5 m2/s. Determine :
a. The time duration for which bearing must remain in oil to attain
225 °C temperature.
b. The instantaneous heat transfer rate from the bearings when
they are first immersed in oil and when they reach 225 °C.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
A. Time Constant : Refer Q. 2.13, Page 2–18B, Unit-2.
B. Numerical :
Given : d = 40 mm, ti = 600 °C, ta = 50 °C, h = 325 W/m2-K,
k = 45 W/m-K, = 1.25 × 10 – 5 m2/s.
To Find : a. The time duration for which bearing must remain in
oil to attain 225 °C temperature.
b. The instantaneous heat transfer rate from the
bearings when they are first immersed in oil and
when they reach 225 °C.
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4 3
r 0.04 / 2
Volume r
1. We know that, LC = 3 2 =
Surface area 4 r 3 3
= 6.67× 10–3 m
hLC 325 6.67 103
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.0482
k 45
Since Bi < 0.1, so lumped parameter analysis is applicable here.
hA h A 3 k
3. Now, = = h
C
VC C V k r
1.25 105 3
= 325 = 0.01354
45 0.04 / 2
4. From lumped parameter analysis,
t ta hA
= exp
ti ta VC
225 50
= exp (– 0.01354 )
600 50
0.01354 = loge 3.143 = 1.1452
1.1452
= = 84.58 s
0.01354
5. The total energy transferred is,
hA
Qt = VC (ti – ta) exp 1
VC
k 45
Now, C = = = 36 × 105
1.25 10 5
hA
exp = exp (– 0.01354 × 84.58) = 0.3182
VC
3
4 0.04
Qt = 36 × 105 ×
3 2 × (600 – 50) × (0.3182 – 1)
= – 45281 J/s or 45.28 kW (Negative sign shows heat loss)
5. Instantaneous heat flow rate is given as,
hA
Qi = – hA (ti – ta) exp
VC
2
0.04
= – 325 × 4× × (600 – 50) × (0.3182) = 285.9 J/s
2
= 285.9 W
Que 2.18. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a room where
temperature is 20 °C. The temperature of the body is measured to be
25 °C when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated to
be 8 W/m2-K. Modelling the human body into a 30 cm diameter,
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1.70 m long cylinder, calculate actual time of death of the person.
Take thermo physical properties of the body :
k = 6.08 W/m-K, = 900 kg/m3, C = 4000 J/kg-K
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Given : ta = 20 °C, t = 25 °C, h = 8 W/m2-K, d = 30 cm = 0.3 m
r = 0.15 m, l = 1.70 m, k = 6.08 W/m-K, = 900 kg/m3, C = 4000 J/kg-K.
To Find : Actual time of death of the person. Temperature of live
person is 37 °C.
1. From lumped parameter analysis,
t ta hAs 8 2rL
= exp = exp 2
t0 ta VC r LC
25 20 82
= exp
37 20 900 0.15 4000
82
– 1.224 =
900 0.15 4000
= 41310 sec = 11.47 hr
Hence, actual time of death of the person is 4.37 a.m.
Que 2.19. An egg with mean diameter of 40 mm and initially at
20 °C is placed in a boiling water pan for 4 minutes and found to be
boiled to the consumer’s taste. For how long should a similar egg
for same consumer be boiled when taken from a refrigerator at 5 °C.
Take the following properties for egg :
k = 10 W/m-°C, = 1200 kg/m3, C = 2 kJ/kg-°C and h = 100 W/m2 -°C.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
Given : R = 40 / 2 = 20 mm = 0.02 m, ti = 20 °C, = 4 × 60 = 240 sec,
k = 10 W/m-°C, = 1200 kg/m3, C = 2 kJ/kg-°C, h = 100 W/m2-°C,
ta = 100 °C.
To Find : Time taken to boiled the egg when it is taken from a
refrigerator at 5 °C.
1. We know that,
hLC
Biot number, Bi =
k
h R 100 0.02
Bi = =
k 3 10 3
4 / 3 R3 R
= 0.067 LC
4 R2 3
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As Bi < 0.1, we can use lump theory.
2. From lump parameter analysis,
t ta hA
= exp ...(2.19.1)
ti ta VC
hA h A 100 3
= =
VC C V 1200 2000 R
100 3
= = 0.00625
1200 2000 0.02
3. Substituting the above value in eq. (2.19.1), we get
t 100
= e–0.00625×240 = e–1.50 = 0.223
20 100
or, t = 100 + (20 – 100) × 0.223 = 82.16 °C 82 °C
4. Again using eq. (2.19.1), we get
82 100 1
= e–0.00625 = 0.00625
5 100 e
1
0.1895 = 0.00625
e
0.00625 = 1.6633
1.6633
= = 266.13 s = 4.435 minutes
0.00625
Que 2.20. What are the Heisler charts ? How these charts are used
to obtain temperature distribution when both conduction and
convection resistances are almost of equal importance ?
OR
Explain the utility of Heisler chart in transient heat conduction
problem. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
A. Heisler Charts :
t t
1. The chart plotted with temperature 0 a versus Fo (Fourier
ti ta
1
number) for various values of for solids of different geometrical
Bi
shapes such as plates, cylinders and spheres are known as Heisler charts.
2. These charts provide the temperature history of solid at its mid planes
(x = 0), temperatures at other locations are worked out by multiplying
the mid plane temperature by correction factor read from charts.
3. From Heisler chart, the value of Bi (Biot number) and Fo (Fourier
number) are calculated on the basis of characteristic parameter S which
is semi-thickness in case of plates and surface radius in case of cylinder
and spheres.
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4. Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature
distribution.
B. Use of Heisler Charts to Obtain Temperature Distribution when
both Conduction and Convection Resistances are almost of
Equal Importance :
1. Consider the heating and cooling of a plane wall having a thickness of
2L and extending to infinity in y and z directions.
2. Let us assume that the wall initially is at uniform temperature ti and
both surfaces (x = ± L) are suddenly exposed to and maintained at the
ambient (surroundings) temperature ta.
3. The governing differential equation is :
d 2t 1 dt
= ...(2.20.1)
dx 2 d
Infinite
ta plane wall
h h
x x
2L
Fig. 2.20.1.
4. The boundary conditions are :
i. At = 0, t = ti
dt
ii. At x = 0, =0
dx
dt
iii. At x = ± L, kA = hA (t – ta)
dx
5. The solutions obtained after mathematical analysis indicate that
t ta x hl
=f , , 2 ...(2.20.2)
ti ta l k l
6. From eq. (2.20.2), it is evident that when conduction resistance is not
negligible, the temperature history becomes a function of Biot number
hl x
, Fourier number 2 and dimensionless parameter which
k l l
indicates the location of point within the plate where temperature is to
be obtained.
Que 2.21. What is the significance of Heisler chart ? Describe
various types of Heisler chart. What is characteristic length ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
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Answer
A. Significance of Heisler Charts : Refer Q. 2.20, Page 2–26B, Unit-2.
B. Types of Heisler Charts :
a. Type I :
1. The se are plotte d be twee n dimensionle ss temperature ratio
(t0 – ta)/(ti – ta) at the centre and Fourier number F0 with 1/Bi as a
parameters.
2. These are used to determine the centre temperature from knowledge
of Bi and F0.
b. Types II :
1. The se are plotte d be twee n dimensionle ss temperature ratio
(t0 – ta)/(ti – ta) and 1/Bi with x / l as a parameter.
2. These plots along with plots of type I can be used to determine the
temperature at any location from a knowledge of Bi, F0 and x / l.
3. The temperature at any location can be calculated as,
t ta t0 ta t ta
=
ti ta ti ta t0 ta
c. Type III :
1. These are plotted between dimensionless heat transfer Q / Qi and F0Bi2
with Bi as a parameter.
2. These plots can be used to estimate the energy transferred during the
time interval = 0 to = from a knowledge of Bi and F0.
C. Characteristic Length : Refer Q. 2.13, Page 2–18B, Unit-2.
Que 2.22. The nose section of a missile is formed of a 6 mm thick
stainless plate and is held initially at uniform temperature of
88 °C. The missile enters the denser layers of the atmosphere at
very high velocity. The effective temperature of air surrounding
the nose region attains the value 2200 °C and the surface convective
coefficient is estimated at 3405 W/m2-K. Make calculations for the
maximum permissible time in these surroundings if the maximum
metal temperature is not to exceed 1095 °C. Also workout the inside
surface temperature under these conditions. The properties for
steel are : = 7800 kg/m3, k = 54 W/m-°C, Cp = 465 J/kg-K.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : L = 6 mm = 0.006 m, = 7800 kg/m3, Cp = 465 J/kg-K
k = 54 W/m-ºC, h = 3405 W/m2-K, ti = 88 ºC, ta = 2200 ºC
t = 1095 ºC
To Find : i. Maximum permissible time.
ii. Inside surface temperature.
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L 0.006
1. Characteristic length, LC = = 0.003 m
2 2
hLC 3405 0.003
2. Biot number, Bi = = = 0.189
k 54
As Bi > 0.1, therefore lumped analysis cannot be applied in this case.
Hence, Heisler charts are used to solve this problem.
1 1 x
3. Corresponding to = = 5.29 and = 1 (outside surface
Bi 0.189 LC
from nose section), from Heisler charts,
t ta
= 0.9
t0 ta
t ta t ta t ta
4. Also, = 0
ti ta ti ta t0 ta
1095 2200 t ta
= 0 × 0.9
88 2200 ti ta
t0 ta 1 ( 1105)
= = 0.5813
ti ta 0.9 (2112)
t0 ta 1
5. Now, again using the Heisler chart for = 0.5813 and = 5.29.
ti ta Bi
We get, Fourier number, F0 = 4.39
= 4.39
L2C
k k
= 4.39
C p L2C C
p
54
= 4.39
7800 465 (0.003)2
4.39 (0.003)2 7800 465
=
54
= 2.6537 sec
6. The temperature at the inside surface (x = 0) is given by
t0 ta
= 0.5813
ti ta
t0 2200
= 0.5813
88 2200
t0 = 2200 + 0.5813 (88 – 2200)
t0 = 972.2944 ºC
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Que 2.23. A large metal plate of thickness 5 cm is initially at 460 °C.
It is suddenly exposed to fluid at 100 °C with a convection coefficient
of 142.5 W/m2-K. Find the time needed for its mid plane to reach a
temperature of 316 °C and surface temperature at the same instant
of time. Take k = 21.25 W/m-K and = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : L = 5 cm, ti = 460 °C, ta = 100 °C, h = 142.5 W/m2-K,
t0 = 316 °C, k = 21.25 W/m-K, = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec
To Find : i. Time.
ii. Surface temperature.
L 5
1. Characteristic length, LC = = 2.5 × 10 – 2 m
2 2
hLC 142.5 2.5 10 2
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.168
k 21.25
As Bi > 0.1, therefore lumped analysis cannot be applied in this case,
further as Bi < 100, Heisler charts can be used to obtain the solution of
the problem.
to ta 316 100 1 1
4. Now, = 0.6 and = 5.95 6
ti ta 460 100 Bi 0.168
Corresponding to the above parametric values, from Heisler charts,
Fo = 3.4
= 3.4
Lc2
1.2 10 5
= 3.4
(2.5 10 2 )2
= 177 sec
x
5. At surface, = 1. Now corresponding to x/L = 1 and 1/Bi = 6, from
L
Heisler charts,
t ta
= 0.92
to ta
t 100
= 0.92
316 100
t = 298.72 °C.
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VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. What is the reason for the widespread use of fins on
surfaces ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 2. Derive an expression of rectangular fin in case of heat
dissipation from an infinite long fin. What are advantages
and application of fins ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.3.
Q. 3. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.4.
Q. 4. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid
bodies and the air surrounding them. The first solid is being
cooled by a fan while the second one is allowed to cool
naturally. For which solid is the lumped system analysis
more likely to be applicable ? Why ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.12.
Q. 5.Define the following terms :
i.Time constant.
ii.Response of a thermocouple.
ii.Characteristic length.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.13.
Q. 6. What is the significance of Heisler chart ? Describe various
types of Heisler chart. What is characteristic length ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.21.
Q. 7. A large metal plate of thickness 5 cm is initially at 460 °C. It
is suddenly exposed to fluid at 100 °C with a convection
coefficient of 142.5 W/m2-K. Find the time needed for its mid
plane to reach a temperature of 316 °C and surface
temperature at the same instant of time. Take k = 21.25 W/
m-K and = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.23.
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3 Forced &
Natural Convection
Part-1 ............................................................................ (3–2B to 3–12B)
• Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer • Thermal Boundary Layer
• Approximate Integral Boundary Layer Analysis
• Analogy between Momentum and Heat Transfer in Turbulent
Flow over a Flat Surface • Mixed Boundary Layer
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 3–2B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 3–2B
Part-2 ......................................................................... (3–12B to 3–21B)
• Flow over a Flat Plate
• Flow across a Single Cylinder and a Sphere
• Flow Inside Ducts • Thermal Entrance Region
• Empirical Heat Transfer Relations
• Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer
• Liquid Metal Heat Transfer
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 3–12B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 3–12B
Part-3 ......................................................................... (3–21B to 3–28B)
• Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection
• Buoyant Force
• Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Natural Convection over
Vertical Plates and Cylinders, Horizontal Plates and Cylinders
and Sphere
• Combined Free and Forced Convection
A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 3–21B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 3–22B
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Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer, Thermal Boundary Layer,
Approximate Integral Boundary Layer Analysis, Analogy
between Momentum and Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow
over a Flat Surface, Mixed Boundary Layer.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1
Boundary Layer : The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as
boundary layer. It is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
Boundary Layer Thickness : It is defined as the distance from the
boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 % of the velocity of the free
stream.
Thermal Boundary Layer : It may be defined as that region where
temperature gradient are present in the flow. These temperature
gradients would result from a heat exchange process between the
fluid and the wall.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.1. Explain the concept of boundary layer.
Answer
1. The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer.
Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
2. When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid boundary,
a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the boundary surface,
adheres to it and condition of no slip occurs.
3. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary surface
undergoes retardation, this retarded layer further causes retardation
for the adjacent layers of the fluid, thereby developing a small region in
the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the velocity of
the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero at the boundary surface
and approaches the velocity of main stream.
4. According to boundary layer theory, the extensive fluid medium around
bodies moving in fluids can be divided into following two regions :
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i. A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where
the viscous shear takes place.
ii. A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behaviour is quite
like that of an ideal fluid and the potential flow theory is applicable.
Que 3.2. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
The equation for boundary layer thickness can be obtained in terms of
displacement, momentum and energy that are discussed as below :
a. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of formation of
boundary layer. It is denoted by *.
Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U
y
Stationary plate
Fig. 3.2.1. Displacement thickness.
2. Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 3.2.1.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the
plate.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
= (U u) dy ...(3.2.1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of mass
of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(3.2.2)
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9. On equating eq. (3.2.1) and eq. (3.2.2), we get
U* = (U u) dy
0
u
* = 1 U dy
0
b. Momentum Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by .
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. Momentum/sec of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy × u = u2dy
4. Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering the boundary
layer = uUdy
5. Loss of momentum/sec = uUdy – u2dy = u(U – u) dy
6. Total loss of momentum/sec = u(U u)dy ...(3.2.3)
0
7. Let be the distance by which plate is displaced when fluid is flowing
with a constant velocity U. Then, loss of momentum/sec of fluid flowing
through distance with a velocity U
= U 2 ...(3.2.4)
8. On equating eq. (3.2.3) and eq. (3.2.4), we get
U2 = u(U u)dy
0
u u
= U 1 U dy
0
c. Energy Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate
for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation. It is denoted by e.
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. KE of this fluid inside the boundary layer
1 1
= mu2 = (udy)u2
2 2
4. KE of same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer
1
= (udy)U2
2
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5. Loss of KE through elementary strip
1 1 1
= (udy) U2 – (udy)u2 = u (U2 – u2)dy
2 2 2
1 2
6. So, total loss of KE of fluid = 2 u (U u2 ) dy ...(3.2.5)
0
7. Let e be the distance by which plate is displaced to compensate for
reduction in KE. Then, loss of KE through e of fluid flowing with
velocity U
1
=(Ue) U2 ...(3.2.6)
2
8. On equating eq. (3.2.5) and (3.2.6), we have
1 1 2
(Ue) U2 = 2 u (U u2 ) dy
2 0
1 2 2
e = u (U u ) dy
U3 0
u u2
e = U 1 U 2 dy
0
Que 3.3. Explain the concept of thermal boundary layer.
Answer
1. Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated or cold surface, a
temperature field is set up in the field next to the surface. If the
surface of the plate is hotter than fluid, the temperature distribution
will be as shown in the Fig. 3.3.1. The zone or the layer wherein the
temperature field exists is called the thermal boundary layer.
Limit of thermal
boundary layer
Region
affected by Temperature
U, t heating
Y profile, t(y)
Free th
stream ( t s – t )
t (y ) Plate
surface (ts)
X
t t
Laminar Turbulent
Fig. 3.3.1. Thermal boundary layer formed during
flow of cool fluid over a warm plate.
2. Due to the exchange of heat between the plate and the fluid,
temperature gradient occurs.
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3. The thermal boundary layer thickness (th) is arbitrarily defined as the
distance y from the plate surface at which
ts t
= 0.99
ts t
4. The temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer depends upon
the viscosity, velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal conductivity of
the fluid.
Que 3.4. Derive the differential energy equation for flow past a
flat plate. Also write down assumptions of it.
OR
Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal boundary layer
over flat plate. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
A. Assumptions :
1. The flow is steady and incompressible.
t ts
2. Fluid’s properties evaluated at the film temperature, tf = are
2
constant.
3. The body forces, viscous heating and conduction in the flow direction
are negligible.
B. Derivation :
1. For an element of dimensions (dx × dy × Unit depth) in the boundary
layer the quantities of energy entering and leaving are shown in
Fig. 3.4.1.
–kdx t + t dy
y y y
Viscous heat
Ey2 = v+ v dy dx C t + t dy
generation y p
y
u 2
dxdy
y
Ex1 = ( u dy) Cp t dy Control Ex2 = u + u dx dy C p t + t dx
volume x x
dx
– k dx t/ y Ey1 = ( v dx) Cp t
Fig. 3.4.1. Differential control volume for energy conservation
in thermal boundary layer.
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2. The rate of temperature change in the X-direction is being presumed
small and as such conduction is to be considered only in the Y-direction.
3. The convective terms in the X and Y-directions have been written in
terms of mass, temperature and specific heat which is assumed constant.
a. In X-direction :
i. Energy influx,
Ex1 = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
= (udy) Cpt
ii. Energy efflux,
u t
Ex2 = u dx dy C p t dx
x x
Neglecting the product of small quantities,
t u
Ex2 = C p dy ut u dx t dx
x x
iii. Net energy convection = Ex1 – Ex2
t u
= – Cp u t dx dy
x x
b. In Y-direction :
i. Similarly, net energy convection in Y-direction,
= Ey1 – Ey2
t v
= ( v dx) Cpt – Cpdx v t v dy t dy
y y
t v
= C p v t dx dy
y y
4. Conduction heat rate in Y-direction,
t t t
= kdx kdx dy
y y y y
2t
= k dx dy
y2
5. Due to relative motion of fluid in the boundary layer there will be
viscous effects which will cause heat generation.
Viscous force = Shear stress × Area upon which it acts
u
= (dx × 1)
y
6. The viscous force will act through a distance ‘s’ which can be given as
u
s = dy
y
2
u u u
Viscous heat generation = dx dy dxdy
y y y
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7. Now, for steady state condition, the algebraic sum of heat due to
convection, conduction and viscous effect equals to zero. Thus
2
t u t v 2 t u
C p u t v t dxdy + k dxdy + µ dxdy = 0
x x y y y2 y
2
t t u v 2t u
or – Cp u v t k 2 = 0 ...(3.4.1)
x y x y y y
u v
8. For a two-dimensional boundary layer flow, = 0 and
x y
therefore eq. (3.4.1) can be written as,
2
t t k 2t u
u v =
x y C p y2 C p y
which represents the differential energy equation for flow past a flat
plate.
9. If the heat generation due to viscous effects is negligible, then the
energy equation can be re-written as
t t k 2t 2t
u v = =
x y C p y2 y2
k
Where, = = Thermal diffusivity
C p
Que 3.5. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for
the flow past a flat plate. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
1. Consider a control volume as shown in Fig. 3.5.1.
Hydrodynamic
boundary layer
Qh Thermal
U , t boundary layer
B C
H
Q x + dx
Qx
Y th
Control
volume
X A D
xo Q cond.
x dx Thin flat plate
Fig. 3.5.1. Integral energy equation – control volume.
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2. Following assumptions are made to derive the integral energy equation :
i. , Cp and k (thermo-plastic properties) of fluid remain constant
within the operating range of the temperature
ii. The heating of the plate commences at a distance x0 from the
leading edge of the plate.
3. For unit width of the plate we have,
H
i. Mass of fluid entering through face AB = u dy
0
H H
ii. Mass of fluid leaving through face CD = u dy dx
u dy
x 0 0
iii. Mass of fluid entering the control volume through face BC
H
= 0 u dy
x
0
H
0
H
u dy dx – u dy
H
= u dy dx
x 0
4. Heat influx through the face AB,
Qx = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
or, Qx = 0
H
u dy C pt C p ut dy
0
H
5. Heat efflux through the face CD,
H H
Qx + dx = C p ut dy dx
ut dy
x
0 0
6. Heat (energy) influx through the face BC (which is outside thermal
boundary layer and there the temperature is constant at t ),
H
Qh = u dy dx C p t
x 0
7. Heat conducted into the control volume through face AD,
t t
Qcond. = – kA – k dx
y y 0 y y 0
8. The energy balance for the element is given by
H H t
C p ut dy C p t u dy dx – k dx y
0 x 0
y0
H H
C p ut dy dx
= C p 0 ut dy
x 0
9. After simplification and rearrangement, we have
d H k t t
(t – t)u dy =
dx 0
...(3.5.1)
C p y y 0 y y 0
Eq. (3.5.1) is the integral equation for the boundary layer for constant
properties and constant free stream temperature t.
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Que 3.6. Explain the analogy between momentum and heat
transfer in turbulent flow over a flat surface.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow over
flat plate using Colburn analogy. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1. As we know that, the inter-relationship between fluid friction and
Newton’s law of viscosity is given as,
du
0 = ...(3.6.1)
dy
2. Heat flow along Y-direction follows the Fourier equation
dt
Q = kA ...(3.6.2)
dy
3. When Pr is unity, temperature and velocity profile are identical (for
most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)
C p k
i.e., = 1 or = Cp ...(3.6.3)
k
4. By combining eq. (3.6.1), eq. (3.6.2) and eq. (3.6.3), we get
dt
Q = – C p A 0
du
5. Separating the variables and integrating within the limits :
At the plate surface : u = 0 and t = ts
At the outer edge of boundary layer : u = U and t = t
Q U t
du = – t dt
C p A 0 0 s
Q
U = (ts – t)
C p A 0
Q 0 Cp
= ...(3.6.4)
A (ts t ) U
Q
6. But, = hx ...(3.6.5)
A (ts t )
1
and, U 2
0 = C fx ...(3.6.6)
2
7. Substituting eq. (3.6.5) and eq. (3.6.6) in eq. (3.6.4), we get
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1 C p Cfx
hx = Cfx U 2 ( C p U )
2 U 2
hx C
= fx
Cp U 2
hx
is called the Stanton number Stx.
Cp U
8. It represents the Nusselt number divided by the product of the Reynolds
and Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nux C fx
= Stx ...(3.6.7)
Rex Pr 2
Eq. (3.6.7) is called the Reynolds analogy.
9. Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we have
hx x
Nux = 0.332 ( Rex )1/ 2 ( Pr)1/ 3 ...(3.6.8)
k
10. Dividing both sides of the eq. (3.6.8) by Rex (Pr)1/3, we get
Nux 0.332 Cfx
= ...(3.6.9)
Rex ( Pr)1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2 2
11. The LHS of the eq. (3.6.9) can be rewritten as
Nux Nux
= ( Pr)2/ 3 Stx (Pr)2/ 3
Rex ( Pr)1/ 3 Rex Pr
C fx
Stx (Pr)2/3 = ...(3.6.10)
2
Eq. (3.6.10) shows the inter-relationship between heat and momentum
transfer and designated as Colburn analogy.
12. For Pr = 1, the Reynolds and Colburn analogies are same.
Que 3.7. What do you understand by mixed boundary layer ?
Answer
1. Fig. 3.7.1 shows flow over a plate.
Turbulent boundary layer
Mixed G
Laminar boundary boundary F
layer layer
U
E Laminar
sub-layer
B C D
A
Laminar Transition Turbulent
zone zone zone
Leading edge
Fig. 3.7.1.
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2. If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, calculated from
equation, Ux/ = 5 × 105, the thickness of boundary layer will go on
increasing in the downstream direction.
3. Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid
within it is disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from
laminar to turbulent boundary layer.
4. This short length over which the boundary layer flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is called transition zone or mixed zone, which is
shown by distance BC.
5. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent
and continues to grow in thickness.
6. This layer of boundary is called turbulent and continues to grow in
thickness which is shown by the portion FG.
PART-2
Flow over a Flat Plate, Flow across a Single Cylinder and a Sphere,
Flow Inside Ducts, Thermal Entrance Region, Empirical Heat
Transfer Relations, Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat
Transfer, Liquid Metal Heat Transfer.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2
Empirical Correlations for Forced Convection :
For Flow over Flat Surfaces :
Nux = 0.0292 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)0.33
For Flow inside Duct or Pipe :
Nux = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
For Flow across a Sphere :
Nux = [0.97 + 0.68(Re)0.5] (Pr)0.3
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.8. Give expression for :
a. Flow over the flat plate,
b. Flow inside duct or pipe, and
c. Flow across a sphere.
Answer
a. Flow over Flat Surface : The general equation giving to the local heat
transfer coefficient for turbulent flow over flat plate is given by,
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Nux = 0.0292 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)0.33
b. Flow inside Duct or Pipe : The general equation giving to the local
heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow for duct or pipe is given by,
Nux = 0.023 (Rex)0.8 (Pr)n
c. Flow across a Sphere : The general equation giving to the local heat
transfer coefficient for turbulent flow for sphere is given by,
Nux = [0.97 + 0.68 (Re)0.5] (Pr)0.3
Que 3.9. Give the empirical correlations for forced convection.
Answer
1. The following dimensionless numbers are used in forced convection :
hL
i. Nusselt number, Nu =
k
L v
ii. Reynold’s number, Re =
C p
iii. Prandtl number, Pr =
k
h
iv. Stanton number, St =
C p v
2. In order to determine the value of convection coefficient h, the following
equations are used :
Nu = f1 (Re, Pr) = C1 (Re)m (Pr)n
St = f2 (Re, Pr) = C2 (Re)a (Pr)b
Que 3.10. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer coefficients
determined in flow over a flat plate ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
A. Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer : Refer Q. 3.6,
Page 3–10B, Unit-3.
B. Expression for Average Friction :
1. The local skin friction coefficient is given as
0 0.646
Cfx =
1 2 Rex
U
2
2. Average value of skin friction coefficient,
1 L 1 L 0.646 dx
Cf = C fx dx =
L 0 L 0 U / x
1.292
or, Cf = 1.292
LU ReL
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LU
Where, ReL = is Reynolds number based on total length L of the
flat plate.
C. Expression for Heat Transfer Coefficient :
Q dt
1. We know that, = hx(ts – t) = – k
A dy y 0
k(dt / dy) y0
or, hx =
ts t
dt 3 t t
2. But, dy = s
y 0 2 th
3 t t
k s
2 th 3k 3k 1
hx = = ...(3.10.1)
(ts t ) 2 th 2 r
3/ 4 1/ 3
4.64 x
3. Substituting r = 0.975 1 x0 and = in eq. (3.10.1), we
( Pr ) x
1/ 3
Rex
get
3k ( Pr )1/ 3 Rex
hx =
2 3 / 4 1/ 3 4.64 x
x
0.975 1 0
x
k 1
hx = 0.332( Pr)1/ 3 ( Re)1/ 2 1/ 3
x x0 3/ 4
1
x
4. When the plate is heated over the whole length i.e., x0 = 0, we have
k
hx = 0.332 ( Pr )1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2
x
Que 3.11. Explain drag force and drag coefficient.
Answer
A. Drag Force (FD) :
1. The drag force on elemental area
= Force due to pressure in the direction of fluid motion
+ Force due to shear stress in the direction
of fluid motion
= pdA cos + 0dA cos (90° – ) = pdA cos + 0dA sin
Total drag, FD = p cos dA 0 sin dA
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2. The term p cos dA is called the pressure drag or form drag while the
term 0 sin dA is called the friction drag or skin drag or shear drag.
0dA
FL FR
pdA
U X 90°– FD
X
Stationary body
Fig. 3.11.1.
B. Local Coefficient of Drag : It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress
1
0 to the quantity U2. It is denoted by C*D.
2
0
Hence, C*D =
1
U 2
2
C. Average Coefficient of Drag : It is defined as the ratio of the total drag
force to the quantity 1/2 AU2. It is also called coefficient of drag and it
is denoted by CD.
FD
Hence, CD =
1 / 2 AU 2
Where, A = Area of the surface (or plate),
U = Free stream velocity, and
= Mass density of fluid.
Que 3.12. Air at 27 °C and 1 atm flows over a flat plate at a velocity
3 m/s. The plate is heated over its entire length to a temperature of
70 °C. Calculate the heat transferred if the plate length is 45 cm
and width is 1 m. Properties of air, = 17.36 × 10 –6 m 2/s ,
k = 0.02749 W/m-K , C p = 1.006 kJ/kg-K , Pr = 0.7. Take,
NuL = 0.664 ReL0.5 Pr 1/ 3 . AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : t = 27 ºC, ts = 70 ºC, U = 3 m/s, L = 45 cm = 0.45 m,
w = 1 m, = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, k = 0.02749 W/m-K,
Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg-K, Pr = 0.7
To Find : Heat transferred.
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UL 3 0.45
1. Reynolds number, Re = = 77764.98
17 . 36 10 6
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. Average Nusselt number,
NuL = 0.664 Re0.5 Pr1/3
hL
= 0.664 (77764.98)0.5 (0.7)1/3
k
0.02749 0.664 (77764.98)0.5 (0.7)1/3
h =
0.45
h = 10.044 W/m2-ºC
3. Heat transfer, Q = h As(ts – t)
= 10.044 × 0.45 × 1 × (70 – 27) = 194.351 W
Que 3.13. Air at 2 atm and 200 °C is heated as it flows at a velocity
of 12 m/s through a tube with a diameter of 3 cm. A constant heat
flux condition is maintained at the wall and the wall temperature
is 20 °C above the air temperature all along the length of the tube.
Calculate :
i. the heat transfer per unit length of the tube, and
ii. the increase in bulk temperature of air over a 4 m length of the
tube. Properties of air, Pr = 0.681, = 2.57 × 10 –5 kg/ms,
k = 0.0386 W/m-K, Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg-K, = 1.493 kg/m3.
Use : Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : t = 200 ºC, tw = 220 ºC, U = 12 m/s, d = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Pr = 0.681, = 2.57 × 10–5 kg/ms, k = 0.0386 W/m-K,
Cp = 1.025 kJ/kg-K, = 1.493 kg/m3
To Find : i. Heat transfer per unit length of tube.
ii. Increase in bulk temperature of air.
1. Reynolds number,
Ud 1.493 12 0.03
Re = = 0.2091× 105
2.57 10 5
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. Nusselt number,
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
hd
= 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
k
0.0386 0.023 (0.2091 105 )0.8 (0.681)0.4
h=
0.03
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h = 72.57 W/m2-K
3. Heat transferred per unit length of the tube,
Q = hAs(tw – t) = 72.57 × d × 1 × (220 – 200)
= 72.57 × × 0.03 × 20 = 136.79 W/m
4. Bulk temperature increase of air over a 4 m length of the tube
Q = mCp (t) = (AU) Cp (t)
4 × 136.79 = 1.493 × × (0.03)2 × 12 × 1.025 × 103 × (t)
4
t = 42.15 ºC
Que 3.14. Air is flowing over a flat plate 5 m long and 2.5 m
wide with a velocity of 4 m/s at 15 °C. If = 1.208 kg/m 3 and
= 1.47 × 10–5 m 2/s, calculate the length of plate over which the
boundary layer is laminar and thickness of the boundary layer
(laminar), shear stress at the location where boundary layer ceases
to be laminar and the total drag force on the both sides of that
portion of the plate where boundary layer is laminar.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : L = 5 m, w = 2.5 m, U = 4 m/s, = 1.208 kg/m3,
= 1.47 × 10–5 m2/s
To Find : i. Length of plate over which the boundary layer is
laminar, and thickness of the boundary layer
(laminar).
ii. Shear stress at the location where boundary layer
ceases to be laminar.
iii. Total drag force on the both sides of that portion of
plate where boundary layer is laminar.
UL 45
1. Reynold number, Re = = 1.361 × 106.
1.47 10 5
Hence on the front portion, boundary layer is laminar and on the rear,
it is turbulent.
Ux
Re = 5 10 5
4x
= 5 × 105
1.47 10 –5
5 105 1.47 10 5
x= = 1.837 m
4
Hence the boundary layer is laminar on 1.837 m length of the plate.
5x
2. Thickness of the boundary layer (laminar), =
Re
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5 1.837
= = 0.01299 m or 12.99 mm
5 105
0.664 0.664
3. Local coefficient of drag, Cfx = = 0.000939
Re 5 105
1
Shear stress, 0 = Cfx U 2
2
1
= 0.000939 × × 1.208 × 42 = 0.00907 N/m2
2
4. Total drag force on both sides of plate,
1
FD = 2C f AU 2
2
Where, Cf = Average coefficient of drag (or skin friction)
1.328 1.328
= = 1.878 × 10–3
Re 5 105
and area of the plate, A = xL = 1.837 × 2.5 = 4.59 m2
1
FD = 2 × 1.878 × 10–3 × × 1.208 × 4.59 × 42
2
= 0.167 N
Que 3.15. A flat plate is 2 m long, 0.8 m wide and 3 mm thick. Its
density and specific heat is 3000 kg/m3 and 700 J/kg-K respectively.
The plate is having initial temperature of 80 °C. A stream of air at
20 °C blown over both surfaces of the plate along its width, at a
velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate rate of heat dissipation from the plate
and initial rate of cooling of the plate. The properties of air are :
= 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028 W/m-°C, C = 1007 J/kg-K,
= 2.03 × 10 – 5 kg/m-s, Pr = 0.698
Nu a = 0.664 (Rex)0.5 (Pr)0.33 for Laminar Flow
Nu a = 0.0336 (Rex)0.8 – 836 (Pr)0.33 for Turbulent Flow
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Given : L = 2 m, w = 0.8 m, t = 3 mm = 0.003 m
P = 3000 kg/m3, Cp = 700 J/kg-K, (tP)i = 80 ºC, a = 1.09 kg/m3,
k = 0.028 W/m-ºC, C = 1007 J/kg-K, = 2.03 × 10–5 kg/m-s,
Pr = 0.698, For air, t = 20 ºC, U = 2 m/s
To Find : i. Heat dissipation rate.
ii. Initial rate of cooling of plate.
1. Air blows over both surfaces of plate along width.
Hence, characteristic length, Lc = w = 0.8 m
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2. Now, Reynolds number,
aULc
Re =
1.09 2 0.8
= = 8.59 × 104
2.03 10 5
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
So Nua = 0.664 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.33
= 0.664 (8.59 × 104)0.5 (0.698)0.33
= 172.837
hLc
3. Since, Nua =
k
h 0.8
Nua =
0.028
h 0.8
= 172.837
0.028
h = 6.0493 W/m2-ºC.
4. Now, heat transfer rate for one surface,
Q = hA t
Q = 6.0493 × 2 × 0.8 × (80 – 20)
Q = 580.7328 W
5. For both surfaces,
QT = 2 × 580.7328 = 1161.4656 W
6. Now, initial cooling rate of plate for one surface,
QP = mC p t
= P AUCpt
= 3000 × 2 × 0.8 × 2 × 700 × (80 – 20)
= 403.2 MW
7. For both surface,
(QP)T = 2 × 403.2 = 806.4 MW
Que 3.16. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is maintained
at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate the following using
exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness on
one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and the
heat transfer rate. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
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Answer
Given : t = 25 °C, ts = 95 °C, L = 4.5 m, U = 0.1 m/s.
To Find : i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thickness on one side of the plate.
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the
plate.
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
and the heat transfer rate.
Data Assumed : = 0.65 × 10–4 m2/s, = 7.2 × 10– 8 m2/s,
k = 0.213 W/m-°C, = 956.8 kg/m3
1. Reynolds number at the end of the plate,
UL 0.1 4.5
Re = = 6923
0.65 10 4
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
5L 5 4.5
=
Re 6923
= 0.2704 m = 270.4 mm
3. The thermal boundary layer thickness,
th =
( Pr )1/ 3
0.65 104
Where, Pr = = 902.77
7.2 10 8
0.2704
th = = 0.02798 m = 27.98 mm
(902.77)1/3
4. The average skin friction coefficient is given by,
1.328
Cf =
Re
1.328
Cf = = 0.01596
6923
5. The total drag force,
1
FD = Cf U 2 × Area of plate (for one side)
2
1
= 0.01596 × × 956.8 × (0.1)2 × (4.5 × 1)
2
= 0.3436 N/m
hx x
6. Nux = = 0.332 (Rex)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
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= 0.332 × (6923)1/2 (902.77)1/3 = 266.98
266.98 k 266.98 0.213
or, hx = = 12.64 W/m2-°C
x 4.5
7. Local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
h = 2hx = 2 × 12.64 = 25.28 W/m2-°C
8. Heat transfer rate, Q = h As (ts t )
= 25.28 × (4.5 × 1) × (95 – 25) = 7963.2 W
Que 3.17. Give the relation for liquid metal heat transfer.
Answer
1. The example of liquid metal are sodium, potassium, lead, etc. and in the
liquid metal, Prandtl number is very less than 1 i.e., Pr << 1.
2. For constant temperature,
Nu = 4.8 + 0.0156 Pe0.85 Pr0.08
Where, Pe = Re Pr
3. For constant heat flux condition,
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185 Pe0.827
PART-3
Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection, Buoyant Force
Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Natural Convection over
Vertical Plates and Cylinders, Horizontal Plates and Cylinders
and Sphere, Combined Free and Forced Convection.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3
Natural Convection : It occurs when the fluid circulates by virtue of
the natural differences in densities of the hot and cold fluids.
Buoyant force or Buoyancy Force : The difference in the density
of the cold fluid and hot fluid causes the fluid to flow in the upward
direction. The force accounting this flow is known as buoyancy force.
Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Free Convection :
For Vertical Plates :
i. In case of laminar flow, Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)1/4
ii. In case of turbulent flow, Nu = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3
For Cylinders :
i. In case of laminar flow, Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4
ii. In case of turbulent flow, Nu = 0.13 (Gr Pr)1/3
For Spheres :
Nu = 2 + 0.43(Gr Pr)1/4
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Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.18. What do you understand by buoyant force and centre of
buoyancy ?
Answer
A. Buoyant Force : Whenever a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward
force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the buoyant
force or simply buoyancy.
G
B
FB
Fig. 3.18.1.
B. Centre of Buoyancy :
1. It is defined as a point about which the force of buoyancy is supposed to
act.
2. As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the centre
of gravity of the fluid displaced.
3. In Fig. 3.18.1, FB is the force of buoyancy and point B is the centre of
buoyancy.
Que 3.19. For the case of free convection boundary layer on a
heated vertical plate, show that :
u u 2u
u +v = g(t – t ) + v 2
x y y
Answer
1. In free convection, the additional force is the body force g and hence
the momentum equation gets modified to
u u 2u p
u v = y 2 – g – x ...(3.19.1)
x y
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2. In free convection, outside the boundary layer, (y ) as tends to ,
whereas u and v approach zero. So, eq. (3.19.1) becomes,
p
0=– – g
x
p
or = – g ...(3.19.2)
x
3. From eq. (3.19.1) and eq. (3.19.2), we get
u u 2u
u v = g( ) ...(3.19.3)
x y y2
4. Further the density difference ( – ) may be expressed in terms of the
volume coefficient of expansion which is defined as,
1 p 1
=–
t t t
5. So, eq. (3.19.3) becomes,
u u 2u
u v = y2 + g (t – t)
x y
u u 2u
u v = 2 g (t – t )
x y y
Que 3.20. Which dimensionless numbers are used to develop the
empirical correlations for free convection ? Give the empirical heat
transfer relations for natural convection over vertical plates,
horizontal plates, cylinders and spheres.
Answer
A. Different Dimensionless Numbers used in Free Convection :
The dimensionless numbers used for empirical relations for heat transfer
in natural convection are :
hL
1. Nusselt number, (Nu) =
k
L3 g t
2. Grashoff number, (Gr) =
2
Cp
3. Prandtl number, (Pr) =
k
B. Empirical Heat Transfer Relations for Free Convection :
a. Vertical Plates : The commonly used relation are :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.59 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (104 < Gr Pr < 109)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (109 < Gr Pr < 1012)
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b. Horizontal Plates :
Case I : Upper surface heated or the lower surface cooled :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.54 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (105 < Gr Pr 2 × 107)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.14 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (2 × 107 < Gr Pr 3 × 1010)
Case II. Lower surface heated or upper surface cooled :
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.27 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (3 × 105 < Gr Pr 3 × 1010)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.107 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (7 × 106 < Gr Pr 11 × 1010)
c. Cylinders : The relation for cylinders is given by,
i. For Laminar Flow :
NuL = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (104 < Gr Pr < 109)
ii. For Turbulent Flow :
NuL = 0.13 (Gr Pr)1/3 for (109 < Gr Pr < 1012)
d. Spheres : The relation for sphere is given by,
NuL = 2 + 0.43 (Gr Pr)1/4 for (1 < Gr Pr < 105)
Que 3.21. Show that in natural convection heat transfer :
Nu = f(Gr, Pr) AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
1. The heat transfer coefficient in case of natural or free convection, like
forced convection depends upon the variables v,, k, , Cp and L or D.
2. Since the fluid circulation in free convection is owing to difference in
density between the various fluid layers due to temperature gradient
and not by external agency, therefore, velocity v is no longer an
independent variable but depends upon the following factors :
i. t i.e., the difference of temperatures between the heated surface
and the undisturbed fluid.
ii. i.e., coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid.
iii. g i.e., acceleration due to gravity.
(gt is considered as one physical factor.)
3. Thus heat transfer coefficient ‘h’ may be expressed as follows :
h = f (, L, , Cp, k, gt)
or f1 (, L, , k, h, Cp, gt) = 0 ...(3.21.1)
The parameter (gt) represents the buoyant force and has the
dimensions of [LT–2].
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4. Total number of variables, n = 7
Fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T, and hence,
m = 4.
Number of dimensionless -terms = n – m = 7 – 4 = 3
5. Now the eq. (3.21.1) can be written as,
f1 (1, 2, 3) = 0 ...(3.21.2)
6. We choose , L, and k as the repeating variables with unknown
exponents.
1 = a1 Lb1 c1 kd1 h
2 = a2 Lb2 c2 kd2 Cp
1 = a3 Lb3 c3 kd3 gt
a. 1-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 =(ML–3)a1 (L)b1 (ML–1 T –1) c1 (MLT –3 –1)d1 (MT–3 –1)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T and respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a1 + c1 + d1 + 1
For L : 0 = – 3a1 + b1 – c1 + d1
For T : 0 = – c1 – 3d1 – 3
For : 0 = – d1 – 1
Solving the above equations, we get
a1 = 0, b1 = 1, c1 = 0, d1 = – 1
hL
1 = Lk–1 h or 1 = Nu
k
b. 2-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 = (ML–3)a2 (L)b2 (ML–1 T–1)c2 (MLT – 3 –1)d2 (L2 T–2–1)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T, respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a2 + c2 + d2
For L : 0 = – 3a2 + b2 – c2 + d2 + 2
For T : 0 = – c2 – 3d2 – 2
For : 0 = – d2 –1
Solving the above equations, we get
a2 = 0, b2 = 0, c2 = 1, d2 = –1
C p
2 = k–1 Cp or 2 = = Pr
k
c. 3-Term :
M0 L0 T0 0 = (ML –3)a3 (L)b3 (ML –1 T–1)c3 (MLT –3 –1)d3 (LT – 2)
Equating the exponents of M, L, T, respectively, we get
For M : 0 = a3 + c3 + d3
For L : 0 = – 3a3 + b3 – c3 + d3 + 1
For T : 0 = – c3 – 3d3 – 2
For : 0 = – d3
Solving the above equations, we get
a3 = 2, b3 = 3, c3 = – 2, d3 = 0
3 = 2 L3 –2 (gt)
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( gt) 2 L3 ( gt) L3
or 3 = = Gr
2 2
7. Putting the values of 1, 2 and 3 in eq. (3.21.2), we have
Nu = f(Gr, Pr)
Que 3.22. A horizontal pipe 1 ft (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained
at a temperature of 250 °C in a room where the ambient air is at
15 °C. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of length.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : D = 0.3048 m, to = 250 °C, t = 15 °C
To Find : Free convection heat loss per meter of length.
1. For the horizontal cylinder, with laminar flow relation of convection
heat transfer coefficient,
1/ 4 1/ 4
t 250 15
h = 1.32 = 1.32
D 0.3048
2
= 6.955 W/m -°C
2. We know that, Qconv. per unit length,
Qconv. = hA (to t )
= 6.955 × × 0.3048 × 1 × (250 – 15)
= 1565.055 W = 1.565 kW
Que 3.23. A 350 mm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at
24 °C while its temperature is maintained at 80 °C. Calculate the
boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate. If a similar
plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is blown over it at a velocity
of 5 m/s, find the boundary layer thickness at its trailing edge. Also
determine the average heat transfer coefficient, for natural and
forced convection for the above mentioned data.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : L = 350 mm = 0.35 m, t= 24 °C, ts = 80 °C, U = 5 m/s
To Find : i. Boundary layer thickness at trailing edge for natural
and forced convection.
ii. Average heat transfer coefficient for natural and
forced convection.
ts t 80 24
1. Film temperature, tf = = 52 °C
2 2
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2. The properties of air at 52 °C are : k = 28.15 × 10–3 W/m-°C,
= 18.41 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.7
1
= = 3.07 × 10–3 K–1
52 273
3. In case of free convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated as
below :
i. Grashof number,
L3 g (ts t )
Gr =
2
(0.35)3 9.81 3.07 10 3 (80 24)
=
(18.41 106 )2
8
= 2.133 × 10
ii. Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr Pr = 2.133 × 108 × 0.7 = 1.493 × 108
iii. As we know that,
= 3.93 (0.952 + Pr)1/4 (Gr)–1/4 (Pr)–1/2
x
or, = 0.35 [3.93 (0.952 + 0.7)1/4 (2.133 × 108) – 1/4 (0.7)–1/2]
= 0.0154 m
4. In case of forced convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated
as below :
i. Reynolds number,
UL 5 0.35
Re = = 9.505 × 104
18.41 106
Since Re < 5 × 105, hence the boundary layer is laminar.
ii. Now, boundary layer thickness is,
5L 5 0.35
= = 0.00567 m = 5.67 mm
Re 9.505 10 4
5. In case of free convection average heat transfer coefficient is calculated
as below :
i. Nusselt number,
hL
NuL = = 0.677 (Pr)1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 (Gr)1/4
k
= 0.677 (0.7)1/2 (0.952 + 0.7)–1/4 (2.133 × 108)1/4
= 60.378
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15 10 3
h= 60.378 × 60.378
L 0.35
2
= 4.856 W/m -°C
6. In case of forced convection average heat transfer coefficient is calculated
as below :
i. Nusselt number,
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hL
NuL = = 0.664 (Re)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
= 0.664 (9.505 × 104)1/2 (0.7)1/3 = 181.78
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15 103
h= 181.78 × 181.78
L 0.35
2
= 14.62 W/m -°C
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.2.
Q. 2. Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal
boundary layer over flat plate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.4.
Q. 3. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for the
flow past a flat plate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.
Q. 4. Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow
over flat plate using Colburn analogy.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.6.
Q. 5. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer
coefficients determined in flow over a flat plate ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.10.
Q. 6. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate
the following using exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness
on one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and
the heat transfer rate.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.16.
Heat & Mass Transfer
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4 Thermal Radiation
Part-1 ............................................................................... (4–2B to 4–8B)
• Basic Radiation Concept
• Radiation Properties of Surface
• Black Body Radiation
• Planck’s Law
• Wein’s Displacement Law
• Stefan Boltzmann Law
• Kirchhoff ’s Law
• Gray Body
• Shape Factor
• Black Body Radiation
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 4–2B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 4–2B
Part-2 ........................................................................... (4–8B to 4–23B)
• Radiation Exchange between Diffuse Non-Black Bodies in an Enclosure
• Radiation Shield
• Radiation Combined with Conduction and Convection
• Absorption and Emission in Gaseous Medium
• Solar Radiation
• Green House Effect
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 ............................................................. 4–9B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 4–9B
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Basic Radiation Concept, Radiation Properties of Surface,
Black Body Radiation, Planck’s Law, Wein’s Displacement Law,
Stefan Boltzmann Law, Kirchoff ’s Law, Gray Body, Shape Factor,
Black Body Radiation.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1
Radiation Heat Transfer : It is defined as the transfer of energy
from a system in the form of electromagnetic mechanism which is
caused by the temperature difference.
Black Body : The body that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching
its surface is known as black body.
Gray Body : If the radiative properties, , , of a body are assumed
to be uniform over the entire wavelength spectrum, then such a body
is called gray body.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.1. What do you understand by radiation heat transfer ?
Also write the surface emission properties.
Answer
A. Radiation Heat Transfer :
1. It is defined as the transfer of energy from a system in the form of
electromagnetic mechanism which is caused by the temperature
difference.
2. Factors on which rate of emission of radiation by a body depends are as
follows :
i. Temperature of the surface,
ii. The nature of the surface, and
iii. Wavelength of radiation.
B. Surface Emission Properties :
a. Total Emissive Power (E) :
1. It is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit
area and time.
2. According to Stefan Boltzmann “the total emissive power of a black
body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.”
Eb = t4 W/m2
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Eb = At4 W
Where, = Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2-K4
b. Monochromatic Emissive Power (E ) : It is defined as the rate of
energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
Total emissive power is :
E= E d W/ m 2
0
c. Emission from real surface-emissivity : The emissive power from a
real surface is given by
E = At4 W
Where, E = Emissivity of the material.
d. Intensity of radiation.
e. Radiation density and pressure.
f. Radiosity (J) : It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface.
Que 4.2. What do you mean by black body ? Also write the
properties of black body.
Answer
A. Black Body :
1. The body that absorbs all the radiant energy reaching its surface is
known as black body.
2. For a black body : = 1, = 0, = 0
B. Properties of Black Body :
1. It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or
reflect regardless of wavelength and direction.
2. It emits maximum amount of thermal radiations at all wavelengths at
any specified temperature.
3. It is a diffuse emitter (i.e., the radiation emitted by a black body is
independent of direction).
Que 4.3. Explain the following terms :
a. White body,
b. Gray body, and
c. Opaque body.
Answer
a. White Body :
1. A body which reflects all incident radiation falling on it is known as
white body.
2. For a white body : = 1, = 0 and = 0.
b. Gray Body :
1. If the radiative properties , , of a body are assumed to be uniform
over the entire wavelength spectrum, then such a body is called gray
body.
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2. It is also defined as one whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary
with temperature and wavelength of the incident radiation.
c. Opaque Body :
1. A body which does not transmit any part of incident radiation is known
as opaque body.
2. For a opaque body. = 0. So, + = 1.
Que 4.4. Define the properties :
i. Emissivity.
ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity.
iv. Transmissivity. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
i. Emissivity () : It is defined as the ability of a body to radiate heat. It is
also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of a body to the emissive
power of a black body of equal temperature.
ii. Absorptivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation absorbed to the
total incident radiation.
= Ga / G
iii. Reflectivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation reflected to the
total incident radiation.
= Gr / G
iv. Transmissivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation transmitted
to the total incident radiation.
= Gt / G
Que 4.5. A flat plate 5 m2 receives normally radiant energy with
an intensity of 660 W/m2. The absorptivity of the plate is 2 times its
transmissivity and 3 times its reflectivity. Find the energy absorbed,
transmitted and reflected in watts.
Answer
Given : = 2 or =, Q = 660 W/m2, = 3 or = , A = 5 m2
2 3
To Find : Energy absorbed, transmitted and reflected.
1. We know that, + + = 1,
Then, + + =1
3 2
6 3 2
=1
6
11 = 6
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6
=
11
6 3
So, = or
22 11
6 2
and = or
33 11
2. Energy absorbed per unit area,
6
= 660 × = 660 × = 360 W/m2
11
Total energy absorbed = 360 × 5 = 1800 W
3. Energy reflected per unit area,
2
= 660 × = 660 × = 120 W/m2
11
Total energy reflected = 120 × 5 = 600 W
4. Energy transmitted per unit area,
3
= 660 × = 660 × = 180 W/m2
11
Total energy transmitted = 180 × 5 = 900 W
Que 4.6. Explain the following terms :
a. Kirchhoff’s law,
b. Planck’s law,
c. Stefan-Boltzmann law, and
d. Wein’s displacement law.
Answer
a. Kirchhoff’s Law :
1. Kirchhoff’s law states that the ratio of total emissive power (E) to
absorptivity () is constant for all bodies which are in thermal equilibrium
with their environment.
Walls having uniform temperature
Large body
(2)
Eb A1 Hollow space
Small
body (1)
Fig. 4.6.1.
2. At equilibrium, the energy absorbed by body is equal to energy emitted
by body.
For body 1 : A1E1 = 1A1Eb ...(4.6.1)
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For body 2 : A2E2 = 2A2Eb ...(4.6.2)
3. From eq. (4.6.1) and eq. (4.6.2), we have
E1 E2 E
Eb = ...(4.6.3)
1 2
4. According to the emissivity relation,
E
=
Eb
E
or Eb = ...(4.6.4)
5. Comparing eq. (4.6.3) and eq. (4.6.4), we get
=
This shows that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
b. Planck’s Law :
1. The laws governing the distribution of radiant energy over wavelength
for a black body at a fixed temperature were formulated by Planck.
2. According to Planck, spectral emissive power (E )b at any temperature
and wavelength is given as,
C1 5
(E )b=
C
exp 2 1
t
Where C1 = 2 c2h = 3.742 × 108 Wm4/m2,
C2 = ch / k = 1.4388 × 104 mK,
t = Absolute temperature, k
= Wavelength, in m
c = Speed of light,
h = Planck’s constant, and
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 × 10–23 J/K
c. Stefan-Boltzmann Law :
1. It states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Eb = t4
Where, Eb = Emissive power of a black body, and
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4
d. Wein’s Displacement Law :
1. The Wein’s law states that the product of temperature (t) and wavelength
(max) is constant i.e.,
max t = Constant
2. According to planck’s law, we know, that
C1 5
(E )b =
C
exp 2 1
t
3. (E )b becomes maximum (if t remains constant) when
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d ( E ) b
=0
d
d ( E ) b d C1 5
or
d
= 0
d C
exp 2 1
t
C2 6 5 C2 C2 1
exp t 1 (5 C1 ) C1 exp t t 2
or =0
2
C2
exp t 1
C 1 C
or – 5 C1–6 exp 2 + 5 C1–6 + C1C2–5 2 exp 2 = 0
t t t
4. Dividing both sides by 5 C1–6, we get
C 1 1 C
exp 2 1 C2 exp 2 = 0 ...(4.6.5)
t 5 t t
5. Solving eq. (4.6.5) by trial and error method, we get
C2 C2
= = 4.965
t max t
C2 1.439 104
max t = 2898 mK
4.965 4.965
max t = 2898 mK
Que 4.7. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity
of radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
A. Intensity of Radiation : It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a
surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of emitting
surface normal to the mean direction in space.
B. Proof :
1. Let us consider radiation from the elementary area dA 1 at the centre
of a sphere. Suppose this radiation is absorbed by a second elemental
area dA 2, a portion of the hemispherical surface.
2. The projected area of dA 1 on a plane perpendicular to the line joining
dA 1 and dA 2 = dA 1 cos .
dA
3. The solid angle subtended by dA 2 = 2 2
r
dQ12
The intensity of radiation, I = ...(4.7.1)
dA
dA1 cos 2 2
r
Where, dQ12 is the rate of radiation heat transfer from dA 1 to dA 2.
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2
dA2 = r sin d d
r si
n
rd
r
d
r sin d
dA1
d
Fig. 4.7.1.
4. Since, dA 2 = rd (r sin d)
or dA 2 = r2 sin d d ...(4.7.2)
5. From eq. (4.7.1) and eq. (4.7.2), we get
dQ12 = I dA1 sin cos d d
6. The total radiation through the hemisphere is given by
2
Q = IdA1 2
sin cos d d
0 0
2
= 2IdA1 sin cos d
0
2
= IdA1 sin 2 d
0
or, Q = I dA1
7. Since, Q = E dA 1
EdA1 = I dA 1
or, E = I
E
I=
The above equation shows that intensity of radiation is 1/ times of the
total emissive power.
PART-2
Radiation Exchange between Diffuse Non-Black Bodies in an
Enclosure, Radiation Shield, Radiation Combined with
Conduction and Convection, Absorption and Emission in
Gaseous Medium, Solar Radiation, Green House Effect.
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CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2
Shape Factor : It is defined as the fraction of radiation energy leaving
one surface and falling on the other surface.
Radiation Shield : The object that reduces the radiation heat transfer
by effectively increasing the surface resistances without actually
removing any heat from the system is called radiation shield.
Irradiation : It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface
per unit time per unit area.
Radiosity : It indicates the total radiation leaving a surface per unit
time per unit area.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.8. A small convex object of area A1, temperature t1 and
emissivity 1 is enclosed within a large enclosure at temperature t2
and emissivity 2. Derive an expression for the net heat exchange
between the two objects. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
What are the different cases of radiation heat exchange between
non-black surfaces ? Explain any one of them.
Answer
A. Different Cases of Radiation Heat Exchange between
Non-Black Bodies :
1. Infinite parallel plates.
2. Infinite long concentric cylinders.
3. Small gray bodies.
4. Small body in a large enclosure.
B. Small Body in a Large Enclosure :
1. Consider a small body placed in a large enclosure.
2. The large gray enclosure acts like a black body, absorbing practically
all the radiation incident upon it and reflecting negligibly small energy
back to the small gray body.
3. In this case F1 – 2 = 1, since all the radiations emitted by the small body
would be intercepted by the outer large enclosure.
4. Thus, energy emitted by the enclosure 1 = A11 t14
Energy emitted by the enclosure 2 = A22 t24
Energy incident upon the small body 1 = F2–1 A22 t24
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Energy absorbed by the small body 1 = 1 F2–1 A22 t24
= 12A2F2–1 t24
5. The net radiant heat exchange between the small body 1 and outer
large enclosure 2,
Q12 = 1A1t14 – 12A2F2–1t24
6. If t1 = t2 and Q12 = 0, we have
A1 = A2 2 F2–1
and Q12 = 1A1 (t14 – t24)
= f1–2 A1 (t14 – t24)
Where, f1 – 2 represents the equivalent emissivity or interchange factor.
Que 4.9. What do you mean by shape factor ? Write its salient
features. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient features of
shape factor. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Shape Factor : It is defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is
diffused from one surface and strikes the other surface directly with
no intervening reflections.
B. Salient Features of Shape Factor :
1. When heat transfer takes place between two bodies, the shape factor
relation is given by,
A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
This is called reciprocity theorem.
2. For flat and convex surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is
zero because the energy leaving the surface never returns on the
same surface
i.e., F1–1 = F2–2 = F3–3 = ....Fii = 0.
3. For concave surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is never
zero.
4. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.
C. Proof of Reciprocity Theorem :
1. Considering heat exchange between elementary areas dA 1 and dA 2 of
two black radiating bodies, separated by a non absorbing medium and
having areas A1 and A2 and temperatures t1 and t2 respectively.
2. Let d1 be angle subtended at dA 1 by dA 2 and d2 angle subtended at
dA 2 by dA 1. Then
dA2 cos 2
d1 =
r2
dA1 cos 1
and d2 =
r2
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A 2,t2
dA 2
Normal to dA 2
r
2
1 Normal to dA 1
A1, t1
dA 1
Fig. 4.9.1. Radiation heat exchange between two black surfaces.
3. The energy leaving dA 1 in the direction given by the angle per unit
solid angle
= Ib1 dA 1 cos 1
Where, Ib = Black body intensity, and
dA 1 cos 1 = Projection of dA 1 on the line between the centres.
4. The rate of radiant energy leaving dA 1 and striking on dA 2 is given by,
Ib1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
dQ1–2 = Ib1 dA 1 cos 1 d1 = ...(4.9.1)
r2
5. Now, the quantity of energy radiated by dA 2 and absorbed by dA 1 is
given by,
I cos 2 cos 1 dA2 dA1
dQ2–1 = b2 ...(4.9.2)
r2
6. The net rate of transfer of energy between dA 1 and dA 2 is
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = dQ1–2 – dQ2–1 = ( Ib1 I b2 )
r2
Eb1 E
But, Ib1 = and I b2 b2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = ( Eb1 Eb2 )
r 2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2 4 4
or dQ12 = (t1 t2 ) ( Eb = t4)
r 2
7. The rate of total heat transfer for the total areas A1 and A2 is given by
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q12 = dQ
12 (t14 t24 )
A1 A2 r 2
8. Now, from eq. (4.9.1), we get
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = I b1
A1 A2 r2
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cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = t14 ...(4.9.3)
A1 A2 r 2
9. The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by
Q1 = A1 t14 ...(4.9.4)
10. On dividing eq. (4.9.3) by eq. (4.9.4), we get
Q12 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
= ...(4.9.5)
Q1 A1 A1 A2 r 2
Q12
or = F1–2
Q1
Where F1–2 is surface factor or shape factor between the two radiating
surfaces.
11. Thus the amount of radiation leaving A1 and striking A2 is,
Q1–2 = F1–2 A1 t14 ...(4.9.6)
12. Similarly, from eq. (4.9.2)
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q2–1 = t24 ...(4.9.7)
A1 A2 r 2
13. The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by
Q2 = A2 t24 ...(4.9.8)
14. On dividing eq. (4.9.7) by eq. (4.9.8), we get
Q21 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
A2 A1 A2
=
Q2 r 2
Q21
or = F2–1
Q2
where F2–1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A1.
15. The amount of radiation leaving A2 and arriving A1 is,
Q2–1 = F2–1 A2 t24 ...(4.9.9)
16. Thus, the net rate of heat transfer between two black surfaces A1 and
A2 is given by
Q12 = A1F1–2 t14 = A2F2–1 t24
17. When the surface are maintained at same temperature, t1 = t2, there
can be no heat exchange
0 = (A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1) t2 [ t1 = t2 = t]
Since, and t are both non zero quantities,
A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1 = 0
or A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1
This is known as reciprocity theorem.
Que 4.10. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Diffuse Emitter :
1. A surface whose emittance is same for all directions is called a diffuse
emitter.
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2. No real surface can be a diffuse emitter because electromagnetic wave
theory predicts a zero emittance at = /2 for all materials.
3. Example : Black body.
x
dA
Fig. 4.10.1. Diffuse emitter.
B. Radiation Shape Factor : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–10B, Unit-4.
Que 4.11. Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters
10 cm and 20 cm and a length of 20 cm. Designating the open ends of
the cylinders as surfaces 3 and 4, estimate the shape factor, F3–4.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : H = 20 cm, D1 = 10 cm R1 = 5 cm,
D2 = 20 cm R2 = 10 cm.
To Find : Shape factor, F3–4.
1. Using graph for radiation shape factor for two concentric cylinders of
finite length, we get
F2-1 = 0.4126 and F2-2 = 0.3286
2. Using the reciprocity relation, we have
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1
F1-2 = (d2/d1)F2-1 = (20/10)(0.4126) = 0.8253
3. For surface 2, we have
F2-1 + F2-2 + F2-3 + F2-4 = 1.0
4. From symmetry F2-3 = F2-4, so that
1
F2-3 = F2-4 = (1 – 0.4126 – 0.3286) = 0.1294
2
5. Using reciprocity again, A2F2-3 = A3F3-2
(20)(20)
and F3-2 = 0.1294 = 0.6901
(20 2 102 ) / 4
6. We observe that F1-1= F3-3 = F4-4 = 0 and for surface 3
F3-1 + F3-2 + F3-4 = 1.0 ...(4.11.1)
7. Now, for surface 1
F1-2 + F1-3 + F1-4 = 1.0
and from symmetry F1-3 = F1-4, so that
1
F1-3 = (1 – 0.8253) = 0.0874
2
8. Using reciprocity rule, we get
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A1F1-3 = A3F3-1
(10)(20)
F3-1 = 0.0874 = 0.233
(20 2 102 ) / 4
9. Then from eq. (4.11.1),
F3-4 = 1 – 0.233 – 0.6901 = 0.0769
Que 4.12. A small sphere (outside diameter = 60 mm) with a surface
temperature of 300 °C is located at the geometric centre of a large
sphere (inside diameter = 360 mm) with an inner surface
temperature of 15 °C. Calculate how much of heat emitted from the
large sphere inner surface is incident upon the outer surface of
the small sphere, assuming that both surfaces approach black body
behaviour. What is the net exchange of heat between the two
spheres ? AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : r1 (small sphere) = 60/2 = 30 mm = 0.03 m,
r2 (large sphere) = 360/2 = 180 mm = 0.18 m,
t1 = 300 °C = 573 K, t2 = 15 °C = 288 K
To Find : i. Amount of heat emitted from the large sphere to small
sphere.
ii. Net exchange of heat between two spheres.
1. Since all the radiation being emitted by the small sphere is incident upon
and absorbed by the inner surface of the large sphere, therefore,
configuration factor between 1 and 2 is F1–2 = 1.
2. Now, A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1 (Reciprocity theorem)
4r12 × 1 = 4 r22 × F2–1
2 2
r 0.03
F2–1 = 1 = 0.0278
r2 0.18
Thus 2.78 % of the heat emitted from the inner surface of the large
sphere is incident upon the small sphere and absorbed by it.
3. Also from energy balance for the large sphere,
F2–1 + F2–2 = 1
F2–2 = 1– F2–1 = 1 – 0.0278 = 0.9722
Thus, 97.22 % of emission from the large sphere is absorbed by the
inner surface of the sphere itself.
4. Net interchange of heat between the two spheres is,
Qnet = F1–2 A1 (t14 – t24)
= 1 × 4 × (0.03)2 × 5.67 × 10–8 × [(573)4 – (288)4]
Qnet = 64.72 W
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Que 4.13. What do you understand by radiation shields and derive
the relation for radiation network for two parallel infinite planes
separated by one shield.
Answer
A. Radiation Shield : The shield that reduces the radiation heat transfer
by effectively increasing the surface resistances without actually
removing any heat from the system are known as radiation shield.
B. Derivation :
1. Let us consider two parallel plates, 1 and 2, each of area A(A1 = A2 = A)
at temperature t1 and t2 respectively with a radiation shield placed between
them as shown in Fig. 4.13.1.
2. With no radiation shield, the net heat exchange between the parallel
plates is given by,
A (t14 t24 )
(Q12)net = ...(4.13.1)
1 1
1
1 2
Radiation
1 shield 2
1 3 3 2
(Q13)net (Q32)net
Eb1 J1 J3 Eb3 J3 J2 Eb2
1 – 1 1 1 – 3 1 – 3 1 1 – 2
A11 A1F1–3 A13 A33 A3F3–2 A22
Fig. 4.13.1. Radiation network for two parallel
infinite planes separated by one shield.
3. Let the emissivity of the radiation shield is 3.
4. Now, the heat exchange between surfaces 1, 3 and 3, 2 is,
A (t14 t34 )
(Q13)net =
1 1
1
1 3
A (t34 t24 )
and (Q32)net =
1 1
1
3 2
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5. Since the radiation shield does not deliver or remove heat from the
system,
(Q13)net = (Q32)net
A (t14 t34 ) A (t34 t24 )
= ...(4.13.2)
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 3 3 2
6. On simplifying eq. (4.13.2), we get
1 1 1 1
t14 1 t24 1
t34 = 3 2 1 3
...(4.13.3)
1 1 1 1
1 1
3 2 1 3
7. On putting value of t3 in the left side of eq. (4.13.2), we have
A (t14 t24 )
(Q12)net = ...(4.13.4)
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 3 3 2
8. Dividing eq. (4.13.4) by eq. (4.13.1), we get
1 1
1
(Q12 )net with shield = 1 2
...(4.13.5)
(Q12 )net without shield 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 2
1 3
9. If 1 = 2 = 3, then the eq. (4.13.5) reduces to
1
(Q32)net = (Q12)net
2
Que 4.14. What do you understand by “Radiation Shield” ? If n
numbers of radiation shields are used between two parallel plates,
determine the relation for heat transfer using n shields in terms of
original heat transfer (without shields). Take emissivities of all
surfaces to be . AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
A. Radiation Shield : Refer Q. 4.13, Page 4–15B, Unit-4.
B. Derivation :
1. In the general case where there are n shields, all the surface resistances
would be the same, since the emissivities are equal.
2. There will be two surface resistances for each shield and one for each
heat transfer surface.
3. There will also be (n + 1) ‘space resistances’ but the configuration factor
is unity for each infinite parallel plane.
1 –
Total resistance (R)n–shields = (2n 2) (n 1) A
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2
= (n 1) 1 A ...(4.14.1)
4. The radiant heat transfer rate between two infinitely large parallel
plates separated by n-shields is,
1
(Q) n-shields = A (t14 – t24) ...(4.14.2)
2
(n 1) – 1
5. For no shields (n = 0), the resistance is given by,
2
(R)without shield = – 1 A ...(4.14.3)
A (t14 – t24 )
and thus, (Q)without shields = ...(4.14.4)
(2 / – 1)
6. From eq. (4.14.1) to eq. (4.14.4), we get
(Q)nshields ( R) without shields 1
= =
(Q) without shields ( R)n-shields n1
Que 4.15. A long cylindrical heater 25 mm in diameter is
maintained at 660 °C and has surface resistivity of 0.8. The heater is
located in a large room whose walls are at 27 °C. How much will the
radiant transfer from the heater be reduced if it is surrounded by a
300 mm diameter radiation shield of aluminium having an emissivity
of 0.2 ? What is the temperature of the shield ?
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
25
Given : r1 = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m,
2
300
r3 = = 150 mm = 0.15 m, t1 = 660 + 273 = 933 K,
2
t2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K, 1 = 0.8, 3 (shield) = 0.2.
To Find : i. Reduction in heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of shield, t3.
1. Considering L is the length of the heater, the heat lost by the heater to
the room is given by,
Q = A1 1 [t14 – t24] ...(4.15.1)
Q = 2 r1 L × 0.8 × 5.67 × 10 – 8 × [(933)4 – (300)4]
= 2 × 0.0125 × L × 0.8 × 5.67 × (9334 – 3004) × 10 – 8
= 0.356 × L × (7577.5 – 81)
Q
or, q= = 0.356 × (7577.5 – 81) = 2668.7 W 2.67 kW/m
L
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2. When the cylinder is enclosed in a radiation shield then the heat flow is
given by
A1 (t14 t34 )
Q = A3 3 ( t34 t24 )
1 1 r
1 1
1 3 r3
3. As heat lost by heater to shield is further lost by shield to the room,
where suffix ‘3’ belongs to shield.
Q 2r1 (t14 t34 ) 2r3 (t34 t24 )
q = ...(4.15.2)
L 1 1 r 1
1 1
1 3 r3 3
r1 (t14 t34 ) r (t 4 t24 )
or = 3 3 ...(4.15.3)
1 1 r 1
1 1
1 3 r3 3
4. Substituting the given values in eq. (4.15.3), we get
0.0125 (9334 t34 ) 0.15 (t34 3004 )
=
1 1 0.0125 1
1
0.8 0.2 0.15 0.2
0.0125 (9334 t34 )
= 0.03 (t34 – 3004)
1.58
9334 – t34 = 3.792 (t34 – 3004) = 3.792 t34 – 3.792 ×3004
4.792 t34 = 9334 + 3.792 × 3004 = 7.885 × 1011
t34 = 1.64 × 1011 or t3 = 636.4 K or 363.4 °C
5. Substituting the value of t3 in eq. (4.15.2), we get
2 0.15 5.67 10 8 [(636.4)4 (300)4 ]
q =
1
0.2
= 1.0688 × (1640.3 – 81) = 1666.6 W/m = 1.67 kW/m
6. Percentage reduction in heat flow
q q 2.67 1.67
q = 100 × 100 = 37.45 %
q 2.67
Que 4.16. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large
parallel planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to reduce
the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given : p = 0.8, = 0.05
To Find : Number of shields.
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p p
Fig. 4.16.1.
1. Let, there are n shields between two parallel planes.
2. Then, increase in surface resistance = 2n and increase in space
resistance = n + 1.
3. Total resistance with n shields,
1 P 1 1 1 P
(Rth)n = 2n (n 1)
P F P
1 P 1 n 1
(Rth)n = 2 2n
P F
4. On putting the given values,
1 0.8 1 0.05 n 1
(Rth)n = 2 2n
0.8 0.05 1
( For large parallel planes; F = 1)
= 0.5 + 38n + n + 1
(Rth)n = 1.5 + 39n
5. Heat exchange per unit area with shields between two surfaces,
(t14 t24 )
(q)n =
( Rth ) n
(t14 t24 )
(q)n = ...(4.16.1)
1.5 39n
6. When, there is no shield between surfaces, heat transfer per unit
area,
( t14 t24 )
q=
1 P 1
2
P F
( t14 t24 ) (t14 t24 )
q=
1 0.8 1.5
2 1
0.8
7. Since, it is given that
1
(q)n = ×q
75
(t14 t24 ) 1 (t14 t24 )
=
1.5 3.9 n 75 1.5
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(1.5 + 39n) = 1.5 × 75
n = 2.846
n 3 shields
Que 4.17. Consider two large parallel plates one at t1 = 727 °C with
emis sivity 1 = 0.8 and other at 227 °C with emiss ivity
2 = 0.4. An aluminium radiation shield with an emissivity,
s = 0.05 on both sides is placed between the plates. Calculate the
percentage reduction in heat transfer rate between the two plates
as a result of shield. Use = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Given : t1 = 727 °C = 727 + 273 = 1000 K, 1 = 0.8,
t2 = 227 °C = 227 + 273 = 500 K, 2 = 0.4,
s = 3 = 0.05, = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4
To Find : Percentage reduction in heat transfer.
1. Without shield,
Q12 (per unit area)
1000 4 500 4
5.67
(t14 t24 ) 100 100 53156 = 19329 W
= =
1 1 1 1 2.75
1 1
1 2 0.8 0.4
2. With shield,
(Q13)net = (Q32 ) net
A ( t14 t34 ) A ( t34 t24 )
=
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 3 3 2
4 4 4 4
1000 t3 t3 500
100 100 = 100 100
1 1 1 1
1 1
0.8 0.05 0.05 0.4
10000 x 4 x 4 625 t3
= Assuming, x
1.25 20 1 20 2.5 1 100
20.25 4
10000 – x4 = ( x 625)
21.5
10000 – x4 = 0.942 (x4 – 625)
= 0.942 x4 – 588.75
1.942 x4 = 10588.75 or x = 8.59
T3 = 100 × 8.59 = 859 K
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Radiation shield
Plate Plate
1 3 3 2
1 3 3 2
1000 K 500 K
Fig. 4.17.1.
1000 4 859 4
5.67
3. (Q13)net (per unit area) = 100 100
1 1
1
0.8 0.05
4555.3
= × 5.67 = 1273.2 W
20.25
4. Reduction in heat flow due to shield,
(Q12)net – (Q13)net = 19329 – 1273.2 = 18055.8 W
18055.8
5. Percentage reduction in heat transfer = = 93.41 %
19329
Que 4.18. Derive the expression for radiation combined with
convection.
Answer
1. Total heat transfer by both radiation and convection is given by,
q = qconv. + qrad.
= hconv. (tg – tw) + hrad. (tg – tw)
= (hconv. + hrad.) (tg – tw)
Where, tg = Gas temperature,
tw = Wall temperature,
hrad. = Radiation heat transfer coefficient, and
hconv. = Convection heat transfer coefficient.
2. The radiation heat transfer coefficient (h rad) is defined as,
(tg – tw) hrad. = [tg4 – tw4]
(t g4 tw4 )
or hrad. = = (tg2 + tw2) (tg + tw)
(t g – tw )
3. Now, the hrad. value for the case of two large parallel plates is given by
Q ( t14 t24 )
= = hrad. (t1 – t2)
A 1 1
–1
1 2
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( t12 t2 2 ) (t1 t2 )
hrad. =
1 1
–1
1 2
Que 4.19. Derive an expression for monochromatic transmittivity
and monochromatic absorptivity of gas.
Answer
1. Consider a beam of monochromatic radiation with intensity I0 entering
a gas layer of thickness L as shown in Fig. 4.19.1.
Gas layer
I0 IL
x
dx
L
Fig. 4.19.1. Monochromatic radiation
passing through an absorbing gas.
2. As the beam passes through the gas layer, its intensity gets reduced and
the decrease is given by
dIx = – k Ixdx ...(4.19.1)
Where, Ix = Monochromatic intensity at a distance x, and
k = Monochromatic absorption coefficient,
3. Integrating eq. (4.19.1) between the limits x = 0 and x = L, we get
x L dI x L
x
x0 Ix = x 0 – k dx
I L
ln = – kL
Io
IL = Io e–kL ...(4.19.2)
Where, IL = Radiation intensity at x = L.
4. The ratio IL / Io is the monochromatic transmittivity of the gas.
5. In general, the gases do not reflect radiant energy i.e., their reflectivity
is zero, therefore,
+ = 1 or, = 1 – = 1 – e–k L
The quantity (1 – e–k L) represents the monochromatic absorptivity of
the gas.
Que 4.20. Write a short note on solar radiation.
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Answer
1. Solar radiation consists of energy that is emitted by various layers of the
sun.
2. It is a function of geometrical relation between the surface and the sun
which is continuously changing on a daily and annual basis.
3. Solar radiation reaching the earth surface is partly reflected, some of
the energy is absorbed and the remainder being shared thermally to the
land masses and oceans, chemically in vegetation through the process
of photosynthesis and mechanically in the form of wind.
4. The approximate distribution of the flow of sun’s energy to the earth’s
surface is :
i. 9 % is scattered.
ii. 15 % is absorbed in the atmosphere and out of it 4 % reaches the earth’s
surface by convection.
iii. 43 % is transmitted to the earth directly and by diffuse radiation.
iv. 33 % is reflected back to space.
Que 4.21. What is the green house effect ? Why is it a matter of
great concern among environmental scientists ?
Answer
A. Green House Effect :
1. The green house effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a
planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapours, etc., called green house gases.
2. They transfer this energy to other components of the atmosphere and it
is re-radiated in all directions.
3. This transfer of energy to the surface increases the temperature of
environment and leads to global warming.
B. Reason to Consider it as a Matter of Great Concern : It is matter
of great concern among environmental scientists because of the following
reasons :
1. If the emission of green house gases continues, the global temperature
will increase.
2. It results in floods.
3. Global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
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Q. 1. What do you understand by radiation heat transfer ? Also
write the surface emission properties.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.1.
Q. 2. What do you mean by black body ? Also write the properties
of black body.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.
Q. 3. Define the properties :
i. Emissivity. ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity. iv. Transmissivity.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.4.
Q. 4.Explain the following terms :
a.Kirchhoff’s law,
b.Planck’s law,
c.Stefan-Boltzmann law, and
d.Wein’s displacement law.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.6.
Q. 5. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity of
radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.7.
Q. 6. What are the different cases of radiation heat exchange
between non-black surfaces ? Explain any one of them.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.8.
Q. 7. Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient
features of shape factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.9.
Q. 8. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.10.
Q. 9. What do you understand by “Radiation Shield” ? If n
numbers of radiation shields are used between two parallel
plates, determine the relation for heat transfer using n
shields in terms of original heat transfer (without shields).
Take emissivities of all surfaces to be .
Ans. Refer Q. 4.14.
Q. 10. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large parallel
planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to
reduce the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.16.
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5 Heat Exchanger
Part-1 ............................................................................ (5–2B to 5–23B)
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Fouling Factors
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method
• Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Compact Heat Exchangers
A. Concept Outline : Part-1 ............................................................. 5–2B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................... 5–2B
Part-2 .......................................................................... (5–23B to 5–33B)
• Introduction to Condensation Phenomena
• Heat Transfer Relations for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical
Surface and on Outside & Inside of a Horizontal Tube
• Effect of Non-Condensable Gases
• Dropwise Condensation • Boiling Modes
• Pool Boiling • Hysteresis in Boiling Curve
• Forced Convection Boiling • Heat Pipes
A. Concept Outline : Part-2 .......................................................... 5–24B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 5–24B
Part-3 ......................................................................... (5–34B to 5–41B)
• Introduction
• Fick’s Law of Diffusion
• Steady State Equimolar Counter Diffusion
• Steady State Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film
A. Concept Outline : Part-3 .......................................................... 5–34B
B. Long and Medium Answer Type Questions ............................ 5–34B
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Types of Heat Exchangers, Fouling Factors, Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient, Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
Method, Effectiveness-NTU Method, Compact Heat Exchangers.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-1
Heat Exchanger : It is a device in which heat transfer takes place
between two fluids at different temperatures i.e., hot fluid and cold
fluid.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) : It is
defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give
the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under various
conditions of temperature difference.
Fouling or Scaling : The phenomenon of rust formation and
deposition of fluid impurities is called fouling. The reciprocal of scale
heat transfer coefficient, hs is called the fouling factor.
1 1 1
Rf =
hs U dirty U clean
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.1. What is heat exchanger ? Give the general classification
of heat exchanger.
OR
Discuss the general arrangement of parallel flow, counter flow
and cross flow heat exchangers. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
A. Heat Exchanger :
1. It is a device in which heat transfer takes place between two fluids at
different temperature i.e., hot fluid and cold fluid.
2. Example : Boilers, condensers, intercoolers, preheaters, regenerators,
automobile radiators, etc.
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Non-condensable
gas
Hot water
Container
Steam
Cold water
Fig. 5.1.1. Heat exchanger.
B. Classification of Heat Exchanger : The classification of heat
exchanger is as follows :
a. Classification according to Nature of Heat Exchange :
i. Direct Contact Heat Exchangers :
1. In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by
direct mixing of hot and cold fluids.
2. Example : Cooling tower, jet condenser, etc.
ii. Indirect Contact Heat Exchangers :
1. In indirect contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place
by indirect contact of hot and cold fluids i.e., there is a wall between
two fluids.
2. Example : Gas turbine, IC engines, etc.
b. Classification according to Relative Direction of Fluid Motion :
i. Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a parallel flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluid flow in the
same directions.
2. Example : Water heaters, oil coolers, etc.
t
tc1 th1
(temperature)
Hot fluid
Cold
th1 t h2
Hot th2
Cold tc2
Cold fluid
tc1 L (length)
tc2
Fig. 5.1.2. Parallel flow heat exchanger.
ii. Counter Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a counter flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids flow in the
opposite directions.
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2. This type of heat exchanger gives maximum rate of heat transfer
for a given surface area.
tc2
Cold
th1 Hot t h2
Cold
t
t c1
th1
Hot fluid
tc2
th2
Cold fluid tc1
L
Fig. 5.1.3. Counter flow heat exchanger.
iii. Cross Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a cross flow heat exchanger, the two fluids cross each other at
right angle.
2. Example : Automobile radiators, cooling unit of refrigeration system,
etc.
Cold fluid (in)
(Unmixed stream)
Baffles
Hot fluid
(in) Hot fluid
(Unmixed (out)
stream)
Cold fluid (out)
Fig. 5.1.4. Cross flow heat exchanger.
c. Class ification according to Design and Constructional
Features :
i. Concentric Tubes :
1. In concentric tubes, there are two tubes carrying hot fluid and cold
fluid and the direction of flow may be parallel or counter.
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ii Shell and Tube :
1. In shell and tube type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids flows
through a bundle of tubes enclosed in a shell.
Baffle Hot fluid (out)
Shell plate Tubes
Hot
fluid
(in)
Cold fluid (out) Cold fluid (in)
(a) One-shell pass and two-tube pass heat exchanger.
Shell fluid
Baffles
Tube fluid
(b) Two-shell pass and four-tube pass heat exchanger.
Fig. 5.1.5. Shell and tube heat exchangers.
iii. Multiple Shell and Tube Passes :
1. In multiple shell and tube passes, there are two or more shells
which are used to increase the overall heat transfer.
iv. Compact Heat Exchangers :
1. These are special purpose heat exchangers and have a very large
transfer surface area per unit volume of the exchanger.
2. These are generally employed when convective heat transfer
coefficient associated with one of the fluids is much smaller than
that associated with the other fluid.
3. Example : Plate fin, flattened fin tube exchangers, etc.
d. Classification according to Physical State of Fluids :
i. Evaporator :
1. In evaporators, the cold fluid remains at constant temperature
while the temperature of hot fluid decreases from inlet to outlet.
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ii. Condenser :
1. In condenser, the hot fluid remains at constant temperature while
the temperature of cold fluid increases from inlet to outlet.
t
t
t h1 = t h2
th1 th2 th1
th = constant = t h– t c
tc2
tc = constant th2
= th – tc
tc1 tc1 tc2
tc1 = tc2
L L
1 2 1 2
(a) Temperature distribution (b) Temperature distribution
in a condenser. in an evaporator.
Fig. 5.1.6.
Que 5.2. What do you mean by fouling in heat exchangers ?
Briefly explain the fouling factor.
Answer
A. Fouling :
1. The phenomenon of rust formation and deposition of fluid impurities
is called fouling.
2. Due to these surface deposits the thermal resistance is increased and
eventually the performance of the heat exchanger lowers.
B. Fouling Factor :
1. Since it is difficult to ascertain the thickness and thermal conductivity
of the scale deposits, the effect of scale on heat flow is considered by
specifying an equivalent scale heat transfer coefficient hs.
2. The reciprocal of scale heat transfer coefficient, hs is called the fouling
factor, Rf .
1
Thus Rf =
hs
3. Fouling factors are determined experimentally by testing the heat
exchanger in both the clean and dirty conditions. The fouling factor, Rf
is thus defined as :
1 1 1
Rf =
h
s U dirty U clean
4. If hsi and hso be the heat transfer coefficients for the scale deposited on
the inside and outside surfaces respectively, then the thermal resistance
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to scale formation on the inside surface (Rsi) and outside surface (Rso)
are given by
1
Rsi =
Ai hsi
1
Rso =
A0 hso
Que 5.3. What do you understand by overall heat transfer
coefficient ? Write its expression for plane wall and cylindrical
surfaces ?
Answer
A. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient : It is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
B. Expression for Plane Wall and Cylindrical Surface :
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient for two fluids separated by a plane
wall is given by :
1
U=
1 l 1
hi k h0
2. The overall heat transfer coefficient for fluids which are separated by a
tube wall is given by :
i. For inner surface :
1
Ui =
1 ri r0 ri 1
ln
hi k ri r0 h0
ii. For outer surface :
1
U0 =
r0 1 r0 r0 1
r h k ln r h
i c i 0
Que 5.4. What are assumptions made to derive expression for
LMTD ? Derive expression for logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) for parallel flow heat exchanger.
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Answer
A. Assumptions for LMTD Expression :
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is constant.
2. Steady flow condition.
3. Constant specific heat and mass flow rates of both fluids.
4. Heat exchanger should be perfectly insulated.
5. Change in potential and kinetic energies are negligible.
6. Axial conduction along the tubes of the heat exchanger is negligible.
B. Expression for LMTD for Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger :
Annulus surrounding
the pipe
Cold Pipe
Hot
Cold
(a) Flow arrangement.
th1 Ho
t fl
uid dth
Temperature
th2
1 = t h1 – t c1 dQ 2 = th2 – tc2
tc2
uid
d fl
C ol
dtc
dA
tc1
1 Area 2
(b) Temperature distribution
Fig. 5.4.1. Calculation of LMTD for a parallel flow heat exchanger.
1. Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate
of flow of heat through the elementary area is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) = UdAt
2. The energy balance over a differential area dA is given by,
dQ = – mh C ph dth = mc C pc dtc
= UdA (th – tc) ...(5.4.1)
dQ dQ
or dth =
mh C ph Ch
dQ dQ
and, dtc =
mc C pc Cc
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1 1
dth – dtc = – dQ
C
h C c
1 1
d = – dQ ...(5.4.2)
C
h C c
Where, Ch = Heat capacity of hot fluid.
Cc = Heat capacity of cold fluid.
mh and mc = Mass flow rates of hot and cold fluid, and
Cph and Cpc = Specific heat of hot and cold fluid.
3. Substituting the value of dQ from eq. (5.4.1) in eq. (5.4.2), we get
1 1
d = – UdA (th – tc)
Ch Cc
1 1
or d = – UdA
C
h C c
d 1 1
or = – UdA ...(5.4.3)
C
h C c
4. Integrating the eq. (5.4.3) between inlet and outlet conditions, we get
2
d 1 1 A A
= UdA
Ch Cc
A 0
1
1 1
or ln 2 = UA ...(5.4.4)
1 C
h C c
5. Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,
Q = Ch (th1 – th2) = Cc (tc2 – tc1)
1 t t
or = h1 h 2 ...(5.4.5)
Ch Q
1 t t
= c2 c1 ...(5.4.6)
Cc Q
1 1
6. Substituting the value of and from eq. (5.4.5) and eq. (5.4.6) in
Ch Cc
eq. (5.4.4), we get
t t t t
ln 2 = – UA h1 h 2 c2 c1
1 Q Q
UA UA
= [( th 2 tc 2 ) (th1 tc1 )] = (2 1 )
Q Q
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UA (2 1 )
Q=
ln 2
1
or Q = UA m
Where, m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD).
1 2
m = 2 1
2
ln ln 1
1 2
Que 5.5. Derive expression for LMTD for counter flow heat
exchanger.
Answer
Annulus surrounding
the pipe
Cold Pipe
Hot
Cold
(a) Flow arrangement.
th1 Ho
tf
lu i
d
1
th
tc2 C dth
o ld
flu
Temperature
id th2
dQ
tc 2
tc1
dA
dtc
Area
(b) Temperature distribution.
Fig. 5.5.1. Calculation of LMTD for a counter flow heat exchanger.
1. Let us consider an elementary area dA of the heat exchanger. The rate
of flow of heat through this elementary area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) = UdAt ...(5.5.1)
2. The energy balance over dA is,
dQ = – mh C ph dth = – mc C pc dtc ...(5.5.2)
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3. Temperature of both fluids is :
dQ dQ
dth =
mh C ph Ch
dQ dQ
and, dtc =
mc C pc Cc
1 1
dth – dtc = – dQ
C
h Cc
1 1
or d = – dQ ...(5.5.3)
C
h C c
4. Putting value of dQ from eq. (5.5.1) in eq. (5.5.3),
1 1 1 1
d = – UdA (th – tc) = – UdA
C
h Cc C h Cc
d 1 1
or, = – UdA ...(5.5.4)
C
h Cc
5. On integrating eq. (5.5.4) from A = 0 to A = A, we have
1 1
ln 2 = – UA ...(5.5.5)
1 C
h C c
6. Now, the total heat transfer rate between the two fluids is given by,
Q = Ch (th1 – th2) = Cc (tc2 – tc1)
1 t t
or = h1 h 2
Ch Q
1 t t
or = c2 c1
Cc Q
1 1
7. Substituting the values of and in eq. (5.5.5), we get
Ch Cc
t t t t
ln 2 = – UA h1 h 2 c2 c1
1 Q Q
UA
= [(th1 tc2 ) (th 2 tc1 )]
Q
UA UA
= (1 2 ) (2 1 )
Q Q
UA (2 1 )
or Q=
ln 2
1
or Q = UA m
Where, m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD).
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2 1 2
m = 1
2
ln ln 1
1 2
Que 5.6. Under what conditions is the effectiveness – NTU method
definitely preferred over the LMTD method in heat exchanger
analysis ? AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
1. In the thermal analysis of various types of heat exchangers LMTD
method has been used.
2. This method is pretty simple and can be used in the design of heat
exchangers when all the terminal temperatures are known or easily
determined.
3. The difficulty arises if the temperatures of the fluids entering or leaving
the heat exchanger are not known.
4. This type of situation is encountered in the selection of a heat exchanger
or when the exchanger is to be run at off design conditions.
5. In such cases, it is preferable to utilise an altogether different method
known as the effectiveness-NTU method.
Que 5.7. Write down the significance of NTU method in heat
exchanger. Derive an expression of effectiveness for counter flow
heat exchanger by using NTU method. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
A. Significance of NTU Method :
1. A heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD, when inlet and outlet
conditions are specified.
2. When the problem is to determine the inlet or exit temperature for a
particular heat exchanger, the analysis is performed easily by using a
method based on effectiveness of the heat exchanger (concept first
proposed by Nusselt) and number of transfer units (NTU).
B. Effectiveness for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger :
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA of the heat exchanger is
given by
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(5.7.1)
= – mC ph dth = – mC pc dtc
= – Ch dth = – Cc dtc ...(5.7.2)
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2. From eq. (5.7.2), we have
dQ dQ
dth = – and dtc = –
Ch Cc
1 1 1 1
d (th – tc) = – dQ dQ ...(5.7.3)
C
h C c C
c Ch
3. Substituting the value of dQ from eq. (5.7.1) in eq. (5.7.3), we get
d (th tc ) 1 1
= U dA ...(5.7.4)
th tc C
c C h
4. On integrating the eq. (5.7.4), we get
t t 1 1
ln h2 c1 = UA
t t
h1 c2 C
c Ch
t t UA C
ln h2 c1 = 1 c
th1 tc2 Cc Ch
th2 tc1
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(5.7.5)
th1 tc2
5. The expression for effectiveness is :
Ch (th1 th2 ) Cc (tc2 tc1 )
= =
Cmin (th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Hence, th2 = th1 – ...(5.7.6)
Ch
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(5.7.7)
Cc
6. Substituting values from eq. (5.7.6) and eq. (5.7.7) in eq. (5.7.5) we get,
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
th1 Ch tc1
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
th1 tc1
Cc
Cmin
(th1 tc1 ) 1
Ch
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
Cmin
(th1 tc1 ) 1
Cc
Cmin
1
Ch
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(5.7.8)
Cmin
1
Cc
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7. Assume Cc < Ch, Cc = Cmin and Ch = Cmax. Substituting these values in
eq. (5.7.8), we get,
Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
Cmin
1
Cmin
Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
1
Cmin
1– = exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
Cmax
– exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
1 – exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
C
= min exp{(UA / Cmin )(1 Cmin / Cmax )}
C
max
1 exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
or =
Cmin
exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}] 1
=
C
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}] min
Cmax
1 exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
=
C
1 min exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
...(5.7.9)
Since Cmin / Cmax = R and UA/Cmin = NTU
1 exp[ NTU (1 R)]
Hence, =
1 R exp[ NTU (1 R)]
Que 5.8. Derive an expression of effectiveness for parallel flow
heat exchanger by using NTU method. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
OR
Derive an expression for effectiveness by NTU method for parallel
flow. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(5.8.1)
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= – m Cph dth = m Cpc dtc
= – Ch dth = Ccdtc ...(5.8.2)
2. From eq. (5.8.2), we get
dQ dQ
dth = and dtc = ...(5.8.3)
Ch Cc
1 1
d(th – tc) = – dQ ...(5.8.4)
Ch Cc
3. Putting the value of dQ from eq. (5.8.1) in eq. (5.8.4), we have
d(th tc ) 1 1
= – UdA ...(5.8.5)
(th tc ) Ch Cc
4. On integrating the eq. (5.8.5), we get
(th2 tc2 ) 1 1
ln = – UA
(th1 tc1 ) Ch Cc
(th2 tc2 ) UA Ch
ln
( t t )
= 1
h1 c1 Ch Cc
(th2 tc2 ) UA C
h
( t t )
= exp 1 ...(5.8.6)
h1 c1 Ch Cc
5. The expression of effectiveness is :
Ch (th1 th2 ) Cc (tc2 tc1 )
= =
Cmin ( th1 tc1 ) Cmin ( th1 tc1 )
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
So, th2 = th1 – ...(5.8.7)
Ch
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(5.8.8)
Cc
6. On putting value of th2 and tc2 from eq. (5.8.7) and (5.8.8) in eq. (5.8.6),
we get
1 1 1
(th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
(th1 tc1 ) C
h Cc
UA C
= exp 1 h
C
h Cc
1 1 UA Ch
or 1 – Cmin = exp 1
C
h Cc C
h Cc
UA Ch
1 exp 1 C
Ch c
or = ...(5.8.9)
1 1
Cmin
Ch Cc
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7. If Cc > Ch, then Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc, hence eq. (5.8.9) will be,
UA Cmin
1 exp 1
Cmin Cmax
= ...(5.8.10)
C
1 min
Cmax
8. If Cc < Ch, then Cmin = Cc and Cmax = Ch, hence eq. (5.8.9) will be,
UA Cmax
1 exp 1 C
= Cmax min
...(5.8.11)
C
1 min
Cmax
9. On rearranging eq. (5.8.10) and eq. (5.8.11), we have
UA Cmin
1 exp 1 C
C
min max
= ...(5.8.12)
C
1 min
Cmax
Cmin UA
Since, R= and = NTU
Cmax Cmin
1 exp (NTU)(1 R)
=
1 R
Que 5.9. After a long time in service, a counter flow oil cooler is
checked to ascertain if its performance has deteriorated due to
fouling. In the test a standard oil flowing at 2.0 kg/s is cooled from
420 K to 380 K by a water supply of 1.0 kg/s at 300 K at inlet. If the
heat transfer surface is 3.33 m2 and the design value of the overall
heat transfer coefficient is 930 W/m 2-K, how much has it been
reduced by fouling ? Take Cp of oil as 2330 J/kg-K, Cp of water
4 174 J/kg-K. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
.
Given : mh = 2 kg/s, th1 = 420 K, th2 = 380 K, A = 3.33 m2,
.
mc = 1 kg/s, tc2 = 300 K, U = 930 W/m2-K, (Cp)h = 2330 J/kg-K,
(Cp)c = 4174 J/kg-K
To Find : Reduction in overall heat transfer coefficient due to fouling.
1. Heat balance over the exchanger is given as,
Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gain by cold fluid
( m Cp)h (th1 – th2) = ( m Cp)c (tc1 – tc2)
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2 × 2330 × (420 – 380) = 1 × 4174 × (tc1 – 300)
420
th
380 tc1
t(K)
tc
300
L
0
Fig. 5.9.1.
tc1 = 344.7 K
2. We know that,
(th1 tc1 ) (th 2 tc2 )
m =
t t
ln h1 c1
th 2 tc2
(420 344.7) (380 300) 75.3 80
= = = 77.6
ln [(420 344.7) / (380 300)] 75.3
ln
80
3. Heat exchange due to fouling, Q = UA m
Q (mC p ) h (th1 – th2 )
U =
Am Am
2 2330 (420 – 380) 186400
= = = 721 W/m2-K
3.33 77.6 3.33 77.6
U U 930 721
4. Reduction in U due to fouling = 100 = 22.5 %
U 930
Que 5.10. A counter flow heat exchanger is us ed to cool
lubricating oil of a large industrial gas turbine engine. The oil
flows through the tube at 0.19 kg/s (Cp = 2.18 kJ/kg-K) and the coolant
water flows in the annulus in the opposite direction at the rate of
0.15 kg/s (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg-K). The oil enters at 425 K and leaves at
345 K while the coolant enters at 285 K. How long must the tube be
made to perform this duty if the heat transfer coefficient from oil
to tube s urface is 2250 W/m 2-K and from tube to water is
5650 W/m2-K ? The tube has a mean diameter of 12.5 mm and its wall
presents negligible resistance to heat transfer.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
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Answer
Given : mo = 0.19 kg/s, mw = 0.15 kg/s, to1 = 425 K, to2 = 345 K,
Co = 2.18 kJ/kg-K, Cw = 4.18 kJ/kg-K, tw1 = 285 K, ho = 2250 W/m2-K,
hw = 5650 W/m2-K, d = 12.5 mm
To Find : Length of the tube.
1. Heat balance over the exchanger is given as,
Heat lost by oil = Heat gained by water
mo Co (to1 – to2) = mw Cw (tw2 – tw1)
0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345) = 0.15 × 4.18 × (tw2 – 285)
Outlet temperature of water,
0.19 2.18 80
tw2 = 285 + = 337.85 K
0.15 4.18
2. By applying energy balance on the oil, the heat transfer is given by
Q = mo Co (to1 – to2) = 0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345)
= 33.136 kJ/s = 33.136 × 103 J/s
3. For counter flow heat exchanger,
1 = to1 – tw2 = 425 – 337.85 = 87.15 K
2 = to2 – tw1 = 345 – 285 = 60 K
Log-mean temperature difference is,
1 2 87.15 60
m = = 72.73 K
log e (1 / 2 ) log e (87.15 / 60)
4. Let, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient between oil and water.
1 1 1
We know that, =
U h 0 hw
h0 hw 2250 5650
U= = 1609.18 W/m2-K
h0 hw 2250 5650
5. Also we know that, Q = U A m
Q 33.136 103
A= = 0.2829 m2
U m 1609.18 72.79
6. Required length of the tube is given by,
A 0.2829
l= = 7.21 m
d 12.5 103
Que 5.11. Engine oil (Cp = 2100 J/kg-°C) is to be heated from 20 °C
to 60 °C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s in a 2 cm diameter thin walled copper
tube by condensing steam outside at a temperature of 130 °C
(h fg = 2174 kJ/kg) for an overall heat transfer coefficient of
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650 W/m2-°C. Determine the rate of heat transfer and the length of
the tube required to achieve it. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
Given : CPo = 2100 J/kg-ºC, toi = 20 ºC, toe = 60 ºC, mo = 0.3 kg/s
d = 2 cm = 0.02 m, twi = 130 ºC, U = 650 W/m2-ºC, hfg = 2174 kJ/kg
To Find : i. Rate of heat transfer.
ii. Length of the tube.
1. We know that, heat transfer rate
Q = mo CPo (toe – toi)
= 0.3 × 2100 × (60 – 20) = 25200 W
Q = 25.2 kW
1 2
2. LMTD is given as, m =
ln 1
2
Where, 1 = twi – toi = 130 – 20 = 110 ºC
and 2 = twi – toe = 130 – 60 = 70 ºC
110 70
m = = 88.5 ºC
110
ln
70
3. We know that, Q= UAm
Q 25200
A=
U m 650 88.5
A= 0.438 m2
4. Also, A= dl
A 0.438
l=
d 2.0 10 2
l = 6.97 m
l 7.0 m
Que 5.12. A steam condenser is transferring 250 kW of thermal
energy at a condensing temperature of 65 °C. The cooling water
enters the condenser at 20 °C with a flow rate of 7500 kg/hr. Calculate
the LMTD. If overall heat transfer coefficient for the condenser
surface is 1250 W/m2 -°C. What surface area is required to handle
this load ? What error would be introduced if the arithmetic mean
temperature difference is used rather than the log mean temperature
difference ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
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Answer
.
Given : Q = 250 kW, th1 = th2 = 65 °C, tc1 = 20 °C, mc = 7500 kg/hr,
U = 1250 W/m2-°C.
To Find : i. LMTD.
ii. Surface area.
iii. Error.
1. For the condensing steam, the temperature remains constant
throughout the flow passage, i.e.,
th1 = th2 = 65 °C
2. We know that energy balance on the cooling water gives,
.
Q = mc Cc (tc2 – tc1)
7500
250 = 4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
3600
Exit temperature of cooling water,
250 3600
tc2 = 20 + = 48.67 °C
7500 4.186
3. Log mean temperature difference,
1 2
m =
log e (1 / 2 )
Where, 1 = th1 – tc1 = 65 – 20 = 45 °C
2 = th2 – tc2 = 65 – 48.67 = 16.33 °C
45 16.33
m = = 28.28 °C
log e (45 / 16.33)
4. Now, we know that Q = UAm
Area required to handle the load is,
Q 250 103
A= = 7.07 m2
U m 1250 28.28
5. The arithmetic mean temperature difference is
1 2 45 16.33
= = 30.66 °C
2 2
Q 250 103
A = = 6.52 m2
U 1250 30.66
A A 7.07 6.52
6. Error = 100 × 100 = 7.77 %
A 7.07
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Que 5.13. A chemical having specific heat of 3.3 kJ/kg-K flowing at
the rate of 20000 kg/hr enters a parallel flow heat exchanger at
120 °C. The flow rate of cooling water is 50000 kg/hr with an inlet
temperature of 20 °C. The heat transfer area is 10 m2 and the overall
heat transfer coefficient is 1050 W/m2-°C. Determine :
a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
Specific heat of the water is 4.186 kJ/kg.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
20000
h =
Given : Cph = 3.3 kJ/kg-K, m = 5.56 kg/s, th1 = 120 °C,
3600
50000
c =
m = 13.89 kg/s, Cpc = 4.186 kJ/kg-K, tc1 = 20 °C, A = 10 m2,
3600
U = 1050 W/m2-C°
To Find : a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
1. Hot fluid capacity rate, h Cph = 5.56 × 3.3 = 18.35
Ch = m
c Cpc = 13.89 × 4.186 = 58.14
Cold fluid capacity rate, Cc = m
We find that, Ch < C c
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
5.56 × 3.3 × (120 – th2) = 13.89 × 4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
or, (120 – th2) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20) ...(5.13.1)
UA 1050 10
3. Now, NTU = = 0.572
Cmin 18.35 1000
th1
H ot fluid
(chem ical) th2
Temp.
Cold flu id tc2
(water)
tc1
Area/length
Water
Chemical
Water
Fig. 5.13.1.
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1 exp[ NTU(1 R)]
4. Effectiveness, =
1 R
1 exp[ 0.572(1 0.316)]
=
(1 0.316)
Cmin 18.35
R C
58.14
0.316
max
1 0.471
= = 0.402
1.316
Ch (th1 th2 )
5. Also, =
Cmin ( th1 tc1 )
(120 th 2 )
or, 0.402 = ( Ch = Cmin)
(120 20)
or, th2 = 120 – 0.402 (120 – 20) = 79.8 °C
6. Substituting the value of th2 in eq. (5.13.1), we get
(120 – 79.8) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20)
(120 79.8)
tc2 = + 20 = 32.7 °C
3.17
Que 5.14. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is
heated from 25 °C to 65 °C by an oil with a specific heat of
1.45 kJ/kg-K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled from
230 °C to 160 °C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is
420 W/m2-°C. Calculate the following :
i. the rate of heat transfer,
ii. the mass flow rate of water, and
iii. the surface area of the heat exchanger.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
.
Given : tc1 = 25 °C, tc2 = 65 °C, Cph = 1.45 kJ/kg-K, mh = 0.9 kg/s,
th1 = 230 °C, th2 = 160 °C, U = 420 W/m2-°C
To Find : i. The rate of heat transfer.
ii. The mass flow rate of water.
iii. The surface area of the heat exchanger.
1. The rate of heat transfer,
Q = mh C ph (th1 th2 )
Q = 0.9 × 1.45 × (230 – 160) = 91.35 kJ/s
2. Heat lost by oil (hot fluid) = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
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mh C ph (th1 th2 ) = mh C pc (tc 2 tc1 )
91.35 = mc × 4.187 × (65 – 25)
91.35
Mass flow rate of water, mc = = 0.545 kg/s
4.187 (65 25)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
th1 = 230 °C Oil 160 °C( th2)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
(a) Flow arrangement
th1 = 230 °C
1 Oil
(h o
t fl
tc2 = 65 °C uid
)
W ate
r ( c ol
d fluid th2 = 160 °C
) 2
tc1 = 25 °C
Area/Length
(b) Temperature distribution.
Fig. 5.14.1. Counter-flow heat exchanger.
3. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by,
1 2 (th1 tc2 ) ( th2 tc1 )
m = =
ln (1 / 2 ) ln [(th1 tc2 ) / (th2 tc1 )]
(230 65) (160 25)
=
ln [(230 65) / (160 25)]
165 135
m = =149.5 °C
ln [(165 / 135)]
4. We know that, Q = UAm
Q 91.35 103
A= = 1.45 m2
U m 420 149.5
PART-2
Introduction to Condensation Phenomena, Heat Transfer Relations
for Laminar Film Condensation on Vertical Surface and on Outside
& Inside of a Horizontal Tube, Effect of Non-Condensable Gases,
Dropwise Condensation, Boiling Modes, Pool Boiling, Hystersis
in Boiling Curve, Forced Convection Boiling, Heat Pipes.
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CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-2
Condensation : It is a in which vapour phase of a substance changes
to liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of vapourisation.
Boiling : It is defined as the convective heat transfer process that
involves a phase change from liquid to vapour state.
Pool Boiling : In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially
stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and
mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. The pool boiling
occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.15. Explain condensation and classify the modes of
condensation.
Answer
A. Condensation : It is a process in which vapour phase of a substance
changes to liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of vaporisation.
B. Modes of Condensation : Following are the modes of condensation :
a. Filmwise Condensation :
1. In film condensation, the condensation liquid wet the surface and
forms a liquid film.
Q t < t sat
g
Vapour
tv | tsat
Condensate film
Fig. 5.15.1. Filmwise condensation.
2. This liquid film gradually deposits on the surface which acts as a
resistance to heat flow from the surface and hence it prevents the
heat transfer between the condensing vapour and surface.
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b. Dropwise Condensation :
1. In dropwise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface randomly.
2. In this condensation process, a large portion of the area of solid
surface is directly exposed to vapour without an insulating film of
condensate liquid, consequently higher heat transfer rate are
achieved.
ts < tsat
Q
Condensate
drops
Vapour
tv | tsat
Fig. 5.15.2. Dropwise condensation.
Que 5.16. Differentiate between dropwise condensation and
filmwise condensation. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
S. No. Filmwise Condensation Dropwise Condensation
1. Liquid condensate wets It does not wet the surface.
the surface.
2. Liquid condensate spreads The liquid condensate collects in
out and does not collect in droplets.
droplets.
3. It forms continuous films It does not form any film over the
over the entire surface. surface.
4. Continuous film offers There is no film barrier to heat
resistance and restricts flow, therefore high heat transfer
further transfer of heat rate are experienced between
between vapour and vapour and surface.
surface.
Que 5.17. Derive the expression of velocity distribution, mass
flow rate, heat flux and film heat transfer coefficient for laminar
film condensation on a vertical plate.
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Answer
A. Assumptions of Nusselt’s Analysis :
1. Plate is maintained at constant temperature ts, that is less than
saturation temperature of vapour tsat.
2. Vapour has low velocity and it does not exert viscous shear force at
liquid.
3. The downward flow of condensate under the gravity is laminar.
4. Fluid properties are constant.
5. Heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction.
6. Unit depth in Z-direction.
B. Velocity Distribution :
1. Let, l = Density of liquid film,
v = Density of vapour,
hfg = Latent heat of condensation,
k = Conductivity of liquid film,
= Absolute viscosity of liquid film,
ts = Surface temperature, and
tsat = Saturation temperature of vapour at prevailing
pressure.
B
O
Y
Condensate
x X film
Element
dx A g
y dy
L ( y) Velocity
profile
Cooled Saturated
u( y )
surface vapour
Liquid
at t at tsat
ts Temperature
t (y ) profile
tsat
( a) Film growth, velocity and temperature profiles
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dy
Element
du bdx 2
dy dx A du + d u dy bdx
dy2
vg(bdxdy) lg(bdxdy)
(b) Force balance
m
dQ = hAt kAt dQ = hfg dm
dQ =
A
m + dm
(c) Mass and heat balance
Fig. 5.17.1.
2. To find an expression for velocity distribution u as a function of y from
the wall surface. Let us consider the equilibrium between gravity and
viscous forces on an elementary volume of the liquid film.
3. Gravitational force on the element
= lg(bdxdy) – vg(bdxdy) ...(5.17.1)
4. Viscous shear force on the element
du du d 2u
= (bdx) – 2 dy (bdx) ...(5.17.2)
dy dy dy
5. On equating eq. (5.17.1) and eq. (5.17.2), we get
du du d 2u
lg(bdxdy) – vg(bdxdy) = (bdx) – 2 dy bdx
dy dy dy
d 2u (l v ) g
= ...(5.17.3)
dy2
6. On integrating the eq. (5.17.3), we have
du (l v ) g
= y + c1 ...(5.17.4)
dy
7. On integrating the eq. (5.17.4), we get
(l v )( y2 / 2) g
u= + c 1y + c 2 ...(5.17.5)
8. The relevant boundary conditions are :
At y = 0, u = 0
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du
At y = , =0
dy
Using these boundary conditions, we get the following value of c1 and
c2 :
( v ) g
c1 = l and c2 = 0
9. Substituting the values of c1 and c2 in eq. (5.17.5), we get the velocity
profile as given below,
(l v ) g y2
u= y
2
2
(l v ) g 2 y 1 y
u=
2
10. Mean flow velocity is given as :
1
um = udy
0
1
(l v ) g 2 y 1 y 2
= dy
0 2
(l v ) g 2
um =
3
C. Mass Flow Rate :
1. Mass flow rate (m) = Mean flow velocity (um) × Flow area × Density
(l v ) g 2
m= × b × l
3
l (l v ) gb3
= ...(5.17.6)
3
2. On differentiating eq. (5.17.6) w.r.t. x (or ), we have
d l ( l v ) gb3
dm = dx
dx 3
d l (l v ) gb3 d
= dx
d 3 dx
( v ) gb2
dm = l l d
D. Heat Flux :
1. Heat flow rate = Rate of energy release due to condensation at
the surface
dQ = hfg × dm
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( v ) gb2
dQ = hfg l l d ...(5.17.7)
2. According to our assumption the heat transfer across the condensate
layer is by pure conduction.
k(bdx)
Hence, dQ = (tsat – ts) ...(5.17.8)
3. On equating eq. (5.17.7) and eq. (5.17.8), we have
hfg l (l v ) gb2 k(bdx)
d = (tsat – ts)
k
3d = (t – t ) dx ...(5.17.9)
l ( l v ) ghfg sat s
4. On integrating the eq. (5.17.9), we have
4 k
= (t – t ) x + c1
4 l ( l v ) ghfg sat s
5. Now, putting the boundary condition :
= 0 at x = 0 give c1 = 0.
1
4 k(tsat ts ) x 4
Hence, = ...(5.17.10)
l (l v ) g hfg
E. Film Heat Transfer Coefficient :
1. According to the assumption,
k (bdx)
dQ = (tsat – ts) ...(5.17.11)
2. The heat flow rate can also be expressed as,
dQ = hx (bdx) (tsat – ts) ...(5.17.12)
Where, hx is the local heat transfer coefficient.
3. On equating eq. (5.17.11) and eq. (5.17.12), we get
k (bdx)
(tsat – ts) = hx (bdx) (tsat – ts)
k
hx = ...(5.17.13)
4. On substituting value of from eq. (5.17.10) in eq. (5.17.13), we get
1
( v ) k3 g hfg 4
hx = l l
4 x ( tsat ts )
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Que 5.18. Explain boiling and discuss the various types of boiling.
Answer
A. Boiling :
1. It is a convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change
from liquid to vapour state.
2. It is also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible
only when the temperature of the surface (ts) exceeds the saturation
temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure (tsat).
3. Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid according to the
law
Q = hA s(ts – tsat) = hA ste
Where, te = Excess temperature = (ts – tsat)
B. Types of Boiling : There are mainly four types of boiling :
a. Saturated Boiling : In saturated boiling, the temperature of liquid
exceeds the saturation temperature and bubbles are begin to form at
the heating surface and goes to the upper surface of the liquid and
finally leaves the surface.
b. Pool Boiling : This is the case when the liquid above the hot surface
is essentially stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free
convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment. It
occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
c. Forced Convection Boiling : In forced convection boiling, the motion
of fluid through the heated surface is induced by external means i.e.,
fans, pump, etc.
d. Sub-cooled Boiling : In sub-cooled boiling, the temperature of the
liquid is below the saturation temperature and boiling take place near
the heated surface and the bubbles are formed at the heated surface
which get vanished on travelling a short distance.
Que 5.19. Draw the boiling curve and identify the different boiling
regimes. Also, explain the characteristics of each regime.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
OR
Define pool boiling and also explain regimes of pool boiling with the
help of diagram. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A. Pool Boiling : Refer Q. 5.18, Page 5–30B, Unit-5.
B. Regimes of Boiling : Different boiling regimes are given below :
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a. Free Convection Boiling :
1. Free convection boiling exists when excess temperature (te) is
less than 5 °C.
2. In this region, the liquid near the surface is superheated slightly
and convection currents circulate the liquid and evaporation takes
place at the liquid surface.
b. Nucleate Boiling :
1. Nucleate boiling exists when temperature te is between 5 °C to
50 °C (5 te 50 °C).
2. This type of boiling exists in region II and III.
3. With the increase in te (excess temperature) the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localised spots
commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching
the liquid surface. In fact, it is the region II where nucleate boiling
starts.
4. With further increase in te the bubbles are formed more rapidly
and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation,
as indicated in the region III.
5. The nucleate boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles
at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid agitation.
c. Film Boiling :
1. Film boiling is also called unstable boiling or transition boiling which
exists between 50 °C to 150 °C (50 °C te 150 °C).
2. In this region bubble formation is very high and vapour film form
only on the fraction of surface.
3. The film acts as a thermal resistance in heat flow path, hence heat
transfer rate decreases.
Interface
evaporation or Nucleate Film
free convection boiling boiling
I II III IV V VI
Bubbles Bubbles Unstable Stable Radiation
condense rise to film film coming into
in super surface A play B
qs(W/m 2)
Heat transferred heated
by superheated liquid
liquid rising to
the liquid-vapour
interface Spheroidal
where evaporation state beginning
takes place
e
g cu rv
B oilin
Excess temperature, t e = t s – t sat
Fig. 5.19.1. The boiling curve for water.
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Que 5.20. Discuss about effect of non-condensable gases.
Answer
1. The non-condensable gases near to the surface acts as a thermal
resistance to the condensation process.
2. The rate of condensation decreases when the vapour is contaminated
with non-condensable gases.
3. Even with a few percent by volume of air in a steam in condensation
can reduce 50 % heat transfer coefficient.
Que 5.21. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 2.45 bar condenses
on the surface of a vertical tube of height 1 m. The tube surface
temperature is kept at 117 °C. Estimate the thickness of the
condensate film. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Given : p = 2.45 bar, = 1000 kg/m3 (dry saturated), ts = 117 °C
k = 0.68 W/m-°C, x = 1 m, = 2.5 × 10–4 Ns/m2
To Find : Thickness of the condensate film.
(127.4 126.1)
1. tsat = 126.1 (at 2.4 bar) + 0.05
(2.5 2.4)
tsat = 126.75° C
2185.2 2179.4
hfg = 2185.2 (at 126° C) + (0.75)
(126 128)
hfg = 2183.025 kJ/kg
1/4
4 k ( tsat ts ) x
2. Now, film thickness, =
l ( l v ) ghfg
3. Neglecting v in comparison to l or
1/ 4
4 k (tsat ts ) x
So, = 2
l g hfg
1/4
4 0.68 2.5 10 4 (126.75 117) 1
=
(1000)2 9.81 2183.025 103
= 1.3264 × 10–4 m = 0.132 mm
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Que 5.22. Estimate the power required to boil water in a copper
pan, 0.35 m in diameter. The pan is maintained at 120 °C by an
electric heater. What is the evaporation rate ? Properties : Saturated
water at 100 °C, l = 957.9 kg/m3, v = 0.5955 kg/m3, Cpl = 4.217 kJ/kg-K,
l = 279 × 10–6 Ns/m2, Prl = 1.76, hfg = 2257 kJ/kg and = 58.9 × 10–3 N/m.
Use
1/2 3
g(l v ) C pl te
q = l * hfg n
Csf hf g Prl
Csf = 0.013, n = 1.0 AKTU 2013-14, Marks 10
Answer
Given : d = 0.35 m, ts = 120 °C, tsat = 100 °C
To Find : i. Power required to boil water.
ii. Evaporation rate.
1. The excess temperature, te = ts – tsat = 120 – 100 = 20 ºC
2. As per boiling curve, for te = 20 ºC, nucleate pool boiling will occur and
for this, the following correlation holds good :
1 3
C pl te
q = lhfg g (l v )
2
n
Csf hfg Prl
q = 279 × 10–6 × 2257 ×103 ×
1 3
9.81 (957.9 0.5955) 2 4.217 103 20
3 × 0.013 2257 103 (1.76)1
58.9 10
= 629.703 × 399.30 × 4.357
= 1095525.86 W/m2 or 1095.53 kW/m2
3. The boiling heat transfer rate is given by,
qs = qA = 1095.53 × × (0.35)2 = 105.40 kW
4
4. For steady state condition, all the heat added to the pan will result in
water evaporation. Hence,
qs 105.40 103
mw=
hfg 2257 103
= 0.0467 kg/s or 168.12 kg/h
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PART-3
Introduction, Fick’s Law of Diffusion, Steady State
Equimolar Counter Diffusion, Steady State
Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film.
CONCEPT OUTLINE : PART-3
Mass Transfer : The process of transfer of mass as a result of species
concentration difference in a system/mixture is called mass transfer.
Fick’s Law of Diffusion : It states that the mass flux of species A
per unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient.
Mass Concentration : The mass concentration or density A of
species A in a multi-component mixture is defined as the mass of A per
unit volume of the mixture. It is expressed in kg/m3 unit.
Molar Concentration : The molar concentration CA of species A is
defined as the number of moles of species per unit volume of the
mixture. It is expressed as kg mole/m3 unit.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.23. Explain Fick’s law of mass diffusion.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
OR
Discuss briefly the Fick’s law of diffusion.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
1. Fick’s law of diffusion states that the mass flux of species A per unit
area is proportional to the concentration gradient.
2. So, diffusion rate of species A is given by,
mA dCA
NA = = – DAB ...(5.23.1)
A dx
Where, mA = Mass flow rate of species A by diffusion,
A = Area through which mass is flowing,
NA = Mass flux of species A,
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DAB = Diffusion coefficient for binary mixture of
species A and B,
CA = Concentration of species A, and
dC A
= Concentration gradient for species A.
dx
3. Similarly, diffusion rate for species B is given by,
mB dCB
NB = = – DBA
A dx
4. Fick’s law can be expressed in terms of partial pressure of species by
using perfect gas equation.
For species A :
GT
pA = A R A T = A
MA
pA M A
A = CA =
GT
Where, pA = Partial pressure of species A,
A = Density of species A,
G = Universal gas constant, and
MA = Molecular weight of species A.
Chamber
A (a) B
A B
CA CB Concentration
Concentration of species B
of species A
x (b )
Fig. 5.23.1. Mass transfer by diffusion in a binary gas mixture.
5. Substituting the value of A in eq. (5.23.1), we get
mA d pA M A
NA = = – DAB
A dx GT
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mA M A dpA
or NA = = – DAB
A GT dx
6. Similarly, for species B :
mB M B dpB
NB = = – DAB
A GT dx
Que 5.24. Derive expression for steady state diffusion of gases
and liquids through plain membrane (solids).
Answer
X Plain
membrane
Fig. 5.24.1.
1. Considering the diffusion along X-axis, then the controlling equation is,
d 2C A
=0
dx2
2. On integration, we have
dC A
= C1
dx
CA = C1 x + C2 ...(5.24.1)
3. The boundary conditions are :
CA = CA1 at x = 0 and CA = CA2 at x = L
Using these boundary conditions in eq. (5.24.1), we get
C C A1
C2 = CA1 and C1 = A 2
L
4. Substituting the value of C1 and C2 in eq. (5.24.1), we get
x
CA = (CA2 – CA1) + CA1
L
5. The mass transfer rate is given by
mA dC A d (C C ) x C
=–D =–D A2 A1 A1
A dx dx L
C A 2 C A1
= – D
L
mA D
or = (CA1 – CA2)
A L
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mA (C A1 C A 2 )
=
A L
D
Where, (L / D) is known as diffusion resistance.
6. The diffusion rate in the radial direction of a cylindrical system of inner
radius r1 and outer radius r2 and length L is given by,
D (C A1 C A 2 )
mA = Am
x
Where, x = (r2 – r1) and Am = 2L(r2 r1 )
ln(r2 / r1 )
7. In case of sphere, x = (r2 – r1) and Am = 4 r1 r2
Que 5.25. Define equimolar counter diffusion. Derive expression
for steady state equimolar counter diffusion.
Answer
A. Equimolar Counter Diffusion : Equimolar counter diffusion between
species A and B of a binary gas mixture is defined as an isothermal
diffusion process in which each molecule of component A is replaced by
each molecule of component B and vice-versa.
B. Expression :
Chamber Chamber
A B
NA NB
p A, C A 1 2 pB, CB
x1 x2
p = pA + p B
pA1 A
Partial pressure
B pB2
p A( x )
pB (x ) p A2
p B1
Fig. 5.25.1. Equimolar counter diffusion.
1. According to Fick’s law, the molar diffusion rates of species A and B are
given by,
mA A dpA
NA = = – DAB ...(5.25.1)
A GT dx
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mB A dpB
and, NB = = – DBA ...(5.25.2)
A GT dx
Where, pA and pB = Partial pressures, and
NA and NB = Molar diffusion rates of the species A and B
respectively.
2. According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures,
p = pA + pB
On differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
dp dpA dpB
= +
dx dx dx
3. Since, the total pressure of the system remains constant under steady
conditions,
dp dpA dpB
= + =0
dx dx dx
dpA dpB
or, = ...(5.25.3)
dx dx
4. According to steady state condition, the total molar flux relative to
stationary coordinate must be zero.
So, NA + NB = 0 or NA = – N B
A dpA A dpB
or – DAB × = DBA × ...(5.25.4)
GT dx GT dx
5. From eq. (5.25.3) and eq. (5.25.4), we have
DAB = DBA = D
6. Assuming the diffusion coefficient constant and integrating the
eq. (5.25.1) between two points, we get
2
mA A dpA
NA =
A
=–D
GT
1 dx
mA A pA1 pA 2
or NA = =D
A GT x2 x1
mB A pB1 pB 2
7. Similarly, NB = =D
A GT x2 x1
Que 5.26. Derive the following expression for steady state diffusion
through a stagnant gas film :
AMw p p
(mw)total = D ln a 2
GT ( x2 x1 ) pa1
Answer
1. Let us consider isothermal evaporation of water from a surface and its
subsequent diffusion through the stagnant layer of gas over it.
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Air
ur
po
2
va
ter
Wa
Tank
mw
1
Constant
temperature
surroundings Water
pw pa
p = pw + pa
Fig. 5.26.1. Diffusion of water vapour through air.
2. The assumptions used for the analysis are :
i. The system is under steady state and isothermal conditions.
ii. Air as well as water vapour behaves as an ideal gas.
iii. The total pressure within the system remains constant.
iv. There is a slight air movement over the top of the tank to remove
the water vapour which diffuses to that point; however, this
movement does not disturb the concentration profile of air in the
tank.
v. The water concentration at the surface of water is much more
compared to that at the top of the tank (i.e., Cw1 > Cw2 or Ca2 > Ca1).
3. Under steady state conditions the upward movement of water must be
balanced by a downward diffusion of air so that concentration at any
distance from the water surface remains constant.
Mass diffusion of air in the downward direction is given by,
AMa dpa
(ma)down = – D ...(5.26.1)
GT dx
Where, A = Cross-sectional area of the tank, and
dpa
= Partial pressure gradient of air.
dx
4. Bulk mass transfer of air upward,
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Ma
(ma) up = – aAu = – pa Au ...(5.26.2)
GT
Where, u = Upward bulk velocity.
5. Equating eq. (5.26.1) and eq. (5.26.2), we get,
DMa A dpa Ma
= pa Au
GT dx GT
D dpa
or u =
pa dx
6. The total mass transport of water vapour,
(mw)total = Upward mass diffusion of water, (mw)diffusion
+ Water vapour carried along with bulk
movement of air, (mw)bulk
DAMw dpw
or (mw)total = – pw Au
GT dx
DAMw dpw pw Mw
=– Au
GT dx GT
DAMw dpw pw Mw AD dpa
or (mw)total = – ...(5.26.3)
GT dx GT pa dx
7. According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
p = pa + pw
On differentiating, we get
dp dpa dpw
=
dx dx dx
Since, the total pressure in the tank remains constant,
dp
hence, =0
dx
dpa dpw
Thus, =– ...(5.26.4)
dx dx
8. Substituting eq. (5.26.4) in eq. (5.26.3), we get
DAMw dpw pw Mw AD dpw
(mw)total = –
GT dx GT pa dx
DAMw dpw pw
=– 1
GT dx pa
DAMw dpw pa pw
=–
GT dx pa
DAM w dpw p
or (mw)total = – ...(5.26.5)
GT dx p pw
9. Eq. (5.26.5) is known as Stefan’s law for diffusion of an ideal gaseous
component through a practically stagnant and ideal constituent of the
binary system.
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10. Integrating eq. (5.26.5) between x1 and x2, we get
x2 pw
DAMw 2
dpw
(mw)total p
dx = –
x1
GT pw p pw
1
DAMw p p
(mw)total (x2 – x1) = p ln w2
GT pw1 p
DAMw p p pw2
(mw)total = ln
GT ( x2 x1 ) p pw1
DAM w p p
or, (mw)total = ln a2
GT ( x2 x1 ) pa1
Que 5.27. Discuss physical significance of Sherwood number and
Schmidt number. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
A. Sherwood Number :
1. It is a dimensionless number which is the ratio of mass transfer
coefficient multiply by length to the concentration profile.
hm l
Sh =
D
2. The mass transfer coefficient under flow condition can be worked out
by the method of dimensional analysis.
B. Schmidt Number :
1. It is also a dimensionless number which is the ratio of velocity and
concentration profiles.
Sc = v/D
2. It forms the connecting link between velocity and concentration
profiles, these profiles show identical behaviour when Sc = 1.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Discuss the general arrangement of parallel flow, counter
flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.1.
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Q. 2. Write down the significance of NTU method in heat
exchanger. Derive an expression of effectiveness for counter
flow heat exchanger by using NTU method.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.7.
Q. 3. Derive an expression for effectiveness by NTU method for
parallel flow.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.8.
Q. 4. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated
from 25 °C to 65 °C by an oil with a specific heat of
1.45 kJ/kg-K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled
from 230 °C to 160 °C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient
is 420 W/m2-°C. Calculate the following :
i. the rate of heat transfer,
ii. the mass flow rate of water, and
iii. the surface area of the heat exchanger.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.14.
Q. 5. Differentiate between dropwise condensation and filmwise
condensation.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.16.
Q. 6. Define pool boiling and also explain regimes of pool boiling
with the help of diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.19.
Q. 7. Discuss briefly the Fick’s law of diffusion.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.23.
Q. 8. Discuss physical significance of Sherwood number and
Schmidt number.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.27.
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1 Introduction to
Heat Transfer
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. What is the significance of heat transfer ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. The discipline of the heat transfer encompasses a great many
fascinating areas like :
1. Proper functioning of valves and other controls operated by
temperature changes, thermal control of space vehicles.
2. Refrigeration and air conditioning units and many other cooling
and heating appliances.
1.2. Discuss the mechanism of thermal conduction in gases,
liquids and solids. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. In solids, the thermal conduction takes place by lattice vibration
and by transport of free electrons.
2. In case of gases, the thermal conduction takes place by the moment
of molecules exchanging their energy and momentum.
3. In liquids, the mechanism of heat is nearer to that of gases. However,
the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular forces
come into play.
1.3. What are free convection and forced convection ?
Ans. Free or natural convection occurs when the fluid circulates by
virtue of the natural difference in densities of hot and cold fluids.
When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be
forced convection.
1.4. What do you mean by thermal conductivity ? Why good
electrical conductor materials are als o good heat
conductors ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Ans. Thermal Conductivity : It is a physical property of the substance
and is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat through
it. It is generally denoted by k and its unit is W/m-K.
Good Electrical Conductor Materials are also Good Heat
Conductors : Since, the ratio of the thermal and electrical
conductivities for all metals is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal, therefore the material which are good
conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.
1.5. Write down the effect of temperature and pressure on
thermal conductivity. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity :
In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity decreases with
increase in temperature while in case of gases, thermal conductivity
increases with increase in temperature.
Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity :
Thermal conductivity of fluid and solid increases with increase in
pressure.
1.6. What do you mean by convective heat transfer coefficient ?
Ans. Convective heat transfer coefficient may be defined as the amount
of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the
fluid and unit area of surface in unit time. It is generally denoted by
h and its unit is W/m2-K.
1.7. What is the physical significance of thermal diffusivity ?
Ans. The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how
fast heat is propagated or it diffuses through a material during
changes of temperature with time.
1.8. What do you mean by thermal contact resistance ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Thermal contact resistance is a thermal resistance to heat flow at
the interface between two materials because of surface roughness
and void spaces at contact surfaces.
1.9. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer
coefficient ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Overall heat transfer coefficient is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–3 B (ME-Sem-5)
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1.10. What do you mean by critical thickness of insulation ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The thickness of insulation upto which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical thickness of
insulation. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called as critical
radius.
1.11. Describe the modes of heat transfer for heat loss from a
thermos flask.
Ans.
1. Convection heat loss from fluid to flask inner surface.
2. Conduction heat loss from inner surface of flask to outermost
surface of flask.
3. Radiation heat loss from outer surface of flask to atmosphere.
1.12. What do you mean by thermal capacity ?
Ans. Thermal capacity is the amount of heat that a material can hold.
Mathematically,
Thermal capacity = c
Where, c = Specific heat of material.
1.13. What is the practical application of critical radius of
insulation ?
Ans. Following are the applications of critical radius of insulation :
1. Insulation of electric cables, and
2. In steam and refrigeration pipes.
1.14. Why are heat radiations invisible to the eye ?
Ans. The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves,
hence they are invisible to the eye.
1.15. Why does thermal conductivity exist in fluids ?
Ans. Thermal conductivity exists in fluid due to lattice vibrational waves.
1.16. Why does the value of thermal conductivity tend to decrease
with temperature in case of liquids ?
Ans. In case of liquids, the value of thermal conductivity tends to decrease
with temperature increase (water being on exception) due to
decrease in density with increase in temperature.
2 Marks Questions SQ–4 B (ME-Sem-5)
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2 Fins and
Transient Conduction
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. What do you mean by fins ?
Ans. Fins are basically extended surfaces and are used to increase the
heat transfer rate between the surface and adjoining fluid by
increasing the effective surface area.
2.2. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Fin Effectiveness : It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate
with fin to the heat transfer rate without fin.
fin = Qfin/Qwithout fin
Efficiency of Fin (fin) : It is defined as the ratio of actual heat
transferred by fin to maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin
area were at base temperature.
fin = Qfin/Qmax
2.3. Write down the conditions for fins to be effective.
Ans. Following are the conditions for fins to be effective :
1. Thermal conductivity (k) should be large.
2. Heat transfer coefficient (h) should be small.
3. Thickness of the fin should be small.
2.4. Explain the significance of Heisler’s charts.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. From Heisler chart, the value of Bi (Biot number) and Fo (Fourier
number) are calculated on the basis of characteristic parameter S
which is semi-thickness in case of plates and surface radius in case
of cylinder and spheres.
2. Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature
distribution.
2.5. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problem.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Heat & Mass Transfer SQ–5 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Ans. Assumptions made in lumped heat capacity method for analysis of
transient heat conduction are as follows :
1. The internal resistance is negligible in comparison with surface
resistance.
2. The temperature throughout the solid is considered to be uniform
at a given time.
2.6. What do you mean by Biot number ?
Ans. Biot number is defined as the ratio of internal (conduction) resistance
to surface (convection) resistance.
2.7. What do you mean by Fourier number ?
Ans. The non-dimensional number is called the Fourier number. It
Lc2
signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect
through a solid.
2.8. What is the criteria of lumped heat capacity analysis ?
Ans. If Biot number (Bi) < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity approach can be
used to advantage with simple shapes such as plates, cylinders,
spheres and cubes.
2.9. Define response time of a thermocouple. What does it
signify ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Response Time of Thermocouple : It is defined as the time
required for the thermocouple to attain the source temperature.
t ta hAs
Significance : It is evident from equation exp ,
ti ta VC
hAs
that larger the quantity , faster the exponential term will
VC
approach zero or more rapid will be the response of the
temperature measuring device.
2.10. Define sensitivity.
Ans. Sensitivity is defined as the time required by a thermocouple to
reach its 63.2 % of the value of initial temperature difference is
called its sensitivity.
2.11. Why are thin and closely spaced fins always preferred ?
Ans. Since,
Pk
fin =
hA
If the ratio of P (perimeter) and A (cross-sectional area) is increased
the effectiveness of the fin is improved. Due to this reason, thin
and closely spaced fins are preferred.
2 Marks Questions SQ–6 B (ME-Sem-5)
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3 Forced & Natural
Convection
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Define thermal boundary layer thickness.
Ans. Thermal boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance away
from the surface where temperature difference is 99 % of the
temperature difference between the surface and free stream
temperature of the fluid.
3.2. What do you mean by boundary layer ?
Ans. The layer of fluid adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary
layer. Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion
between the boundary and the fluid.
3.3. Write the assumptions made for momentum equation for
hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Ans. Following are the assumptions :
1. The flow is steady and incompressible.
2. The viscosity of fluid is constant.
3. Viscous shear forces in the Y-direction are negligible.
4. Fluid is continuous in space and time.
3.4. Define Prandtl number. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Prandtl number is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity () to
thermal diffusivity ().
Mathematically,
c p
Pr =
k
3.5. What do you mean by Grashof number ?
Ans. Grashof number is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia
force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
Mathematically,
(Inertia force) × (Buoyancy force)
Gr =
(Viscous force)2
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gtL3
Gr =
2
3.6. Write down the significance of Reynold’s and Nusselt
number. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Significance of Reynold’s Number : Higher the value of Re,
greater will be the relative contribution of inertia effect. Smaller
the value of Re, the greater will be relative magnitude of viscous
stresses.
Significance of Nusselt Number : The Nusselt number is a
convenient measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient.
For a given value of Nusselt number, the convective heat transfer
coefficient is directly proportional to thermal conductivity of the
fluid and inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.
3.7. What do you mean by skin friction coefficient ?
Ans. Skin friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of shear stress o at
1
the plate to the dynamic head U 2 caused by free stream velocity.
2
3.8. What do you mean by edge of the boundary layer ?
Ans. Edge of the boundary layer is the locus of the points in the boundary
layer where local fluid velocity is 99 % of free stream velocity.
3.9. What do you mean by hydrodynamic entry length and fully
developed region ?
Ans. Hydrodynamic Entry Length : It is that part of the tube where
boundary layer grows and the velocity distribution changes with
the length of the tube.
Fully Developed Region : The part of the tube where velocity
distribution does not change with the length of the tube is known
as fully developed region.
3.10. What do you mean by Buckingham- theorem ?
Ans. Buckingham- theorem states that in a physical system involving n
variables having m fundamental dimensions, the number of
independent dimensionless group that can be formed is (n – m).
The dimensionless groups that formed is called terms and is
represented by the notation 1, 2, 3,.........., n–m.
3.11. Write the examples of heat transfer by free convection.
Ans. Following are the examples of heat transfer by free convection :
1. Heating of water in a pot by gas flame.
2. Heating of room by a heater coil.
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3. Cooling of electric motors, cylinders of automobile etc.
4. Cooling of electronic equipments.
3.12. Define volume coefficient of thermal expansion.
Ans. The physical property denoting the thermal expansion of the fluid
is known as volume coefficient of thermal expansion ().
3.13. What is the criterion to identify type of flow in free
convection ?
Ans. A dimensionless parameter, known as Rayleigh number, decides
the type of fluid motion, which is defined as,
Ra = Gr Pr
If, Ra < 109 Flow is laminar.
If, Ra > 109 Flow is considered as turbulent flow.
3.14. Why are turbulent boundary layers thicker than laminar
boundary layers ?
Ans. Turbulent boundary layers are thicker than laminar boundary layers
because in a turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution is
much more uniform due to intermingling of fluid particles between
different layers of the fluid.
3.15. Why is heat transfer smaller in free convection as compared
to forced convection ?
Ans. Heat transfer in free convection process is quite smaller as compared
to forced convection because flow velocity in free convection is
much smaller than forced convection.
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4 Thermal Radiation
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. What do you mean by radiation heat transfer ?
Ans. Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy across
a system boundary by means of an electromagnetic mechanism
which is caused solely by a temperature difference. It does not
require a medium.
4.2. Write the factors upon which the rate of emission of
radiation by a surface depends.
Ans. Following are the factors :
1. The temperature of the surface,
2. The nature of the surface, and
3. The wavelength or frequency of radiation.
4.3. What is intensity of radiation ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of energy leaving a
surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the
emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
4.4. Define emissivity.
Ans. Emissivity () is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to
radiate heat. It is also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of
a body to the emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.
4.5. Define the term “Irradiation” and “Radiosity”.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Irradiation : It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a
surface per unit time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
Radiosity : It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a
surface per unit time per unit area.
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4.6. Define all radiative properties of the surface and also explain
relation between them. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Following are the radiation properties of surfaces :
i. Total emissive power (E) :
Eb = T4 W/m2
Eb = AT4 W
ii. Monochromatic emissive power.
E= E d W/ m 2
0
iii. Intensity of radiation.
iv. Radiosity.
v. Irradiation.
2. Relation between total emissive power and monochromatic emissive
power is given as :
E
=
Eb
4.7. State Wien’s displacement law. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Wien’s displacement law states that the product of max and T is
constant.
Mathematically,
max T = constant
4.8. What do you mean by solid angle ?
Ans. Solid angle is defined as a portion of the space inside a sphere
enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of the cone at the
centre of the sphere.
4.9. A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at
wavelength of 0.5 m. Calculate its surface temperature and
emissive power. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
1. From Wien’s displacement law,
maxT = 2898 mK
or, maxT = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
Since, max = 0.5 m
0.5 × T = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
T = 5.796 × 10 – 3 K
2. From Boltzmann law,
Eb = T4
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= 5.67 × 10 – 8 × (5.796 × 10 – 3)4
= 6.3987 × 10 – 17 W/m2
4.10. What do you mean by Lambert’s cosine law ?
Ans. Lambert’s cosine law states that the total emissive power E from a
radiating plane surface in any direction is directly proportional to
the cosine of the angle of emission.
Mathematically,
E = En cos
4.11. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Black Body : A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it.
i.e., = 1, = 0, = 0
White Body : If all the incident radiation falling on the body is
reflected, it is called a white body.
= 1, = 0 and = 0
Gray Body : It is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a
surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
i.e., = () = constant
Opaque Body : When no incident radiation is transmitted through
the body, it is called an opaque body.
i.e., = 0 and + = 1
4.12. What do you mean by reciprocity theorem ?
Ans. Reciprocity theorem indicates that the net radiant interchange may
be evaluated by computing one way configuration factor from either
surface to the other.
Mathematically,
A1F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
4.13. What is radiation shield ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. A radiation shield is a barrier wall of low emissivity placed between
two surfaces which reduce the radiation between the bodies.
4.14. Write a short note on solar radiation.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. Solar radiation consists of energy that is emitted by various layers
of the sun. Solar radiation is a function of geometrical relation
between the surface and the sun which is continuously changing
on a daily and annual basis.
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4.15. What is green house effect ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The green house effect is a process by which radiative energy
leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases like
carbon dioxide, methane, water vapours, etc., called green house
gases. They transfer this energy to other components of the
atmosphere and it is re-radiated in all directions. This transfer of
energy to the surface increases the temperature of environment
and leads to global warming.
4.16. Why does a concave surface have a shape factor with itself ?
Ans. A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant
energy coming out from the one part of the surface is intercepted
by the other part of the same surface. The shape factor of a surface
with respect to itself is F1–1.
4.17. Why a flat or convex surface has a zero shape factor with
respect to itself ?
Ans. For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself
is zero (i.e., F1–1 = 0). This is due to the fact that for any part of flat
or convex surface, one cannot see/view any other part of the same
surface.
4.18. Why is the shape factor of a convex surface always unity
with its enclosure ?
Ans. The shape factor of a convex surface, with its enclosure is always
unity because all the heat radiated from a convex surface is
intercepted by its enclosure.
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5 Heat Exchanger
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. What do you mean by heat exchanger ?
Ans. Heat exchanger may be defined as equipment which transfers the
energy from a hot fluid to a cold fluid, with maximum rate and
minimum investment and running cost.
5.2. How heat exchangers are classified ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Heat exchangers are classified as follows :
a. Classification According to Nature of Heat Exchanger :
1. Direct contact heat exchanger.
2. Indirect contact heat exchanger.
b. Classification According to Relative Direction of Fluid :
1. Parallel flow.
2. Counter flow.
3. Cross flow.
c. Classification According to Design and Constructional
Features :
1. Concentric tubes.
2. Shell and tube.
3. Multiple shell and tube passes.
d. Classification According to Physical State of Fluids :
1. Evaporator.
2. Condenser.
5.3. Counter flow heat exchanger is most preferred. Why ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. LMTD for a counter flow unit is always greater than that for a
parallel flow unit, hence counter flow heat exchanger can transfer
more heat than parallel flow one. For this reason, the counter flow
arrangement is usually used.
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5.4. What do you mean by logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) ?
Ans. LMTD is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant,
would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under
variable condition of temperature difference.
5.5. How can you prevent the fouling ?
Ans. The following methods may be used to keep fouling minimum :
1. Design of heat exchanger,
2. Treatment of process system, and
3. By using cleaning system.
5.6. What do you mean by fouling factor in analysis of heat
exchanger ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. The reciprocal of scale heat transfer coefficient is called fouling
factor.
1 1 1
Rf = = –
hs U dirty Uclean
5.7. Define capacity ratio.
Ans. The ratio of the products of the mass flow rate and the heat capacity
of the fluids is termed as capacity ratio R.
Mathematically,
(mC p )min
R=
(mC p ) max
5.8. What do you mean by number of transfer unit ?
Ans. The grouping of the term (UA)/Cmin is a dimensionless expression
called the number of transfer units (NTU). It is a measure of
effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
5.9. Define condensation and their types.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Condensation : It is define as a process in which vapour phase of
a substance changes to liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of
vapourisation.
Types of Condensation :
1. Filmwise condensation.
2. Dropwise condensation.
5.10. What do you mean by boiling ?
Ans. Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase
change from liquid to vapour state. It is also defined as evaporation
at a solid-liquid surface.
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5.11. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
1. The value of critical heat flux The value of critical heat flux of
of water is 1.3 MW/m2 at 1 water reaches upto 35 MW/m2
atm. at 1 atm.
2. It is easy. It is more complicated.
5.12. What are the uses of heat pipe ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Spacecraft,
2. Cooking,
3. Permafrost cooling, and
4. Computer system, etc.
5.13. Write the limitations of Fick’s law.
Ans.
1. Fick’s expression is valid only when mass diffusion occurs.
2. Mass transfer process is very fast in gases as compared to liquid and
slowest in solids.
3. Mass transfer process strongly depends upon molecular spacing
and the mobility.
4. It does not consider temperature gradient, pressure gradient or
any effect of internal for except the concentration gradient.
5.14. Why is a counter flow more advantageous for a gas turbine
heat exchanger ?
Ans. The maximum effectiveness for parallel flow heat exchanger is
50 %. For counter flow, this limit is 100 %. For this reason, a counter
flow is usually more advantageous for gas turbine heat exchangers.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2014-15
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
1. Attempt any four parts of the following : (5 × 4 = 20)
a. Under what conditions is the effectiveness – NTU method
definitely preferred over the LMTD method in heat exchanger
analysis ?
b. Discuss briefly the Fick’s law of diffusion.
c. Draw the boiling curve and identify the different boiling
regimes. Also, explain the characteristics of each regime.
d. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 2.45 bar condenses on
the surface of a vertical tube of height 1 m. The tube surface
temperature is kept at 117 °C. Estimate the thickness of the
condensate film.
e. A wire of 1.2 mm diameter and 200 mm length is submerged
horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of
135 A with an applied voltage of 2.18 V. If the surface of the
wire is maintained at 200 °C, calculate the heat flux.
f. Discuss the general arrangement of parallel flow, counter
flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
2. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer ? How are they
distinguished from each other ?
b. Starting with an energy balance on a spherical shell volume
element, derive the one dimensional transient heat
conduction equation for a sphere with constant thermal
conductivity and no heat generation Fig. 1.
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O R r
Fig. 1.
c. Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double pane window
consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glas s
(k = 0.78 W/m-°C) separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air
space (k = 0.026 W/m-°C). Determine the steady rate of heat
trans fer through this double pane window and the
temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the
room is maintained at 20 °C while the temperature of the
outdoors is – 10 °C. Take the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surface of the window
to be h1 = 10 W/m2-°C and h2 = 40 W/m2-°C, which includes
the effects of radiation.
3. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick are placed on
2.5 cm diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface
temperature is 170 °C and the ambient fluid temperature is
25 °C. Calculate the heat loss per fin for h = 130 W/m2-°C for
aluminium.
b. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid
bodies and the air surrounding them. The first solid is being
cooled by a fan while the second one is allowed to cool
naturally. For which solid is the lumped system analysis
more likely to be applicable ? Why ?
c. i. What is the reason for the widespread use of fins on
surfaces ?
ii. Two pin fins are identical, except that the diameter of one
of them is twice the diameter of the other. For which fin
will the (a) effectiveness, and (b) fin efficiency be higher ?
Explain.
4. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. Air is flowing over a flat plate 5 m long and 2.5 m wide with
a velocity of 4 m/s at 15 °C. If = 1.208 kg/m 3 and
= 1.47 × 10–5 m2/s, calculate the length of plate over which
the boundary layer is laminar and thickness of the
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boundary layer (laminar), shear stress at the location where
boundary layer ceases to be laminar and the total drag
force on the both sides of that portion of the plate where
boundary layer is laminar.
b. A horizontal pipe 1 ft (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained at
a temperature of 250 °C in a room where the ambient air is
at 15 °C. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of
length.
c. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer
coefficients determined in flow over a flat plate ?
5. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. A long cylindrical heater 25 mm in diameter is maintained
at 660 °C and has surface resistivity of 0.8. The heater is
located in a large room whose walls are at 27 °C. How much
will the radiant transfer from the heater be reduced if it is
surrounded by a 300 mm diameter radiation shield of
aluminium having an emissivity of 0.2 ? What is the
temperature of the shield ?
b. Define the properties :
i. Emissivity.
ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity.
iv. Transmissivity.
c. Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters
10 cm and 20 cm and a length of 20 cm. Designating the open
ends of the cylinders as surfaces 3 and 4, estimate the shape
factor, F3–4.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2014-15)
1. Attempt any four parts of the following : (5 × 4 = 20)
a. Under what conditions is the effectiveness – NTU method
definitely preferred over the LMTD method in heat exchanger
analysis ?
Ans.
1. In the thermal analysis of various type of heat exchangers LMTD
method has been used.
2. This method is pretty simple and can be used in the design of heat
exchangers when all the terminal temperatures are known or are
easily determined.
3. The difficulty arises if the temperatures of the fluids leaving the
exchanger are not known.
4. This type of situation is encountered in the selection of a heat
exchanger or when the exchanger is to be run at off design
conditions.
5. In such cases, it is preferable to utilise an altogether different method
known as the effectiveness-NTU method.
b. Discuss briefly the Fick’s law of diffusion.
Ans.
1. Fick’s law of diffusion states that the mass flux of species A per
unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient.
2. So, diffusion rate of species A is given by,
mA dCA
NA = = – DAB ...(1)
A dx
Where, mA = Mass flow rate of species A by diffusion,
A= Area through which mass is flowing,
NA = Mass flux of species A,
DAB = Diffusion coefficient for binary mixture of species
A and B,
CA = Concentration of species A, and
dC A
= Concentration gradient for species A.
dx
3. Similarly, diffusion rate for species B is given by,
mB dCB
NB = = – DBA
A dx
4. Fick’s law can be expressed in terms of partial pressure of species
by using perfect gas equation.
For species A :
GT
pA = A R A T = A
MA
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pA M A
A = CA =
GT
Where, pA = Partial pressure of species A,
A = Density of species A,
G= Universal gas constant, and
MA = Molecular weight of species A.
Chamber
A ( a) B
A B
CA CB Concentration
Concentration of species B
of species A
x (b )
Fig. 1. Mass transfer by diffusion in a binary gas mixture.
5. Substituting the value of A in eq. (1), we get
mA d pA M A
NA = = – DAB
A dx GT
mA M A dpA
or NA = = – DAB
A GT dx
6. Similarly, for species B :
mB M B dpB
NB = = – DAB
A GT dx
c. Draw the boiling curve and identify the different boiling
regimes. Also, explain the characteristics of each regime.
Ans. Different boiling regimes and their characteristics are as follow :
i. Free Convection Boiling :
1. Free convection boiling exists when excess temperature (te) is
less than 5 °C.
2. In this region, the liquid near the surface is superheated slightly
and convection currents circulate the liquid and evaporation takes
place at the liquid surface.
ii. Nucleate Boiling :
1. Nucleate boiling exists when temperature te is between 5 °C to
50 °C (5 te 50 °C).
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2. This type of boiling exists in region II and III.
3. With the increase in te (excess temperature) the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localised spots
commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching
the liquid surface. In fact, it is the region II where nucleate boiling
starts.
4. With further increase in te the bubbles are formed more rapidly
and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation,
as indicated in the region III.
5. The nucleate boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles
at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid agitation.
iii. Film Boiling :
1. Film boiling is also called unstable boiling or transition boiling which
exists between 50 °C to 150 °C (50 °C te 150 °C).
2. In this region bubble formation is very high and vapour film form
only on the fraction of surface.
3. The film acts as a thermal resistance in heat flow path, hence heat
transfer rate decreases.
Interface
evaporation or Nucleate Film
free convection boiling boiling
I II III IV V VI
Bubbles Bubbles Unstable Stable Radiation
condense rise to film film coming into
in super surface A play B
qs(W/m 2)
Heat transferred heated
by superheated liquid
liquid rising to
the liquid-vapour
interface Spheroidal
where evaporation state beginning
takes place
ve
g cu r
B oilin
Excess temperature, t e = t s – t sat
Fig. 2. The boiling curve for water.
d. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 2.45 bar condenses on
the surface of a vertical tube of height 1 m. The tube surface
temperature is kept at 117 °C. Estimate the thickness of the
condensate film.
Ans.
Given : p = 2.45 bar, = 1000 kg/m3 (dry saturated), ts = 117 °C
k = 0.68 W/m-°C, x = 1 m, = 2.5 × 10–4 Ns/m2
To Find : Thickness of the condensate film.
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(127.4 126.1)
1. tsat = 126.1 (at 2.4 bar) + 0.05
(2.5 2.4)
tsat = 126.75° C
2185.2 2179.4
hfg = 2185.2 (at 126° C) + (0.75)
(126 128)
hfg = 2183.025 kJ/kg
1/4
4 k ( tsat ts ) x
2. Now, film thickness, =
l ( l v ) ghfg
3. Neglecting v in comparison to l or
1/ 4
4 k (tsat ts ) x
So, = 2
l g hfg
1/4
4 0.68 2.5 10 4 (126.75 117) 1
=
(1000)2 9.81 2183.025 103
= 1.3264 × 10–4 m = 0.132 mm
e. A wire of 1.2 mm diameter and 200 mm length is submerged
horizontally in water at 7 bar. The wire carries a current of
135 A with an applied voltage of 2.18 V. If the surface of the
wire is maintained at 200 °C, calculate the heat flux.
Ans.
Given : d = 1.2 mm = 0.0012 m, l = 200 mm = 0.2 m, I = 135 A
V = 2.18 V, ts = 200 °C
To Find : Heat flux.
1. The electrical energy input of the wire is given by,
Q = VI = 2.18 × 135 = 294.3 W
2. Surface area of the wire, A = dl
= × 0.0012 × 0.2
= 7.54 × 10–4 m2
Q 294.3
3. Heat flux, q=
A 7.54 10 –4
= 0.39 × 106 W/m2
= 0.39 MW/m2
f. Discuss the general arrangement of parallel flow, counter
flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
Ans.
A. Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a parallel flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluid flow in the
same directions.
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2. Example : Water heaters, oil coolers, etc.
t
tc1 th1
(temperature)
Hot fluid
Cold
th1 th2
Hot th2
Cold tc2
Cold fluid
tc1 L (length)
tc2
Fig. 3. Parallel flow heat exchanger.
B. Counter Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a counter flow heat exchanger, the hot and cold fluids flow in the
opposite directions.
2. This type of heat exchanger gives maximum rate of heat transfer
for a given surface area.
t c2
Cold
th1 Hot th2
Cold
t
tc1
th1
Hot fluid
tc2
th2
Cold fluid tc1
Fig. 4. Counter flow heat exchanger.
C. Cross Flow Heat Exchangers :
1. In a cross flow heat exchanger, the two fluids cross each other at
right angle.
2. Example : Automobile radiators, cooling unit of refrigeration system,
etc.
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Cold fluid (in)
(Unmixed stream)
Baffles
Hot fluid
(in) Hot fluid
(Unmixed (out)
stream)
Cold fluid (out)
Fig. 5. Cross flow heat exchanger.
2. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer ? How are they
distinguished from each other ?
Ans.
A. Mechanisms of Heat Transfer : Following are the three modes
of heat transfer :
i. Mechanism of Heat Transfer through Conduction :
1. Thermal conduction is a mechanism of heat propagation from region
of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature within a
medium or between different mediums in direct physical contact.
2. Conduction does not involves any movement of macroscopic portion
of matter relative to one-another.
3. The conduction is done by :
i. Due to random molecular motion i.e., vibration of molecules
about its equilibrium position and the concept is termed as
micro form of heat transfer and is usually referred as diffusion
of energy.
ii. The thermal energy may be transferred by means of electrons
which are free to move through the lattice structure of the
material.
4. Heat transfer by conduction is prescribed by Fourier law :
dt
Q = – kA
dx
Where, k = Conduction heat transfer coefficient,
A = Cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction
of heat flow, and
dt
= temperature gradient.
dx
ii. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Convection :
1. Thermal convection is a process of energy transport affected by the
circulation or mixing of a fluid medium.
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2. Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked
with the transport of medium itself.
3. The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely
upon the mixing motion of the fluid.
4. There are basically two types of convection :
i. Natural or free convection, and
ii. Forced convection.
5. Convective heat transfer is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling
i.e.,
Q = hA(ts – tf)
Where, h = Convection heat transfer coefficient,
ts = Surface temperature,
tf = Fluid temperature, and
A = Area exposed to heat transfer.
iii. Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Radiation :
1. The mechanism of heat transfer by radiation consists of three
distinct phase :
i. Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into
electromagnetic wave.
ii. Passage of wave motion through intervening space.
iii. Transformation of wave into heat.
2. Radiation heat transfer is governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law :
Eb = b AT4 (for black body)
Where, Eb = Energy radiated per unit time,
b = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4, and
T = Absolute temperature.
B. Difference between Conduction, Convection and Radiation :
S. No. Conduction Convection Radiation
1. Heat flo ws from Each particle Heat flows
hot end to cold end. abso rbing he at is without any
Particle s o f the mobile. intervening
medium simply medium in the form
oscillate but do not of electromagnetic
leave their place. waves.
2. Me dium is Medium is necessary Me dium is no t
ne ce ssary fo r for convection. necessary for
conduction. radiation.
3. It is a slow process. It is also a slo w It is a ve ry fast
process. process.
4. Path of heat flow Path may be zig-zag Path is a straight
may be zig-zag. or curved. line.
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5. Conduction takes Co nve ctio n take s Radiatio n take s
place in solids. place in fluids. place in gase o us
and transpare nt
media.
6. The temperature In this process also There is no change
of the medium the temperature of in the temperature
increases through medium increases. of the medium.
which heat flows.
b. Starting with an energy balance on a spherical shell volume
element, derive the one dimensional transient heat
conduction equation for a sphere with constant thermal
conductivity and no heat generation Fig. 6.
O R r
Fig. 6.
Ans.
1. Let thermal conductivity of a hollow sphere is uniform.
2. Let r 1 and r 2 are inner and outer radius and t1 and t2 are
temperatures of inner surface and outer surface and k be thermal
conductivity of the material with the given temperature range.
Q, Heat flows radially
outwards ( t1 > t2)
Hollow sphere
dr
Element
r2
r
r1 t1 t2
Q t1 t2 Q
(r2 – r1)
Rth =
4kr1r2
Fig. 7. Steady state conduction through a hollow sphere.
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3. Applying the general heat conduction equation in spherical co-
ordinates,
1 2 t 1 2t 1 t q 1 t
r 2 sin g =
r r r r sin 2 r 2 sin
2 2
k
...(1)
t
4. For steady state
0 , unidirectional heat flow in the radial
direction and with no heat generation, eq. (1) reduces to
1 2 dt
r =0
r 2 r dr
d 2 dt 1
r =0 2 0
dr dr r
dt
or r2 = Constant = C ...(2)
dr
5. On integrating eq. (2) twice, we have
C
t= + C1 ...(3)
r
6. Applying boundary condition,
At r = r1, t = t1
At r = r2, t = t2
C
We get, t1 = + C1 ...(4)
r1
C
and t2 = + C1 ...(5)
r2
7. From eq. (4) and eq. (5), we get
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2
C=
r1 r2
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2
and C1 = t1 +
r1 (r1 r2 )
8. Substituting the values of C and C1 in eq. (3), we have
(t1 t2 ) r1 r2 (t t ) r r
t=– + t1 + 1 2 1 2
r (r1 r2 ) r1 (r1 r2 )
(t1 t2 ) (t1 t2 )
t=– + t1 +
1 1 1 1
r r1
r2 r1 r2 r1
t1 t2 1 1
t = t1 + ...(6)
1 1 r1 r
r r
2 1
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1 1
t t1 r r1
or =
t2 t1 1 1
r2 r1
t t1 r r r1
or = 2 ...(7)
t2 t1 r r2 r1
Eq. (7) shows that temperature distribution associated with radial
conduction through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
9. Now, from Fourier’s equation,
Q = kA dt k4 r 2 d t1 t1 t2 1 1
dr dr 1 1 r1 r
r2 r1
= k4 r 2 t1 t2 12
1 1 r
r2 r1
t1 t2 1 (t t ) r r
= k4 r 2 = 4 k 1 2 1 2
r1 r2 r 2 (r1 r2 )
r
12 r
t1 t2 t t
Q= = 1 2
(r2 r1 ) Rth
4 kr1r2
r2 r1
Where, Rth =
4 kr1 r2
c. Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double pane window
consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glas s
(k = 0.78 W/m-°C) separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air
space (k = 0.026 W/m-°C). Determine the steady rate of heat
trans fer through this double pane window and the
temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the
room is maintained at 20 °C while the temperature of the
outdoors is – 10 °C. Take the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surface of the window
to be h1 = 10 W/m2-°C and h2 = 40 W/m2-°C, which includes
the effects of radiation.
Ans.
Given : w = 1.5 m, H = 0.8 m, x1 = x3 = 4 mm = 0.004 m
x2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m, ta = 20 °C, ha = 10 W/m2-°C,
k1 = k3 = 0.78 W/m-°C, t = – 10 °C, h = 40 W/m2-°C, k2 = 0.026 W/m-°C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of inner surface.
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1. Under steady state,
ta t
Q=
1 x1 x x 1
2 3
ha A k1 A k2 A k3 A h A
20 (10)
=
1 0.004 0.01 0.004 1
10 1.2 0.78 1.2 0.026 1.2 0.78 1.2 40 1.2
= 69.24 W
2. Also, Q = hiAs(ti – t1)
69.24 = 10 × 1.2 × (20 – t1)
t1 = 14.23 °C
3. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick are placed on
2.5 cm diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface
temperature is 170 °C and the ambient fluid temperature is
25 °C. Calculate the heat loss per fin for h = 130 W/m2-°C for
aluminium.
Ans.
Given : b = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m, t = 1 mm = 0.001 m,
d = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, t0 = 170 °C, ta = 25 °C, h = 130 W/m2-°C,
k = 200 W/m-°C
To Find : Heat loss per fin.
1. Perimeter, P = d
= × 0.025 = 0.0785 m
2
Area, A = d (0.025)2 4.9 10 4 m2
4 4
0 = t0 – ta = 170 – 25 = 145 °C
2. Heat loss due to infinitely long fin,
Qfin = hPkA 0
Qfin = 130 0.0785 200 4.9 10 4 145
Qfin = 145.17 W
b. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid
bodies and the air surrounding them. The first solid is being
cooled by a fan while the second one is allowed to cool
naturally. For which solid is the lumped system analysis
more likely to be applicable ? Why ?
Ans.
1. Lumped system analysis is applicable to the system when the Biot
number is less than 0.1.
hLC
Biot number, Bi =
k
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Where, h = Convective heat transfer coefficient,
LC = Characteristics length of a given geometry, and
k = Thermal conductivity of a given material.
2. Now, in the given case, as both the systems having same material
and geometry, Biot number depends only upon the value of heat
transfer coefficient.
3. Now, in the first case the solid body is cooled by blowing a air with
fan so the value of ‘h’ will be more as compared to second case in
which the solid body is cooled by natural means.
4. So, value of Biot number is greater than 0.1 in first case than
second case, hence the lumped system analysis will be applicable
more likely to the solid which is being cooled by natural convection
than forced convection.
c. i. What is the reason for the widespread use of fins on
surfaces ?
Ans.
1. Generally fins are used to provide extra surface area to increase
rate of heat transfer from existing surface.
2. In most of practical situation the heat transfer fluids involves liquid
and gas.
3. In such a situation of heat transfer between liquid and gas, as gas is
having less value of heat transfer coefficient it offers greater
resistance for the heat transfer.
4. So to increase the rate of heat transfer on the gas side, extra
surface area is provided by using fins.
5. Use of fins on surfaces is found in case of air-cooled cylinder,
condenser tubes in refrigerator.
ii. Two pin fins are identical, except that the diameter of one
of them is twice the diameter of the other. For which fin
will the (a) effectiveness, and (b) fin efficiency be higher ?
Explain.
Ans.
Let the diameter of fin I be d1 and diameter of fin II be d2.
Given : d1 = 2d2
i. Effectiveness :
1. The effectiveness of a fin is given as follows,
h cosh mL mk sinh mL
kAm [ ts t ]
mk cosh mL h sinh mL
=
hA (ts t )
kA1 m(ts t ) h cosh mL mk sinh mL
fin hA(ts t ) mk cosh mL h sinh mL
2. Now, I =
fin II kA2 m(ts t ) h cosh mL mk sinh mL
hA(ts t ) mk cosh mL h sinh mL
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2
fin A1 4 d1 (2 d2 )2
I= = 4
fin
II
A2 d 2 2
2 d
4 4 2
fin I = 4 fin II
3. So, effectiveness of fin I is higher than effectiveness of fin II.
ii. Efficiency :
1. The efficiency of a fin is given as follows,
1 A
fin = (t t ) dA
A [ ts t ] 0
1 A
2. Now,
fin I
=
A1 [ ts t ] 0 [t t ] dA A2
fin II 1 A
A2 [ ts t ]
0 [t t ] dA A1
2 2
fin I d2 d2
= 4 4
fin II 2
d (2 d2 )2
4 1 4
fin I 1 1
= fin I fin II [fin I = 25 % of fin II]
fin II 4 4
3. So, efficiency of fin II is higher than efficiency of fin I.
4. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. Air is flowing over a flat plate 5 m long and 2.5 m wide with
a velocity of 4 m/s at 15 °C. If = 1.208 kg/m 3 and
= 1.47 × 10–5 m2/s, calculate the length of plate over which
the boundary layer is laminar and thickness of the
boundary layer (laminar), shear stress at the location where
boundary layer ceases to be laminar and the total drag
force on the both sides of that portion of the plate where
boundary layer is laminar.
Ans.
Given : L = 5 m, w = 2.5 m, U = 4 m/s, = 1.208 kg/m3,
= 1.47 × 10–5 m2/s
To Find :
i. Length of plate over which the boundary layer is laminar, and
thickness of the boundary layer (laminar).
ii. Shear stress at the location where boundary layer ceases to be
laminar.
iii. Total drag force on the both sides of that portion of plate where
boundary layer is laminar.
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UL 45
1. Reynold number, Re = = 1.361 × 106.
1.47 10 5
Hence on the front portion, boundary layer is laminar and on the
rear, it is turbulent.
Ux
Re = 5 10 5
4x
= 5 × 105
1.47 10 –5
5 105 1.47 10 5
x= = 1.837 m
4
Hence the boundary layer is laminar on 1.837 m length of the plate.
5x
2. Thickness of the boundary layer (laminar), =
Re
5 1.837
= = 0.01299 m or 12.99 mm
5 105
0.664 0.664
3. Local coefficient of drag, Cfx = = 0.000939
Re 5 105
1
Shear stress, 0 = Cfx U 2
2
1
= 0.000939 × × 1.208 × 42 = 0.00907 N/m2
2
4. Total drag force on both sides of plate,
1
FD = 2C f AU 2
2
Where, Cf = Average coefficient of drag (or skin friction)
1.328 1.328
= = 1.878 × 10–3
Re 5 105
and area of the plate, A = xL = 1.837 × 2.5 = 4.59 m2
1
FD = 2 × 1.878 × 10–3 × × 1.208 × 4.59 × 42
2
= 0.167 N
b. A horizontal pipe 1 ft (0.3048 m) in diameter is maintained at
a temperature of 250 °C in a room where the ambient air is
at 15 °C. Calculate the free convection heat loss per meter of
length.
Ans.
Given : D = 0.3048 m, to = 250 °C, t = 15 °C
To Find : Free convection heat loss per meter of length.
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1. For the horizontal cylinder, with laminar flow relation of convection
heat transfer coefficient,
1/ 4 1/ 4
t 250 15
h = 1.32 = 1.32
D 0.3048
= 6.955 W/m2-°C
2. We know that, Qconv. per unit length,
Qconv. = hA (to t )
= 6.955 × × 0.3048 × 1 × (250 – 15)
= 1565.055 W = 1.565 kW
c. Describe the relation between fluid friction and heat
transfer. How is the average friction and heat transfer
coefficients determined in flow over a flat plate ?
Ans.
A. Relation between Fluid Friction and Heat Transfer :
1. As we know that, the inter-relationship between fluid friction and
Newton’s law of viscosity is given as,
du
0 = ...(1)
dy
2. Heat flow along Y-direction follows the Fourier equation
dt
Q = kA ...(2)
dy
3. When Pr is unity, temperature and velocity profile are identical (for
most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)
C p k
i.e., = 1 or = Cp ...(3)
k
4. By combining eq. (1), eq. (2) and eq. (3), we get
dt
Q = – C p A 0
du
5. Separating the variables and integrating within the limits :
At the plate surface : u = 0 and t = ts
At the outer edge of boundary layer : u = U and t = t
Q U t
du = – t dt
Cp A 0 0 s
Q
U = (ts – t)
C p A 0
Q 0 Cp
= ...(4)
A (ts t ) U
Q
6. But, = hx ...(5)
A (ts t )
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1
and, 0 = C fx U 2 ...(6)
2
7. Substituting eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
1 C C
hx = Cfx U 2 p fx ( C p U )
2 U 2
hx C fx
=
Cp U 2
hx
is called the Stanton number Stx.
Cp U
B. Expression for Average Friction :
1. The local skin friction coefficient is given as
0 0.646
Cfx =
1 2 Rex
U
2
2. Average value of skin friction coefficient,
1 L 1 L 0.646 dx
Cf = C fx dx =
L 0 L 0 U / x
1.292
or, Cf = 1.292
LU ReL
LU
Where, ReL = is Reynolds number based on total length
L of the flat plate.
C. Expression for Heat Transfer Coefficient :
Q dt
1. We know that, = hx(ts – t) = – k
A dy y 0
k(dt / dy) y0
or, hx =
ts t
dt 3 t t
2. But, dy = s
y 0 2 th
3 t t
k s
2 th 3k 3k 1
hx = = ...(7)
(ts t ) 2 th 2 r
3/ 4 1/ 3
4.64 x
3. Substituting r = 0.975 1 x0 and = in eq. (7),
( Pr ) x
1/ 3
Rex
we get
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3k ( Pr )1/ 3 Rex
hx =
2 3 / 4 1/ 3 4.64 x
x
0.975 1 0
x
k 1
( Pr)1/ 3 ( Re)1/ 2
hx = 0.332 1/ 3
x x0 3/ 4
1
x
4. When the plate is heated over the whole length i.e., x0 = 0, we have
k
hx =0.332 ( Pr )1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2
x
5. Attempt any two parts of the following : (10 × 2 = 20)
a. A long cylindrical heater 25 mm in diameter is maintained
at 660 °C and has surface resistivity of 0.8. The heater is
located in a large room whose walls are at 27 °C. How much
will the radiant transfer from the heater be reduced if it is
surrounded by a 300 mm diameter radiation shield of
aluminium having an emissivity of 0.2 ? What is the
temperature of the shield ?
Ans.
25
Given : r1 = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m,
2
300
r3 = = 150 mm = 0.15 m, t1 = 660 + 273 = 933 K,
2
t2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K, 1 = 0.8, 3 (shield) = 0.2.
To Find : i. Reduction in heat transfer.
ii. Temperature of shield, t3.
1. Considering L is the length of the heater, the heat lost by the
heater to the room is given by,
Q = A1 1 [t14 – t24] ...(1)
Q = 2 r1 L × 0.8 × 5.67 × 10 – 8 × [(933)4 – (300)4]
= 2 × 0.0125 × L × 0.8 × 5.67 × (9334 – 3004) × 10 – 8
= 0.356 × L × (7577.5 – 81)
Q
or, q= = 0.356 × (7577.5 – 81) = 2668.7 W 2.67 kW/m
L
2. When the cylinder is enclosed in a radiation shield then the heat
flow is given by
A1 (t14 t34 )
Q = A3 3 ( t34 t24 )
1 1 r1
1
1 3 r3
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3. As heat lost by heater to shield is further lost by shield to the room,
where suffix ‘3’ belongs to shield.
Q 2r1 (t14 t34 ) 2r3 (t34 t24 )
q = ...(2)
L 1 1 r 1
1 1
1 3 r3 3
r1 (t14 t34 ) r (t 4 t24 )
or = 3 3 ...(3)
1 1 r 1
1 1
1 3 r3 3
4. Substituting the given values in eq. (3), we get
0.0125 (9334 t34 ) 0.15 (t34 3004 )
=
1 1 0.0125 1
1
0.8 0.2 0.15 0.2
0.0125 (9334 t34 )
= 0.03 (t34 – 3004)
1.58
9334 – t34 = 3.792 (t34 – 3004) = 3.792 t34 – 3.792 ×3004
4.792 t34 = 9334 + 3.792 × 3004 = 7.885 × 1011
t34 = 1.64 × 1011 or t3 = 636.4 K or 363.4 °C
5. Substituting the value of t3 in eq. (2), we get
2 0.15 5.67 10 8 [(636.4)4 (300)4 ]
q =
1
0.2
= 1.0688 × (1640.3 – 81) = 1666.6 W/m = 1.67 kW/m
6. Percentage reduction in heat flow
q q 2.67 1.67
q = 100 × 100 = 37.45 %
q 2.67
b. Define the properties :
i. Emissivity.
ii. Absorptivity.
iii. Reflectivity.
iv. Transmissivity.
Ans.
i. Emissivity () : It is defined as the ability of a body to radiate heat.
It is also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of a body to the
emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.
ii. Absorptivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation absorbed to
the total incident radiation.
= Ga / G
iii. Reflectivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation reflected to
the total incident radiation.
= Gr / G
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iv. Transmissivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation
transmitted to the total incident radiation.
= Gt / G
c. Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters
10 cm and 20 cm and a length of 20 cm. Designating the open
ends of the cylinders as surfaces 3 and 4, estimate the shape
factor, F3–4.
Ans.
Given : H = 20 cm, D1 = 10 cm R1 = 5 cm,
D2 = 20 cm R2 = 10 cm.
To Find : Shape factor, F3–4.
1. Using graph for radiation shape factor for two concentric cylinders
of finite length, we get
F2-1 = 0.4126 and F2-2 = 0.3286
2. Using the reciprocity relation, we have
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1
F1-2 = (d2/d1)F2-1 = (20/10)(0.4126) = 0.8253
3. For surface 2, we have
F2-1 + F2-2 + F2-3 + F2-4 = 1.0
4. From symmetryF2-3 = F2-4, so that
1
F2-3 = F2-4 = (1 – 0.4126 – 0.3286) = 0.1294
2
5. Using reciprocity again, A2F2-3 = A3F3-2
(20)(20)
and F3-2 = 0.1294 = 0.6901
(20 2 102 ) / 4
6. We observe that F1-1= F3-3 = F4-4 = 0 and for surface 3
F3-1 + F3-2 + F3-4 = 1.0 ...(1)
7. Now, for surface 1
F1-2 + F1-3 + F1-4 = 1.0
and from symmetry F1-3 = F1-4, so that
1
F1-3 = (1 – 0.8253) = 0.0874
2
8. Using reciprocity rule, we get
A1F1-3 = A3F3-1
(10)(20)
F3-1 = 0.0874 = 0.233
(20 2 102 ) / 4
9. Then from eq. (1),
F3-4 = 1 – 0.233 – 0.6901 = 0.0769
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Section–A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What do you mean by thermal conductivity ? Why good
electrical conductor materials are als o good heat
conductors ?
b. What do you mean by thermal contact resistance ?
c. State Wein’s displacement law.
d. What do you mean by critical thickness of insulation ?
e. Define the term “Irradiation” and “Radiosity”.
f. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problem.
g. Define response time of a thermocouple. What does it
signify ?
h. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
i. What do you mean by fouling factor in analysis of heat
exchanger ?
j. A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at
wavelength of 0.5 m. Calculate its surface temperature and
emissive power.
Section–B
Note : Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)
2. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates.
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3. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for the
flow past a flat plate.
4. What are the applications of fins ? Establish an expression
for temperature distribution in a straight fin of rectangular
profile, when fin tip is insulated.
5. During heat treatment, cylindrical pieces of 25 mm diameter,
30 mm height and at 30 °C are placed in furnace at 750 °C
with convective heat transfer coefficient 80 W/m 2-°C.
Calculate the time required to heat the pieces to 600 °C.
What will be shortfall in temperature if pieces are taken
out from the furnace after 280 seconds ? Assume the
following properties : k = 40 W/m-°C, C = 480 J/kg-K and
= 7850 kg/m3.
6. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes
comprises three layers. A 12 cm thick layer of grass
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of
plywood (k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is
achieved with glue which does not offer any resistance of
heat flow. If the side surfaces of board are maintained at
40 °C and 20 °C temperature, determine the heat flux. How
would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue the three
pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners.
7. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large parallel
planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to
reduce the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ?
8. A counter flow heat exchanger is used to cool lubricating
oil of a large industrial gas turbine engine. The oil flows
through the tube at 0.19 kg/s (Cp = 2.18 kJ/kg-K) and the
coolant water flows in the annulus in the opposite direction
at the rate of 0.15 kg/s (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg-K). The oil enters at
425 K and leaves at 345 K while the coolant enters at 285 K.
How long must the tube be made to perform this duty if the
heat transfer coefficient from oil to tube surface is 2250 W/
m2-K and from tube to water is 5650 W/m2-K ? The tube has
a mean diameter of 12.5 mm and its wall presents negligible
resistance to heat transfer.
9. The nose section of a missile is formed of a 6 mm thick
stainless plate and is held initially at uniform temperature
of 88 °C. The missile enters the denser layers of the
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atmosphere at very high velocity. The effective temperature
of air surrounding the nose region attains the value 2200
°C and the surface convective coefficient is estimated at
3405 W/m 2-K. Make calculations for the maximum
permissible time in these surroundings if the maximum
metal temperature is not to exceed 1095 °C. Also workout
the inside surface temperature under these conditions. The
properties for steel are : = 7800 kg/m3, k = 54 W/m-°C,
Cp = 465 J/kg-K.
Section–C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the analogy between momentum and heat transfer
in turbulent flow over a flat surface.
b. A flat plate is 2 m long, 0.8 m wide and 3 mm thick. Its density
and specific heat is 3000 kg/m3 and 700 J/kg-K respectively.
The plate is having initial temperature is 80 °C. A stream of
air at 20 °C blown over both surfaces of the plate along its
width, at a velocity 2 m/s. Calculate rate of heat dissipation
from the plate and initial rate of cooling of the plate. The
properties of air are :
= 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028 W/m-°C, C = 1007 J/kg-K,
= 2.03 × 10 – 5 kg/m-s, Pr = 0.698
Nua = 0.664 (Rex)0.5 (Pr)0.33 for Laminar Flow
Nua = 0.0336 (Rex)0.8 – 836 (Pr)0.33 for Turbulent Flow
11. a. What do you mean by shape factor ? Write its salient
features.
b. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity of
radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
12. a. Differentiate between dropwise condensation and film wise
condensation.
b. Engine oil (Cp = 2100 J/kg-°C) is to be heated from 20 °C to
60 °C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s in a 2 cm diameter thin walled
copper tube by condensing steam outside at a temperature
of 130 °C (h fg = 2174 kJ/kg) for an overall heat transfer
coefficient of 650 W/m 2-°C. Determine the rate of heat
transfer and the length of the tube required to achieve it.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–4 B (ME-Sem-5)
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)
Section–A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What do you mean by thermal conductivity ? Why good
electrical conductor materials are als o good heat
conductors ?
Ans. Thermal Conductivity : It is a physical property of the substance
and is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat through
it. It is generally denoted by k and its unit is W/m-K.
Good Electrical Conductor Materials are also Good Heat
Conductors : Since, the ratio of the thermal and electrical
conductivities for all metals is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal, therefore the material which are good
conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.
b. What do you mean by thermal contact resistance ?
Ans. Thermal contact resistance is a thermal resistance to heat flow at
the interface between two materials because of surface roughness
and void spaces at contact surfaces.
c. State Wein’s displacement law.
Ans. Wien’s displacement law states that the product of max and T is
constant.
Mathematically,
max T = constant
d. What do you mean by critical thickness of insulation ?
Ans. The thickness of insulation upto which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical thickness of
insulation. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called as critical
radius.
e. Define the term “Irradiation” and “Radiosity”.
Ans. Irradiation : It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a
surface per unit time per unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
Radiosity : It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a
surface per unit time per unit area.
f. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problem.
Ans. Assumptions made in lumped heat capacity method for analysis of
transient heat conduction are as follows :
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1. The internal resistance is negligible in comparison with surface
resistance.
2. The temperature throughout the solid is considered to be uniform
at a given time.
g. Define response time of a thermocouple. What does it signify ?
Ans. Response Time of Thermocouple : It is defined as the time
required for the thermocouple to attain the source temperature.
t ta hAs
Significance : It is evident from equation exp ,
ti ta VC
hAs
that larger the quantity , faster the exponential term will
VC
approach zero or more rapid will be the response of the
temperature measuring device.
h. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
Ans. Black Body : A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it.
i.e., = 1, = 0, = 0
White Body : If all the incident radiation falling on the body is
reflected, it is called a white body.
= 1, = 0 and = 0
Gray Body : It is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a
surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
i.e., = () = constant
Opaque Body : When no incident radiation is transmitted through
the body, it is called an opaque body.
i.e., = 0 and + = 1
i. What do you mean by fouling factor in analysis of heat
exchanger ?
Ans. The reciprocal of scale heat transfer coefficient is called fouling
factor.
1 1 1
Rf = = –
hs U dirty Uclean
j. A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at
wavelength of 0.5 m. Calculate its surface temperature and
emissive power.
Ans.
Given : max = 0.5 m
To Find : Surface temperature and emissive power.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–6 B (ME-Sem-5)
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1. From Wien’s displacement law,
maxT = 2898 mK
or, maxT = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
Since, max = 0.5 m
0.5 × T = 2.898 × 10 – 3 mK
T = 5.796 × 10 – 3 K
2. From Boltzmann law,
Eb = T4
= 5.67 × 10 – 8 × (5.796 × 10 – 3)4
= 6.3987 × 10 – 17 W/m2
Section–B
Note : Attempt any five questions from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)
2. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates.
Ans.
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinate (r, , z) for
three dimensional heat conduction analysis as shown in Fig. 1.
2. The volume of the element,
dv = r d dr dz.
Let qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume
per unit time.
k = Thermal conductivity.
= Density.
c = Specific heat capacity.
Q(z + dz)
d z
rd
Z
Q( + d)
(r, , z) Qr (r – )
A plane
dr
dz (z – ) Elemental
plane
Q volume
z Y (r – z)
A (r, , z)
r plane dz
Q(r + dr )
dr r
X
Qz
Fig. 1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cylindrical coordinates.
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3. The heat flowing in the control volume in radial direction i.e.,
(z – ) plane :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k(rd dz) d
r
Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr + (Qr) dr
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr)
t
=– (Qr) dr = – [– k(r d dz) d] dr
r r r
t
= k(dr d dz) r d
r r
2 t 1 t
dQr = k(dr rd dz) 2 d
r r r
4. Heat flow in tangential direction i.e., (r-z) plane
t
Heat influx, Q = – k(dr dz) d
r
Heat efflux, Q( + d) = Q + (Q) rd
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
t
=– (Q) rd = – k(dr dz) r d rd
r r
1 2t
dQ = k(dr rd dz) d
r 2 2
5. Heat flow in axial direction i.e., (r-) plane
t
Heat influx, Qz = – k(rd dr) d
z
Heat efflux, Q(z + dz) = Qz + (Qz) dz
z
Heat stored in the element,
dQz = Qz – Q(z + dz)
t
=– k( rd dr ) z d dz
z
2 t
dQz = k(dr rddz) d
z2
6. Net heat stored in the element
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
= k. dr rddz 2 · 2 2 2 d
r r r r z
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7. Heat generated within the control volume,
Qg = qg dr rd dz d
8. The increase in thermal energy in the element equal to
t
= dr rd dz c
d
9. From the principle of conservation of energy :
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
kdr rd dz 2 d + qg dr rd dzd
r r r r 2 2 z2
t
= dr rd dzc d
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2t q g c t 1 t
or = = ...(1)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z2 k k
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates.
10. For steady-state, unidirectional heat flow in the radial direction,
and with no internal heat generation, eq. (1) reduces to
2 t 1 t
=0
r 2 r r
1 d dt
or r =0
r dr dr
1
Since 0
r
d dt dt
r = 0 or r = constant
dr dr dr
3. Derive the Von-Karman integral energy equation for the
flow past a flat plate.
Ans.
1. Consider a control volume as shown in Fig. 2.
Hydrodynamic boundary layer
Thermal
U , t Qh boundary layer
B C
H
Q x + dx
Qx
Y th
Control
volume
X A D
xo Q cond.
x dx Thin flat plate
Fig. 2. Integral energy equation – control volume.
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2. Following assumptions are made to derive the integral energy
equation :
i. , Cp and k (thermo-plastic properties) of fluid remain constant
within the operating range of the temperature
ii. The heating of the plate commences at a distance x0 from the
leading edge of the plate.
3. For unit width of the plate we have,
H
i. Mass of fluid entering through face AB = u dy
0
H H
ii. Mass of fluid leaving through face CD = u dy dx
u dy
x 0 0
iii. Mass of fluid entering the control volume through face BC
H
= 0 u dy
x
0
H
0
H
u dy dx – u dy
H
= u dy dx
x 0
4. Heat influx through the face AB,
Qx = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
or, Qx = 0
H
u dy C pt C p ut dy
0
H
5. Heat efflux through the face CD,
H H
Qx + dx = C p ut dy dx
ut dy
0x 0
6. Heat (energy) influx through the face BC (which is outside thermal
boundary layer and there the temperature is constant at t ),
H
Qh = u dy dx C p t
x 0
7. Heat conducted into the control volume through face AD,
t t
Qcond. = – kA – k dx
y y 0 y y 0
8. The energy balance for the element is given by
H H t
C p ut dy C p t u dy dx – k dx y
0 x 0
y0
H H
C p ut dy dx
= C p 0 ut dy
x 0
9. After simplification and rearrangement, we have
d H k t t
(t – t)u dy =
dx 0
...(1)
C p y y 0 y y 0
Eq. (1) is the integral equation for the boundary layer for constant
properties and constant free stream temperature t.
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–10 B (ME-Sem-5)
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4. What are the applications of fins ? Establish an expression
for temperature distribution in a straight fin of rectangular
profile, when fin tip is insulated.
Ans.
A. Applications of Fins :
1. Economisers for steam power plants,
2. Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems,
3. Radiators for automobiles, and
4. Air cooled engine cylinder heads.
B. Temperature Distribution for Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature
distribution along the fin is necessary.
2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are
made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
ii. No heat generation within the fin.
iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a
distance x from the base.
P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element
x
Fig. 3. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.
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7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
dt
Qx = – kA CS
dx x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),
dt
Qx + dx = – kACS
dx x dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and
(x + dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
dt dt
– kA CS = – kA CS + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2)
dx
x dx x dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
dt dt d dt d 2 dt ( dx)2
dx =
dx 2 ... ...(3)
x dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2), we have
dt dt d dt
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS dx
dx x dx x dx dx x
d 2 dt (dx)2
– kA CS ... h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2 dx x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx 0,
dt dt d2t
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS 2 dx + h (P dx) (t –
dx x dx x dx
ta )
d2t
kA CS 2 dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
dx
d2t hP
or – (t – ta ) 0 ...(4)
dx2 kACS
12. If temperature excess is,
= t – ta ...(5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or 2
= ...(6)
dx dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
d 2
– m2 = 0 ...(7)
dx 2
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hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (4) and eq. (7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
= C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by
using proper boundary conditions.
Case : When Fin Tip is Insulated :
1. When the end of fin is insulated, the boundary conditions are :
i. At x = 0, = 0
dt
ii. At x = l, =0
dx
2. Applying these boundary conditions in eq. (8), we get expression
for temperature distribution,
t ta cosh{m (l x)}
= = ...(9)
0 t0 ta cosh(ml)
em( l x) e[ m( l x)]
Where, cosh {m (l – x)} =
2
eml e ml
and, cosh(ml) =
2
3. Differentiating eq. (9), we get
dt sinh {m(l – x)}
= (t0 – ta) (– m)
dx cosh (ml)
dt
dx = – m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml) ...(10)
x0
4. Rate of heat flow from the fin is given by
dt
Qfin = – kACS ...(11)
dx x 0
Putting the value of eq. (10) in eq. (11), we get
Qfin = kA CS m(t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta) tanh (ml)
[ m hP / kACS ]
5. During heat treatment, cylindrical pieces of 25 mm diameter,
30 mm height and at 30 °C are placed in furnace at 750 °C
with convective heat transfer coefficient 80 W/m 2-°C.
Calculate the time required to heat the pieces to 600 °C.
What will be shortfall in temperature if pieces are taken
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out from the furnace after 280 seconds ? Assume the
following properties : k = 40 W/m-°C, C = 480 J/kg-K and
= 7850 kg/m3.
Ans.
Given : d = 25 mm, r = 12.5 mm = 0.0125 m, H = 30 mm, ti = 30 °C,
ta = 750 °C, h = 80 W/m2-°C, t = 600 °C, k = 40 W/m-°C, C = 480 J/kg-
K, = 7850 kg/m3
To Find : i. Time required to heat the pieces.
ii. Shortfall in temperature.
1. For a cylindrical piece, the characteristic length is,
Volume r2 H rH
LC =
Surface area 2r (r H ) 2(r H )
0.0125 0.03
= 4.41 10 3 m
2(0.0125 0.03)
hLC 80 4.41 10 3
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.00882 < 0.1
k 40
Since Bi < 0.1, the lumped parameter model can be adopted.
t ta hA
= exp
ti ta VC
hA h A h 80
=
VC C V CLC 7850 480 4.41 10 3
= 0.004814
600 750
= exp [– 0.004814 ]
30 750
30 750
= exp [0.004814 ]
600 750
30 750
or 0.004814 = ln = 1.5686
600 750
Time required for heating,
1.5686
= = 326 sec
0.004814
3. Let, t = Temperature attained when the pieces are taken out from
the furnace after 280 seconds.
t 750 1
Then, = exp [– 0.004814 × 280] = exp [– 1.348] =
30 750 3.849
30 750
or t= 750 = 563 °C
3.849
4. Shortfall in temperature = t – t = 600 – 563 = 37 °C.
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6. The insulation board for air conditioning purposes
comprises three layers. A 12 cm thick layer of grass
(k = 0.22 W/m-K) is sandwiched between 3 cm thick layer of
plywood (k = 0.15 W/m-K) on each side. The bonding is
achieved with glue which does not offer any resistance of
heat flow. If the side surfaces of board are maintained at 40
°C and 20 °C temperature, determine the heat flux. How
would the heat flux be affected if instead of glue the three
pieces are fastened by steel bolts (k = 40 W/m-K) of 1.2 cm
diameter at corners.
Ans.
Given : k1 = 0.22 W/m-K, k2 = 0.15 W/m-K,
kb = 40 W/m-K, Db = 1.2 cm, A = 1 m2
To Find : i. Heat flux.
ii. Change in heat flux when three pieces are fastened
by bolts instead of glue.
i. When Pieces are Fastened by Glue :
3 cm 3 cm
40 °C
k2 k1 k2
20 °C
12 cm
Fig. 4.
1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :
40 °C 20 °C
R2 R1 R2
Fig. 5.
L2 0.03
2. Now, R2 = 0.2
k2 A 0.15 1
L1 0.12
R1 = 0.545
k1 A 0.22 1
Reff. = 2R2 + R1 = 2 × 0.2 + 0.545
= 0.4 + 0.545
= 0.945
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q1 = = 21.164 W/m2
Reff 0.945
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ii. When they are Fastened by Bolts :
3 cm 3 cm
1.2 cm
40 °C 1.2 cm
k2 k2
k1
20 °C
1.2 cm
12 cm (a) (b)
Fig. 6.
1. Thermal circuit for the given situation is shown below :
t1= 40 °C t4= 20 °C
R2 R1 R2
Rb
Rb
Rb
Rb
Fig. 7. Thermal circuit for the system.
Lb 0.18
2. Now, Rb = 2
= 39.78
kb Ab 1.2
40
4 100
1 2 1 2
= {Rs = R1 + R2 + R2}
Reffective Rb Rs Rb
4 1 4 Rs Rb
=
Rb Rs Rb Rs
4 0.945 39.78
= = 1.16
0.945 39.78
So, Reff = 1/1.16 = 0.86
t 40 – 20
3. Heat flux, q2 = = 23.2 W/m2
Reff 0.86
4. Change in flux = q2 – q1 = 23.2 – 21.164 = 2.036 W/m2
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7. Consider radiative heat transfer between two large parallel
planes of surface emissivity 0.8. How many thin radiation
shields of emissivity 0.05 be placed between the surfaces to
reduce the radiation heat transfer by factor 75 ?
Ans.
Given : p = 0.8, = 0.05
To Find : Number of shields.
p p
Fig. 8.
1. Let, there are n shields between two parallel planes.
2. Then, increase in surface resistance = 2n and increase in space
resistance = n + 1.
3. Total resistance with n shields,
1 P 1 1 1 P
(Rth)n = 2n (n 1)
P F P
1 P 1 n 1
(Rth)n = 2 2n
P F
4. On putting the given values,
1 0.8 1 0.05 n 1
(Rth)n = 2 2n
0.8 0.05 1
( For large parallel planes; F = 1)
= 0.5 + 38n + n + 1
(Rth)n = 1.5 + 39n
5. Heat exchange per unit area with shields between two surfaces,
(t14 t24 )
(q)n =
( Rth ) n
(t14 t24 )
(q)n = ...(1)
1.5 39n
6. When, there is no shield between surfaces, heat transfer per unit
area,
( t14 t24 )
q=
1 P 1
2
P F
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( t14 t24 ) (t14 t24 )
q=
1 0.8 1.5
2 1
0.8
7. Since, it is given that
1
(q)n = ×q
75
(t14 t24 ) 1 (t14 t24 )
=
1.5 3.9 n 75 1.5
(1.5 + 39n) = 1.5 × 75
n= 2.846
n 3 shields
8. A counter flow heat exchanger is used to cool lubricating
oil of a large industrial gas turbine engine. The oil flows
through the tube at 0.19 kg/s (Cp = 2.18 kJ/kg-K) and the
coolant water flows in the annulus in the opposite direction
at the rate of 0.15 kg/s (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg-K). The oil enters at
425 K and leaves at 345 K while the coolant enters at 285 K.
How long must the tube be made to perform this duty if the
heat transfer coefficient from oil to tube surface is 2250 W/
m2-K and from tube to water is 5650 W/m2-K ? The tube has
a mean diameter of 12.5 mm and its wall presents negligible
resistance to heat transfer.
Ans.
Given : mo = 0.19 kg/s, mw = 0.15 kg/s, to1 = 425 K, to2 = 345 K,
Co = 2.18 kJ/kg-K, Cw = 4.18 kJ/kg-K, tw1 = 285 K,
ho = 2250 W/m2-K, hw = 5650 W/m2-K, d = 12.5 mm
To Find : Length of the tube.
1. Heat balance over the exchanger is given as,
Heat lost by oil =Heat gained by water
mo Co (to1 – to2) = mw Cw (tw2 – tw1)
0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345) = 0.15 × 4.18 × (tw2 – 285)
Outlet temperature of water,
0.19 2.18 80
tw2 = 285 + = 337.85 K
0.15 4.18
2. By applying energy balance on the oil, the heat transfer is given
by
Q = mo Co (to1 – to2) = 0.19 × 2.18 × (425 – 345)
= 33.136 kJ/s = 33.136 × 103 J/s
3. For counter flow heat exchanger,
1 = to1 – tw2 = 425 – 337.85 = 87.15 K
2 = to2 – tw1 = 345 – 285 = 60 K
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Log-mean temperature difference is,
1 2 87.15 60
m = = 72.73 K
log e (1 / 2 ) log e (87.15 / 60)
4. Let, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient between oil and water.
1 1 1
We know that, =
U h0 hw
h0 hw 2250 5650
U= = 1609.18 W/m2-K
h0 hw 2250 5650
5. Also we know that, Q = U A m
Q 33.136 103
A= = 0.2829 m2
U m 1609.18 72.79
6. Required length of the tube is given by,
A 0.2829
l= = 7.21 m
d 12.5 103
9. The nose section of a missile is formed of a 6 mm thick
stainless plate and is held initially at uniform temperature
of 88 °C. The missile enters the denser layers of the
atmosphere at very high velocity. The effective temperature
of air surrounding the nose region attains the value 2200
°C and the surface convective coefficient is estimated at
3405 W/m 2-K. Make calculations for the maximum
permissible time in these surroundings if the maximum
metal temperature is not to exceed 1095 °C. Also workout
the inside surface temperature under these conditions. The
properties for steel are : = 7800 kg/m3, k = 54 W/m-°C,
Cp = 465 J/kg-K.
Ans.
Given : L = 6 mm = 0.006 m, = 7800 kg/m3, Cp = 465 J/kg-K
k = 54 W/m-ºC, h = 3405 W/m2-K, ti = 88 ºC, ta = 2200 ºC
t = 1095 ºC
To Find : i. Maximum permissible time.
ii. Inside surface temperature.
L 0.006
1. Characteristic length, LC = = 0.003 m
2 2
hLC 3405 0.003
2. Biot number, Bi = = = 0.189
k 54
As Bi > 0.1, therefore lumped analysis cannot be applied in this
case. Hence, Heisler charts are used to solve this problem.
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1 1 x
3. Corresponding to = = 5.29 and = 1 (outside surface
Bi 0.189 LC
from nose section), from Heisler charts,
t ta
= 0.9
t0 ta
t ta t ta t ta
4. Also, = 0
ti ta ti ta t0 ta
1095 2200 t ta
= 0 × 0.9
88 2200 ti ta
t0 ta 1 ( 1105)
= = 0.5813
ti ta 0.9 (2112)
t0 ta 1
5. Now, again using the Heisler chart for = 0.5813 and =
ti ta Bi
5.29.
We get, Fourier number, F0 = 4.39
= 4.39
L2C
k k
= 4.39
C p L2C C
p
54
= 4.39
7800 465 (0.003)2
4.39 (0.003)2 7800 465
=
54
= 2.6537 sec
6. The temperature at the inside surface (x = 0) is given by
t0 ta
= 0.5813
ti ta
t0 2200
= 0.5813
88 2200
t0 = 2200 + 0.5813 (88 – 2200)
t0 = 972.2944 ºC
Section–C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Explain the analogy between momentum and heat transfer
in turbulent flow over a flat surface.
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Ans.
1. As we know that, the inter-relationship between fluid friction and
Newton’s law of viscosity is given as,
du
0 = ...(1)
dy
2. Heat flow along Y-direction follows the Fourier equation
dt
Q = kA ...(2)
dy
3. When Pr is unity, temperature and velocity profile are identical (for
most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)
C p k
i.e., = 1 or = Cp ...(3)
k
4. By combining eq. (1), eq. (2) and eq. (3), we get
dt
Q = – C p A 0
du
5. Separating the variables and integrating within the limits :
At the plate surface : u = 0 and t = ts
At the outer edge of boundary layer : u = U and t = t
Q U t
du = – dt
ts
Cp A 0 0
Q
U = (ts – t)
C p A 0
Q 0 Cp
= ...(4)
A (ts t ) U
Q
6. But, = hx ...(5)
A (ts t )
1
and, U 2
0 = C fx ...(6)
2
7. Substituting eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
1 C C
hx = Cfx U 2 p fx ( C p U )
2 U 2
hx C
= fx
Cp U 2
hx
is called the Stanton number Stx.
Cp U
8. It represents the Nusselt number divided by the product of the
Reynolds and Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nux C fx
= Stx ...(7)
Rex Pr 2
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Eq. (7) is called the Reynolds analogy.
9. Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we have
hx x
Nux = 0.332 ( Rex )1/ 2 ( Pr)1/ 3 ...(8)
k
10. Dividing both sides of the eq. (8) by Rex (Pr)1/3, we get
Nux 0.332 Cfx
1/ 3 = 1/ 2
...(9)
Rex ( Pr) ( Rex ) 2
11. The LHS of the eq. (9) can be rewritten as
Nux Nux
= ( Pr)2/ 3 Stx (Pr)2/ 3
Rex ( Pr)1/ 3 Rex Pr
C fx
Stx (Pr)2/3 = ...(10)
2
Eq. (10) shows the inter-relationship between heat and momentum
transfer and designated as Colburn analogy.
12. For Pr = 1, the Reynolds and Colburn analogies are same.
b. A flat plate is 2 m long, 0.8 m wide and 3 mm thick. Its density
and specific heat is 3000 kg/m3 and 700 J/kg-K respectively.
The plate is having initial temperature is 80 °C. A stream of
air at 20 °C blown over both surfaces of the plate along its
width, at a velocity 2 m/s. Calculate rate of heat dissipation
from the plate and initial rate of cooling of the plate. The
properties of air are :
= 1.09 kg/m3, k = 0.028 W/m-°C, C = 1007 J/kg-K,
= 2.03 × 10 – 5 kg/m-s, Pr = 0.698
Nua = 0.664 (Rex)0.5 (Pr)0.33 for Laminar Flow
Nua = 0.0336 (Rex)0.8 – 836 (Pr)0.33 for Turbulent Flow
Ans.
Given : L = 2 m, w = 0.8 m, t = 3 mm = 0.003 m
P = 3000 kg/m3, Cp = 700 J/kg-K, (tP)i = 80 ºC, a = 1.09 kg/m3,
k = 0.028 W/m-ºC, C = 1007 J/kg-K, = 2.03 × 10–5 kg/m-s,
Pr = 0.698, For air, t = 20 ºC, U = 2 m/s
To Find : i. Heat dissipation rate.
ii. Initial rate of cooling of plate.
1. Air blows over both surfaces of plate along width.
Hence, characteristic length, Lc = w = 0.8 m
2. Now, Reynolds number,
aULc
Re =
1.09 2 0.8
= = 8.59 × 104
2.03 10 5
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
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So Nua = 0.664 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.33
= 0.664 (8.59 × 104)0.5 (0.698)0.33
= 172.837
hLc
3. Since, Nua =
k
h 0.8
Nua =
0.028
h 0.8
= 172.837
0.028
h = 6.0493 W/m2-ºC.
4. Now, heat transfer rate for one surface,
Q = hA t
Q = 6.0493 × 2 × 0.8 × (80 – 20)
Q = 580.7328 W
5. For both surfaces,
QT = 2 × 580.7328 = 1161.4656 W
6. Now, initial cooling rate of plate for one surface,
QP = mC p t
= P AUCpt
= 3000 × 2 × 0.8 × 2 × 700 × (80 – 20)
= 403.2 MW
7. For both surface,
(QP)T = 2 × 403.2 = 806.4 MW
11. a. What do you mean by shape factor ? Write its salient
features.
Ans.
A. Shape Factor : It is defined as the fraction of radiative energy
that is diffused from one surface and strikes the other surface
directly with no intervening reflections.
B. Salient Features of Shape Factor :
1. When heat transfer takes place between two bodies, the shape
factor relation is given by,
A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
This is called reciprocity theorem.
2. For flat and convex surfaces, the shape factor with respect to
itself is zero because the energy leaving the surface never returns
on the same surface
i.e., F1–1 = F2–2 = F3–3 = ....Fii = 0.
3. For concave surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is
never zero.
4. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.
b. Define intensity of radiation. Prove that the intensity of
radiation is 1/ times of the total emissive power.
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Ans.
A. Intensity of Radiation : It is defined as the rate of energy leaving
a surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of
emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
B. Proof :
1. Let us consider radiation from the elementary area dA 1 at the
centre of a sphere. Suppose this radiation is absorbed by a second
elemental area dA 2, a portion of the hemispherical surface.
2. The projected area of dA 1 on a plane perpendicular to the line
joining dA 1 and dA 2 = dA 1 cos .
dA
3. The solid angle subtended by dA 2 = 2 2
r
dQ12
The intensity of radiation, I = ...(1)
dA
dA1 cos 2 2
r
Where, dQ12 is the rate of radiation heat transfer from dA1 to dA 2.
2
dA2 = r sin d d
r si
n
rd
r
d
r sin d
dA1
d
Fig. 9.
4. Since, dA 2 = rd (r sin d)
or dA 2 = r2 sin d d ...(2)
5. From eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
dQ12 = I dA1 sin cos d d
6. The total radiation through the hemisphere is given by
2
Q = IdA1 2
sin cos d d
0 0
2
= 2IdA1 sin cos d
0
2
= IdA1 sin 2 d
0
or, Q= I dA1
7. Since, Q= E dA 1
EdA1 = I dA1
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or, E = I
E
I=
The above equation shows that intensity of radiation is 1/ times
of the total emissive power.
12. a. Differentiate between dropwise condensation and film wise
condensation.
Ans.
S. No. Filmwise Condensation Dropwise Condensation
1. Liquid condensate wets It does not wet the surface.
the surface.
2. Liquid condensate spreads The liquid condensate collects in
out and does not collect in droplets.
droplets.
3. It forms continuous films It does not form any film over the
over the entire surface. surface.
4. Continuous film offers There is no film barrier to heat
resistance and restricts flow, therefore high heat transfer
further transfer of heat rate are experienced between
between vapour and vapour and surface.
surface.
b. Engine oil (Cp = 2100 J/kg-°C) is to be heated from 20 °C to
60 °C at a rate of 0.3 kg/s in a 2 cm diameter thin walled
copper tube by condensing steam outside at a temperature
of 130 °C (h fg = 2174 kJ/kg) for an overall heat transfer
coefficient of 650 W/m 2-°C. Determine the rate of heat
transfer and the length of the tube required to achieve it.
Ans.
Given : CPo = 2100 J/kg-ºC, toi = 20 ºC, toe = 60 ºC, mo = 0.3 kg/s
d = 2 cm = 0.02 m, twi = 130 ºC, U = 650 W/m2-ºC, hfg = 2174 kJ/kg
To Find : i. Rate of heat transfer.
ii. Length of the tube.
1. We know that, heat transfer rate
Q = mo CPo (toe – toi)
= 0.3 × 2100 × (60 – 20) = 25200 W
Q = 25.2 kW
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1 2
2. LMTD is given as,m =
ln 1
2
Where, 1 = twi – toi = 130 – 20 = 110 ºC
and 2 = twi – toe = 130 – 60 = 70 ºC
110 70
m = = 88.5 ºC
110
ln
70
3. We know that,Q = UAm
Q 25200
A=
U m 650 88.5
A= 0.438 m2
4. Also, A= dl
A 0.438
l=
d 2.0 10 2
l = 6.97 m
l 7.0 m
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2016-17
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Note : 1. All symbols have usual meaning.
2. Assume any relevant data, if missing.
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Write down the definition of black body and gray body.
b. Write down the effect of temperature and pressure on
thermal conductivity.
c. Counter flow heat exchanger is most preferred. Why ?
d. Write down the significance of Reynold’s and Nusselt
number.
e. What are the uses of heat pipe ?
f. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling ?
g. Write a short note on solar radiation.
h. What is green house effect ?
i. Define all radiative properties of the surface and also explain
relation between them.
j. Discuss the mechanism of thermal conduction in gases,
liquids and solids.
Section – B
Note : Attempt any five questions of this section. (10 × 5 = 50)
2. A steam pipe of 5 cm inside diameter and 6.5 cm outside
diameter is covered with a 2.75 cm radial thickness of high
temperature insulation (k = 1.1 W/m-K). The surface heat
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transfer coefficient for inside and outside surfaces are
4650 W/m2-K and 11.5 W/m2-K. The thermal conductivity of
the pipe material is 45 W/m-K. If the steam temperature is
200 °C and ambient air temperature is 25 °C, determine :
a. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
b. Temperature at the interface.
c. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
3. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a room where temperature
is 20 °C. The temperature of the body is measured to be 25 °C
when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
to be 8 W/m2-K. Modelling the human body a 30 cm diameter,
1.70 m long cylinder, calculate actual time of death of the
person. Take thermo physical properties of the body :
k = 6.08 W/m-K, Density = 900 kg/m3, C = 4000 J/kg-K
4. Write down the significance of NTU method in heat
exchanger. Derive an expression of effectiveness for counter
flow heat exchanger by using NTU method.
5. What do you mean by lump system analysis ? Derive the
following expression for transient heat conduction
T(t ) – T
= exp (–Bi F0)
Ti – T
Where symbols have their usual meaning. Discuss the
physical significance of Biot No. and Fourier No.
6. A steam condenser is transferring 250 kW of thermal energy
at a condensing temperature of 65 °C. The cooling water
enters the condenser at 20 °C with a flow rate of 7500 kg/hr.
Calculate the LMTD. If overall heat transfer coefficient for
the condenser surface is 1250 W/m2 -°C. What surface area is
required to handle this load ? What error would be
introduced if the arithmetic mean temperature difference
is used rather than the log mean temperature difference ?
7. Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow
over flat plate using Colburn analogy.
8. Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient
features of shape factor.
9. A chemical having specific heat of 3.3 kJ/kg-K flowing at the
rate of 20000 kg/hr enters a parallel flow heat exchanger at
120 °C. The flow rate of cooling water is 50000 kg/hr with an
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inlet temperature of 20 °C. The heat transfer area is 10 m2
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1050 W/m2-°C.
Determine :
a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
Specific heat of the water is 4.186 kJ/kg.
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal
boundary layer over flat plate.
b. Derive an expression of effectiveness for parallel flow heat
exchanger by using NTU method.
11. a. Write a short notes on condensation. Describe various
regimes of boiling.
b. What is time constant ? The steel ball bearings of 40 mm
diameter and initially at uniform temperature of 600 °C are
quenched in an oil bath maintained at 50 °C temperature.
The heat transfer coefficient between the ball bearing and
oil is 325 W/m2-K and the thermodynamics properties of the
bearing can be taken as : k = 45 W/m-K and thermal
diffusivity = 1.25 x 10–5 m2/s. Determine :
a. The time duration for which bearing must remain in oil to
attain 225 °C temperature.
b. The instantaneous heat transfer rate from the bearings
when they are first immersed in oil and when they reach
225°C.
12. a. What is the significance of Heisler chart ? Describe various
types of Heisler chart. What is characteristic length ?
b. An egg with mean diameter of 40 mm and initially at 20 °C is
placed in a boiling water pan for 4 minutes and found to be
boiled to the consumer’s taste. For how long should a similar
egg for same consumer be boiled when taken from a
refrigerator at 5 °C. Take the following properties for egg :
k = 10 W/m-°C, = 1200 kg/m 3, C = 2 kJ/kg-°C and
h = 100 W/m2 -°C.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2016-17)
Note : 1. All symbols have usual meaning.
2. Assume any relevant data, if missing.
Section – A
1. Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. Write down the definition of black body and gray body.
Ans. Black Body : A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it.
i.e., = 1, = 0, = 0
Gray Body : It is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a
surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
i.e., = () = constant
b. Write down the effect of temperature and pressure on
thermal conductivity.
Ans. Effect of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity :
In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity decreases with
increase in temperature while in case of gases, thermal conductivity
increases with increase in temperature.
Effect of Pressure on Thermal Conductivity :
Thermal conductivity of fluid and solid increases with increase in
pressure.
c. Counter flow heat exchanger is most preferred. Why ?
Ans. LMTD for a counter flow unit is always greater than that for a
parallel flow unit, hence counter flow heat exchanger can transfer
more heat than parallel flow one. For this reason, the counter flow
arrangement is usually used.
d. Write down the significance of Reynold’s and Nusselt
number.
Ans. Significance of Reynold’s Number : Higher the value of Re,
greater will be the relative contribution of inertia effect. Smaller
the value of Re, the greater will be relative magnitude of viscous
stresses.
Significance of Nusselt Number : The Nusselt number is a
convenient measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient.
For a given value of Nusselt number, the convective heat transfer
coefficient is directly proportional to thermal conductivity of the
fluid and inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.
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e. What are the uses of heat pipe ?
Ans. Uses of heat pipe are as follows :
1. Spacecraft,
2. Cooking,
3. Permafrost cooling, and
4. Computer system, etc.
f. What is the difference between pool boiling and flow boiling ?
Ans.
S. No. Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
1. The value of critical heat flux The value of critical heat flux of
of water is 1.3 MW/m2 at 1 water reaches upto 35 MW/m2
atm. at 1 atm.
2. It is easy. It is more complicated.
g. Write a short note on solar radiation.
Ans. Solar radiation consists of energy that is emitted by various layers
of the sun. Solar radiation is a function of geometrical relation
between the surface and the sun which is continuously changing
on a daily and annual basis.
h. What is green house effect ?
Ans. The green house effect is a process by which radiative energy
leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric gases like
carbon dioxide, methane, water vapours, etc., called green house
gases. They transfer this energy to other components of the
atmosphere and it is re-radiated in all directions. This transfer of
energy to the surface increases the temperature of environment
and leads to global warming.
i. Define all radiative properties of the surface and also explain
relation between them.
Ans.
1. Following are the radiation properties of surfaces :
i. Total emissive power (E) :
Eb = T4 W/m2
Eb = AT4 W
ii. Monochromatic emissive power.
E= E d W/ m 2
0
iii. Intensity of radiation.
iv. Radiosity.
v. Irradiation.
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2. Relation between total emissive power and monochromatic emissive
power is given as :
E
=
Eb
j. Discuss the mechanism of thermal conduction in gases,
liquids and solids.
Ans.
1. In solids, the thermal conduction takes place by lattice vibration
and by transport of free electrons.
2. In case of gases, the thermal conduction takes place by the moment
of molecules exchanging their energy and momentum.
3. In liquids, the mechanism of heat is nearer to that of gases. However,
the molecules are more closely spaced and intermolecular forces
come into play.
Section – B
Note : Attempt any five questions of this section. (10 × 5 = 50)
2. A steam pipe of 5 cm inside diameter and 6.5 cm outside
diameter is covered with a 2.75 cm radial thickness of high
temperature insulation (k = 1.1 W/m-K). The surface heat
transfer coefficient for inside and outside surfaces are
4650 W/m2-K and 11.5 W/m2-K. The thermal conductivity of
the pipe material is 45 W/m-K. If the steam temperature is
200 °C and ambient air temperature is 25 °C, determine :
a. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
b. Temperature at the interface.
c. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Ans.
Given : d1 = 5 cm or r1 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
d2 = 6.5 cm or r2 = 3.25 cm = 0.0325 m, x = 2.75 cm,
k2 = 1.1 W/m-K, ho = 11.5 W/m2-K, hi = 4650 W/m2-K,
k1 = 45 W/m-K, ti = 200 °C, to = 25 °C.
To Find : i. Heat transfer per meter length of pipe.
ii. Temperature at the interface.
iii. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
1. Equivalent thermal resistance,
1 1 ln (r2 / r1 ) ln (r3 / r2 ) 1
Rth =
2L h
iir k 1 k 2 h0 r0
1 1 ln (3.25 / 2.5) ln (6 / 3.25) 1
=
2L 4650 0.025 45 1.1 11.5 0.06
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0.3216
=
L
2.75 cm
ti
to
2.5 cm
3.25 cm
Fig. 1.
t 200 25
3. We know that, Q = =
Rth 0.3216
L
Q
= 544.154 W/m ...(1)
L
4. Let temperature at interface is t,
t
Q=
Rth
200 t
Q=
1 ln (r2 / r1 )
(hiri )(2L) 2k1 L
200 t
=
1.369 10 3 0.9279 10 3
L L
Q 200 t
= ...(2)
L 2.2969 10 3
5. Equating eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
200 t
544.154 =
2.2969 10 3
t = 198.75 °C.
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Q = UAt
Q Q 544.154 L
U=
At 2r3 Lt 6
2 L 175
100
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= 8.248 W/m2 -K
3. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a room where temperature
is 20 °C. The temperature of the body is measured to be 25 °C
when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
to be 8 W/m2-K. Modelling the human body a 30 cm diameter,
1.70 m long cylinder, calculate actual time of death of the
person. Take thermo physical properties of the body :
k = 6.08 W/m-K, Density = 900 kg/m3, C = 4000 J/kg-K
Ans.
Given : ta = 20 °C, t = 25 °C, h = 8 W/m2-K, d = 30 cm = 0.3 m
r = 0.15 m, l = 1.70 m, k = 6.08 W/m-K, = 900 kg/m3,
C = 4000 J/kg-K.
To Find : Actual time of death of the person. Temperature of live
person is 37 °C.
1. From lumped parameter analysis,
t ta hAs 8 2rL
= exp = exp 2
t0 ta VC r LC
25 20 82
= exp
37 20 900 0.15 4000
82
– 1.224 =
900 0.15 4000
= 41310 sec = 11.47 hr
Hence, actual time of death of the person is 4.37 a.m.
4. Write down the significance of NTU method in heat
exchanger. Derive an expression of effectiveness for counter
flow heat exchanger by using NTU method.
Ans.
A. Significance of NTU Method :
1. A heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD, when inlet and
outlet conditions are specified.
2. When the problem is to determine the inlet or exit temperature for
a particular heat exchanger, the analysis is performed easily by
using a method based on effectiveness of the heat exchanger
(concept first proposed by Nusselt) and number of transfer units
(NTU).
B. Effectiveness for Counter Flow Heat Exchanger :
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA of the heat exchanger
is given by
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(1)
= – mC ph dth = – mC pc dtc
= – Ch dth = – Cc dtc ...(2)
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2. From eq. (2), we have
dQ dQ
dth = – and dtc = –
Ch Cc
1 1 1 1
d (th – tc) = – dQ dQ ...(3)
C
h C c C
c C h
3. Substituting the value of dQ from eq. (1) in eq. (3), we get
d (th tc ) 1 1
= U dA ...(4)
th tc C
c Ch
4. On integrating the eq. (4), we get
t t 1 1
ln h2 c1 = UA
th1 tc2 Cc Ch
t t UA C
ln h2 c1 = 1 c
th1 tc2 Cc Ch
th2 tc1
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(5)
th1 tc2
5. The expression for effectiveness is :
Ch (th1 th2 ) Cc (tc2 tc1 )
= =
Cmin (th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Hence, th2 = th1 – ...(6)
Ch
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(7)
Cc
6. Substituting values from eq. (6) and eq. (7) in eq. (5) we get,
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
th1 Ch tc1
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
th1 tc1
Cc
Cmin
(th1 tc1 ) 1
Ch
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}]
Cmin
(th1 tc1 ) 1
Cc
Cmin
1
Ch
= exp [(UA/Cc) {1 – (Cc/Ch)}] ...(8)
Cmin
1
Cc
7. Assume Cc < Ch, Cc = Cmin and Ch = Cmax. Substituting these values
in eq. (8), we get,
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Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
Cmin
1
Cmin
Cmin
1
Cmax
= exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
1
Cmin
1– = exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
Cmax
– exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
1 – exp [(UA/Cmin) {1 – (Cmin / Cmax)}]
C
= min exp{(UA / Cmin )(1 Cmin / Cmax )}
Cmax
1 exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
or =
Cmin
exp[(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}] 1
=
C
exp [(UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}] min
Cmax
1 exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
=
C
1 min exp [( UA / Cmin ) {1 (Cmin / Cmax )}]
Cmax
...(9)
Since Cmin / Cmax = R and UA/Cmin = NTU
1 exp[ NTU (1 R)]
Hence, =
1 R exp[ NTU (1 R)]
5. What do you mean by lump system analysis ? Derive the
following expression for transient heat conduction
T(t ) – T
= exp (–Bi F0)
Ti – T
Where symbols have their usual meaning. Discuss the
physical significance of Biot No. and Fourier No.
Ans.
A. Lump System Analysis :
1. The process in which the internal resistance is assumed negligible
in comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian
heating or cooling process. The temperature in this process is
considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called
lumped parameter analysis because the whole solid, whose energy
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at any time is a function of its temperature and total heat capacity
is treated as one lump.
B. Expression :
1. Let us consider a body whose initial temperature is ti throughout
and which is placed suddenly in ambient air or any liquid at a
constant temperature ta.
2. The transient response of the body can be determined by relating
its rate of change of internal energy with convective exchange at
the surface i.e.,
dt
Q = – VC = h AS (t – ta) ...(1)
d
Where, = 3
Density of solid, kg/m ,
t= Temperature of the body at any time, °C,
V= Volume of the body, m3,
AS = Surface area of the body, m2,
C= Specific heat of body, J/kg-°C,
ta = Ambient temperature, °C,
h= Unit surface conductance, W/m2 °C, and
= Time, s.
Negligible internal
thermal resistance
Control Eout = Qconv.
surface
Body
System
= 0, t = ti
> 0, t = f()
Fig. 2. General system for unsteady heat conduction.
S
ti
1
Cth = VC Rth =
hAs
ta
Fig. 3. Equivalent thermal circuit for lumped capacitance solid.
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3. On rearranging the eq. (1), we get
dt h AS
=– d
t ta VC
On integrating both sides, we get
dt h AS
tt =
VC
d
a
h AS
ln (t – ta) = + C1 ...(2)
VC
The boundary conditions are :
At = 0, t = ti (Initial surface temperature)
C1 = ln (ti – ta)
h AS
Hence, ln (t – ta) = + ln (ti – ta)
VC
t ta h AS
or = = exp ...(3)
ti ta i VC
h AS
4. The power on exponential i.e., can be arranged in
VC
dimensionless form as follows,
h AS hV AS2 k h LC
= kA V 2C = k L2 ...(4)
VC S c
Where, = [k / C] = Thermal diffusivity of solid.
LC = Characteristic length.
Volume of solid (V )
=
Surfacearea of solid( AS )
5. In eq. (4),
h LC
i. The non-dimensional factor is called Biot number Bi, and
k
ii. The non-dimensional factor 2 is called the Fourier number Fo.
LC
6. Using the non-dimensional term, eq. (3) becomes
t ta
= = e–Bi Fo
i ti ta
C. Significance of Fourier Number and Biot Number :
1. Fourier number signifies the degree of penetration of heating or
cooling effect through a solid.
2. Biot number gives an indication of the ratio of internal resistance
(conduction) to surface resistance (convection).
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6. A steam condenser is transferring 250 kW of thermal energy
at a condensing temperature of 65 °C. The cooling water
enters the condenser at 20 °C with a flow rate of 7500 kg/hr.
Calculate the LMTD. If overall heat transfer coefficient for
the condenser surface is 1250 W/m2 -°C. What surface area is
required to handle this load ? What error would be
introduced if the arithmetic mean temperature difference
is used rather than the log mean temperature difference ?
Ans.
.
Given : Q = 250 kW, th1 = th2 = 65 °C, tc1 = 20 °C, mc = 7500 kg/hr,
U = 1250 W/m2-°C.
To Find : i. LMTD.
ii. Surface area.
iii. Error.
1. For the condensing steam, the temperature remains constant
throughout the flow passage, i.e.,
th1 = th2 = 65 °C
2. We know that energy balance on the cooling water gives,
.
Q = mc Cc (tc2 – tc1)
7500
250 = 4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
3600
Exit temperature of cooling water,
250 3600
tc2 = 20 + = 48.67 °C
7500 4.186
3. Log mean temperature difference,
1 2
m =
log e (1 / 2 )
Where, 1 = th1 – tc1 = 65 – 20 = 45 °C
2 = th2 – tc2 = 65 – 48.67 = 16.33 °C
45 16.33
m = = 28.28 °C
log e (45 / 16.33)
4. Now, we know that Q = UAm
Area required to handle the load is,
Q 250 103
A= = 7.07 m2
U m 1250 28.28
5. The arithmetic mean temperature difference is
2 45 16.33
= 1 = 30.66 °C
2 2
Q 250 103
A = = 6.52 m2
U 1250 30.66
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A A 7.07 6.52
6. Error = 100 × 100 = 7.77 %
A 7.07
7. Derive an expression for Nusselt number for turbulent flow
over flat plate using Colburn analogy.
Ans.
1. As we know that, the inter-relationship between fluid friction and
Newton’s law of viscosity is given as,
du
0 = ...(1)
dy
2. Heat flow along Y-direction follows the Fourier equation
dt
Q = kA ...(2)
dy
3. When Pr is unity, temperature and velocity profile are identical (for
most of the gases, 0.6 < Pr < 1.0)
C p k
i.e., = 1 or = Cp ...(3)
k
4. By combining eq. (1), eq. (2) and eq. (3), we get
dt
Q = – C p A 0
du
5. Separating the variables and integrating within the limits :
At the plate surface : u = 0 and t = ts
At the outer edge of boundary layer : u = U and t = t
Q U t
du = – dt
ts
Cp A 0 0
Q
U = (ts – t)
C p A 0
Q 0 Cp
= ...(4)
A (ts t ) U
Q
6. But, = hx ...(5)
A (ts t )
1
and, U 2
0 = C fx ...(6)
2
7. Substituting eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
1 C C
hx = Cfx U 2 p fx ( C p U )
2 U 2
hx C fx
=
Cp U 2
hx
is called the Stanton number Stx.
Cp U
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8. It represents the Nusselt number divided by the product of the
Reynolds and Prandtl number, i.e.,
Nux C fx
= Stx ...(7)
Rex Pr 2
Eq. (7) is called the Reynolds analogy.
9. Further in case of laminar boundary layer on a flat plate, we have
hx x
Nux = 0.332 ( Rex )1/ 2 ( Pr)1/ 3 ...(8)
k
10. Dividing both sides of the eq. (8) by Rex (Pr)1/3, we get
Nux 0.332 Cfx
= ...(9)
Rex (Pr )1/ 3 ( Rex )1/ 2 2
11. The LHS of the eq. (9) can be rewritten as
Nux Nux
1/ 3 =
( Pr)2/ 3 Stx (Pr)2/ 3
Rex (Pr ) Rex Pr
C fx
Stx (Pr)2/3 = ...(10)
2
Eq. (10) shows the inter-relationship between heat and momentum
transfer and designated as Colburn analogy.
12. For Pr = 1, the Reynolds and Colburn analogies are same.
8. Derive reciprocity theorem and write down the salient
features of shape factor.
Ans.
A. Proof of Reciprocity Theorem :
1. Considering heat exchange between elementary areas dA 1 and
dA 2 of two black radiating bodies, separated by a non absorbing
medium and having areas A1 and A2 and temperatures t1 and t2
respectively.
2. Let d1 be angle subtended at dA1 by dA2 and d2 angle subtended
at dA 2 by dA 1. Then
dA2 cos 2
d1 =
r2
dA1 cos 1
and d2 =
r2
3. The energy leaving dA 1 in the direction given by the angle per
unit solid angle
= Ib1 dA 1 cos 1
Where, Ib = Black body intensity, and
dA 1 cos 1 = Projection of dA 1 on the line between the centres.
4. The rate of radiant energy leaving dA 1 and striking on dA 2 is
given by,
Ib1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
dQ1–2 = Ib1 dA 1 cos 1 d1 = ...(1)
r2
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A2,t2
dA2
Normal to dA2
r
2
1 Normal to dA1
A1, t1
dA1
Fig. 4. Radiation heat exchange between two black surfaces.
5. Now, the quantity of energy radiated by dA 2 and absorbed by dA1
is given by,
Ib2 cos 2 cos 1 dA2 dA1
dQ2–1 = ...(2)
r2
6. The net rate of transfer of energy between dA 1 and dA 2 is
dQ12 = dQ1–2 – dQ2–1
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
= ( Ib1 I b2 )
r2
E E
But, Ib1 = b1 and I b2 b2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = ( Eb1 Eb2 )
r 2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2 4 4
or dQ12 = (t1 t2 )
r 2
( Eb = t4)
7. The rate of total heat transfer for the total areas A1 and A2 is given
by
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q12 = dQ 12 (t14 t24 )
A1 A2 r 2
8. Now, from eq. (1), we get
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = I b1
A1 A2 r2
cos cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = t14 1 ...(3)
A1 A2 r 2
9. The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by
Q1 = A1 t14 ...(4)
10. On dividing eq. (3) by eq. (4), we get
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Q12 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
= ...(5)
Q1 A1 A1 A2 r 2
Q12
or = F1–2
Q1
Where F1–2 is surface factor or shape factor between the two
radiating surfaces.
11. Thus the amount of radiation leaving A1 and striking A2 is,
Q1–2 = F1–2 A1 t14 ...(6)
12. Similarly, from eq. (2)
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q2–1 = t24 ...(7)
A1 A2 r 2
13. The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by
Q2 = A2 t24 ...(8)
14. On dividing eq. (7) by eq. (8), we get
Q21 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
A2 A1 A2
=
Q2 r 2
Q21
or = F2–1
Q2
where F2–1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A1.
15. The amount of radiation leaving A2 and arriving A1 is,
Q2–1 = F2–1 A2 t24 ...(9)
16. Thus, the net rate of heat transfer between two black surfaces A1
and A2 is given by
Q12 = A1F1–2 t14 = A2F2–1 t24
17. When the surface are maintained at same temperature, t1 = t2,
there can be no heat exchange
0 = (A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1) t2 [ t1 = t2 = t]
Since, and t are both non zero quantities,
A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1 = 0
or A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1
This is known as reciprocity theorem.
B. Salient Features of Shape Factor :
1. When heat transfer takes place between two bodies, the shape
factor relation is given by,
A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
This is called reciprocity theorem.
2. For flat and convex surfaces, the shape factor with respect to
itself is zero because the energy leaving the surface never returns
on the same surface
i.e., F1–1 = F2–2 = F3–3 = ....Fii = 0.
3. For concave surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is
never zero.
4. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.
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9. A chemical having specific heat of 3.3 kJ/kg-K flowing at the
rate of 20000 kg/hr enters a parallel flow heat exchanger at
120 °C. The flow rate of cooling water is 50000 kg/hr with an
inlet temperature of 20 °C. The heat transfer area is 10 m2
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1050 W/m2-°C.
Determine :
a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
Specific heat of the water is 4.186 kJ/kg.
Ans.
20000
h =
Given : Cph = 3.3 kJ/kg-K, m = 5.56 kg/s, th1 = 120 °C,
3600
50000
c =
m = 13.89 kg/s, Cpc = 4.186 kJ/kg-K, tc1 = 20 °C,
3600
2
A = 10 m ,
U = 1050 W/m2-C°
To Find : a. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
b. The output temperature of water and chemical.
1. Hot fluid capacity rate, h Cph = 5.56 × 3.3 = 18.35
Ch = m
Cold fluid capacity rate, c Cpc = 13.89 × 4.186 = 58.14
Cc = m
We find that, Ch < C c
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
5.56 × 3.3 × (120 – th2) = 13.89 × 4.186 × (tc2 – 20)
or, (120 – th2) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20) ...(1)
UA 1050 10
3. Now, NTU = = 0.572
Cmin 18.35 1000
th1
H ot fluid
(chem ical) th2
Temp.
Cold flu id tc2
(water)
tc1
Area/length
Water
Chemical
Water
Fig. 5.
1 exp[ NTU(1 R)]
4. Effectiveness, =
1 R
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1 exp[ 0.572(1 0.316)]
=
(1 0.316)
Cmin 18.35
R C
58.14
0.316
max
1 0.471
= = 0.402
1.316
Ch (th1 th2 )
5. Also, =
Cmin ( th1 tc1 )
(120 th2 )
or, 0.402 = ( Ch = Cmin)
(120 20)
or, th2 = 120 – 0.402 (120 – 20) = 79.8 °C
6. Substituting the value of th2 in eq. (1), we get
(120 – 79.8) = 3.17 (tc2 – 20)
(120 79.8)
tc2 = + 20 = 32.7 °C
3.17
Section – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
10. a. Derive an expression for energy equation of thermal
boundary layer over flat plate.
Ans.
1. For an element of dimensions (dx × dy × Unit depth) in the boundary
layer the quantities of energy entering and leaving are shown in
Fig. 6.
–kdx t + t dy
y y y
Viscous heat
Ey2 = v+ v dy dx C t + t dy
generation y p
y
u 2
y dxdy
Ex1 = ( u dy) Cp t dy Control Ex2 = u + u dx dy C p t + t dx
volume x x
dx
– k dx t/ y Ey1 = ( v dx) Cp t
Fig. 6. Differential control volume for energy conservation
in thermal boundary layer.
2. The rate of temperature change in the X-direction is being presumed
small and as such conduction is to be considered only in the Y-
direction.
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3. The convective terms in the X and Y-directions have been written
in terms of mass, temperature and specific heat which is assumed
constant.
a. In X-direction :
i. Energy influx,
Ex1 = Mass × Specific heat × Temperature
= (udy) Cpt
ii. Energy efflux,
u t
Ex2 = u dx dy C p t dx
x x
Neglecting the product of small quantities,
t u
Ex2 = C p dy ut u dx t dx
x x
iii. Net energy convection = Ex1 – Ex2
t u
= – Cp u t dx dy
x x
b. In Y-direction :
i. Similarly, net energy convection in Y-direction,
= Ey1 – Ey2
t v
= ( v dx) Cpt – Cpdx v t v dy t dy
y y
t v
= C p v t dx dy
y y
4. Conduction heat rate in Y-direction,
t t t
= kdx kdx dy
y y y y
2t
= k dx dy
y2
5. Due to relative motion of fluid in the boundary layer there will be
viscous effects which will cause heat generation.
Viscous force =Shear stress × Area upon which it acts
u
= (dx × 1)
y
6. The viscous force will act through a distance ‘s’ which can be given
as
u
s = dy
y
2
u u u
Viscous heat generation = dx dy dxdy
y y y
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7. Now, for steady state condition, the algebraic sum of heat due to
convection, conduction and viscous effect equals to zero. Thus
2
t u t v 2 t u
C p u t v t dxdy + k dxdy + µ dxdy = 0
x x y y y2 y
2
t t u v 2t u
or – Cp u v t k 2 = 0 ...(1)
x y x y y y
u v
8. For a two-dimensional boundary layer flow, = 0 and
x y
therefore eq. (1) can be written as,
2
t t k 2t u
u v =
x y C p y2 C p y
which represents the differential energy equation for flow past a
flat plate.
9. If the heat generation due to viscous effects is negligible, then the
energy equation can be re-written as
t t k 2t 2t
u v = 2
=
x y C p y y2
k
Where, = = Thermal diffusivity
C p
b. Derive an expression of effectiveness for parallel flow heat
exchanger by using NTU method.
Ans.
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(1)
= – m Cph dth = m Cpc dtc
= – Ch dth = Ccdtc ...(2)
2. From eq. (2), we get
dQ dQ
dth = and dtc = ...(3)
Ch Cc
1 1
d(th – tc) = – dQ ...(4)
Ch Cc
3. Putting the value of dQ from eq. (1) in eq. (4), we have
d(th tc ) 1 1
= – UdA ...(5)
(th tc ) Ch Cc
4. On integrating the eq. (5), we get
(th2 tc2 ) 1 1
ln = – UA
(th1 tc1 ) C
h Cc
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(th2 tc2 ) UA Ch
ln
( t t )
= 1
h1 c1 Ch Cc
(th2 tc2 ) UA C
h
= exp 1 ...(6)
(th1 tc1 ) Ch Cc
5. The expression of effectiveness is :
Ch (th1 th2 ) Cc (tc2 tc1 )
= =
Cmin (th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
So, th2 = th1 – ...(7)
Ch
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(8)
Cc
6. On putting value of th2 and tc2 from eq. (7) and (8) in eq. (6), we get
1 1 1
(th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
(th1 tc1 ) C
h C
c
UA C
= exp 1 h
Ch Cc
1 1 UA Ch
or 1 – Cmin = exp 1
C
h Cc C
h Cc
UA Ch
1 exp 1 C
Ch c
or = ...(9)
1 1
Cmin
Ch Cc
7. If Cc > Ch, then Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc, hence eq. (9) will be,
UA Cmin
1 exp 1 C
Cmin max
= ...(10)
C
1 min
Cmax
8. If Cc < Ch, then Cmin = Cc and Cmax = Ch, hence eq. (9) will be,
UA Cmax
1 exp 1
Cmax Cmin
= ...(11)
C
1 min
Cmax
9. On rearranging eq. (10) and eq. (11), we have
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UA Cmin
1 exp 1 C
Cmin max
= ...(12)
C
1 min
Cmax
Cmin UA
Since, R= and = NTU
Cmax Cmin
1 exp (NTU)(1 R)
=
1 R
11. a. Write a short notes on condensation. Describe various
regimes of boiling.
Ans.
A. Condensation :
1. It is a process in which vapour phase of a substance changes to
liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of vaporisation.
2. Following are the modes of condensation :
i. Filmwise Condensation :
1. In film condensation, the condensation liquid wet the surface
and forms a liquid film.
2. This liquid film gradually deposits on the surface which acts as
a resistance to heat flow from the surface and hence it prevents
the heat transfer between the condensing vapour and surface.
Q t < tsat
g
Vapour
tv | tsat
Condensate film
Fig. 7. Filmwise condensation.
ii. Dropwise Condensation :
1. In dropwise condensation, the vapour condenses into small
liquid droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface
randomly.
2. In this condensation process, a large portion of the area of
solid surface is directly exposed to vapour without an
insulating film of condensate liquid, consequently higher heat
transfer rate are achieved.
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ts < tsat
Q
Condensate
drops
Vapour
tv | tsat
Fig. 8. Dropwise condensation.
B. Regimes of Boiling : Different boiling regimes are given below :
i. Free Convection Boiling :
1. Free convection boiling exists when excess temperature (∆te) is
less than 5 °C.
2. In this region, the liquid near the surface is superheated slightly
and convection currents circulate the liquid and evaporation takes
place at the liquid surface.
ii. Nucleate Boiling :
1. Nucleate boiling exists when temperature te is between 5 °C to
50 °C (5 te 50 °C).
2. This type of boiling exists in region II and III.
3. With the increase in te (excess temperature) the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localised spots
commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching
the liquid surface. In fact, it is the region II where nucleate boiling
starts.
4. With further increase in te the bubbles are formed more rapidly
and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation,
as indicated in the region III.
5. The nucleate boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles
at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid agitation.
iii. Film Boiling :
1. Film boiling is also called unstable boiling or transition boiling which
exists between 50 °C to 150 °C (50 °C te 150 °C).
2. In this region bubble formation is very high and vapour film form
only on the fraction of surface.
3. The film acts as a thermal resistance in heat flow path, hence heat
transfer rate decreases.
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Interface
evaporation or Nucleate Film
free convection boiling boiling
I II III IV V VI
Bubbles Bubbles Unstable Stable Radiation
condense rise to film film coming into
in super surface A play B
qs(W/m 2)
Heat transferred heated
by superheated liquid
liquid rising to
the liquid-vapour
interface Spheroidal
where evaporation state beginning
takes place
ve
g cu r
B oilin
Excess temperature, t e = t s – t sat
Fig. 9. The boiling curve for water.
b. What is time constant ? The steel ball bearings of 40 mm
diameter and initially at uniform temperature of 600 °C are
quenched in an oil bath maintained at 50 °C temperature.
The heat transfer coefficient between the ball bearing and
oil is 325 W/m2-K and the thermodynamics properties of the
bearing can be taken as : k = 45 W/m-K and thermal
diffusivity = 1.25 x 10–5 m2/s. Determine :
a. The time duration for which bearing must remain in oil to
attain 225 °C temperature.
b. The instantaneous heat transfer rate from the bearings
when they are first immersed in oil and when they reach
225°C.
Ans.
A. Time Constant :
1. Time constant is the time required for the temperature change to
reach 36.8 % of its final value in response to a step change in
temperature.
Mathematically,
VC
* =
hAs
B. Numerical :
Given : d = 40 mm, ti = 600 °C, ta = 50 °C, h = 325 W/m2-K,
k = 45 W/m-K, = 1.25 × 10 – 5 m2/s.
4 3
r 0.04 / 2
Volume r
1. We know that, LC = 3 2 =
Surface area 4 r 3 3
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= 6.67× 10–3 m
hLC 325 6.67 103
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.0482
k 45
Since Bi < 0.1, so lumped parameter analysis is applicable here.
hA h A 3 k
3. Now, = = h C
VC C V k r
1.25 105 3
= 325 = 0.01354
45 0.04 / 2
4. From lumped parameter analysis,
t ta hA
= exp
ti ta VC
225 50
= exp (– 0.01354 )
600 50
0.01354 = loge 3.143 = 1.1452
1.1452
= = 84.58 s
0.01354
5. The total energy transferred is,
hA
Qt = VC (ti – ta) exp 1
VC
k 45
Now, C = = = 36 × 105
1.25 10 5
hA
exp = exp (– 0.01354 × 84.58) = 0.3182
VC
3
4 0.04
Qt = 36 × 105 ×
2
3
× (600 – 50) × (0.3182 – 1)
= – 45281 J/s or 45.28 kW
(Negative sign shows heat loss)
5. Instantaneous heat flow rate is given as,
hA
Qi = – hA (ti – ta) exp
VC
2
0.04
= – 325 × 4× × (600 – 50) × (0.3182)
2
= 285.9 J/s
= 285.9 W
12. a. What is the significance of Heisler chart ? Describe various
types of Heisler chart. What is characteristic length ?
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Ans.
A. Significance of Heisler Charts :
t t
1. The chart plotted with temperature 0 a versus Fo (Fourier
ti ta
1
number) for various values of for solids of different geometrical
Bi
shapes such as plates, cylinders and spheres are known as Heisler
charts.
2. These charts provide the temperature history of solid at its mid
planes (x = 0), temperatures at other locations are worked out by
multiplying the mid plane temperature by correction factor read
from charts.
3. From Heisler chart, the value of Bi (Biot number) and Fo (Fourier
number) are calculated on the basis of characteristic parameter S
which is semi-thickness in case of plates and surface radius in case
of cylinder and spheres.
4. Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature
distribution.
B. Types of Heisler Charts :
a. Type I :
1. These are plotted between dimensionless temperature ratio
(t0 – ta)/(ti – ta) at the centre and Fourier number F0 with 1/Bi as a
parameters.
2. These are used to determine the centre temperature from
knowledge of Bi and F0.
b. Types II :
1. These are plotted between dimensionless temperature ratio
(t0 – ta)/(ti – ta) and 1/Bi with x / l as a parameter.
2. These plots along with plots of type I can be used to determine the
temperature at any location from a knowledge of Bi, F0 and x / l.
3. The temperature at any location can be calculated as,
t ta t0 ta t ta
=
ti ta ti ta t0 ta
c. Type III :
1. These are plotted between dimensionless heat transfer Q / Qi and
F0Bi2 with Bi as a parameter.
2. These plots can be used to estimate the energy transferred during
the time interval = 0 to = from a knowledge of Bi and F0.
C. Characteristic Length :
1. It is the ratio of volume of the solid to the surface area of the solid.
Mathematically,
LC = V / As
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b. An egg with mean diameter of 40 mm and initially at 20 °C is
placed in a boiling water pan for 4 minutes and found to be
boiled to the consumer’s taste. For how long should a similar
egg for same consumer be boiled when taken from a
refrigerator at 5 °C. Take the following properties for egg :
k = 10 W/m-°C, = 1200 kg/m 3, C = 2 kJ/kg-°C and
h = 100 W/m2 -°C.
Ans.
Given : R = 40 / 2 = 20 mm = 0.02 m, ti = 20 °C, = 4 × 60 = 240 sec,
k = 10 W/m-°C, = 1200 kg/m3, C = 2 kJ/kg-°C, h = 100 W/m2-°C,
ta = 100 °C.
To Find : Time taken to boiled the egg when it is taken from a
refrigerator at 5 °C.
1. We know that,
hLC
Biot number, Bi =
k
h R 100 0.02
Bi = =
k 3 10 3
4 / 3 R3 R
= 0.067 LC
4 R2 3
As Bi < 0.1, we can use lump theory.
2. From lump parameter analysis,
t ta hA
= exp ...(1)
ti ta VC
hA h A 100 3
= =
VC C V 1200 2000 R
100 3
= = 0.00625
1200 2000 0.02
3. Substituting the above value in eq. (1), we get
t 100
= e–0.00625×240 = e–1.50 = 0.223
20 100
or, t = 100 + (20 – 100) × 0.223 = 82.16 °C 82 °C
4. Again using eq. (1), we get
82 100 1
= e–0.00625 = 0.00625
5 100 e
1
0.1895 = 0.00625
e
0.00625 = 1.6633
1.6633
= = 266.13 s = 4.435 minutes
0.00625
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2017-18
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Note : Be precise and scientific in writing.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer
coefficient ?
b. What is the significance of heat transfer ?
c. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
d. Explain the significance of Heisler’s charts.
e. Define gray body.
f. Define Prandtl number.
g. What is intensity of radiation ?
h. What is radiation shield ?
i. Define condensation and their types.
j. How heat exchangers are classified ?
Section-B
2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. A furnace wall is composed of 220 mm of fire brick, 150 mm
of common brick, 50 mm of 85 % magnesia and 3 mm of steel
plate on the outside. If the inside surface temperature is
1500 °C and outside surface temperature is 90 °C, estimate
the temperature between layers and calculate the heat loss
in kJ/hm2. Assume, k (for fire brick) = 4 kJ/mh°C, k (for
common brick) = 2.8 kJ/mh°C, k (for 85 % magnesia)
= 2.4 kJ/mh°C, k (steel) = 240 kJ/mh°C.
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b. Derive an expression of rectangular fin in case of heat
dissipation from an infinite long fin. What are advantages
and application of fins ?
c. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate
the following using exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thicknesses on one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and
the heat transfer rate.
d. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.
e. Define pool boiling and also explain regimes of pool boiling
with the help of diagram.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. A carbon steel (k = 45 W/m°K) 600 mm × 900 mm × 25 mm is
maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the hot plate. If
convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2°C and 250 W
is lost from the plate surface by radiation. Calculate the
inside plate temperature.
b. Derive a general heat conduction equation in case of
cylindrical coordinate.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Prove that for a body whose thermal resistance is zero, the
temperature required for cooling or heating can be obtained
from the relation (t – ta)/(ti – ta) = exp [– Bi Fo], where the
symbols have their usual meanings.
b. A large metal plate of thickness 5 cm is initially at 460 °C. It
is suddenly exposed to fluid at 100 °C with a convection
coefficient of 142.5 W/m2K. Find the time needed for its mid
plane to reach a temperature of 316 °C and surface
temperature at the s ame instant of time. Take
k = 21.25 W/m K and = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.
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b. A 350 mm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at
24 °C while its temperature is maintained at 80 °C. Calculate
the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the
plate. If a similar plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is
blown over it at a velocity of 5 m/s, find the boundary layer
thickness at its trailing edge. Also determine the average
heat transfer coefficient, for natural and forced convection
for the above mentioned data.
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. A small convex object of area A 1, temperature T1 and
emissivity 1 is enclosed within a large enclosure at
temperature T2 and emissivity 2. Derive an expression for
the net heat exchange between the two objects.
b. Consider two large parallel plates one at t1 = 727 °C with
emissivity 1 = 0.8 and other at 227 °C with emissivity
1 = 0.4. An aluminium radiation shield with an emissivity,
s = 0.05 on both sides is placed between the plates. Calculate
the percentage reduction in heat transfer rate between the
two plates as a result of shield. Use = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated
from 25 °C to 65 °C by an oil with a specific heat of
1.45 kJ/kg K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled
from 230 °C to 160 °C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient
is 420 W/m2°C. Calculate the following :
i. the rate of heat transfer,
ii. the mass flow rate of water, and
iii. the surface area of the heat exchanger.
b. Derive an expression for effectiveness by NTU method for
parallel flow.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2017-18)
Note : Be precise and scientific in writing.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer
coefficient ?
Ans. Overall heat transfer coefficient is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
b. What is the significance of heat transfer ?
Ans. The discipline of the heat transfer encompasses a great many
fascinating areas like :
1. Proper functioning of valves and other controls operated by
temperature changes, thermal control of space vehicles.
2. Refrigeration and air conditioning units and many other cooling
and heating appliances.
c. Explain effectiveness and efficiency of fin.
Ans. Fin Effectiveness : It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer rate
with fin to the heat transfer rate without fin.
fin = Qfin/Qwithout fin
Efficiency of Fin (fin) : It is defined as the ratio of actual heat
transferred by fin to maximum heat transferable by fin, if entire fin
area were at base temperature.
fin = Qfin/Qmax
d. Explain the significance of Heisler’s charts.
Ans.
1. From Heisler chart, the value of Bi (Biot number) and Fo (Fourier
number) are calculated on the basis of characteristic parameter S
which is semi-thickness in case of plates and surface radius in case
of cylinder and spheres.
2. Heisler charts are extensively used to determine the temperature
distribution.
e. Define gray body.
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Ans. Gray body is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a surface
does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the incident
radiation.
i.e., = () = constant
f. Define Prandtl number.
Ans. Prandtl number is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity () to
thermal diffusivity ().
Mathematically,
c p
Pr =
k
g. What is intensity of radiation ?
Ans. Intensity of radiation is defined as the rate of energy leaving a
surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the
emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
h. What is radiation shield ?
Ans. A radiation shield is a barrier wall of low emissivity placed between
two surfaces which reduce the radiation between the bodies.
i. Define condensation and their types.
Ans. Condensation : It is define as a process in which vapour phase of
a substance changes to liquid phase by releasing its latent heat of
vapourisation.
Types of Condensation :
1. Filmwise condensation.
2. Dropwise condensation.
j. How heat exchangers are classified ?
Ans. Heat exchangers are classified as follows :
i. Classification According to Nature of Heat Exchanger :
1. Direct contact heat exchanger.
2. Indirect contact heat exchanger.
ii. Classification According to Relative Direction of Fluid :
1. Parallel flow.
2. Counter flow.
3. Cross flow.
iii. Classification According to Design and Constructional
Features :
1. Concentric tubes.
2. Shell and tube.
3. Multiple shell and tube passes.
iv. Classification According to Physical State of Fluids :
1. Evaporator.
2. Condenser.
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Section-B
2. Attempt any three parts of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. A furnace wall is composed of 220 mm of fire brick, 150 mm
of common brick, 50 mm of 85 % magnesia and 3 mm of steel
plate on the outside. If the inside surface temperature is
1500 °C and outside surface temperature is 90 °C, estimate
the temperature between layers and calculate the heat loss
in kJ/hm2. Assume, k (for fire brick) = 4 kJ/mh°C, k (for
common brick) = 2.8 kJ/mh°C, k (for 85 % magnesia)
= 2.4 kJ/mh°C, k (steel) = 240 kJ/mh°C.
Ans.
Given : LA = 220 mm = 0.22 m, LB = 150 mm = 0.15 m,
LC = 50 mm = 0.05 m, LD = 3 mm = 0.003 m, t1 = 1500 °C, t5 = 90 °C,
kA = 4 kJ/mh-°C, kB = 2.8 kJ/mh-°C, kC = 2.4 kJ/mh-°C,
kD = 240 kJ/mh-°C.
To Find : i. Heat loss.
ii. Temperature between layers.
1. The equivalent thermal resistances of various layers are as follows :
LA 0.22
Rth–A = = 0.055 m2h-°C/kJ
kA 4
LB 0.15
Rth–B = = 0.05357 m2h-°C/kJ
kB 2.8
LC 0.05
Rth–C = = 0.02083 m2h-°C/kJ
kC 2.4
LD 0.003
Rth–D = = 1.25 × 10–5 m2h-°C/kJ
kD 240
2. Total thermal resistance,
(Rth)total = 0.055 + 0.05357 + 0.02083 + 1.25 × 10–5
= 0.1294 m2h-°C/kJ
(t1 t5 ) (1500 90)
3. Heat loss, q= = 10896.445 kJ/hm2
( Rth )total 0.1294
t4 t5
4. Also, q=
Rth D
or t4 = t5 + q Rth–D = 90 + 10896.445 × 1.25 × 10–5
= 90.136 °C
5. Similarly, t3 = t4 + q Rth–C = 90.136 + 10896.445 × 0.02083
= 317.109 °C
and t2 = t3 + q Rth–B = 317.109 + 10896.445 × 0.05357
= 900.83 °C
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Fire brick (A)
Common brick ( B)
Magnesia (C)
Steel plate ( D)
1 2 3 45
1500 °C
90 °C
(t1)
(t5)
220 150 3 mm
mm mm 50
mm
Fig. 1.
b. Derive an expression of rectangular fin in case of heat
dissipation from an infinite long fin. What are advantages
and application of fins ?
Ans.
A. Temperature Distribution and Heat Transfer Rate for
Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature
distribution along the fin is necessary.
2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are
made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
ii. No heat generation within the fin.
iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a
distance x from the base.
7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
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dt
Qx = – kA CS
dx x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),
P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element
x
Fig. 2. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.
dt
Qx + dx = – kACS
dx x dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and
(x + dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
dt dt
– kA CS = – kA CS + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2)
dx x dx x dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
dt dt d dt d 2 dt ( dx)2
dx =
dx 2 ... ...(3)
x dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2), we have
dt dt d dt
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS dx
dx x dx x dx dx x
d 2 dt (dx)2
– kA CS
... h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2 dx x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx 0,
dt dt d2t
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS 2 dx + h (P dx) (t –
dx x dx x dx
ta )
d2t
kA CS 2 dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
dx
d2t hP
or – (t – ta ) 0 ...(4)
dx2 kACS
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12. If temperature excess is,
= t – ta ...(5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or 2
= ...(6)
dx dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
d 2
– m2 = 0 ...(7)
dx 2
hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (4) and eq. (7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
= C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by
using proper boundary conditions.
Case : When Heat is Dissipated from an Infinite Long Fin :
1. The fin is infinitely long and temperature at the end of fin is that
of ambient/surrounding fluid. In this case, the boundary conditions
are :
i. At x = 0, t = t0
t – ta = to – ta
or, at x = 0, = 0
ii. At x = , t = ta
or x = , = 0
2. Substituting these boundary condition in eq. (8), we get
= 0 e–mx
or (t – ta) = (t0 – ta) e–mx ...(9)
3. Differentiating eq. (9) w.r.t. x, we get,
dt –mx
dx = [– m (t0 – ta) e ]x = 0 = – m (t0 – ta) ...(10)
x0
4. Rate of heat flow across the base of fin is given by,
dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
dt
Putting the value of from eq. (10) in above equation, we
dx x 0
get
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta)
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B. Advantages :
1. By using the fin, heat transfer rate can be increased without any
preventive maintenance.
2. It is the cheapest way for increasing the heat transfer rate from the
hot bodies.
C. Applications :
1. Economisers for steam power plants,
2. Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems,
3. Radiators for automobiles, and
4. Air cooled engine cylinder heads.
c. Castor oil at 25 °C flows at a velocity of 0.1 m/s past a flat
plate in a certain process. If the plate is 4.5 m long and is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 95 °C. Calculate
the following using exact solution :
i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thicknesses on one side of the plate,
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate,
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge, and
the heat transfer rate.
Ans.
Given : t = 25 °C, ts = 95 °C, L = 4.5 m, U = 0.1 m/s.
To Find : i. The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thickness on one side of the plate.
ii. The total drag force per unit width on one side of the
plate.
iii. The local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
and the heat transfer rate.
Data Assumed :
= 0.65 × 10–4 m2/s, = 7.2 × 10– 8 m2/s,
k = 0.213 W/m-°C, = 956.8 kg/m3
1. Reynolds number at the end of the plate,
UL 0.1 4.5
Re = = 6923
0.65 10 4
Re < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
5L 5 4.5
=
Re 6923
= 0.2704 m = 270.4 mm
3. The thermal boundary layer thickness,
th =
( Pr )1/ 3
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0.65 104
Where, Pr = = 902.77
7.2 10 8
0.2704
th = = 0.02798 m = 27.98 mm
(902.77)1/3
4. The average skin friction coefficient is given by,
1.328
Cf =
Re
1.328
Cf = = 0.01596
6923
5. The total drag force,
1
FD = Cf U 2 × Area of plate (for one side)
2
1
= 0.01596 × × 956.8 × (0.1)2 × (4.5 × 1)
2
= 0.3436 N/m
hx x
6. Nux = = 0.332 (Rex)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
= 0.332 × (6923)1/2 (902.77)1/3 = 266.98
266.98 k 266.98 0.213
or, hx = = 12.64 W/m2-°C
x 4.5
7. Local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge,
h = 2hx = 2 × 12.64 = 25.28 W/m2-°C
8. Heat transfer rate,
Q = h As (ts t )
= 25.28 × (4.5 × 1) × (95 – 25) = 7963.2 W
d. Explain diffuse emitter and radiation shape factor.
Ans.
A. Diffuse Emitter :
1. A surface whose emittance is same for all directions is called a
diffuse emitter.
2. No real surface can be a diffuse emitter because electromagnetic
wave theory predicts a zero emittance at = /2 for all materials.
3. Example : Black body.
x
dA
Fig. 3. Diffuse emitter.
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B. Radiation Shape Factor :
1. It is defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is diffused
from one surface and strikes the other surface directly with no
intervening reflections.
2. When heat transfer takes place between two bodies, the shape
factor relation is given by,
A1F1–2 = A2F2–1
This is called reciprocity theorem.
3. For flat and convex surfaces, the shape factor with respect to
itself is zero because the energy leaving the surface never returns
on the same surface
i.e., F1–1 = F2–2 = F3–3 = ....Fii = 0.
4. For concave surfaces, the shape factor with respect to itself is
never zero.
5. The shape factor is purely a function of geometrical parameters.
e. Define pool boiling and also explain regimes of pool boiling
with the help of diagram.
Ans.
A. Pool Boiling : This is the case when the liquid above the hot
surface is essentially stagnant and its motion near the surface is
due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and
detachment. It occurs in steam boilers involving natural convection.
B. Regimes of Boiling : Different boiling regimes are given below :
a. Free Convection Boiling :
1. Free convection boiling exists when excess temperature (te) is
less than 5 °C.
2. In this region, the liquid near the surface is superheated slightly
and convection currents circulate the liquid and evaporation takes
place at the liquid surface.
b. Nucleate Boiling :
1. Nucleate boiling exists when temperature te is between 5 °C to
50 °C (5 te 50 °C).
2. This type of boiling exists in region II and III.
3. With the increase in te (excess temperature) the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localised spots
commences. The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching
the liquid surface. In fact, it is the region II where nucleate boiling
starts.
4. With further increase in te the bubbles are formed more rapidly
and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid evaporation,
as indicated in the region III.
5. The nucleate boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles
at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid agitation.
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Interface
evaporation or Nucleate Film
free convection boiling boiling
I II III IV V VI
Bubbles Bubbles Unstable Stable Radiation
condense rise to film film coming into
in super surface A play B
qs(W/m 2)
Heat transferred heated
by superheated liquid
liquid rising to
the liquid-vapour
interface Spheroidal
where evaporation state beginning
takes place
ve
g cu r
B oilin
Excess temperature, t e = t s – t sat
Fig. 4. The boiling curve for water.
c. Film Boiling :
1. Film boiling is also called unstable boiling or transition boiling which
exists between 50 °C to 150 °C (50 °C te 150 °C).
2. In this region bubble formation is very high and vapour film form
only on the fraction of surface.
3. The film acts as a thermal resistance in heat flow path, hence heat
transfer rate decreases.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. A carbon steel (k = 45 W/m°K) 600 mm × 900 mm × 25 mm is
maintained at 310 °C. Air at 15 °C blows over the hot plate. If
convection heat transfer coefficient is 22 W/m2°C and 250 W
is lost from the plate surface by radiation. Calculate the
inside plate temperature.
Ans.
Given : A = 600 mm × 900 mm = 0.6 × 0.9 = 0.54 m2
L = 25 mm = 0.025 m, ts = 310 °C, tf = 15 °C, h = 22 W/m2-°C
Qrad.= 250 W, k = 45 W/m-°C
To Find : Inside plate temperature.
1. In this case the heat conducted through the plate is removed from
the plate surface by the combination of convection and radiation.
Heat conducted through the plate = Convection heat losses
+ Radiation heat losses
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Qrad.
tf = 15 °C
Air
(fluid)
Qconv. = hA(ts - tf) ts = 310 °C
L = 25 mm
Heat conducted through wall, Qcond.
Fig. 5. Combination of conduction, convection and
radiation heat transfer.
Qcond. = Qconv. + Qrad.
dt
–kA = hA (ts – tf) + 250
dx
(t ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × s = 22 × 0.54 × (310 – 15) + 250
L
(310 ti )
– 45 × 0.54 × = 22 × 0.54 × 295 + 250
0.025
972 (ti – 310) = 3754.6
3754.6
ti = 310 = 313.86 °C
972
b. Derive a general heat conduction equation in case of
cylindrical coordinate.
Ans.
1. Consider an elemental volume having the coordinate (r, , z) for
three dimensional heat conduction analysis as shown in Fig. 6.
Q(z + dz)
d z
rd
Z
Q( + d)
(r, , z) Qr (r – )
A plane
dr
dz (z – ) Elemental
plane
Q volume
z Y (r – z)
A (r, , z)
r plane dz
Q(r + dr )
dr r
X
Qz
Fig. 6. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cylindrical coordinates.
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2. The volume of the element,
dv = r d dr dz.
Let qg = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume
per unit time.
k = Thermal conductivity.
= Density.
c = Specific heat capacity.
3. The heat flowing in the control volume in radial direction i.e.,
(z – ) plane :
t
Heat influx, Qr = – k(rd dz) d
r
Heat efflux, Q(r + dr) = Qr + (Qr) dr
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQr = Qr – Q(r + dr)
t
=– (Qr) dr = – [– k(r d dz) d] dr
r r r
t
= k(dr d dz) r d
r r
2 t 1 t
dQr = k(dr rd dz) 2 d
r r r
4. Heat flow in tangential direction i.e., (r-z) plane
t
Heat influx, Q = – k(dr dz) d
r
Heat efflux,Q( + d) = Q + (Q) rd
r
Heat stored in the element,
dQ = Q – Q( + d)
t
=– (Q) rd = – k(dr dz) r d rd
r r
1 2t
dQ = k(dr rd dz) d
r 2 2
5. Heat flow in axial direction i.e., (r-) plane
t
Heat influx, Qz = – k(rd dr) d
z
Heat efflux, Q(z + dz) = Qz + (Qz) dz
z
Heat stored in the element,
dQz = Qz – Q(z + dz)
t
=– k( rd dr ) z d dz
z
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2 t
dQz = k(dr rddz) d
z2
6. Net heat stored in the element
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
= k. dr rddz 2 · 2 2 2 d
r r r r z
7. Heat generated within the control volume,
Qg = qg dr rd dz d
8. The increase in thermal energy in the element equal to
t
= dr rd dz c
d
9. From the principle of conservation of energy :
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2 t
kdr rd dz 2 d + qg dr rd dzd
r r r r 2 2 z2
t
= dr rd dzc d
2 t 1 t 1 2 t 2t q g c t 1 t
or = = ...(1)
r 2 r r r 2 2 z2 k k
This is the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates.
10. For steady-state, unidirectional heat flow in the radial direction,
and with no internal heat generation, eq. (1) reduces to
2 t 1 t
2 =0
r r r
1 d dt
or r =0
r dr dr
1
Since 0
r
d dt dt
r = 0 or r = constant
dr dr dr
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Prove that for a body whose thermal resistance is zero, the
temperature required for cooling or heating can be obtained
from the relation (t – ta)/(ti – ta) = exp [– Bi Fo], where the
symbols have their usual meanings.
Ans.
1. Let us consider a body whose initial temperature is ti throughout
and which is placed suddenly in ambient air or any liquid at a
constant temperature ta.
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2. The transient response of the body can be determined by relating
its rate of change of internal energy with convective exchange at
the surface i.e.,
dt
Q = – VC = h AS (t – ta) ...(1)
d
Where, = 3
Density of solid, kg/m ,
t= Temperature of the body at any time, °C,
V= Volume of the body, m3,
AS = Surface area of the body, m2,
C= Specific heat of body, J/kg-°C,
ta = Ambient temperature, °C,
h= Unit surface conductance, W/m2 °C, and
= Time, s.
Negligible internal
thermal resistance
Control Eout = Qconv.
surface
Body
System
= 0, t = ti
> 0, t = f()
Fig. 7. General system for unsteady heat conduction.
S
ti
1
Cth = VC Rth =
hAs
ta
Fig. 8. Equivalent thermal circuit for lumped capacitance solid.
3. On rearranging the eq. (1), we get
dt h AS
=– d
t ta VC
On integrating both sides, we get
dt h AS
tt =
VC
d
a
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h AS
ln (t – ta) = + C1 ...(2)
VC
The boundary conditions are :
At = 0, t = ti (Initial surface temperature)
C1 = ln (ti – ta)
h AS
Hence, ln (t – ta) = + ln (ti – ta)
VC
t ta h AS
or = = exp ...(3)
ti ta i VC
h AS
4. The power on exponential i.e., can be arranged in
VC
dimensionless form as follows,
h AS hV AS2 k h LC
= kA V 2C = k L2 ...(4)
VC S c
Where, = [k / C] = Thermal diffusivity of solid.
LC = Characteristic length.
Volume of solid (V )
=
Surfacearea of solid( AS )
5. In eq. (4),
h LC
i. The non-dimensional factor is called Biot number Bi, and
k
ii. The non-dimensional factor 2 is called the Fourier number Fo.
LC
6. Using the non-dimensional term, eq. (3) becomes
t ta
= = e–Bi Fo
i ti ta
b. A large metal plate of thickness 5 cm is initially at 460 °C. It
is suddenly exposed to fluid at 100 °C with a convection
coefficient of 142.5 W/m2K. Find the time needed for its mid
plane to reach a temperature of 316 °C and surface
temperature at the s ame instant of time. Take
k = 21.25 W/m K and = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec.
Ans.
Given : L = 5 cm, ti = 460 °C, ta = 100 °C, h = 142.5 W/m2-K,
t0 = 316 °C, k = 21.25 W/m-K, = 1.2 × 10–5 m2/sec
To Find : i. Time.
ii. Surface temperature.
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L 5
1. Characteristic length, LC = = 2.5 × 10 – 2 m
2 2
hLC 142.5 2.5 10 2
2. Biot number, Bi = = 0.168
k 21.25
As Bi > 0.1, therefore lumped analysis cannot be applied in this
case, further as Bi < 100, Heisler charts can be used to obtain the
solution of the problem.
t ta 316 100 1 1
3. Now, o = 0.6 and = 5.95 6
ti ta 460 100 Bi 0.168
Corresponding to the above parametric values, from Heisler charts,
Fo = 3.4
= 3.4
Lc2
1.2 10 5
= 3.4
(2.5 10 2 )2
= 177 sec
x
4. At surface, = 1. Now corresponding to x/L = 1 and 1/Bi = 6, from
L
Heisler charts,
t ta
= 0.92
to ta
t 100
= 0.92
316 100
t = 298.72 °C.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the equation for boundary layer thickness.
Ans.
The equation for boundary layer thickness can be obtained in terms
of displacement, momentum and energy that are discussed as
below :
a. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of
formation of boundary layer. It is denoted by *.
2. Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 9.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from
the plate.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
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Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U
y
Stationary plate
Fig. 9. Displacement thickness.
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
= (U u) dy ...(1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of
mass of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(2)
9. On equating eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
U* = (U u) dy
0
u
* = 1 U dy
0
b. Momentum Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by .
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. Momentum/sec of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy × u = u2dy
4. Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering the
boundary layer = uUdy
5. Loss of momentum/sec = uUdy – u2dy = u(U – u) dy
6. Total loss of momentum/sec = u(U u)dy ...(3)
0
7. Let be the distance by which plate is displaced when fluid is
flowing with a constant velocity U. Then, loss of momentum/sec of
fluid flowing through distance with a velocity U
= U 2 ...(4)
8. On equating eq. (3) and eq. (4), we get
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U2 = u(U u)dy
0
u u
= U 1 U dy
0
c. Energy Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid
on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by e.
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. KE of this fluid inside the boundary layer
1 1
= mu2 = (udy)u2
2 2
4. KE of same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer
1
= (udy)U2
2
5. Loss of KE through elementary strip
1 1 1
= (udy) U2 – (udy)u2 = u (U2 – u2)dy
2 2 2
1 2
6. So, total loss of KE of fluid = 2 u (U u2 ) dy ...(5)
0
7. Let e be the distance by which plate is displaced to compensate for
reduction in KE. Then, loss of KE through e of fluid flowing with
velocity U
1
= (Ue) U2 ...(6)
2
8. On equating eq. (5) and (6), we have
1 1 2
(Ue) U2 = 2 u (U u2 ) dy
2 0
1
2 2 u u2
e = u (U u ) dy = U 1 U 2 dy
U3 0 0
b. A 350 mm long glass plate is hung vertically in the air at
24 °C while its temperature is maintained at 80 °C. Calculate
the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the
plate. If a similar plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is
blown over it at a velocity of 5 m/s, find the boundary layer
thickness at its trailing edge. Also determine the average
heat transfer coefficient, for natural and forced convection
for the above mentioned data.
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Ans.
Given : L = 350 mm = 0.35 m, t= 24 °C, ts = 80 °C, U = 5 m/s
To Find : i. Boundary layer thickness at trailing edge for natural
and forced convection.
ii. Average heat transfer coefficient for natural and
forced convection.
ts t 80 24
1. Film temperature, tf = = 52 °C
2 2
2. The properties of air at 52 °C are : k = 28.15 × 10–3 W/m-°C,
= 18.41 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.7
1
= = 3.07 × 10–3 K–1
52 273
3. In case of free convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated
as below :
i. Grashof number,
L3 g (ts t )
Gr =
2
(0.35)3 9.81 3.07 10 3 (80 24)
=
(18.41 106 )2
= 2.133 × 108
ii. Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr Pr = 2.133 × 108 × 0.7 = 1.493 × 108
iii. As we know that,
= 3.93 (0.952 + Pr)1/4 (Gr)–1/4 (Pr)–1/2
x
or, = 0.35 [3.93 (0.952 + 0.7)1/4 (2.133 × 108) – 1/4 (0.7)–1/2]
= 0.0154 m
4. In case of forced convection the boundary layer thickness is calculated
as below :
i. Reynolds number,
UL 5 0.35
Re = = 9.505 × 104
18.41 106
Since Re < 5 × 105, hence the boundary layer is laminar.
ii. Now, boundary layer thickness is,
5L 5 0.35
= = 0.00567 m = 5.67 mm
Re 9.505 10 4
5. In case of free convection average heat transfer coefficient is
calculated as below :
i. Nusselt number,
hL
NuL = = 0.677 (Pr)1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 (Gr)1/4
k
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= 0.677 (0.7)1/2 (0.952 + 0.7)–1/4 (2.133 × 108)1/4
= 60.378
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15 10 3
h= 60.378 × 60.378
L 0.35
2
= 4.856 W/m -°C
6. In case of forced convection average heat transfer coefficient is
calculated as below :
i. Nusselt number,
hL
NuL = = 0.664 (Re)1/2 (Pr)1/3
k
= 0.664 (9.505 × 104)1/2 (0.7)1/3 = 181.78
ii. Heat transfer coefficient,
k 28.15 103
h= 181.78 × 181.78
L 0.35
= 14.62 W/m2-°C
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. A small convex object of area A 1, temperature T1 and
emissivity 1 is enclosed within a large enclosure at
temperature T2 and emissivity 2. Derive an expression for
the net heat exchange between the two objects.
Ans.
1. Consider a small body placed in a large enclosure.
2. The large gray enclosure acts like a black body, absorbing
practically all the radiation incident upon it and reflecting negligibly
small energy back to the small gray body.
3. In this case F1 – 2 = 1, since all the radiations emitted by the small
body would be intercepted by the outer large enclosure.
4. Thus, energy emitted by the enclosure 1 = A11 t14
Energy emitted by the enclosure 2 = A22 t24
Energy incident upon the small body 1 = F2–1 A22 t24
Energy absorbed by the small body 1 = 1 F2–1 A22 t24
= 12A2F2–1 t24
5. The net radiant heat exchange between the small body 1 and
outer large enclosure 2,
Q12 = 1A1t14 – 12A2F2–1t24
6. If t1 = t2 and Q12 = 0, we have
A1 = A2 2 F2–1
and Q12 = 1A1 (t14 – t24)
= f1–2 A1 (t14 – t24)
Where, f1 – 2 represents the equivalent emissivity or interchange
factor.
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b. Consider two large parallel plates one at t1 = 727 °C with
emissivity 1 = 0.8 and other at 227 °C with emissivity
1 = 0.4. An aluminium radiation shield with an emissivity,
s = 0.05 on both sides is placed between the plates. Calculate
the percentage reduction in heat transfer rate between the
two plates as a result of shield. Use = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4.
Ans.
Given : t1 = 727 °C = 727 + 273 = 1000 K, 1 = 0.8,
t2 = 227 °C = 227 + 273 = 500 K, 2 = 0.4,
s = 3 = 0.05, = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4
To Find : Percentage reduction in heat transfer.
1. Without shield,
Q12 (per unit area)
(t14 t24 )
=
1 1
1
1 2
1000 4 500 4
5.67
= 100 100 53156
1 1 2.75
1
0.8 0.4
= 19329 W
2. With shield,
(Q13)net = (Q32)net
A ( t14 t34 ) A ( t34 t24 )
=
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 3 3 2
4 4 4 4
1000 t3 t3 500
100 100 = 100 100
1 1 1 1
1 1
0.8 0.05 0.05 0.4
10000 x 4 x 4 625 t3
= Assuming, x
1.25 20 1 20 2.5 1 100
20.25 4
10000 – x4 = ( x 625)
21.5
10000 – x4 = 0.942 (x4 – 625)
= 0.942 x4 – 588.75
1.942 x4 = 10588.75 or x = 8.59
T3 = 100 × 8.59 = 859 K
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Radiation shield
Plate Plate
1 3 3 2
1 3 3 2
1000 K 500 K
Fig. 10.
1000 4 859 4
5.67
3. (Q13)net (per unit area) = 100 100
1 1
1
0.8 0.05
4555.3
= × 5.67 = 1273.2 W
20.25
4. Reduction in heat flow due to shield,
(Q12)net – (Q13)net = 19329 – 1273.2 = 18055.8 W
18055.8
5. Percentage reduction in heat transfer = = 93.41 %
19329
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated
from 25 °C to 65 °C by an oil with a specific heat of
1.45 kJ/kg K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled
from 230 °C to 160 °C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient
is 420 W/m2°C. Calculate the following :
i. the rate of heat transfer,
ii. the mass flow rate of water, and
iii. the surface area of the heat exchanger.
Ans.
.
Given : tc1 = 25 °C, tc2 = 65 °C, Cph = 1.45 kJ/kg-K, mh = 0.9 kg/s,
th1 = 230 °C, th2 = 160 °C, U = 420 W/m2-°C
To Find : i. The rate of heat transfer.
ii. The mass flow rate of water.
iii. The surface area of the heat exchanger.
1. The rate of heat transfer,
Q = mh C ph (th1 th2 )
Q = 0.9 × 1.45 × (230 – 160) = 91.35 kJ/s
2. Heat lost by oil (hot fluid) = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
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mh C ph (th1 th2 ) = mh C pc (tc 2 tc1 )
91.35 = mc × 4.187 × (65 – 25)
91.35
Mass flow rate of water, mc = = 0.545 kg/s
4.187 (65 25)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
th1 = 230 °C Oil 160 °C( th2)
tc2 = 65 °C Water 25 °C(tc1)
(a) Flow arrangement
th1 = 230 °C
1 Oil
( ho
t f lu
tc2 = 65 °C id )
W at e
r ( cold
fluid) th2 = 160 °C
2
tc1 = 25 °C
Area/Length
(b) Temperature distribution.
Fig. 11. Counter-flow heat exchanger.
3. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is given by,
1 2 (th1 tc2 ) ( th2 tc1 )
m = =
ln (1 / 2 ) ln [(th1 tc2 ) / (th2 tc1 )]
(230 65) (160 25)
=
ln [(230 65) / (160 25)]
165 135
m = =149.5 °C
ln [(165 / 135)]
4. We know that,Q = UAm
Q 91.35 103
A= = 1.45 m2
U m 420 149.5
b. Derive an expression for effectiveness by NTU method for
parallel flow.
Ans.
1. The heat exchange dQ through an area dA is given by,
dQ = UdA (th – tc) ...(1)
= – m Cph dth = m Cpc dtc
= – Ch dth = Ccdtc ...(2)
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2. From eq. (2), we get
dQ dQ
dth = and dtc = ...(3)
Ch Cc
1 1
d(th – tc) = – dQ ...(4)
C
h C c
3. Putting the value of dQ from eq. (1) in eq. (4), we have
d(th tc ) 1 1
= – UdA ...(5)
(th tc ) C
h Cc
4. On integrating the eq. (5), we get
(th2 tc2 ) 1 1
ln = – UA
(th1 tc1 ) C
h Cc
(th2 tc2 ) UA Ch
ln
( t t )
= 1
h1 c1 Ch Cc
(th2 tc2 ) UA C
h
( t t )
= exp 1 ...(6)
h1 c1 Ch Cc
5. The expression of effectiveness is :
Ch (th1 th2 ) Cc (tc2 tc1 )
= =
Cmin (th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
So, th2 = th1 – ...(7)
Ch
Cmin (th1 tc1 )
tc2 = tc1 + ...(8)
Cc
6. On putting value of th2 and tc2 from eq. (7) and (8) in eq. (6), we get
1 1 1
(th1 tc1 ) Cmin (th1 tc1 )
(th1 tc1 ) Ch Cc
UA Ch
= exp
C 1 C
h c
1 1 UA Ch
or1 – Cmin = exp 1
Ch Cc Ch Cc
UA Ch
1 exp 1 C
Ch c
or = ...(9)
1 1
Cmin
Ch Cc
7. If Cc > Ch, then Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc, hence eq. (9) will be,
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UA Cmin
1 exp 1 C
Cmin max
= ...(10)
C
1 min
Cmax
8. If Cc < Ch, then Cmin = Cc and Cmax = Ch, hence eq. (9) will be,
UA Cmax
1 exp 1 C
= Cmax min
...(11)
C
1 min
Cmax
9. On rearranging eq. (10) and eq. (11), we have
UA Cmin
1 exp 1 C
Cmin max
= ...(12)
C
1 min
Cmax
Cmin UA
Since, R= and = NTU
Cmax Cmin
1 exp (NTU)(1 R)
=
1 R
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. Define three different modes of heat transfer. Give a
practical example where all three modes are occurring
simultaneously.
b. What do you mean by the term thermal conductivity ? Why
good electrical conductor materials are also good heat
conductors ?
c. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer
coefficient ?
d. Write down the significance of critical radius of insulation.
e. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problems.
f. Define nusselt number and prandtl number.
g. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. A gas filled tube has 2 mm inner diameter and 25 cm long,
the gas is heated by an electrical wire of diameter 50 microns
located along the axis of the tube, the current and voltage
drop across the heating element are 0.5 A and 4 V
respectively. If the temperature of wire is 175 °C and inside
tube wall temperature is 150 °C respectively. Find the
thermal conductivity of the gas filling the tube.
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b. Derive the expression for temperature distribution and heat
dissipation in a straight fin of rectangular profile when fin
is of infinite length.
c. Explain the physical mechanism of free convection with
the help of example and neat sketch. Discus s the
significance of various dimensionless numbers with respect
to natural convection.
d. Define the following terms : total emissivity, monochromatic
emissive power and monochromatic emissivity.
e. Differentiate between dropwise and filmwise condensation.
Which type has higher heat transfer film coefficient and
why ?
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the 3-D steady state generalized heat conduction
equation (without internal heat generation) in cartesian
coordinate system. Write the assumptions used.
b. An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m
layer of common brick (k = 0.7 W/m °C) followed by a 0.04 m
layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m °C). What thickness of
loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m °C) should
be added to reduce the heat loss (or gain) through the wall
by 80 percent ?
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A steel rod (k = 32 W/m ° C), 12 mm in diameter and 60 mm
long, with an insulated end is to be used as spine. It is
exposed to surroundings with a temperature of 60 ° C and
heat transfer coefficient of 55 W/m2 ° C. The temperature at
the base of fin is 95 ° C. Determine :
i. The fin efficiency.
ii. The temperature at the edge of the spine.
iii. The heat dissipation.
b. A steel ball of 12 mm diameter is annealed by heating to
800 °C and then slowly cooled to 127 °C in air at 50 °C. The
heat transfer coefficient, h = 20 W/m °C. Calculate the time
required for air cooling process. The properties of steel are
k = 45 W/m °C, = 7830 kg/m3 and C = 600 J/kg-K.
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5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Air at atmospheric pressure and 200 °C flows over a flat
plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. The plate is 15 mm wide and is
maintained at a temperature of 120 °C. Calculate the
thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers
and the local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 0.5 m
from the leading edge. Assume that flow is on one side of
the plate.
b. Define the following terms with expression :
i. Boundary layer thickness
ii. Displacement thickness
iii. Momentum thickness
iv. Energy thicknes
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. The large parallel plates with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8
exchange heat. Find the percentage reduction when a
polished aluminium shield of emissivity 0.04 is placed
between them. Use the method of electrical analogy.
b. Derive the following relation for the radiant heat exchange
between two gray surfaces :
A1 (T14 T24 )
(Q12)net =
1 1 1 1 2 A1
+ +
1 F1 2 2 A2
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Steam at atmospheric pressure enters the shell of a surface
condenser in which the water flows through a bundle of
tubes of diameter 25 mm at the rate of 0.05 kg/s. The inlet
and outlet temperatures of water are 15 °C and 70 °C,
respectively. The condensation of steam takes place on the
outside surface of the tube. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 230 W/m2 °C, calculate the following, using NTU
method :
i. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger,
ii. The length of the tube, and
iii. The rate of steam condensation.
Take latent heat of vapourisation at 100 °C = 2257 kJ/kg
b. State Fick’s law of diffusion. What are its limitations ?
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. Define three different modes of heat transfer. Give a
practical example where all three modes are occurring
simultaneously.
Ans.
A. Modes of Heat Transfer : Following are the three modes of heat
transfer :
i. Conduction : Conduction is a mechanism of heat propagation
from region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
within a medium or between different mediums in direct physical
contact.
ii. Convection : Convection is a process of energy transport affected
by the circulation or mixing of a fluid medium.
iii. Radiation : Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of
energy across a system boundary by means of an electromagnetic
mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference. It
does not require a medium.
B. Example : The water in a boiler shell receives its heat from the fire
bed by conducted, convected and radiated heat from the fire of the
shell, conducted heat through the shell and conducted and convected
heat from the inner shell wall, to the water.
b. What do you mean by the term thermal conductivity ? Why
good electrical conductor materials are also good heat
conductors ?
Ans. Thermal Conductivity : It is a physical property of the substance
and is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat through
it. It is generally denoted by k and its unit is W/m-K.
Good Electrical Conductor Materials are also Good Heat
Conductors : Since, the ratio of the thermal and electrical
conductivities for all metals is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the metal, therefore the material which are good
conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.
c. What do you unders tand by overall heat trans fer
coefficient ?
Ans. Overall heat transfer coefficient is defined as a quantity which
gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
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temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
substance.
Q = UAT
Where, U = Overall heat transfer coefficient.
d. Write down the significance of critical radius of insulation.
Ans. Critical radius of insulation gives the condition for minimum
resistance and consequently maximum heat flow rate.
e. State the assumptions made in lumped heat capacity
method for analysis of transient heat conduction problems.
Ans. Assumptions made in lumped heat capacity method for analysis of
transient heat conduction are as follows :
1. The internal resistance is negligible in comparison with surface
resistance.
2. The temperature throughout the solid is considered to be uniform
at a given time.
f. Define nusselt number and prandtl number.
Ans. Nusselt Number : It is the ratio of heat transfer rate, Q to the rate
at which heat would be conducted within the fluid under a
temperature gradient of /L. Thus
Q Q L hL
Nu =
( k) / L k k
Prandtl Number : It is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity
() to thermal diffusivity ().
Mathematically,
c p
Pr =
k
g. Explain black body, white body, gray body and opaque body.
Ans. Black Body : A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits any part of the incident radiation but absorbs all of it.
i.e., = 1, = 0, = 0
White Body : If all the incident radiation falling on the body is
reflected, it is called a white body.
= 1, = 0 and = 0
Gray Body : It is defined as the body, whose absorptivity of a
surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
i.e., = () = constant
Opaque Body : When no incident radiation is transmitted through
the body, it is called an opaque body.
i.e., = 0 and + = 1
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Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. A gas filled tube has 2 mm inner diameter and 25 cm long,
the gas is heated by an electrical wire of diameter 50 microns
located along the axis of the tube, the current and voltage
drop across the heating element are 0.5 A and 4 V
respectively. If the temperature of wire is 175 °C and inside
tube wall temperature is 150 °C respectively. Find the
thermal conductivity of the gas filling the tube.
Ans.
Given : rt = 1 mm, L = 25 cm = 0.25 m, rw = 0.025 mm, tt = 150 °C,
tw = 175 °C, I = 0.5 A,V = 4 V
To Find : Thermal conductivity.
Tube
150 ° C
Gas
Wire
175 ° C
Fig. 1.
1. Heat transferred through the cylinder,
2 k L(tw tt )
Q=
ln(rt / rw )
2 k 0.25(175 150)
= = 10.645 kW ...(1)
ln(1 / 0.025)
2. Also, Q = VI = 4 × 0.5 = 2.0 W ...(2)
3. From eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
10.645 k = 2.0
k = 0.188 W/m °C.
b. Derive the expression for temperature distribution and heat
dissipation in a straight fin of rectangular profile when fin
is of infinite length.
Ans.
A. Temperature Distribution and Heat Transfer Rate for
Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature
distribution along the fin is necessary.
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2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are
made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
ii. No heat generation within the fin.
iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a
distance x from the base.
7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
dt
Qx = – kA CS
dx x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),
P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element
x
Fig. 2. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.
dt
Qx + dx = – kACS
dx x dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and
(x + dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
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dt dt
– kA CS = – kA CS + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2)
dx x dx x dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
dt dt d dt d 2 dt ( dx)2
dx = dx 2 ... ...(3)
x dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2), we have
dt dt d dt
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS dx
dx x dx x dx dx x
d 2 dt (dx)2
– kA CS ... h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2 dx x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx 0,
dt dt d2t
– kA CS = – kA CS – kA CS 2 dx + h (P dx) (t – ta)
dx
x dx
x dx
d2t
kA CS 2 dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
dx
d2t hP
or – (t – ta ) 0 ...(4)
dx2 kACS
12. If temperature excess is,
= t – ta ...(5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or 2
= ...(6)
dx dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
d 2
– m2 = 0 ...(7)
dx 2
hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (4) and eq. (7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
= C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by
using proper boundary conditions.
Case : When Heat is Dissipated from an Infinite Long Fin :
1. The fin is infinitely long and temperature at the end of fin is that
of ambient/surrounding fluid. In this case, the boundary conditions
are :
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i. At x = 0, t = t0
t – ta = to – ta
or, at x = 0, = 0
ii. At x = , t = ta
or x = , = 0
2. Substituting these boundary condition in eq. (8), we get
= 0 e–mx
or (t – ta) = (t0 – ta) e–mx ...(9)
3. Differentiating eq. (9) w.r.t. x, we get,
dt –mx
dx = [– m (t0 – ta) e ]x = 0 = – m (t0 – ta) ...(10)
x0
4. Rate of heat flow across the base of fin is given by,
dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
dt
Putting the value of from eq. (10) in above equation, we
dx x 0
get
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta)
c. Explain the physical mechanism of free convection with
the help of example and neat sketch. Discus s the
significance of various dimensionless numbers with respect
to natural convection.
Ans.
A. Physical Mechanism of Free Convection :
Warm
air
Cool
air
Heat
Hot
transfer
EGG
Fig. 3.
B. Significance of Various Dimensionless Numbers used in
Natural Convection : Following are the some dimensionless
numbers that play their roles in free or natural convection :
i. Significance of Grashof Number (Gr) :
1. It plays the same role as played by Reynolds number in forced
convection.
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2. Free convection is usually suppressed at sufficiently small Gr,
begins at some critical value of Gr and then becomes more and
more effective as Gr increases.
ii. Significance of Prandlt Number (Pr) : It is connecting link
between the velocity field and the temperature field and its value
strongly influences relative growth of velocity and thermal boundary
layers.
iii. Significance of Nusselt Number (Nu) :
1. It establishes the relation number convective film coefficient
(h), thermal conductivity of the fluid (k) and a significant length
parameter (l).
2. It is a convenient measure of the convective heat transfer
coefficient.
d. Define the following terms : total emissivity, monochromatic
emissive power and monochromatic emissivity.
Ans.
A. Total Emissivity : Ratio of the total emissive power of a surface
to the total emissive power of a black surface at the same
temperature.
B. Monochromatic Emissive Power : It is defined as the rate of
energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
Total emissive power is :
E= E d W/ m 2
0
C. Monochromatic Emissivity :
1. Ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface to the
monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at the same
wavelength and temperature.
2. For a gray body the monochromatic emissivity is independent of
the wavelength of the emitted radiation, i.e., the monochromatic
emissive power of the surface and the monochromatic emissive
power of a black surface have the same ratio for all wavelength of
emitted radiation at the same temperature.
e. Differentiate between dropwise and filmwise condensation.
Which type has higher heat transfer film coefficient and
why ?
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Ans.
A. Difference between Dropwise and Filmwise Condensation :
S. No. Filmwise Condensation Dropwise Condensation
1. Liquid condensate wets It does not wet the surface.
the surface.
2. Liquid condensate spreads The liquid condensate collects in
out and does not collect in droplets.
droplets.
3. It forms continuous films It does not form any film over the
over the entire surface. surface.
4. Continuous film offers There is no film barrier to heat
resistance and restricts flow, therefore high heat transfer
further transfer of heat rate are experienced between
between vapour and vapour and surface.
surface.
B. Dropwise Condensation has Higher Heat Transfer :
1. In dropwise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface randomly.
2. In this condensation process, a large portion of the area of solid
surface is directly exposed to vapour without an insulating film of
condensate liquid, consequently higher heat transfer rate are
achieved.
ts < tsat
Q
Condensate
drops
Vapour
tv | tsat
Fig. 4. Dropwise condensation.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the 3-D steady state generalized heat conduction
equation (without internal heat generation) in cartesian
coordinate system. Write the assumptions used.
Ans.
A. Assumptions :
1. Thermal conductivity k, density and specific heat C for the material
do not vary with position.
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2. Uniform heat generation at the rate of qg per unit volume per unit
time.
3. Fourier law of heat conduction is essentially valid.
B. Derivation :
1. Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelopiped (volume
element) of sides dx, dy, and dz parallel, respectively, to the three
axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with
location and time as shown in Fig. 5.
2. Let, t = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this
temperature may be assumed uniform over the
entire surface, since the area of this face can be
made arbitrarily small, and
dt
= Rate of change of temperature along X-direction.
dx
t
Then, dx = Change of temperature through distance dx, and
x
t
t dx = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a
x
distance dx from the left face ABCD).
Further, let,kx, ky, kz =Thermal conductivities along X, Y and Z axes.
Y
Q(y + dy ) Qz
A (x , y , z )
D H
y
O X
z
x C G dy
Z Q(x + dx )
Elemental Qx A (x , y , z )
volume E
(rectangular
parallelopiped)
dz
Q(z + dz) B F
dx
Qg = qgdxdydx
Qy
Fig. 5. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cartesian coordinates.
3. Quantity of heat flowing into element from the left face ABCD
during the time interval d in X-direction is given by
t
Heat influx, Qx = – kx (dydz) d ...(1)
x
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4. During the same time interval d the heat flowing out of the right
face of control volume (EFGH) will be
Heat efflux, Q(x + dx) = Qx (Qx ) dx ...(2)
x
5. Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,
subtracting eq. (2) from eq. (1), we get
dQx = Qx Qx (Qx )dx
x
= (Qx ) dx
x
t
= kx ( dydz) d dx
x x
t
= kx dxdydzd
x x
6. Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction
along Y and Z-directions in time d will be :
dQy = ky t dxdydzd
y y
t
dQz = kz dxdydzd
z z
7. So, net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat
from all the coordinate directions is given as,
t t
= kx dxdydzd + ky dxdydzd
x x y y
t
+ kz dxdydzd
z z
t t t
= kx ky kz dxdydzd
x x y y z z
...(3)
8. The total heat generated in the element is given by
Qg = qg(dxdydz)d ...(4)
9. Energy stored in element,
t
= ( dxdydz)cd ...(5)
10. Now using energy balance for the element, we have
t t t
x kx x y ky y z kz z dxdydzd + qg(dxdydz)d
t
= ( dxdydz)c
d
11. Dividing both side by dxdydzd, we have
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t t t t
kx ky kz + qg = c
x x y y z z
This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-
homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-
dimensional heat flow’.
12. In case of homogeneous and isotropic material (kx = ky = kz= k),
2 t 2 t 2 t qg c t
=
x 2 z2 z2 k k
2 t 2 t 2 t qg 1 t
or =
x 2 y 2 z2 k
k
where, = = Thermal diffusivity
.c
b. An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m
layer of common brick (k = 0.7 W/m °C) followed by a 0.04 m
layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m °C). What thickness of
loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m °C) should
be added to reduce the heat loss (or gain) through the wall
by 80 percent ?
Ans.
Given : kB = 0.7 W/m °C, kGP = 0.48 W/m °C, kw = 0.065 W/m °C,
lB = 0.1 m, lGP = 0.04.
To Find : Thickness of loosely packed rock wool.
0.1
1. Resistance of brick wall = = 0.1428
0.7 1
0.04
2. Resistance of gypsum plaster = = 0.0833
0.48 1
x
3. Resistance of rock wool insulation = = 15.38x
0.065
4. When rock wool insulation is not used, then
t t t
Heat loss or gain = = 4.422 t
Rt 0.1428 0.0833 0.2261
5. When rock wool insulation is used, then
Heat gain or loss = (1 – 0.8) × 4.422 t = 0.8845 t
t
0.8845 t =
0.1428 0.0833 15.38 x
1
0.2261 + 15.38 x =
0.8845
2261 + 15.38 x = 1.1305
x = 0.058 m
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4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A steel rod (k = 32 W/m ° C), 12 mm in diameter and 60 mm
long, with an insulated end is to be used as spine. It is
exposed to surroundings with a temperature of 60 ° C and
heat transfer coefficient of 55 W/m2 ° C. The temperature at
the base of fin is 95 ° C. Determine :
i. The fin efficiency.
ii. The temperature at the edge of the spine.
iii. The heat dissipation.
Ans.
Given : k = 32 W/m °C, d =12 mm = 0.012 m, l = 60 mm = 0.06 m
ta = 60 °C, h = 55 W/m °C, t0 = 95 °C.
To Find : i. Efficiency of fin.
ii. Temperature at the edge.
iii. Heat dissipation.
hP h d 4h 4 55
1. We know that, m =
kAc kd 32 0.012
k d2
4
= 23.93 m – 1
2. The efficiency of fin is given by
tanh ml
fin =
ml
tan h(23.93 0.06)
fin = = 0.6218 = 62.18 %
(23.93 0.06)
3. Temperature at the edge is given as,
Ql t ta 1
= l
Q0 t0 ta cosh ml
tl 60 1
=
95 60 cosh(23.93 0.06)
tl 60
= 0.45
35
tl = 75.75 °C
4. Heat dissipation, Q = kAc m(t0 – ta) tanh ml
Q = 32 (0.012)2 23.93 (95 60) tan h(23.93 0.06)
4
= 2.7 W
b. A steel ball of 12 mm diameter is annealed by heating to
800 °C and then slowly cooled to 127 °C in air at 50 °C. The
heat transfer coefficient, h = 20 W/m °C. Calculate the time
required for air cooling process. The properties of steel are
k = 45 W/m °C, = 7830 kg/m3 and C = 600 J/kg-K.
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Ans.
Given : d = 12 mm, k = 45 W/m °C, h = 20 W/m °C,
= 7830 kg/m3 and C = 600 J/kg-K, ta = 50 °C,
ti = 800 °C, t = 127 °C
To Find : Time required for air cooling process
1. The characteristic length is given as,
Volume 4 / 3 r 3 r 6
Lc = = 2 mm
Area 4 r 2 3 3
hLc 20 2 10 3
2. Biot number, Bi = = 8.88 × 10– 4
k 45
Since the Biot number is less than 0.1, lumped parameter analysis
can be used.
3. The lumped parameter analysis for transient conduction is
t ta h A
= exp
ti ta VC
127 50 h 4 r 3
= exp
800 50 C 4 / 3r 3
77 20
= exp 3
750 7830 600 2 10
10
– 2.276 =
7830 600 10 3
= 17.8 min
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Air at atmospheric pressure and 200 °C flows over a flat
plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. The plate is 15 mm wide and is
maintained at a temperature of 120 °C. Calculate the
thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers
and the local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of 0.5 m
from the leading edge. Assume that flow is on one side of
the plate.
Ans.
Given : U = 5 m/s, x = 0.5 m, = 0.815 kg/m3,
= 24.5 × 10– 6 Ns/m2, Pr = 0.7, k = 0.0364 W/m K.
To Find : i. Thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers.
ii. Local heat transfer coefficient at a distance of
0.5 m from the leading edge.
1. Reynolds number,
Ux Ux 5 0.5
Rex = = 83163
/ (24.5 10 6 / 0.815)
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Since Rex < 5 × 105, hence flow is laminar.
2. Boundary layer thickness at x = 0.5 m,
5x 5 0.5
= = 8.669 × 10– 3 m = 8.669 mm
Rex 83163
3. Thickness of thermal boundary layer, at x = 0.5 m,
8.669
th = = 9.763 mm
( Pr)1/3 (0.7)1/ 3
4. Local heat transfer coefficient,
k
hx = 0.332 ( Rex )1/ 2 ( Pr)1/ 3
x
0.0364
= 0.332 (83163)1/ 2 (0.7)1/ 3
0.5
= 6.189 W/m2K
b. Define the following terms with expression :
i. Boundary layer thickness
ii. Displacement thickness
iii. Momentum thickness
iv. Energy thickness
Ans.
i. Boundary Layer Thickness :
1. The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer.
Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
2. When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid
boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the boundary
surface, adheres to it and condition of no slip occurs.
3. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary
surface undergoes retardation, this retarded layer further causes
retardation for the adjacent layers of the fluid, thereby developing
a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in
which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero
at the boundary surface and approaches the velocity of main stream.
4. According to boundary layer theory, the extensive fluid medium
around bodies moving in fluids can be divided into following two
regions :
i. A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where
the viscous shear takes place.
ii. A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behaviour is
quite like that of an ideal fluid and the potential flow theory is
applicable.
ii. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of
formation of boundary layer. It is denoted by *.
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Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U
y
Stationary plate
Fig. 6. Displacement thickness.
2. Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 6.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from
the plate.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
= (U u) dy ...(1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of
mass of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(2)
9. On equating eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
U* = (U u) dy
0
u
* = 1 U dy
0
iii. Momentum Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on
account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by .
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. Momentum/sec of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy × u = u2dy
4. Momentum/sec of the same mass of fluid before entering the
boundary layer = uUdy
5. Loss of momentum/sec = uUdy – u2dy = u(U – u) dy
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6. Total loss of momentum/sec = u(U u)dy ...(3)
0
7. Let be the distance by which plate is displaced when fluid is
flowing with a constant velocity U. Then, loss of momentum/sec of
fluid flowing through distance with a velocity U
= U 2 ...(4)
8. On equating eq. (3) and eq. (4), we get
U2 = u(U u)dy
0
u u
= U 1 U dy
0
iv. Energy Thickness :
1. It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary
of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid
on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by e.
2. Mass of flow per second through elementary strip = udy
3. KE of this fluid inside the boundary layer
1 1
= mu2 = (udy)u2
2 2
4. KE of same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer
1
= (udy)U2
2
5. Loss of KE through elementary strip
1 1 1
= (udy) U2 – (udy)u2 = u (U2 – u2)dy
2 2 2
1 2
6. So, total loss of KE of fluid = 2 u (U u2 ) dy ...(5)
0
7. Let e be the distance by which plate is displaced to compensate for
reduction in KE. Then, loss of KE through e of fluid flowing with
velocity U
1
= (Ue) U2 ...(6)
2
8. On equating eq. (5) and (6), we have
1 1 2
(Ue) U2 = 2 u (U u2 ) dy
2 0
1 2 2
e = u (U u ) dy
U3 0
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u u2
e = U 1 U 2 dy
0
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. The large parallel plates with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8
exchange heat. Find the percentage reduction when a
polished aluminium shield of emissivity 0.04 is placed
between them. Use the method of electrical analogy.
Ans.
Given : 1 = 0.3, 2 = 0.8, 3 = 0.04.
To Find : Percentage reduction in heat flow.
1. Consider all resistances (surface resistances and space resistances)
per unit surface area. For steady state heat flow,
Eb1 Eb3 Eb3 Eb2
=
1 1 1 3 1 3 1 2
1 1
1 3 3 2
[ A1 = A2 = A3 = 1 m2 and F1 – 3, F3 – 2 = 1]
(T14 T34 ) (T34 T24 )
or, =
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 3 3 2
T14 T34 T34 T24
=
1 1 1 1
1 1
0.3 0.04 0.04 0.8
T14 T34 T 4 T24
= 3
27.33 25.25
27.33 4
4
T1 – T3 = 4 (T3 T24 )
25.25
= 1.08(T34 – T24) = 1.08 T34 – 1.08 T24
1
T3 4 = (T14 1.08 T24 ) 0.48(T14 1.08 T24 )
2.08
2. Heat flow without shield,
(T14 T24 ) (T14 T24 ) (T14 T24 )
Q12 =
1 1 1 1 3.58
1 1
1 2 0.3 0.8
3. Heat flow with shield,
(T14 T34 ) (T14 T34 ) (T14 T34 )
Q13 =
1 1 1 1 27.33
1 1
1 3 0.3 0.04
4. Percentage reduction in heat flow due to shield
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Q12 Q13
=
Q12
Q13 (T14 T34 ) / 27.33
= 1 1
Q12 (T14 T24 ) / 3.58
3.58 T14 T34
= 1 4 4
27.33 T1 T2
T 4 0.48(T14 1.08 T24 )
= 1 0.131 1
T14 T24
T 4 0.48 T14 0.52 T24
= 1 0.131 1
T14 T24
0.52 (T14 T24 )
= 1 0.131 4 4
(T1 T2 )
= 1 – 0.131 × 0.52 = 0.932 or 93.2 %
b. Derive the following relation for the radiant heat exchange
between two gray surfaces :
A1 (T14 T24 )
(Q12)net =
1 1 1 1 2 A1
+ +
1 F1 2 2 A2
Ans.
1. The network for radiation heat exchange for two gray surfaces is
shown in Fig. 7.
R
1 1
A1 F1 – R AR FR – 2
Eb1 (Q12)net J2 Eb2
1 – 1 J1 1 1 – 2
A1 1 A1 F1 – 2 A 2 2
Fig. 7.
2. The total resistance between Eb1 and Eb2 is given by
1 1 1 2 1
Rt =
A1 1 A2 2 1
A1 F1 2
1 1
A1 F1 R AR FR 2
F1 – R = 1 – F1 – 2 and F2 – R = 1 – F2 – 1
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1 1 1 2 1
Rt =
A1 1 A2 2 1
A1 F1 2
1 1
A1 (1 F1 2 ) A2 (1 F2 1 )
3. But we know that,
1
A1 F1 2 = A1 F1 2
1 1
A
1 (1 F1 2 ) A2 (1 F )
21
1 1 1 2 1
or, Rt =
A1 1 A2 2 A1 F1 2
1
(Q12)net = ( Eb1 Eb2 )
1 1 1 2 1
A1 1 A2 2 A1 F1 2
1
or, (Q12)net = A1 ( Eb1 Eb2 )
1 A1 1 1
1 1
1 A2 2 F1 2
A1 T14 T24
(Q12)net =
1 1 1 1 2 A1
F A
1 12 2 2
( Eb1 = T14, Eb2 = T24)
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Steam at atmospheric pressure enters the shell of a surface
condenser in which the water flows through a bundle of
tubes of diameter 25 mm at the rate of 0.05 kg/s. The inlet
and outlet temperatures of water are 15 °C and 70 °C,
respectively. The condensation of steam takes place on the
outside surface of the tube. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 230 W/m2 °C, calculate the following, using NTU
method :
i. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger,
ii. The length of the tube, and
iii. The rate of steam condensation.
Take latent heat of vapourisation at 100 °C = 2257 kJ/kg
Ans.
Given : d = 25 mm = 0.025 m; mw = mc = 0.05 kg/s, tc1 = 15 °C,
tc2 = 70 °C, U = 230 W/m2 °C, th1 = 100 °C, hfg = 2257 kJ/kg
To Find : i. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
ii. The length of the tube.
iii. The rate of steam condensation.
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1. Throughout the condenser the hot fluid (i.e., steam), remains at
constant temperature. Hence Cmax is infinity and thus Cmin is
Cmin
obviously for cold fluid (i.e., water). Thus 0.
Cmax
When Ch > Cc, then effectiveness is given by
Q t tc1 70 15
= c2 = 0.647
Qmax th1 tc1 100 15
2. We know,
Cmin = mc Cpc = 0.05 × 4.18 = 0.209 kJ/K
Cmin
3. For (= R) 0
Cmax
= 1 – exp (– NTU)
0.647 = 1 – e– NTU
e– NTU = 1 – 0.647 = 0.353
– NTU = ln(0.353) = – 1.04
NTU = 1.04
UA U d L
4. But, NTU =
Cmin Cmin
NTU Cmin 1.04 (0.209 1000)
L= = 12 m
Ud 230 0.025
5. Using the overall energy balance, we get
mh hfg = mc Cpc (tc2 – tc1)
mh × 2257 = 0.05 × 4.18(70 – 15)
mh = 0.00509 kg/s or 18.32 kg/h
b. State Fick’s law of diffusion. What are its limitations ?
Ans.
A. Fick’s Law of Diffusion :
1. Fick’s law of diffusion states that the mass flux of species A per
unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient.
2. So, diffusion rate of species A is given by,
mA dCA
NA = = – DAB ...(1)
A dx
Where, mA = Mass flow rate of species A by diffusion,
A= Area through which mass is flowing,
NA = Mass flux of species A,
DAB = Diffusion coefficient for binary mixture of species
A and B,
CA = Concentration of species A, and
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dC A
= Concentration gradient for species A.
dx
3. Similarly, diffusion rate for species B is given by,
mB dCB
NB = = – DBA
A dx
4. Fick’s law can be expressed in terms of partial pressure of species
by using perfect gas equation.
For species A :
GT
pA = A R A T = A
MA
pA M A
A = CA =
GT
Where, pA = Partial pressure of species A,
A = Density of species A,
G= Universal gas constant, and
MA = Molecular weight of species A.
Chamber
A (a) B
A B
CA CB Concentration
Concentration of species B
of species A
x (b )
Fig. 8. Mass transfer by diffusion in a binary gas mixture.
5. Substituting the value of A in eq. (1), we get
mA d pA M A
NA = = – DAB
A dx GT
mA M A dpA
or NA = = – DAB
A GT dx
6. Similarly, for species B :
mB M B dpB
NB = = – DAB
A GT dx
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B. Limitations :
1. Fick’s expression is valid only when mass diffusion occurs.
2. Mass transfer process is very fast in gases as compared to liquid and
slowest in solids.
3. Mass transfer process strongly depends upon molecular spacing
and the mobility.
4. It does not consider temperature gradient, pressure gradient or
any effect of internal for except the concentration gradient.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. What is thermal contact resistance ? How is it related to
thermal contact conductance ?
b. What is lumped system analysis ? When is it applicable ?
c. Define the following :
i. Prandtl Number.
ii. Grashof Number.
d. Define the following properties of the material :
i. Reflectivity,
ii. Transmissivity, and
iii. Reflectivity.
e. What are the common approximations made in the analysis
of heat exchangers ?
f. What is the difference between sub-cooled and saturated
boiling ?
g. Define the Fick law of mass diffusion.
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Derive an expression for general heat conduction equation
in cartesian coordinate system.
b. One end of long rod 3.5 cm in diameter is inserted into
furnace with outer end projected outside the furnace in air.
After steady state is reached, the temperature of the rod is
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measured at two points 180 mm apart and found to be 180 °C
and 145 °C. The atmospheric temperature is 25 °C. If the
heat transfer coefficient is 65 W/m2-°C, calculate the thermal
conductivity of the rod.
c. Explain the following :
i. Boundary layer thickness.
ii. Displacement thickness.
iii. Thermal boundary layer thickness.
d. Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform
temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K and have emissivities
1 = 0.2 and 2 = 0.7, respectively. Determine the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between the two surfaces per unit
surface area of the plates.
e. Show under what conditions will the temperature profile
of both cold and hot fluid along its length, will be parallel in
counter flow heat exchanger.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A 20 cm thick slab of aluminium (k = 230 W/m-K) is placed in
contact with a 15 cm thick stainles s steel plate
(k = 15 W/m-K). Due to roughness, 40 percent of the area is in
direct contact and the gap (0.0002 m) is filled with air
(k = 0.032 W/m-K). The difference in temperature between
the two outside surfaces of the plate is 200 °C. Estimate (i)
the heat flow rate, (ii) the contact resistance, and (iii) the
drop in temperature at the interface.
b. Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos
(k = 0.172 W/m-K ) surrounding a pipe and exposed to room
air at 300 K with h = 2.8 W/m2-K. Calculate the heat loss
from a 475 K, 60 mm diameter pipe when covered with critical
radius of insulation and without insulation.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Derive an expression for temperature distribution for a
very long fin.
b. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a room whose temperature
is 20 °C. The temperature of the body is measured to be 25 °C
when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
to be h = 8 W/m2 °C. Modeling the body as a 30 cm diameter,
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1.70 m long cylinder, estimate the time of death of that
pers on. Properties of human body at the average
temperature can be taken as k = 0.617 W/m -°C, = 996 kg/m3,
and Cp = 4178 J/kg-°C. Assume human body as a lumped
body and the initial temp can be taken as 37 °C.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is to be maintained at
90 °C in air when free stream temperature is 10 °C. Determine
the velocity at which air must flow over the plate so that
the rate of energy dissipation from the plate is 3.75 kW.
Use correlation Nu = [0.036(ReL)0.8 – 836] Pr1/3
b. A steam pipe 7.5 cm in diameter is covered with 2.5 cm thick
layer of insulation, which has a surface emissivity of 0.9.
The surface temperature of insulation 80 °C and the pipe is
placed in a atmospheric air at 20 °C. Considering heat loss
by both radiation and convection, Calculate
i. Heat loss from 6 m length of the pipe, and
ii. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Thermo-physical properties of air can be taken as
= 1.092 kg/m3 = 19.57 × 10–6 kg/ms, k = 27.81 × 10–3 W/m-°C.
Use correlation Nu = 0.53(GrPr)1/4
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A furnace is shaped like a long equilateral triangular duct,
as shown in Fig. 1 The width of each side is 1 m. The base
surface has an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained at a
uniform temperature of 600 K. The heated left-side surface
closely approximates a blackbody at 1000 K. The right-side
surface is well insulated. Determine the rate at which heat
must be supplied to the heated side externally per unit
length of the duct in order to maintain these operating
conditions.
2
3
t2 = 1000 K
Insulated
Black
1 1 = 0.7
t1 = 600 K
Fig. 1.
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b. Derive an expression for the theorem of reciprocity.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the following with neat sketch :
i. Filmwise condensation, and
ii. Dropwise condensation.
b. A thin walled double pipe counter flow heat exchanger is to
be used to cool oil (Cp = 2200 J/kg-°C) from 150 °C to 40 °C at
a rate of 2 kg/s by water (Cp = 4180 J/kg -°C) that enters at
22 °C at a rate of 1.5 kg/s. The diameter of the tube is 2.5 cm,
and its length is 6 m. Determine the overall heat transfer
coefficient of this heat exchanger.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data, then choose
suitably.
Section-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. What is thermal contact resistance ? How is it related to
thermal contact conductance ?
Ans.
i. Thermal Contact Resistance : Thermal contact resistance is a
thermal resistance to heat flow at the interface between two
materials because of surface roughness and void spaces at contact
surfaces.
ii. Relation of Thermal Contact Resistance with Thermal
Contact Conductance : Thermal contact resistance is reciprocal
of thermal contact conductance.
b. What is lumped system analysis ? When is it applicable ?
Ans. Lumped System Analysis : The process in which the internal
resistance is assumed negligible in comparison with its surface
resistance is called the Newtonian heating or cooling process. The
temperature in this process is considered to be uniform at a given
time. Such an analysis is called lumped parameter analysis because
the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function of its
temperature and total heat capacity is treated as one lump.
Applicability of Lumped System Analysis : It is applicable when
Biot number (Bi) is less than 0.1.
c. Define the following :
i. Prandtl Number.
Ans. Prandtl number is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity () to
thermal diffusivity ().
Mathematically,
c p
Pr =
k
ii. Grashof Number.
Ans. Grashof number is defined as the ratio of the product of inertia
force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
Mathematically,
(Inertia force) × (Buoyancy force)
Gr =
(Viscous force)2
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gtL3
Gr =
2
d. Define the following properties of the material :
i. Reflectivity,
ii. Transmissivity, and
iii. Reflectivity.
Ans.
i. Reflectivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation reflected to
the total incident radiation.
= Gr / G
ii. Transmissivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation
transmitted to the total incident radiation.
= Gt / G
iii. Reflectivity () : It is the ratio of amount of radiation reflected to
the total incident radiation.
= Gr / G
e. What are the common approximations made in the analysis
of heat exchangers ?
Ans. Following approximations made in the analysis of heat exchangers:
1. The inlet and outlet fluid temperatures.
2. A total surface area of the heat transfer.
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient due to various modes of heat
transfer.
f. What is the difference between sub-cooled and saturated
boiling ?
Ans.
S. No. Sub-Cooled Boiling Saturated Boiling
1. In this, the liquid In this, the liquid temperature
temperature is below the exceeds the saturation
saturation temperature. temperature.
2. Bubbles are formed in the Bubbles are formed at the solid
vicinity of heat surface. surface.
g. Define the Fick law of mass diffusion.
Ans. Fick’s law of mass diffusion states that the mass flux of species A
per unit area is proportional to the concentration gradient.
Section-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
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a. Derive an expression for general heat conduction equation
in cartesian coordinate system.
Ans.
1. Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelopiped (volume
element) of sides dx, dy, and dz parallel, respectively, to the three
axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying with
location and time as shown in Fig. 1.
2. Let, t = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this
temperature may be assumed uniform over the
entire surface, since the area of this face can be
made arbitrarily small, and
dt
= Rate of change of temperature along X-direction.
dx
t
Then, dx = Change of temperature through distance dx, and
x
t
t dx = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a
x
distance dx from the left face ABCD).
Further, let,kx, ky, kz =Thermal conductivities along X, Y and Z axes.
3. Quantity of heat flowing into element from the left face ABCD
during the time interval d in X-direction is given by
t
Heat influx, Qx = – kx (dydz) d ...(1)
x
4. During the same time interval d the heat flowing out of the right
face of control volume (EFGH) will be
Y
Q(y + dy ) Qz
A (x , y , z )
D H
y
O X
z
x C G dy
Z Q(x + dx )
Elemental Qx A (x , y , z )
volume E
(rectangular
parallelopiped)
dz
Q(z + dz) B F
dx
Qg = qgdxdydx
Qy
Fig. 1. Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat
conduction analysis-cartesian coordinates.
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Heat efflux, Q(x + dx) = Qx (Qx )dx ...(2)
x
5. Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,
subtracting eq. (2) from eq. (1), we get
dQx = Qx Qx (Qx )dx
x
= (Qx ) dx
x
t
= kx ( dydz) d dx
x x
t
= kx dxdydzd
x x
6. Similarly the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction
along Y and Z-directions in time d will be :
dQy = ky t dxdydzd
y y
t
dQz = kz dxdydzd
z z
7. So, net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat
from all the coordinate directions is given as,
t t
= kx dxdydzd + ky dxdydzd
x x y y
t
+ kz dxdydzd
z z
t t t
= kx ky kz dxdydzd
x x y y z z
...(3)
8. The total heat generated in the element is given by
Qg = qg(dxdydz)d ...(4)
9. Energy stored in element,
t
= ( dxdydz)c
d ...(5)
10. Now using energy balance for the element, we have
t t t
x kx x y ky y z kz z dxdydzd + qg(dxdydz)d
t
= ( dxdydz)c
d
11. Dividing both side by dxdydzd, we have
t t t t
kx ky kz + qg = c
x x y y z z
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This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-
homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-
dimensional heat flow’.
12. In case of homogeneous and isotropic material (kx = ky = kz= k),
2 t 2 t 2 t qg c t
=
x 2 z2 z2 k k
2 t 2 t 2 t qg 1 t
or =
x 2 y 2 z2 k
k
where, = = Thermal diffusivity
.c
b. One end of long rod 3.5 cm in diameter is inserted into
furnace with outer end projected outside the furnace in air.
After steady state is reached, the temperature of the rod is
measured at two points 180 mm apart and found to be 180 °C
and 145 °C. The atmospheric temperature is 25 °C. If the
heat transfer coefficient is 65 W/m2-°C, calculate the thermal
conductivity of the rod.
Ans.
Given : d = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m, l = 180 mm = 0.18 m, ta = 25 °C,
h = 65 W/m2 -°C
To Find : Thermal conductivity of the rod (k).
1. The starting point x = 0 is considered at the first point where the
temperature is measured, x = l is considered at the outer point.
Assume that the end of the fin is insulated.
2. For insulated end, we have
t – ta cosh {m(l – x)}
= ...(1)
0 to – ta cosh ml
3. At x = l, eq. (1), reduces to
l 1
=
0 cosh ml
4. Here, l = 145 – 25 = 120 °C and 0 = t0 – ta = 180 –25 = 155 °C
120 1
=
155 cosh ml
155
cosh ml = = 1.292
120
ml = 0.747
0.747
m=
l
hP
5. We know, m=
kAcs
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hP 0.747
=
kAcs l
hP 0.747 2
=
kAcs l2
h d 0.747 2 h 4 0.558
= or
k 2 l2 k d l2
d
4
4 hl 2 4 65 0.18 2
6. Hence, k= = 431.34 W/m-°C
0.558 d 0.558 0.035
c. Explain the following :
i. Boundary layer thickness.
ii. Displacement thickness.
iii. Thermal boundary layer thickness.
Ans.
i. Boundary Layer Thickness :
1. The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer.
Boundary layer is formed whenever there is relative motion between
the boundary and the fluid.
2. When a real fluid (viscous fluid) flows past a stationary solid
boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with the boundary
surface, adheres to it and condition of no slip occurs.
3. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot slip away from the boundary
surface undergoes retardation, this retarded layer further causes
retardation for the adjacent layers of the fluid, thereby developing
a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in
which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero
at the boundary surface and approaches the velocity of main stream.
4. According to boundary layer theory, the extensive fluid medium
around bodies moving in fluids can be divided into following two
regions :
i. A thin layer adjoining the boundary called the boundary layer where
the viscous shear takes place.
ii. A region outside the boundary layer where the flow behaviour is
quite like that of an ideal fluid and the potential flow theory is
applicable.
ii. Displacement Thickness :
1. It can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of
formation of boundary layer. It is denoted by *.
2. Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as
shown in Fig. 2.
3. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from
the plate.
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Boundary layer U
dy u = 0.99U Velocity
distribution
U
y
Stationary plate
Fig. 2. Displacement thickness.
4. Mass flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
5. Mass flow per second through elementary strip, if the plate was not
there = Udy
6. Reduction of mass flow rate through elementary strip
= (U – u) dy
7. Total reduction of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
= (U u) dy ...(1)
0
8. Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the
distance * is equal to the main/free stream velocity. Then, loss of
mass of fluid/sec flowing through the distance *
= U* ...(2)
9. On equating eq. (1) and eq. (2), we get
U* = (U u) dy
0
u
* = 1 U dy
0
iii. Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness :
1. Whenever a flow of fluid takes place past a heated or cold surface,
a temperature field is set up in the field next to the surface. If the
surface of the plate is hotter than fluid, the temperature distribution
will be as shown in the Fig. 3. The zone or the layer wherein the
temperature field exists is called the thermal boundary layer.
2. Due to the exchange of heat between the plate and the fluid,
temperature gradient occurs.
3. The thermal boundary layer thickness (th) is arbitrarily defined
as the distance y from the plate surface at which
ts t
= 0.99
ts t
4. The temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer depends
upon the viscosity, velocity of flow, specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the fluid.
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Limit of thermal
boundary layer
Region
affected by Temperature
U, t heating
Y profile, t(y)
Free th
stream (t s – t )
t (y ) Plate
X surface (ts)
t t
Laminar Turbulent
Fig. 3. Thermal boundary layer formed during
flow of cool fluid over a warm plate.
d. Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform
temperatures T1 = 800 K and T2 = 500 K and have emissivities
1 = 0.2 and 2 = 0.7, respectively. Determine the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between the two surfaces per unit
surface area of the plates.
Ans.
Given : T1 = 800 K, T2 = 500 K, 1 = 0.2, 2 = 0.7
To Find : The net rate of radiation heat transfer per unit area (Q12/A)
Data Assumed : = 5.67 × 10–8 W / m2-K4, F12 = 1
T1 = 800 K T2 = 500 K
1 = 0.2 2 = 0.7
1 2
Fig. 4.
1. Thermal contact resistance circuit diagram,
T1 T2
1 – 1 1 1 – 2
1 A F 12 A 2 A
Fig. 5.
2. Thermal contact resistance,
1 – 1 1 1 – 2
Rth =
1 A F12 A 2 A
3. Net radiation heat transfer,
(T14 – T24 )
Q12 =
Rth
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(T14 – T24 )
=
1 – 1 1 1 – 2
1 A F12 A 2 A
4. Heat transfer per unit area,
Q12 5.67 10 –8 [800 4 – 500 4 ]
=
A 1 – 0.2 1 – 0.7
1
0.2 0.7
19680.57
= = 3625.35 W/m2
5.4286
e. Show under what conditions will the temperature profile
of both cold and hot fluid along its length, will be parallel in
counter flow heat exchanger.
Ans.
1. For heat exchanger,
dQ = – mh ch dth mc cc dtc
= – Chdth = Ccdtc
Where, mh = Mass flow rate of hot fluid, and
mc = Mass flow rate of cold fluid.
2. Due to heat exchanger, temperature of hot fluid decreases by dth
and that of cold fluid increases by dtc.
Also, Cc = Heat capacity of cold fluid, and
Ch = Heat capacity of hot fluid.
3. If, mh ch = mc c c
i.e., Ch = C c
4. For counter flow system,
dQ = – Chdth = Ccdtc
dQ dQ
dth = – and dtc
Ch Cc
1 1
dth – dtc = d = – dQ
C
h Cc
5. Since, Ch = C c
d = 0
= Constant.
6. Thus, both the straight lines showing the variation of temperatures
along the length are parallel lines.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–14 B (ME-Sem-5)
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th1
Hot fluid dth
1
th2
tc2
Temperature
Cold fluid dt c 2
tc1
dx
Length
Fig. 6.
Section-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A 20 cm thick slab of aluminium (k = 230 W/m-K) is placed in
contact with a 15 cm thick stainles s steel plate
(k = 15 W/m-K). Due to roughness, 40 percent of the area is in
direct contact and the gap (0.0002 m) is filled with air
(k = 0.032 W/m-K). The difference in temperature between
the two outside surfaces of the plate is 200 °C. Estimate (i)
the heat flow rate, (ii) the contact resistance, and (iii) the
drop in temperature at the interface.
Ans.
Given : LA = 20 cm = 0.2 m, LA1 = 0.0002 m, kA = 230 W/m-K,
kB = 15 W/m-K, kc = 0.032 W/m-K
LB = 15 cm = 0.15 m, LB1 = 0.0002 m, LC = 0.0002 m, t1 – t2 = 200 °C
1. The thermal resistances are given by,
LA 0.2
Rth–A = = 8.6957 × 10–4
kA AA 230 1
0.0002
Similarly, Rth–A = = 4.3478 × 10–6
1 230 0.20
0.0002
Rth–C = = 0.01042
0.032 0.6
0.0002
Rth–B = = 6.667 × 10–5
1 15 0.20
0.15
Rth–B = = 0.01
15 1
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–15 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Slab A Slab B
A1
20 %
t1 60 %
t2
A C B
B1 20 %
LA LB
= 0.20 m = 0.15 m
LA1 = LB1 = LC = 0.0002 m
(a) Composite system.
Rth-A1
Rth-C
t1 t2
Rth-A Rth-B1 Rth-B
t1 t2
Rth-A (R th)eq. Rth-B
(b)
Fig. 7.
2. The equivalent thermal resistance for parallel resistance is given
by,
1 1 1 1
=
( Rth ) eq Rth – A1 Rth – C Rth – B1
(Rth)eq. = 4.08 × 10–6
3. (Rth)total = Rth–A + (Rth)eq + Rth – B
= 8.6957 × 10–4 + 4.08 × 10–6 + 0.01
= 0.01087
4. Heat flow through the system,
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–16 B (ME-Sem-5)
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t1 – t2 200
Q= = 18399.264 W = 18.4 kW
( Rth )total 0.01087
5. The temperature drop in contact = Q × Contact resistance
= 18399.264 × 4.08 × 10–6
= 0.07507 K
b. Calculate the critical radius of insulation for asbestos
(k = 0.172 W/m-K ) surrounding a pipe and exposed to room
air at 300 K with h = 2.8 W/m2-K. Calculate the heat loss
from a 475 K, 60 mm diameter pipe when covered with critical
radius of insulation and without insulation.
Ans.
Given : k = 0.172 W/m-K, t1 = 475 K, t2 = 300 K, h0 = 2.8 W/m2-K,
d1 = 60 mm
To Find : Heat loss with insulation and without insulation.
1. The critical radius of insulation,
k 0.172
rc = = 0.06143 m or 61.43 mm
h0 2.8
2(t1 – t2 )
2. Heat loss with insulation =
ln (rc / r1 ) 1
k h0 rc
2(475 – 300)
=
ln (0.06143 / 0.03) 1
0.172 2.8 0.06143
d1 60
r1 30 mm 0.03 m
2 2
1099.56
= = 110.16 W/m
4.167 5.814
3. Heat loss without insulation = h0 2 r1 (t1 – t2)
= 2.8 × 2 × 0.03 (475 – 300) = 92.36 W/m
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Derive an expression for temperature distribution for a
very long fin.
Ans.
A. Temperature Distribution and Heat Transfer Rate for
Rectangular Fins :
1. For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature
distribution along the fin is necessary.
2. For analysis of heat flow through fin, following assumptions are
made :
i. Steady state heat conduction.
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–17 B (ME-Sem-5)
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ii. No heat generation within the fin.
iii. One dimensional heat conduction.
iv. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e., thermal conductivity
of material is constant).
v. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (h) over the entire surface of
the fin.
vi. Negligible thermal contact resistance.
vii. Negligible radiation.
3. Let, l = Length of the fin,
b = Width of fin,
y = Thickness of fin,
t0 = Temperature at the base of fin, and
ta = Temperature of the ambient / surrounding fluid.
4. Perimeter of fin, P = 2 (b + y).
5. Cross-sectional area of fin, ACS = by.
6. Consider heat flows to and from an element of thickness dx at a
distance x from the base.
7. Heat conducted into the element at plane x,
dt
Qx = – kA CS
dx x
8. Heat conducted out from element at plane (x + dx),
P
Qconv.
t0 l
k y
x
dx
Qx Q(x + dx ) b
ACS
h, ta
Wall
Element
x
Fig. 8. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.
dt
Qx + dx = – kACS
dx x dx
9. Heat convected out of the element between the plane x and (x +
dx),
Qconv. = h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(1)
10. Applying the energy balance on the element, we have
Qx = Qx + dx + Qconv.
dt dt
– kA CS = – kA CS + h (P dx) (t – ta) ...(2)
dx
x dx x dx
11. By Taylor’s expansion,
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–18 B (ME-Sem-5)
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dt dt d dt d 2 dt ( dx)2
dx = dx 2 ... ...(3)
x dx dx x dx dx x dx dx x 2
Substituting this in eq. (2), we have
dt dt d dt
– kA CS = – kA CS dx – kA CS dx
dx x x dx dx x
d 2 dt (dx)2
– kA CS ... h( P dx)(t – ta )
dx2 dx x 2
Neglecting higher term as dx 0,
dt dt d2t
– kA CS = – kACS – kACS 2 dx + h (P dx) (t – ta)
dx x dx x dx
d2t
kA CS 2 dx – h (P dx) (t – ta) = 0
dx
d2t hP
or – (t – ta ) 0 ...(4)
dx2 kACS
12. If temperature excess is,
= t – ta ...(5)
Since, ambient temperature ta is constant
d dt
=
dx dx
d 2 d 2t
or 2
= ...(6)
dx dx 2
13. Putting the value of eq. (5) and eq. (6) in eq. (4), we get
d 2
– m2 = 0 ...(7)
dx 2
hP
Where, m=
kACS
14. Eq. (4) and eq. (7) shows the general differential heat conduction
equation for fins of uniform cross-sectional area.
15. The general solution of this linear and homogeneous second order
differential equation is,
= C1 emx + C2 e–mx ...(8)
or t – ta = C1 emx + C2 e–mx
Where, C1 and C2 are the constants. These are determined by
using proper boundary conditions.
Case : When Heat is Dissipated from an Infinite Long Fin :
1. The fin is infinitely long and temperature at the end of fin is that
of ambient/surrounding fluid. In this case, the boundary conditions
are :
i. At x = 0, t = t0
t – ta = to – ta
or, at x = 0, = 0
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–19 B (ME-Sem-5)
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ii. At x = , t = ta
or x = , = 0
2. Substituting these boundary condition in eq. (8), we get
= 0 e–mx
or (t – ta) = (t0 – ta) e–mx ...(9)
3. Differentiating eq. (9) w.r.t. x, we get,
dt –mx
dx = [– m (t0 – ta) e ]x = 0 = – m (t0 – ta) ...(10)
x0
4. Rate of heat flow across the base of fin is given by,
dt
Qfin = – kACS
dx x 0
dt
Putting the value of from eq. (10) in above equation, we
dx x 0
get
Qfin = Ph kACS (t0 – ta)
b. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a room whose temperature
is 20 °C. The temperature of the body is measured to be 25 °C
when found, and the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
to be h = 8 W/m2 °C. Modeling the body as a 30 cm diameter,
1.70 m long cylinder, estimate the time of death of that
pers on. Properties of human body at the average
temperature can be taken as k = 0.617 W/m -°C, = 996 kg/m3,
and C = 4178 J/kg-°C. Assume human body as a lumped body
and the initial temp can be taken as 37 °C.
Ans.
Given : ta = 20 °C, to = 37 °C, t = 25 °C, h = 8 W/m2-K,
d = 30 cm = 0.3 m, r = 0.15 m, l = 1.70 m, k = 0.617 W/m- °C,
C = 4178 J/kg- °C, = 996 kg/m3
To Find : Actual time of death of the person.
1. From lumped parameter analysis,
t ta hAs 8 2rL
= exp = exp 2
t0 ta VC r LC
25 20 82
= exp
37 20 900 0.15 4178
82
– 1.224 =
996 0.15 4178
= 47751 sec = 13.26 hr
2. Actual time of death of the person is 3.34 a.m.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–20 B (ME-Sem-5)
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5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is to be maintained at
90 °C in air when free stream temperature is 10 °C. Determine
the velocity at which air must flow over the plate so that
the rate of energy dissipation from the plate is 3.75 kW.
Use correlation Nu = [0.036(ReL)0.8 – 836] Pr1/3
Ans.
Given : L = 1.5 m, B = 1 m, ts = 90 °C, t = 10 °C, Q = 3.75 kW,
To Find : Velocity of air (U).
Data Assumed : = 1.0877 kg/m3, k = 0.02813 W/m-°C,
= 2.029 × 10–5 kg / ms, and Pr = 0.703.
1. We know, Q = hAs (ts – t ) = h ( L B) ( ts – t )
3.75 × 103 = h (1.5 × 1) (90 – 10)
3.75 103
2. Hence, h= = 31.25 W/m2 -°C
(1.5 1) (90 – 10)
3. The h value indicates that the flow must be turbulent.
4. Considering the flow to be parallel to the length of the plate, we
have
hL
Nu = = [0.036 (ReL)0.8 – 836] (Pr)1/3
k
31.25 1.5
= [0.036 (ReL)0.8 – 836] (0.703)0.333
0.02813
31.25 1.5 1
0.036 (ReL)0.8 = 836 = 2709.8
0.02813 (0.703)0.333
1/ 0.8
2709.8
ReL = = 1246790
0.036
UL
5. Also, (ReL) =
1246790 1246790 2.029 10 –5
6. Hence, U= = 15.5 m/s
L 1.0877 1.5
b. A steam pipe 7.5 cm in diameter is covered with 2.5 cm thick
layer of insulation, which has a surface emissivity of 0.9.
The surface temperature of insulation 80 °C and the pipe is
placed in a atmospheric air at 20 °C. Considering heat loss
by both radiation and convection, Calculate
i. Heat loss from 6 m length of the pipe, and
ii. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–21 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Thermo-physical properties of air can be taken as
= 1.092 kg/m3 = 19.57 × 10–6 kg/ms, k = 27.81 × 10–3 W/m-°C.
Use correlation Nu = 0.53(GrPr)1/4
Ans.
Given : d = 7.5 cm, = 0.9, ts = 80 °C, t = 20 °C, = 1.092 kg/m3,
= 19.57 × 10–6 kg/ms, k = 27.81 × 10–3 W/m °C, t = 2.5 cm
Data Assumed : Cp = 1007 J/kg °C
C p 19.57 10 –6 1007
1. We know that, Pr = = 0.708
k 27.81 10 –3
2. Grashof number,
D32 g t
Gr =
2
(0.125)3 (1.092)2 9.81 3.096 10 –3 (80 – 20)
=
(19.57 10 –6 )2
1 –1
50 273 3.096 10 K
–3
( D = d + 2t = 7.5 + 2 × 2.5 = 12.5 cm = 0.125 cm)
= 11.08 × 106
hD
3. Nusselt number, Nu = = 0.53 (GrPr)1/4
k
k
4. Also, h = hconv. = × 0.53 (GrPr)1/4
D
27.81 10 –3
= × 0.53 (11.08 × 106 × 0.708)0.25
0.125
= 6.24 W/m2 -°C
5. Heat loss from 6 m length of pipe :
i. Heat lost by convection,
Qconv.= h As t = 6.24 × ( × 0.125 × 6) × (80 – 20) = 882.16 W
ii. Heat lost by radiation,
Qrad. = A (t14 – t24 )
= 0.9 × (5.67 × 10–8) × ( × 0.125 × 6) [(80 + 273)4
– (20 + 273)4]
= 980.81 W
iii. Total heat loss, Qt = Qconv. + Qrad. = 882.16 + 980.81 = 1862.97 W
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient,
Qt 1862.97
ht = = 13.18 W/m2 -°C
At ( 0.125 6) (80 – 20)
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–22 B (ME-Sem-5)
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6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. A furnace is shaped like a long equilateral triangular duct,
as shown in Fig. 9. The width of each side is 1 m. The base
surface has an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained at a
uniform temperature of 600 K. The heated left-side surface
closely approximates a blackbody at 1000 K. The right-side
surface is well insulated. Determine the rate at which heat
must be supplied to the heated side externally per unit
length of the duct in order to maintain these operating
conditions.
2
3
t2 = 1000 K
Insulated
Black
1 1 = 0.7
t1 = 600 K
Fig. 9.
Ans.
1. The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10.
Eb1 R1 J1 R12 J2 = E b 2
Q1 Q2
R13 R23
J3 = Eb 3
Q3 = 0
Fig. 10.
2. In this case,
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
F12 + F13 = 1 ( F11 = 0)
2F12 = 1 (F12 = F13 by symmetry)
F12 = 0.5
F12 = F13 = F23 = 0.5 by symmetry
3. As surface-3 is re-radiating surface as net heat transfer at heat
surface is zero.
Q1 = – Q2
Eb1 – Eb2
Q1 = –1
1 1
R1
R
12 R13 R23
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–23 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Eb1 – Eb
= –1
...(1)
1
1 – 1 A1 F12
1 1
A1 1
A1 F13 A2 F23
Where, A1 = A2 = A3 = 1 × 1 = 1 m2
4. Now substituting the known values in the eq. (1) we get,
4 4
5.67 1000 – 600
100 100
Q1 = –1
1
1 – 0.7 0.5 1
1 1
1 0.7
1 0.5 1 0.5
5.67 8704 5.67 8704
= =
0.43 (0.5 0.25)–1 0.43 1.33
= 28040 W 28 kW
b. Derive an expression for the theorem of reciprocity.
Ans.
1. Considering heat exchange between elementary areas dA 1 and
dA 2 of two black radiating bodies, separated by a non absorbing
medium and having areas A1 and A2 and temperatures t1 and t2
respectively.
2. Let d1 be angle subtended at dA1 by dA2 and d2 angle subtended
at dA 2 by dA 1. Then
dA2 cos 2
d1 =
r2
dA1 cos 1
and d2 =
r2
3. The energy leaving dA 1 in the direction given by the angle per
unit solid angle
= Ib1 dA 1 cos 1
Where, Ib = Black body intensity, and
dA 1 cos 1 = Projection of dA 1 on the line between the
centres.
4. The rate of radiant energy leaving dA 1 and striking on dA 2 is
given by,
dQ1–2 = Ib1 dA1 cos 1 d1
I cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
= b1 ...(1)
r2
5. Now, the quantity of energy radiated by dA 2 and absorbed by dA1
is given by,
Ib2 cos 2 cos 1 dA2 dA1
dQ2–1 = ...(2)
r2
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–24 B (ME-Sem-5)
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6. The net rate of transfer of energy between dA 1 and dA 2 is
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = dQ1–2 – dQ2–1 = ( Ib1 I b2 )
r2
E E
But, Ib1 = b1 and I b2 b2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2
dQ12 = ( Eb1 Eb2 )
r 2
dA1 dA2 cos 1 cos 2 4 4
or dQ12 = (t1 t2 ) ( Eb = t4)
r 2
A2,t2
dA2
Normal to dA2
r
2
1 Normal to dA1
A1, t1
dA1
Fig. 11. Radiation heat exchange between two black surfaces.
7. The rate of total heat transfer for the total areas A1 and A2 is given
by
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q12 = dQ 12 (t14 t24 )
A1 A2 r 2
8. Now, from eq. (1), we get
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = I b1
A1 A2 r2
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q1–2 = t14 ...(3)
A1 A2 r 2
9. The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by
Q1 = A1 t14 ...(4)
10. On dividing eq. (3) by eq. (4), we get
Q12 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
= ...(5)
Q1 A1 A1 A2 r 2
Q12
or = F1–2
Q1
Heat & Mass Transfer SP–25 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Where F1–2 is surface factor or shape factor between the two
radiating surfaces.
11. Thus the amount of radiation leaving A1 and striking A2 is,
Q1–2 = F1–2 A1 t14 ...(6)
12. Similarly, from eq. (2)
cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
Q2–1 = t24 ...(7)
A1 A2 r 2
13. The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by
Q2 = A2 t24 ...(8)
14. On dividing eq. (7) by eq. (8), we get
Q21 1 cos 1 cos 2 dA1 dA2
A2 A1 A2
=
Q2 r 2
Q21
or = F2–1
Q2
where F2–1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A1.
15. The amount of radiation leaving A2 and arriving A1 is,
Q2–1 = F2–1 A2 t24 ...(9)
16. Thus, the net rate of heat transfer between two black surfaces A1
and A2 is given by
Q12 = A1F1–2 t14 = A2F2–1 t24
17. When the surface are maintained at same temperature, t1 = t2,
there can be no heat exchange
0 = (A1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1) t2 [ t1 = t2 = t]
Since, and t are both non zero quantities,
A 1 F1–2 – A2 F2–1 = 0
or A1 F1–2 = A2 F2–1
This is known as reciprocity theorem.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the following with neat sketch :
i. Filmwise condensation, and
ii. Dropwise condensation.
Ans.
i. Filmwise Condensation :
1. In film condensation, the condensation liquid wet the surface and
forms a liquid film.
2. This liquid film gradually deposits on the surface which acts as a
resistance to heat flow from the surface and hence it prevents the
heat transfer between the condensing vapour and surface.
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–26 B (ME-Sem-5)
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Q t < tsat
g
Vapour
tv | tsat
Condensate film
Fig. 12. Filmwise condensation.
ii. Dropwise Condensation :
1. In dropwise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid
droplets of various sizes which fall down the surface randomly.
2. In this condensation process, a large portion of the area of solid
surface is directly exposed to vapour without an insulating film of
condensate liquid, consequently higher heat transfer rate are
achieved.
ts < tsat
Q
Condensate
drops
Vapour
tv | tsat
Fig. 13. Dropwise condensation.
b. A thin walled double pipe counter flow heat exchanger is to
be used to cool oil (Cp = 2200 J/kg-°C) from 150 °C to 40 °C at
a rate of 2 kg/s by water (Cp = 4180 J/kg -°C) that enters at 22
°C at a rate of 1.5 kg/s. The diameter of the tube is 2.5 cm, and
its length is 6 m. Determine the overall heat transfer
coefficient of this heat exchanger.
Ans.
.
Given : Cpo = 2200 J/kg °C, toi = 150 °C, toe = 40 °C, mo = 2 kg/s,
.
Cpw = 4180 J/kg °C, twi = 22 °C, m w = 1.5 kg/s, d = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, l = 6 m
To Find : Overall heat transfer coefficient (U).
1. Heat transfer through heat exchanger,
Q = mo Cpo (toi – toe)
= 2 × 2200 × (150 – 40)
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