CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature relevant to

Food safety assessment of seafood establishment in Roxas City, Capiz. The literature

review aims to establish the theoretical framework, identify knowledge gaps, and present

a foundation for the research study. Ensuring the safety of seafood products is of utmost

importance to protect public health and maintain consumer confidence in the food

industry. The assessment of food safety in seafood establishments is crucial to identify

potential risks, implement appropriate control measures, and prevent the occurrence of

foodborne illnesses. This review aims to examine the existing literature related to food

safety assessments in seafood establishments, with a specific focus on Roxas City,

Capiz..

Local Literatures

History of Roxas City as the Seafood Capital of the Philippines:

Roxas, officially the City of Roxas or Roxas City, is a medium-sized city in the

province of Capiz, Philippines. It is considered as one of Panay Island’s center of

education, trade, economic activity and logistics. Once known as the Municipality of

Capiz, the origin of the present name of the province, was renamed into Roxas City in

honor of native Manuel Roxas, the First President of the Philippine Third Republic, after

it became a chartered city on May 12, 1951.

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 On February 15, 1951 the diocese of Capiz became a separate ecclesiastical

jurisdiction from Jaro. Its first bishop was Msgr. Manuel Yap. In the same year, former

Vice Mayor Libertad Conlu became the first female mayor of Capiz.

Capiz became a chartered city on May 12, 1951 through House Bill 1528

sponsored by Ramon AcuñaArnaldo, the representative of the First District of Capiz. It

was approved by President ElpidioQuirino on April 11, 1951 as Republic Act 603.

Consequently, the town was named Roxas City after her greatest son, President Manuel

Acuña Roxas, the last president of the Commonwealth and the first president of the

Philippine Republic.

Roxas City, Capiz holds the distinction of being known as the seafood capital of

the Philippines. This section delves into the historical background of Roxas City's

reputation as a hub for seafood production and consumption. It explores the factors that

contributed to the development of the city's seafood industry, such as its coastal location,

rich marine resources, and the entrepreneurial spirit of the local community (Lugtu et al.,

2019; Lucero et al., 2018).

The abundance of marine life makes Roxas City the “Seafood Capital of the

Philippines.” It has received Cleanest and Greenest Component City in Western Visayas

Award in the Gawad Pangulo sa Kapaligiran (GPK) Cleanliness and Environmental

contest. The Department of Health (DOH) awarded the city with the Red Orchid Award

for being “100 percent tobacco-free.” It has also gained the Department of Interior and

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Local Government (DILG) Seal of Good Housekeeping and won the Best Police Station

in the region by the Philippine National Police.

Roxas City has an agri-based economy. Farming and fishing are the major

economic activities which claim 37.05% of the city’s total land area. Although

agricultural, the city is now moving towards commercialization and industrialization as it

is the center of trade and commerce not only in the province of Capiz but also in the

northern part of Panay Island.Roxas City as Seafood capital of the Philippines supplies

export seafood products to various countries such as Taiwan, Japan and the United

States.Phillips Seafood Philippines Corporation is the sole seafood production company

in Roxas City. Their seafood processing plant is located in Banica, Roxas City.

Culture of Fishermen in Roxas City, Capiz: The culture of fishermen plays a

significant role in shaping the fishing industry in Roxas City, Capiz. This section

explores the cultural aspects of fishing communities, their traditional knowledge,

practices, and beliefs related to fishing activities. It examines the role of cultural values,

traditions, and social dynamics in shaping the fishing practices and community resilience

(Macusi, 2018; BICC, 2019).

Evolution of the Economy in the Fishing Industry: The fishing industry in

Roxas City, Capiz has witnessed significant changes over time, driven by various

economic factors. This section reviews the evolution of the local economy in the fishing

industry, including changes in market dynamics, trade patterns, and economic policies. It

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examines the impact of globalization, market demand, technological advancements, and

government interventions on the fishing industry's development (IBP, 2014; Asis et al.,

2020).

State of the Economy: The state of the economy in Roxas City, particularly in

Barangay Baybay, has a significant influence on the seafood industry and the practices of

establishments in the area. Economic factors such as market demand, consumer

purchasing power, and government policies impact the operations and growth of seafood

manufacturing establishments. Foreign literature on the state of the economy in the

seafood industry provides insights into market trends, investment opportunities, and

challenges faced by businesses in Roxas City (Smith et al., 2020). Understanding the

economic context is crucial for assessing the feasibility and sustainability of good

manufacturing practices in the local establishments.

Foreign Literature

As with other perishable foods, foodborne illness caused by microorganisms or

naturally occurring toxins is the primary food safety risk associated with seafood. Illness

is usually associated with improper harvesting, handling, storage or preparation. Those

seafood products that are consumed raw or partially cooked represent the highest risk.

Other risks associated with environmental contaminants could be a concern for some

individuals especially those who catch and eat their own fish or shellfish from lakes,

rivers, streams or bays or harbors that are contaminated by environmental pollutants. The

role of state and federal agencies, fishermen, aquaculturists, retailers, processors,

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restaurants, and scientists is to provide, update, and carry out the necessary handling,

processing, and inspection procedures to give consumers the safest seafood possible. The

consumer’s job is to follow through with proper handling techniques, from purchase to

preparation. It doesn’t matter how many regulations and inspection procedures are set up;

the final edge of the safety net is held by the consumer. A wide variety of seafood

products are available in the U.S. marketplace from many different sources. In the U.S.,

wild fish and shellfish are harvested by commercial fishermen in both near shore and

open ocean waters, and in fresh water lakes or rivers. Farm raised (aquacultured) seafood

products are raised both on land in ponds (catfish), or re-circulating tanks (tilapia and

hybrid bass), and in near shore coastal waters (salmon and shellfish). These same

methods are used to farm a wide variety of fish and shellfish in other countries around the

world which are then imported into the U.S.

Once seafood products are harvested, they are generally processed or packaged

for distribution to retail stores and restaurants. Wild fish and shellfish are unloaded from

harvest vessels and farmed products are harvested from facilities then transported and

packed for distribution to processing plants or wholesalers. Processors convert the whole

fish or shellfish to various other product forms such as fresh fish fillets or steaks or other

items such as frozen products, breaded fish portions, and canned or smoked products.

Some of these products may be further converted by secondary processors to heat and

serve or ready-to-eat products like seafood salads, entrees or other items. Wholesalers

and foodservice distributors receive both raw and processed products from many

different domestic and foreign sources and distribute them to retail stores and restaurants.

Consumers purchase these products from retail stores for home consumption or at

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restaurants and other foodservice establishments. The seafood safety and quality

guidelines covered in this consumer oriented article are based onmmessages delivered to

consumers time and again over the course of the past 34 years by the author, as the

seafood technology specialist with the Delaware Sea Grant Program.

Seafood Inspection - Industry’s Role.

Fish and shellfish, just like milk, baked goods, fruits, vegetables, and groceries of

all types, are subject to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, administered by the U.S. Food

and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA inspects seafood processing plants to ensure

compliance with sanitation and food safety regulations, monitors seafood products for

conformance to regulations governing pesticides and other contaminants, and maintains

extensive surveillance of imported seafood products at their port of entry. In 1997, the

FDA Office of Seafood announced a mandatory fish inspection program that is based on

the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Under this system, seafood

is monitored at critical points in its journey from sea to consumer to ensure quality and

safety. The FDA also updated the Model Food Code, which is designed to help state and

local governments prevent food-borne illness. The code incorporates HACCP principles

and outlines practices for safe food handling at the retail level. There are several other

programs in place to ensure the safety of our seafood. For example, state agencies

monitor water quality in shellfish-growing areas to make sure the waters meet the safety

standards for the safe harvest of shellfish.

2.1. What is HACCP?

HACCP (pronounced “has-sip”) is an acronym for Hazard Analysis Critical

Control Point. It’s an effective way of ensuring the safety of food. It works by preventing

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food safety problems from developing rather than testing food after production to see if it

is safe. There are two parts to HACCP. Part one includes making a list of things that can

cause the food to be unsafe—we call this hazard analysis. Part two is deciding at which

place in the production of the food the hazards can best be controlled—we call this the

critical control point for that hazard.

2.2. How Does HACCP Make Seafood Safe?

All parts of the seafood processing operation are examined for hazards including

raw materials, ingredients, processing steps, storage, and distribution. Hazards include

disease causing organisms, toxins, environmental contaminants (such as pesticides),

chemicals (cleaners, sanitizers, lubricants, etc.), and physical hazards (wood, metal, and

glass). For each hazard, a critical control point is identified where the potential food

safety problem is controlled. Records are kept at each critical control point so inspection

agencies can be certain the HACCP system is operating to provide safe food. As an extra

measure of safety, certain sanitation activities also must be conducted and documented.

Under the FDA regulations, all seafood processors are required to operate under the

HACCP program. All imported seafood is also covered. Overall, the message to

consumers about seafood is good. The vast majority of seafood in the marketplace is safe,

and most hazards can be eliminated or prevented by proper handling and thorough

cooking. This is where the consumer plays a major role. By learning the proper

guidelines for buying, handling, storing, and preparing seafood, you can help ensure that

there are no holes in the seafood safety net.

The Consumer’s Role - Buying Seafood.

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 What should you know in order to purchase high-quality seafood? First, it’s

important to buy seafood from reputable dealers—those with a known record of safe

handling practices—and avoid roadside stands. And since seafood is highly perishable,

purchase it last. Make sure the raw juices from seafood do not drip on other foods,

especially those that will be eaten without further cooking. (Bacteria in the raw juices can

cause cooked foods to spoil, and since these foods are already cooked, there won’t be any

chance for the bacteria to be destroyed.) You can avoid cross-contamination in your

shopping cart by enclosing individual packages of seafood in plastic bags. Note that the

word “fresh” refers to seafood that has not been frozen. Yet “frozen” does not have a bad

connotation. Frozen seafood can be superior in quality to fresh seafood, so base your

purchase on product quality. (Products labeled “fresh frozen” indicate the seafood was

frozen while it was fresh, in many instances within hours of harvest. If fishery products

were frozen and thawed for retail sale they should be labeled “previously frozen.”) How

can you determine the quality of fresh seafood in the store? First, look at the display. All

fresh seafood should be held as near to 32 F as possible, which is maintained by

refrigeration and/or ice.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration currently recommends that pregnant or

breastfeeding women and children under age 12 should eat 2 to 3 servings (8 to 12

ounces) of a variety of different kinds of fish and shellfish each week. There is a large

variety of different types of fish and shellfish in the marketplace. The most frequently

consumed items, including shrimp, salmon, canned light tuna, flatfish, tilapia, oysters,

crab, pollock, catfish, clams, scallops, lobster and basa or swai, all have low mercury

levels.

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 The FDA recommends that pregnant or breastfeeding women and young children

should not eat four kinds of fish, Shark, Swordfish, King mackerel and Tilefish from the

Gulf of Mexico, because they contain higher levels of mercury. Consumption of canned

“white” or albacore tuna and fresh tuna steaks should be limited to 6 ounces per week

because they can have slightly more mercury.

If you eat fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes, rivers, and coastal

areas you should check for any sportfish consumption advisories issued in your state. If

no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) per week of fish you catch

from local waters, but don’t consume any other fish during that week. Advisories are

available from local and state health departments and the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency.

Whole Fish. Whatever the variety, whole fish have certain characteristics that

indicate freshness. They should have bright, clear, full eyes that are often protruding. As

the fish loses freshness, the eyesbecome cloudy, pink, and sunken. The gills should be

bright red or pink. Avoid fish with dull-coloredgills that are gray, brown, or green. Fresh

fish should be free of loose or sloughing slime. The flesh should be firm yet elastic,

springing back when pressed gently with the finger. With time, the flesh becomes soft

and slips away from the bone. The skin of a fresh, whole fish should be shiny with scales

that adhere tightly characteristic colors and markings start to fade as soon as a fish leaves

the water, but the skin should still have a bright, shiny appearance

Seafood Industry: The seafood industry plays a vital role in many coastal regions

worldwide. Foreign literature has extensively discussed the significance of the seafood

industry in terms of economic growth, employment generation, and food security.

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Countries such as Norway, Japan, and the United States have implemented stringent

regulations and GMP standards to ensure the safety and quality of seafood products

(FAO, 2018). These regulations include proper handling, processing, and storage

practices to minimize the risks of microbial contamination and maintain product

freshness.

Quality Management: Quality management systems, such as Hazard Analysis

and Critical Control Points (HACCP), have gained recognition in foreign literature as

effective tools for ensuring food safety and quality. HACCP focuses on identifying

potential hazards in the food production process and implementing control measures to

prevent their occurrence. Studies have demonstrated that the implementation of HACCP-

based systems improves the overall quality and safety of seafood products (Jaffee et al.,

2018). These systems also contribute to enhancing consumer confidence and meeting

regulatory requirements.

Consumer Handling and Storing Fresh Seafood.

The storage life of seafood depends on how well you take care of it, whether it is

a whole fish or a live oyster. When your seafood purchase arrives home, store it in the

coldest part of your refrigerator at a temperature as close to 32 F as possible. Many home

refrigerators operate at 40 F; therefore, fish will lose quality faster. Fish bruises easily, so

lift a whole fish with both hands and avoid holding it by the tail. Pack dressed fish on ice

in the refrigerator. Seal fillets or steaks in plastic bags or containers; then cover them with

ice in trays or pans. Empty the melt water regularly and add more ice as necessary. Fish

that is not prepackaged should be washed under cold, running water and patted dry with

an absorbent paper towel. The fish should then be wrapped in moisture-proof paper or

10
plastic wrap, placed in a heavy plastic bag, or stored in an air-tight, rigid container until

ready for cooking. The shelf life of fish depends on the variety and its quality at time of

purchase. In general, you should use fish quickly—within one to two days.

Handling and storage guidelines vary according to the variety of shellfish you

purchase. Store live shellfish in a shallow dish covered with damp towels or moistened

paper towels. Never put live shellfish in water or in an air-tight container where they

could suffocate and die. Scrub live oysters, clams, and mussels with a stiff brush such as

a vegetable brush just prior to shucking or cooking.

Mussels and clams in the shell (live) should be used within two to three days;

oysters in the shell, from seven to 10 days. Some shells may open during storage. If so,

tap them. They will close if alive; if not, discard them. Store shrimp, squid, and shucked

shellfish in a leak-proof bag, plastic container, or covered jar.

Squid and freshly shucked clams have a shelf life of one to two days. Shrimp and

scallops have a shelf life of about two to three days. And freshly shucked oysters have a

shelf life of five to seven days. Live lobsters and crabs should be cooked the same day

they are purchased. Store cooked whole lobsters or crabs in rigid air-tight containers and

use them within two to three days. Cooked, picked lobster or crabmeat may be stored in a

sealed moisture- proof plastic bag or air-tight plastic container for three to four days.

Pasteurized crabmeat can be refrigerated for up to six months before opening; use it

within three to five days after opening.

Leftovers. Taking care of leftovers is a critical food handling step and is often

where errors can occur, sometimes resulting in food-borne illness. To prevent a problem

at this step, wash hands before handling leftovers and use clean utensils and surfaces.

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Refrigerate or freeze leftovers in covered, shallow (less than 2 inches deep) containers

within two hours after cooking. Leave air space around containers to allow circulation of

cold air and to help ensure rapid, even cooling. When preparing seafood for later use,

refrigerate or freeze it immediately after cooking in covered, shallow containers.

Refrigerators and freezers are designed to compensate for the addition of a few

temporarily hot foods without allowing other foods to warm up. Refrigerate leftovers

within two hours when the temperature in the food serving area is below 90 F and within

one hour when the temperature of the air is 90 F or above.

Buying Frozen Seafood

Commercially frozen fish is quickly frozen at its peak freshness and the consumer

can now find a wide choice of top-quality and wholesome seafood in the freezer case.

When properly thawed, frozen fish is comparable to fish that was never frozen. Both

exhibit the qualities of freshness described previously. Frozen fish and shellfish should be

packaged in a close-fitting, moisture-proof package.

Select packages from below the load line of the freezer case. Look for packages

that still have their original shape and the wrapping intact with little or no visible ice.

Seafood should be frozen solid with no signs of freezer burn, such as discoloration or

drying on the surface, and have no objectionable odor. The same guidelines apply for

frozen prepared seafood, such as crab cakes, breaded shrimp, or fish sticks. Do not allow

the package to defrost during transportation.

Storing Frozen Fish

After shopping, immediately store commercially wrapped frozen seafood in your

freezer. Put it in the coldest part of the freezer, at a temperature as close to 20 F as

12
possible. As with other frozen foods, avoid prolonged storage by planning your

purchases, keeping in mind “first in, first out”.

Commercially frozen seafood can be stored in the freezer for six to 12 months

depending on the type of fish and the amount of fat it contains. Freezing fish at home

should be reserved for those times when you end up with more than you can immediately

eat, such as after a fishing trip or if someone cancels for dinner. Freezing fish or shellfish

in the home or commercial freezer will not improve quality; it only maintains the quality

of the food at the time it is frozen.

To freeze seafood at home, start with a high-quality and carefully handled

product. Fish should be cleaned first under cold water and then patted dry. Wrap with

plastic wrap, excluding as much air as possible. Then overwrap your fish with freezer

paper or aluminum foil. There are also specially designed plastic bags for use in the

freezer. These may also be used for fish. Carefully seal all packages and label with

contents, amount, and date. Place the packages in the coldest part of the freezer where the

cold air can circulate around them, freezing them quickly. Shellfish such as shucked

clams, oysters, or mussels can be frozen in rigid air-tight plastic containers. Be sure the

meats are covered with their liquor and there is a 1/2-inch space between the liquid and

the container lid to allow for expansion.

Scallops may be frozen in plastic freezer bags. Be sure to exclude air and seal

tightly or pack scallops tightly in covered freezer containers. Frozen, shucked shellfish

can be stored for three to four months.

Most shrimp available in the market has been previously frozen. Be sure shrimp

has not been frozen if you plan to freeze it. Refreezing shrimp under non- commercial

13
conditions can significantly affect the flavor and texture, and, in some cases, may make

the shrimp unsafe to eat when thawed.

The National Fisheries Institute has developed a seafood storage guide (Table 1)

for fresh and frozen products. This guide indicates optimal shelf life for seafood products

held under proper refrigeration or freezing conditions. Temperature fluctuations in home

refrigerators will affect optimal shelf life, as will opening and closing refrigerators and

freezers often. Although these storage times ensure a fresh product for maximum

refrigeration storage life at 32 F, the consumer should plan on using seafood within 36 to

48 h for optimal quality. To determine the approximate storage time for species not listed,

ask your retailer which category (lean, fat, shellfish, breaded, or smoked) the seafood

falls within and refer to the guide.

Thawing

It is not always necessary to thaw seafood before cooking, depending on how it

will be prepared. If thawing is not necessary, simply double the cooking time. But if your

recipe calls for coating, rolling, or stuffing, or if the fish is in a block, you will need to

defrost it to facilitate handling. Plan ahead; defrost the fish overnight in the refrigerator.

This is the best way to thaw fish to minimize loss of moisture. A one-pound package will

defrost within 24 h. Never defrost seafood at room temperature or with hot or warm

water. Bacteria on the surface will begin to multiply and cause spoilage. If you forget to

take your seafood out of the freezer ahead of time, place it in the sink under cold, running

water.

A one-pound package will defrost in approximately one hour. You may also use

your microwave oven to partially thaw your fish. Use the lowest defrost setting, which is

14
usually 30 percent of normal power levels, and follow the manufacturer’s instructions for

time based on amount of fish. (A pound of fillets defrosts in five to six minutes.) The fish

should feel cool, pliable, and slightly icy. Be careful not to overheat it and begin the

cooking process. Foods defrosted in the microwave oven should be cooked immediately

after thawing. When thawing frozen fish that comes in a vacuum-sealed package, remove

it from the package, cover, or wrap, and thaw it under refrigeration immediately before

use. Do not thaw product while it is still inside the vacuum-sealed package.

Preparation - Keeping It Clean.

Finally, it’s time to prepare your seafood! But before you begin, remind yourself

of these important sanitary guidelines developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

Food Safety and Inspection Service. Be sure the food preparation area and all surfaces

and utensils that will touch food are clean. Always wash your hands with soap and warm

water for at least 20 s before beginning food preparation, before working with new food

or new utensils, after finishing food preparation, before serving food, and after going to

the bathroom. Do not let juices from raw finfish, shellfish, meat, or poultry come into

contact with other foods. Wash cutting board, utensils, counter, sink, and hands with hot,

soapy

water immediately after preparing raw seafood, meats, or poultry. Also, use a fingernail

brush to clean under nails and cuticles. Keep dishwashing sponges and cloths clean. Use

cutting boards that are easy to clean—plastic, acrylic, or rubber composition are good

choices. Wooden boards may look pretty, but they should only be used for cutting breads

because they are porous and difficult to clean thoroughly. Don’t taste any food of animal

15
origin (meat, poultry, eggs, fish, or shellfish) when it’s raw or during cooking. Serve your

cooked seafood on clean plates. Never put it back on the plate that held the raw product.

Cooking—General Rules.

Cook fish and shellfish thoroughly. Fish is cooked when it begins to flake and/or

loses its translucent (raw) appearance and turns opaque. Cook fish until it reaches an

internal temperature of 140–145 F for 15 s. Follow processor’s directions when preparing

frozen, packaged seafood products such as frozen, breaded fish portions. Seafood is

usually baked in a moderate to high oven temperature (425 F). Do not use recipes that

call for cooking without a reliable and continuous heat source.

Avoid interrupted cooking—completely cook fish and shellfish at one time.

Partial or interrupted cooking often produces conditions that encourage bacterial growth.

Cooking Shellfish. Be careful not to overcook shellfish. So often shellfish are in small

pieces and can easily be overcooked, becoming tough, dry, and flavorless. Some

shellfish, such as canned clams or cooked, picked crabmeat and surimi products

(imitation shellfish), are already cooked when purchased. In this case, heat the precooked

shellfish or surimi product to the desired temperature without cooking further. Scallops

and shrimp turn firm and opaque when cooked. It takes from three—five minutes to boil

or steam one pound of medium-sized shrimp and three-four minutes to cook scallops.

Shucked shellfish, such as clams, mussels, and oysters, become plump and opaque when

cooked. The FDA recommends that shucked oysters be boiled or simmered for at least

three minutes, fried in oil for at least three minutes at 375 F, or baked at 450 F for at least

10 min. Steam clams, mussels, and oysters in the shell for four-nine minutes from the

start of steaming. Use small pots to steam shellfish. If too many shells are cooking at

16
once, it’s possible the centers won’t cook thoroughly. Discard any clams, mussels, or

oysters that do not open during cooking. Closed shells indicate they may not have

received adequate heating.

Boiled lobsters or steamed crabs turn bright red. Allow 10–12 min per pound of

lobster, starting to time when the water returns to a boil. Steam crabs 25 min when two to

three dozen, depending on size, have been placed in a large crab pot.

Microwave Cooking

Microwave ovens heat food surfaces rapidly. However, time must be allowed for

the heat to penetrate to the center of the food. Take the following steps to ensure that food

cooks thoroughly and evenly in the microwave oven. Cover the food to hold in moisture

and facilitate even cooking. Glass cookware, glass ceramic cookware, and waxed paper

are safe for microwave cooking.

Plastic wrap may be used to cover containers, but should not touch the food.

Before using other types of containers or wraps, check to be sure that they are approved

for use in the microwave oven. Unapproved materials may melt, burn, or contain

chemicals that can migrate into food during cooking.

When following microwave oven cooking instructions on product labels,

remember that ovens vary in power and operating efficiency. If you’re unsure of your

oven’s capability, try the following test.

Time to Boil Test. From a container of half ice and half water, measure exactly

one cup of water (no ice) into a glass measuring cup. Place the cup in the center of the

microwave oven. Heat on high for five minutes until the water begins to boil. If the water

begins to boil in less than three and a half minutes, consider your oven “high power;” if

17
longer, the oven is “low power.” When using a recipe that states a heating time of six to

eight minutes, the “high-power” oven will microwave in the shorter time (or six minutes)

while the “low-power” oven will take the longer time (or eight minutes).

If the microwave oven doesn’t have a turntable, turn the entire dish several times

during cooking. Be sure to stir recipes such as casseroles or soups. Allow seafood cooked

in the microwave oven to stand for the recommended time. This is necessary to complete

the cooking process. Check for doneness before serving.

Serving Seafood

Seafood can be a delicious addition to your daily meal routine and for special

occasions such as buffets, picnics, and bag lunches. To ensure the safety of your seafood,

follow the sanitary guidelines listed in the Preparation section of this guide.

Buffets. When serving for a buffet, serve hot food from chafing dishes or

warming trays that maintain the internal temperature of the food at 140 F or above. For

cold foods, nestle the serving dish into a bed of crushed ice. Small platters for

replenishing the serving table should be prepared ahead and stored in the refrigerator (at

40 F or below) or kept warm in the oven (at a setting of 200–225 F). Discard any foods

that have been held at room temperature for more than two hours. Fresh food should not

be added to a serving dish or platter containing foods that have already been out for

serving.

Picnics and Lunches. When going on a picnic or traveling with food, keep all

perishables in a cooler with ice or freeze-pack inserts until serving time. Make sure the

food is cold or frozen to the touch before placing it in a cooler or cold thermos. When

packing a “bag lunch” that will be eaten within several hours, placing ice cubes in a re-

18
sealable bag or a small freeze-pack insert in an insulated bag should be all that is

necessary to keep the food cold. Be sure to put the cooler or lunch bag in the coolest

place possible. Don’t leave it in the direct sun or in a warm car.

Extra Care for Special Seafood

Seafood is highly perishable and in many cases requires certain precautions when

handling for home use. Some seafood products require extra care either because they are

more vulnerable to bacteria that can cause food-borne illness or they have unusual

characteristics because of the way they are processed. This section provides additional

information on handling some “extra care” products.

Smoked Seafood. Most of today’s smoked seafood products are lightly smoked to

enhance flavor and not to prolong shelf life. Smoked seafood should be refrigerated at all

times and stored no longer than four or five days. In the store, smoked seafood should be

displayed in a refrigerator case, but not directly on ice. It should not be in direct contact

with fresh seafood. Some other things to look for when buying smoked seafood include a

firm, springy texture, glossy surface, smoky odor, no traces of dried blood or viscera, and

no traces of salt crystals. For longer storage, smoked seafood can be frozen for two to

three months.

Surimi Seafood. Surimi is the raw material with which imitation seafood is made.

Surimi is prepared under strict controls at sea or onshore. Freshly caught Alaskan pollock

is filleted, minced, washed, and strained to yield a concentrated fish paste. Small

quantities of salt, sugar, and/or sorbitol are added to stabilize the protein during frozen

storage. Next, the surimi is processed into food products by blending it with binders such

as starch or egg white. Real shellfish, a shellfish extract, or artificial shellfish flavoring is

19
added to make it taste like shellfish. Then it is formed into the desired shape and texture

and cooked. Surimi products should look like the cooked form of the fish and shellfish

they are meant to resemble. Since they are fully cooked, add these products to your recipe

in the last minutes of cooking, leaving just enough time to heat through. When buying

imitation seafood, look for opaque off-white body meat and red, cooked-shellfish color

on the surface. If the surimi product is frozen, there shouldn’t be crystals in the package

—they indicate freeze-thaw problems. When thawed, these products should be moist and

firm, not wet and soft. Do not buy products with off odors (sour, fermented, or sulfur

smells). This indicates spoilage. It is wise to read the ingredient statement on the label if

you are allergic to any fish or shellfish. Surimi seafood should be stored in the

refrigerator for no longer than 14 days (follow the manufacturers “use by date” if present

on unopened package), or frozen for 9–12 months. (See the seafood storage guide.)

Remember, this product is fully cooked. Use sanitary handling techniques to prevent

cross-contamination with raw seafood and meat.

Value-Added Seafood. Value-added seafood includes battered and breaded

seafood, smoked seafood, dried fish, precooked seafood entrees, fresh minced clams, pre-

seasoned fish fillets (such as farm-raised catfish), and others. All these products are semi-

prepared and refrigerated or frozen to save you steps when preparing meals at home.

Keep in mind the safe handling guidelines, cleanliness, and proper storage and cooking

temperatures, and always read the label and follow the manufacturer’s directions,

especially as new products are developed and reach the marketplace.

To use refrigerated, prepared seafood safely, when purchasing it, make sure the

seafood is cold. Also check the “sell by” or “use by” date on the package. Read the label

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and follow storage and cooking or heating instructions carefully. Use these products

within the recommended length of time. When freezing these products, do so as soon as

possible after purchase. Marinades. Follow these guidelines when you use marinades to

flavor fish and shellfish. If your recipe calls for basting cooked fish or shellfish with

marinade, reserve a portion of it for this before combining the marinade with the raw

seafood. Marinate seafood in the refrigerator in a glass or plastic container. Marinades

often contain acidic liquids such as wine, lemon juice, or vinegar, which react with metal.

Avoid cross-contaminating other foods by thoroughly cleaning any utensils, bowls, or

surfaces the marinade comes in contact with after it is combined with raw seafood. Do

not save marinades that have been combined with raw seafood, unless they will be

immediately cooked in a sauce. Bring the marinade to a rolling boil before adding any

other ingredients. Then cook the sauce to at least 160 F.

The Final Edge of the Safety Net

The most important considerations in safe handling of seafood at home are

cleanliness, temperature, and time. Keep your hands, preparation area, and utensils clean.

Avoid cross-contamination. Never let raw seafood come in contact with cooked seafood

or other raw or cooked foods. Be aware of temperatures—of the air, of your refrigerator

and freezer, of cooking, too. Use the temperature guide in this publication. And be aware

of time—the clock starts when fish and shellfish leave the water. Finally, to keep your

seafood safe, buy high-quality products and just like they say in the industry, keep it

clean, keep it cool, and keep it moving! By following these rules, you can feel confident

in holding up your edge of the seafood safety net.

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 Hygiene Practices: Hygiene practices are essential in ensuring the safety and

quality of food products. Foreign studies have emphasized the significance of proper

sanitation, personal hygiene, and facility cleanliness in food establishments. Effective

hygiene practices include regular handwashing, use of clean and sanitized equipment,

proper waste disposal, and pest control (Fernández-Cuello et al., 2019). Implementing

these practices reduces the risk of microbial contamination and ensures the production of

safe and high-quality seafood products.

Consumer Awareness: Consumer awareness plays a significant role in driving

demand for safe and high-quality seafood products. Foreign literature has emphasized the

importance of consumer education and information regarding GMP, food safety, and

product labeling. Studies have shown that informed consumers are more likely to make

conscious choices, demanding products from establishments that adhere to GMP and

meet stringent safety standards (Jang & Lee, 2019). Consumer awareness campaigns,

labeling regulations, and educational initiatives contribute to creating a more informed

and empowered consumer base.

Food Safety Management Systems: Foreign literature has extensively discussed

the implementation of Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS) in the food industry,

including the seafood sector. FSMS, such as the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) 22000, provide a comprehensive framework for ensuring food

safety throughout the supply chain (Kumar et al., 2017). These systems incorporate GMP

principles and focus on hazard analysis, risk assessment, and control measures to prevent

foodborne illnesses and maintain product integrity. Studies have shown that the adoption

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of FSMS positively impacts the overall quality and safety of seafood products (Pandey et

al., 2020).

References

1. Hicks, D.T.; Kramer, D. Seafood Safety: What Consumers Need to Know.

University of Delaware Sea Grant

College Program and the National Seafood HACCP Alliance. Available online:

https://www.deseagrant.

org/sites/default/files/product-docs/seafood_safety_brochure.pdf (accessed on 27

October 2016).

2. Delaware Sea Grant, A Consumer Guide to Safe Seafood Handling. Available

online: https://www.

deseagrant.org/sites/default/files/product-docs/safe_seafood_2010_lr.pdf

(accessed on 27 October 2016).

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 3. Fish: What Pregnant Women and Parents Should Know. Available online:

http://www.fda.gov/Food/

FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm393070.htm (accessed on 30

September 2016).

4. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. Response

to the Questions Posed by

the Food and Drug Administration and the National Marine Fisheries Service

Regarding Determination of

Cooking Parameters for Safe Seafood for Consumers. J. Food Prot. 2008, 71,

1287–1308.

5. U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service. Preventing

Food-Borne Illness: A Guide to

Safe Food Handling; Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1990.

6. Delaware Sea Grant. Available online: www.deseagrant.org/outreach/seafood

(accessed on 30 September 2016).

7. Seafood Health Facts. Available online: www.seafoodhealthfacts.org (accessed

on 30 September 2016).

8. Salmon Roe Caviar. Available online:

http://www.uaf.edu/files/ces/publications-db/catalog/hec/FNH-

00130.pdf (accessed on 30 September 2016).

9. Fresh and Frozen Seafood: Selecting and Serving It Safely. Available online:

http://www.fda.gov/

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 food/foodborneillnesscontaminants/buystoreservesafefood/ucm077331.htm?

source=govdelivery&utm_

medium=email&utm_source=govdelivery (accessed on 10 March 2016).

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