Theories/ Models of Communication

A theory is an explanation; it provides us with most adequate and effective explanation of a

given study area at a given time. Theories provide us with ideas, facts and figures, descriptions

and presumptions about a thing, event or idea which enables greater degree of understanding and

control over it. There are about four theories that attempt to explain communication.

I. The linear process model

LINEAR (transmission) model of communication (One-way process of communication)

It is also known as transmission view and was modeled by Shannon and Weaver in 1949 as an

extension of information theory.

- It emphasis on the notion of a sender sending information to the receiver.

- It views communication in terms of information transfer and divides it to a number of

stages, which are seen as components in communication process and are also known as

communication variables.

The components of communication in the linear model are:

- Sender- The source

- Receiver- destination

- Message-the information

- Code- the form message takes

- Channel-the means /medium

- Noise-Physical interference e. g sound, light etc.

It considers communication to occur on a straight line.

Evaluation or critique of this model

- Linear process model provides us with notable key concepts useful to understanding

communication.

- It provides adequate account communication forces such as mass media (radio, T.V),

telegraph, it however falls short of explaining other communication that involves feedback.

- Linear model views communications as one way process.

II. Interactive process model of communication

It is an improvement on the linear model as it attempts to address some of the

inadequacies of the linear model.

i) It notes that communication is not always intentional as people interpret aspects

of our behavior including appearance irrespective of whether they were

intentional behavior or not.

ii) It takes communication to be a two-way process involving information

exchange hence feedback.

iii) It considers the receiver and the sender to occupy their own respective and

overlapping fields of experience showing that both the receiver and the sender

must have a degree of shared understanding or knowledge for communication

to occur e.g. language.

 iv) It views meaning to reside not in the code (word) but residing in the minds of

the speaker and receiver.

v) The model broadens the concepts of noise beyond physical noise to include

anything that interferes with the original intended meaning of a message. A

part from the physical noise it incorporates others forms of noise.

Other forms of noise include:

a) Psychological noise- individuals features such as emotions, expectations biases etc.

b) Sematic noise- the differences in people understanding of the meaning of certain words

(which is influenced by their field of experience including culture). Semantic noise can

occur at the level of denotation (literal or dictionary meaning of a word) or connotative

level (refers to emotional overtones conveyed by words). E.g. “… that one, he is the

donkey of the family”.

NB Senders of messages need to choose words carefully so that the connotative meaning

received does not interfere with the intended meaning e.g. a male calling women girls could be

interpreted as derogatory in African context while it may be perceived positively in other

cultures.

III. Transactional process model

i) It presents communications a more dynamic process. It accounts for the way we

receive and send information simultaneously when communicating. Human mind as

comparable to a computer processor involved in multitasking hence sending and

receiving information at the same time incorporating the use of double feedback both

sender and receiver as communicator

ii) Communicating is viewed as an on-going process as opposed to static process

consisting of discrete instances of communications. Communicating to somebody you

know takes place within the context of previous communication exchanges,

communication does not always start on a clean slate all the time but in the context of

the previous communication interactions.

iii) It incorporates the relationship dimensions i.e. we have certain kinds of relationships

with the people with whom we communicate ranging from working, intimate to

impersonal.

iv) Communication is seen as negotiative – meaning is negotiated. Communication

involves negotiation of image or status within a relationship dynamic e.g. way we

 communicate with a boss will influence his or her understanding of you and vice

versa. Negotiation occurs at a variety of levels – power, credibility, trust etc.

v) Transactional model incorporates a rage of other factors that influence

communication namely context.

Context/situation or setting within which communication takes place or the circumstances

that surround a particular piece of communication context may be seen as:

 Situational-communication in football pitch is different from church service

 Temporal-relates to immediate time frame e.g. the time of day and timing of

an event e.g. using good timing for a salary increase request.

 Historical-this refers to historical placing in time for example we are living at

a time when discriminatory behavior and language are tolerated less. Sexist or

gender biased language are less tolerated today than they were 30 years ago.

 Social context-refers to the kind of society within which communication is

occurring; education level, economic status, family, types of groups we

belong to etc.

 Cultural context – norms, moral principles, religion, traditions and customs.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
All Communications have to be originated, produced, transmitted, received and understood. For

this case an idea has to be encoded, transmitted through media, to the recipient who has to

understand in order to decode the message. The success of every communication is a function of

how well the process was adhered to.

Elements/Components of Communication
For communication to occur there are key ingredients that must be present which are

1) Sender- this is the source of the information, the origin of the information to be

shared who is responsible of conceiving the idea to be shared, put the idea into a form

that the receiver can understand, chooses the medium and the channel to be used to

communicate.

2) Receiver- This is the destination of the message; the person(s) to whom the message

is intended who is responsible of receiving and interpreting /assigning meaning to the

message received. The person is also responsible of choosing the time, the channel,

and medium through which to send feedback. They also send feedback.

(The roles of the sender and the receiver are interchangeable)

3) Feedback-This refers to signals passed to sender either in written, spoken or signal. A

possible problem could arise from wrongly interpreted feedback by sender or no

feedback at all.

4) Context- This refers to the surrounding and circumstances or the environment in

which communication is made.

5) The noise- Noise is used to refer to any factors which prevent proper exchange of

information apart from that from the sender or receiver. Noise can be physical

e.g. typewriters or the telephone bells which interrupt meetings, or it can be

some other form of interference. Such as bad telephone connections, poor

handwriting in letter, conflicting messages.

6) Message- The unit of communication, the idea or information to be shared

7) Medium- the form into which the message is put through; written form,

spoken/oral/verbal, visual, non-verbal etc.

 8) Channel- network or means through which the message is transmitted: internet, phone

email, face-to-face, letters, Memos, reports, gestures, graphs and charts, photos,

videos, films etc.

Factors to Consider When Choosing a Channel of Communication

The channel chosen is very important since it will affect the way the receiver will interpret the

message.

The following factors should be considered when choosing a channel of communication:

1) Cost - The cost of choosing the medium should be within the reach of the sender. It

should be affordable.

2) Urgency - The medium used should deliver the message within the time required by the

sender. Hence very fast mediums should be used to send urgent messages.

3) Confidentiality - Confidential messages should be sent using confidential means that

allow secrecy.

4) Reliability - The means chosen should be relied upon to deliver the message to the

required person in the correct context and form, within the required time.

5) Distance - Distance between the sender and receiver. The means used should be

convenient for the distance.

6) Details of the message - Medium used should accommodate all the details of the

message.

7) The receiver - The medium should be chosen with the receiver in mind. Hence written

communication can only be used if the receiver is literate while oral methods can be used

if receiver has speech capability.

Communication Process/Cycle
Communication is a process which is sequential in nature and a key determinant of

successful/effective communication and if not well adhered to it results to communication

breakdown or ineffective communication. It comprises of the following stages:

Figure 1 outlines a simple communication process

Figure 1: The Basic Communication Model (Source: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax,

under CC-BY 4.0 license).

i) Encoding: is the process where individuals initiating the communication process

send out a set of systematic symbols. For example, when saying, “Hello, how are

you today,” that is using the systematic symbol of language to create a common code

for the receiver. An appropriate “language form/medium” is then chosen: it could

either be oral, written word (language), picture or “non-verbal” communication. The

 problem that could arise here to affect the process is the poor relationship between the

sender and the receiver.

ii) Communication Medium and Channel Selected: Here an appropriate medium is

selected, which could be: oral, written word (language), picture/visual or “non-

verbal”. The channel chosen could be: letter, interview, electronic mail, telex,

WhatsApp, Tik Tok, Zoom or use of messenger. The possible problem area here is

the choice of wrong medium, time wasted, expense incurred, no written record.

iii) Decoding: is the receiver accepting the encoded message and makes an

interpretation. Most messages have two aspects of meaning- an

underlying/implicit/hidden meaning (connotation) and an explicit/overt meaning

(denotation).

iv) The receiver then provides feedback which is, in many cases, the final stage, and

usually communicates back a message of acknowledgement of the message based on

their own understanding/ interpretation of the message received. In this example the

feedback is the recipient recognizing the greeting and responding with “I’m fine,

how are you?” and then the process/cycle either repeats itself or ends.

It this is this step that completes the process.

v) Another part present in the communication process is the introduction of

noise. Noise is the way encoding and decoding can be distorted by a variety of

elements. Noise can come from a plethora of problems including physical

distractions, poor channels, and cultural disconnect.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
It is not every attempt to communicate that achieves the desired results or is effective.

Communication is most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an interrupted flow.
The free flow may however breakdown due to various physical or technical hindrances.

Hindrances can occur at the level of sender, transmitter or the medium or the receiver.

1. Mechanical barriers.

A communication may not reach properly if the mechanism that carries it breaks down.

Some possible mechanical failures are:

[a] A weak microphone or poor sound spread [acoustics] of the meeting place.

[b] Defective telephone lines.

[c] Electricity /computer breakdown.

[d] Poor printing quality or paper spread of ink, overlap of colours.

[e] Atmospherics on radio or TV transmissions especially in cloudy weather.

2. Physical barriers.

These may be due to inadequate staff, faulty procedures, inaccuracy in processing and delivery

of communication, loss of documents, fills, and failures of staff to follow the procedures laid

down etc. These could be classified into two:-

1. Noise: A part from the ordinary noise from loud vehicles or blaring from loud speakers or

telephones noise also refers to all kind of interface like illegible handwriting emerged copies of

duplicate type receipt or telephone connections.

2. Time and Distance: The distance between a transmitter and receiver is a barrier.

Sometimes gaps occur in communication between people spreading in different shifts. Seating

arrangement in the room can also become barrier to effective communication. For whichever

position the employees may be occupying they want eye contact with each other. Sometimes

background noise, whether in a face-to-face meeting on either end of the telephone, reduces the

audibility of the spoken words. Also, if the listener is too far from the speaker, he may not be
able to hear him, in which the distance is the barrier. Similarly, the time taken for the message to

reach to its destination can become a barrier, e.g. a telegram delivered too late.

3. Psychological and physiological barriers.

i) Physiological barriers are biological or physical in nature.

a. A person of weak hearing or eyesight cannot always receive the communication in

full.

b. The age of the listener puts its own limitations on his ability to receive messages. One

may be too young or too old to understand certain things.

c. A person’s educational level governs his understanding. Some background

knowledge is required to understand certain things.

d. There are gender barriers too. Boys and girls in general have their own areas of

specialization where they understand faster. Boys are more outdoors oriented while

girls tend to take major interest in house work. A boy who is told to do a “girl’s job

may put a psychological barriers.

ii) Psychological barriers

a. A wandering mind cannot fully gather the inputs given to it. While roving is a natural

tendency of the mind and the attention of a listener is limited, there may be causes of

inattention too. These may be visual or audio distractions- gaudy pictures or songs in

the neighborhood.

b. Ideological loyalties may form a barrier to communication. One may have a political

party membership, a philosophical principle [like hedonism, i.e. devotion to sensory

enjoyment], a religious affiliation that have already bound the way one thinks. Such a

person may not be receptive to the ideas counter to his ideology.

 c. Loyalty to a brand or organization is also a barrier. One who is loyal to one brand

may not be receptive to a rival product’s ad. One may not be receptive to the ideas

counter to his ideology.

d. Emotional/affective states of a person can act as barriers. If one is in a fit of anger, he

may not listen to reason. He may also find it difficult to communicate soberly with a

person who has not contributed to his anger. There is a spillover effect- the emotion

generated by one transaction spill over into an unrelated transaction.

e. One’s prejudices acts as a hindrance to reason. A prejudice is a judgment formed

without proper or adequate information. One may have a racial prejudice, a caste

prejudice and so on. This is the opposite of an open mind. A liberal education is

meant to remove irrational notions which stay on as prejudice.

f. Personality limitations put a barrier, too. These are similar to ideological barriers, as

some personalities are naturally attracted to certain ideologies. However, personality

variations are far too numerous. One’s aspirations, viewpoints, analyses make one

open or closed to certain messages. One bent into a job for livelihood may not listen

to the advantages of entrepreneurship.

[k] Fixed images about other people stand as barriers to see them on in a new role. A

comedian in as a hero of a firm may not be acceptable to an audience which sees him typed

in comedy roles.

[j] Poor mental retention power is a barrier. If one fails to take timely notes when

instructions are given, hoping to remember them all, one has perhaps given away apart of

the communication.

4. Semantic and language barriers

 Semantic is the study of how words convey meanings. What happens if the speaker/writer

means one thing and the listener/reader takes it in another meaning? The context changes the

meaning of the word. One has to ask, is the word conveyed in its proper context? Words are

indeed so tricky to use that one can hardly ever convey the same thing to all the receivers in

given words. The words generate different meanings in different minds, according to their

previous associations and language levels. Literary texts, created by master writers and ready

by experts critics, are continually open to reinterpretations. Some of these, conflict with each

other.

5. Information overload

Information passed on especially in the age of information that we are in can be too much such

that it poses difficulties in sieving the important from the mass of information. It therefore

appropriate to communicate precisely and only the needed information at a time

6. Restrictive environment.

The flow of information is sometimes so restricted that it becomes a barrier, this is especially

so in the organization has a tall and in flexible organization structure such that by the time tha

massage moves from the top to the bottom and vice versa it may suffer distortion or be

overtaken by time.

Principles/ qualities of effective communication (the C’s of Communication)

Not everything purported to be communication is effective. For effective communication there

are rules and guidelines which differ from one setting to another. They are otherwise known as

qualities of communication or SIX Cs of communication.

A. Clarity

This is divided into:

i. Clarity of thought
 ii. Clarity of expression

Clarity of thought
- This is important when the idea is being generated in the mind of the sender

- At this point, three points should be checked upon:

 What is the objective of the communication? Is it to warn, educate, congratulate?

 What is to be communicated? Example- a song, play, poem?

 Which medium is appropriate for the purpose of communication?

Examples- letters, photographs, interviews etc.

Clarity of expression
The following should be considered:

i. Avoid jargon

Jargon is a special language of trade, certain profession or field of study e.g. medicine,

business, law and only understood and used by people from such fields. It therefore creates a

scenario of difficult understanding to those who are not from that field.

ii. Avoid ambiguity

An ambiguous message is one that contains words that have more than one meaning. This may

encourage misinterpretation of the words.

Example: The word dispense could mean both:

- to prepare medicine

- to dismiss someone

- Use short sentences

Short sentences area easier to comprehend for they are not complex and so not demand

greater concentration as is the case for long ones

- Use of simple words

Simple words tend to be more effective for they are easily understood and are interpreted

correctly

Example: Use of the word ‘before’ instead of ‘prior to’.

- Use of concrete expression

Concrete expressions create visual images that are easy to register and remember. This can be

achieved by avoiding being too general or vague in your expressions.

Example: you can say, “That toy is cheap for it costs Two hundred shillings” instead of plainly

saying ‘That toy is cheap’.

B. Conciseness

One should be straight to the point. The words and phrases chosen should give the intended

message in its intended context in the most exact meaning. The flow of words and language

should bring the receiver as close as possible to the meaning and as little room as possible

should be left to the receiver for interpretation.

Be as brief as possible but not at the expense of clarity, correctness or courtesy

How to achieve conciseness

i. Avoid repetition:

Example: Me, personally, I am thanking you-…………..”

ii. Include only relevant facts and details

iii.Organize you message well e.g. it should hold together.

iv.Avoid wordy expressions, figures of speech and ambiguous words.

C. Consideration

In your message, you should always show consideration for the reader or listener. This can be

done in the following ways.

 - Ensure integrity in your message. Ethical principles of sincerity and fair treatment

should be observed.

- Emphasize positive and pleasant statements e.g. in case where one has to send a

message of regret, use positive and pleasant words. E.g. ‘Thank you for your

application for a course in Micro- Finance; you are however advised that the

commencement date is July next year….”

D. Courtesy

This calls for a politeness and civil attitude towards the other - the receiver. The following points

may assist in promoting courtesy.

i. Answer the letters promptly or respond to the message promptly.

ii. Omit negative expressions such as ‘we regret’ instead use friendly statements.

iii.Apologize sincerely for an omission and thank generously for any favour done.

E. Completeness

Complete presentation of facts and details in any business communication.

- Incomplete communication leads to ineffectiveness of the action to be taken,

irrelevancy, misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the message. This is because it

leaves a number of questions unanswered.

- The message should be organized in such a way that the reader/ listener is not in

doubt about the details contained in it.

- Include all relevant details when sending a message

- Check on the 5Ws - Why? What? Where? Who? When?

F. Correctness

This simply means:

 - Giving correct facts / statement/ arguments etc.

- Sending the message at the correct time.

Send the message in the correct style/ medium/ channel

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Give a brief explanation of the term Communication.

2. With the help of a diagram describe the process of communication.

3. Senders of messages have an intended meaning of their message, however, rarely are the

messages received/interpreted as intended. Justify this assertion

4. Communicate as members of an organization or perish. Discuss.

5. Students fail in their exams many times because of their in ability to use the Cs of

communication. Using practical examples in sentences prove the correctness of this

assertion?