INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEM

The term Computer system refers to:

A combination of components designed to process and store data. It comprises at

least one input device, a processing unit, an output device, and a storage device,
and may contain a communications device. The components include the cpu,
buses, main memory (RAM and ROM) and peripherals
Primary Memory

Random-access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a form of

computer data storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow
stored data to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random). The word random thus
refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time,
regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous
piece of data.
By contrast, storage devices such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs rely on
the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these
devices, the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies
based on the physical location of the next item.

The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM
memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off.

Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a
flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor
gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash. Some types
have circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults called memory errors in the
stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. RAM of the read-only type,
ROM, instead uses a metal mask to permanently enable/disable selected
transistors, instead of storing a charge in them.

As both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, other forms of computer storage, such as
disks and magnetic tapes, have been used as persistent storage in traditional
computers

ROM
Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage
media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM
cannot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to
distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and
unlikely to require frequent updates).

In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state
ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus
can never be modified. However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash
EEPROM can be erased and re-programmed multiple times; they are still described
as "read-only memory"(ROM) because the reprogramming process is generally
infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit random access writes to
individual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, economies of
scale and field-programmability often make reprogrammable technologies more
flexible and inexpensive, so mask ROM is rarely used in new products as of 2007.
  Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is
based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire
contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten
electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera,
MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower
(milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM
(nanoseconds in both cases).
o Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of
EEPROM that can be modified one bit at a time. Writing is a very
slow process and again requires higher voltage (usually around 12 V)
than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications
that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be
used as non-volatile storage for critical system setup information; in
many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by CMOS RAM
supplied by mains power and backed-up with a lithium battery.
o Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM
invented in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster
than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high
endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes
efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a
capacity as high as 16 GB as of 2007; this feature, along with its
endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace
magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash drives). Flash
memory is sometimes called flash ROM or flash EEPROM when
used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications
that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and
frequently.

By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may

temporarily become read-only memory
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Also known as a processor, is an electronic circuit that executes computer
programs. It is responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic functions as well
as executing instructions to other components. The components of a CPU work
together, and depending on how they are made, determine exactly how fast these
operations can be carried out along with how complex the operations can be.

 Main Components of a CPU

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit

2. Control Unit
3. Registers

 4.Buses

 Arithmetic Logic Unit:

It is the component of central processing unit which contains the basic
operations or set of instruction and applies them to data. As clear from the
name, it performs arithmetic which includes addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division and logical operations which includes compare
numbers, letters and special characters.


As shown in the picture above, the accumolator is used to accumulate
results. It is the place where the answers from many operations are stored
temporarily before being put out to the computer's memory while the other
genral-pupose registers hold data on which operations are to be performed
by the ALU.
 Control Unit:
The component of CPU of a computer which organizes the processing of
data or commands is called Control Unit. Control Unit is an internal part of
the CPU which co-ordinates the input and output devices of a computer. The
functions performed by the control unit vary by the internal architecture of
the CPU. However basically its funtion is to directs the entire computer
system to carry out stored program instructions by communicating with
ALU and register. The CU uses instructions contained in Instruction resgiter
in order to decide which circuit needs to be activated. Moreover it also
instruct the ALU to either perform the arithmetic or logical operation.


When a program is run, one register called the program counter keeps track
of which program instruction comes next.

Register:
These are special, high-speed storage area within the Central processing
unit. The data must be represented in a register before it can be processed
e.g. if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers,
and the result is also placed in a register.

The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits)
help determine the power and speed of a CPU i.e. 32-bit CPU is one in
 which each register is 32 bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction can
manipulate 32 bits of data.

 Buses- internal conectivities

Operation of CPU

The primary responsibility of a computer processor is to execute a

sequential set of instructions that constitute a program. CPU operation
can be divided into four basic steps, namely, fetch, decode, execute and
write back. During the fetch step, the processor retrieves program
instructions from memory. In the decode step, the instruction is broken
down into parts. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the
way in which an instruction is decoded. In the execute step, CPU
performs the operation implied by the program instruction. During the
write back step, the CPU writes back the results of execution, to the
computer's memory.

CPU EXECUTE CYCLE

Circuits Used

The circuits used in the CPU during the cycle are:

 Program counter (PC) - an incrementing counter that keeps track of the

memory address of the instruction that is to be executed next.
 Memory address register (MAR) - holds the address of a memory block to
be read from or written to.
 Memory data register (MDR) - a two-way register that holds data fetched
from memory (and ready for the CPU to process) or data waiting to be
stored in memory
 Instruction register (IR) - a temporary holding ground for the instruction
that has just been fetched from memory
Each computer's CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets,
but will be similar to the following cycle:

1. Fetching the instruction

The next instruction is fetched from the memory address that is currently stored in
the program counter (PC), and stored in the instruction register (IR). At the end of
the fetch operation, the PC points to the next instruction that will be read at the
next cycle.

2. Decode the instruction

The decoder interprets the instruction. During this cycle the instruction inside the
IR (instruction register) gets decoded.

3.In case of a memory instruction (direct or indirect) the execution phase will be in
the next clock pulse.
If the instruction has an indirect address, the effective address is read from main
memory, and any required data is fetched from main memory to be processed and
then placed into data registers(Clock Pulse: T3). If the instruction is direct, nothing
is done at this clock pulse. If this is an I/O instruction or a Register instruction, the
operation is performed (executed) at clock Pulse.

4. Execute the instruction

The control unit of the CPU passes the decoded information as a sequence of
control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions
required by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to
the ALU to perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the
result back to a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to
the CU.

The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an
output device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program
Counter may be updated to a different address from which the next instruction will
be fetched.

The cycle is then repeated.

Initiating the cycle

The cycle starts immediately when power is applied to the system using an initial
PC value that is predefined for the system architecture (in Intel IA-32 CPUs, for
instance, the predefined PC value is 0xfffffff0). Typically this address points to
instructions in a read-only memory (ROM) which begins the process of loading the
operating system.

(That loading process is called booting.)

Fetch cycle

Step 1 of the Instruction Cycle is called the Fetch Cycle. These steps are the same
for each instruction. The fetch cycle processes the instruction from the instruction
word which contains an opcode.

Decode

Step 2 of the instruction Cycle is called the decode. The opcode fetched from the
memory is being decoded for the next steps and moved to the appropriate registers.

Read the effective address

Step 3 is deciding which operation it is. If this is a Memory operation - in this step
the computer checks if it's a direct or indirect memory operation:

 Direct memory instruction - Nothing is being done.

 Indirect memory instruction - The effective address is being read from the
memory.

If this is a I/O or Register instruction - the computer checks its kind and executes
the instruction.

Execute cycle

Step 4 of the Instruction Cycle is the Execute Cycle. These steps will change with
each instruction.

Data is transferred between the CPU and the I/O module. Next, arithmetic and
logical operations given in the instructions are executed on the data, as well as
other instructions such as jumping to another location on the program counter.
Input device

An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to

provide data and control signals to an information processing system (such as a
computer). Input and output devices make up the hardware interface between a
computer

A definition of an input device was already included within the von Neumann
architecture in 1945, however conception of an architecture including similar
devices designed for input only appear since 1936. The von Neumann architecture
describes a device designed for inserting user data, which are separated from the
algorithm data and code. These devices included a keyboard or a punched card.
Computer mice were invented by Doug Engelbart in the 1960s.

Keyboards

A keyboard is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of

buttons. Each button, or key, can be used to either input a linguistic character to a
computer, or to call upon a particular function of the computer. Traditional
keyboards use spring-based buttons, though newer variations employ virtual keys,
or even projected keyboards.

Examples of types of keyboards include:

 Computer keyboard
 Keyer
 Chorded keyboard
 LPFK

Pointing devices
Pointing device
A computer mouse

A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a user to input spatial
data to a computer. In the case of mice and touch screens, this is usually achieved
by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D
mice, joysticks, or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection.
Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the
cursor, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's GUI.

High-degree of freedom input devices

Some devices allow many continuous degrees of freedom as input. These can be
used as pointing devices, but are generally used in ways that don't involve pointing
to a location in space, such as the control of a camera angle while in 3D
applications. These kinds of devices are typically used in CAVEs, where input that
registers 6DOF is

Composite devices

Imaging and Video input devices

Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world
into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats
depending on the user's requirement.

 Webcam
 Image scanner
 Fingerprint scanner
 Barcode reader
 3D scanner
 Laser rangefinder
Medical Imaging

o Computed tomography
o Magnetic resonance imaging
o Positron emission tomography
o Medical ultrasonography

Audio input devices

In the fashion of video devices, audio devices are used to either capture or create
sound. In some cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in
order to capture produced sound.

 Microphone
 MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument

Output device

These devices display information that has been held or generated within a
computer.

Some examples are shown below.

 VDU or Monitor  Ink Jet Printer

 Printer  Robot
 Impact Printer  Machine Tool
 Dot Matrix Printer  Synthesized Voice
 Daisywheel Printer  Plotter
 Non-Impact Printer  Flatbed Plotter
 Thermal Printer  Drum Plotter
 Laser Printer  Electrostatic Plotter
You can print out information that is in the computer onto paper. By
printing you create what is known as a 'hard copy'.
There are different kinds of printers which vary in their speed and print
quality.

The two main types of printer are impact and non-impact.

Impact Printers use a print head containing a number of metal pins which
strike an inked ribbon placed between the print head and the paper.

An impact printer showing detail of print head

Some print heads have only 9 pins to make the dots to build up a
character; some have 24 pins which produce a better resolution.

Characters are formed from a matrix of dots.

The speed is usually 30 - 550 characters per second (cps). This is the
cheapest and noisiest of the printer family. The standard of print obtained
is poor.
 A dot matrix printer

These printers are cheap to run and relatively fast. They are useful for
low quality carbon copy printing.

Non-impact printers are much quieter than impact printers as their

printing heads do not strike the paper.
Most non-impact printers produce dot-matrix patterns.
Several different technologies have been used to provide a variety of
printers.

The main types of non-impact printer are:

o Thermal Printer
o Laser Printer
o Ink Jet Printer

Output Devices - Laser Printer

Laser Printers use a laser beam and dry powdered ink to produce a fine
dot matrix pattern. This method of printing can generate about 4 pages of
 A4 paper per minute.

A laser printer

The standard of print is very good and laser printers can also produce
very good quality printed graphic images too.

Characters are formed as a result of electrically charged or heated ink being

sprayed in fine jets onto the paper. Individual nozzles in the printing head
produce high resolution (up to 400 dots per inch or 400 dpi) dot matrix
characters.

Colour cartridge showing inkjet nozzles

An inkjet printer
Inkjet printers use colour cartridges which combine magenta, yellow and cyan
inks to create colour tones. A black cartridge is also used for crisp
monochrome output.
This method of printing can generate up to 200 cps and allows for good
quality, cheap colour printing.

Characters are formed by heated elements being placed in contact with

special heat sensitive paper forming darkened dots when the elements reach a
critical temperature.

A fax machine uses a thermal printer

Thermal printer paper tends to darken over time due to exposure to sunlight
and heat. The standard of print produced is poor.

Thermal printers are widely used in battery powered equipment such as

portable calculators.

Output Devices - Plotters

Plotters are used to produce graphs or diagrams.

Plotters can be of two types:

 Pen plotters Electrostatic plotters

Pen plotters have an ink pen attached to draw the images, and electrostatic
plotters work similarly to a laser printer.

Output Devices - Flatbed Plotter

This is a plotter where the paper is fixed on a flat surface and pens are
moved to draw the image. This plotter can use several different colour
pens to draw with.

The size of the plot is limited only by the size of the plotter's bed.

Top view of a flat bed plotter