BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Years 1 - 3
Page Lesson Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
2 Circuit Concepts 1 ●
16 Circuit Concepts 2 ●
23 Circuit Concepts 3 ●
29 RLC ●
41 Electronics ● ● ●
57 Trig and Vectors ●
63 Magnetism ●
75 Three Phase ●
89 Transformers ●
101 Three-Phase Transformers ●
120 DC Machines ●
139 AC Machines ●
153 Motor Control ● ●
177 Prints and Drawings ● ● ●
187 Communications ●
191 Lighting ● ●
199 HVAC ●
208 Code ● ● ●

Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!

Dantwan#6096 Reach out on discord with my username!

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Table of Contents Page 1

Circuit Concepts Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 The Atomic Structure (what an atom looks like)
3 Static Electricity and Charge
4 Electrical Quantities
5 Conduction and Sources of Electricity
6 Resistors
7 Ohm's Law and Power Law
8 Measuring Instruments
9 Electrical Circuits
10 Switches
11 Protective Devices
12 Series Circuits
13 Parallel Circuits
14 Test Study Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 2

CC1 - Atomic Structure

⚫ Neutron - Neutral Charge - Located in Nucleus with Protons

⚫ Proton - Positive Charge - Located in Nucleolus with Electrons - # = Atomic Number

⚫ Electron - Negative Charge - Located in Valences around the Nucleus

⚫ Valence Shell
The orbits of the Electrons around the atom are called shells. We only care about the outermost shell (called
the Valence) which can only hold 1-8 electrons. Electrons further from the Nucleus have MORE energy. The
number of electrons in the Valence Shell determines the material type:
○ 1-3 electrons - Conductors - Easily gives off and takes on new Electrons
○ 4 electrons - Semiconductors - Middle of the road, but very special with electronics
Negative temperature coefficient. They transmit better when heated.
○ 5-8 electrons - Insulators - Does not easily give off or take new Electrons

• Atom - a single element

• Element - Multiple atoms stuck together
• Compound - Multiple elements stuck together
• Molecule - The smallest part of a compound before it's broken back into elements
• Ion - an atom that is either missing or has an extra electron - an atom with a charge.
○ Anion - Negatively charged ion - has an extra electron, used for anodes.
○ Cation - Positively charged ion - missing an electron, used for cathodes.

• Conductors
○ Silver - Best conductor
○ Copper - 2nd best conductor
○ Gold - 3rd best conductor, but very corrosion resistant
○ Aluminum - 4th best, but light weight and relatively inexpensive
• Semi-Conductors - Silicon, Germanium
• Insulators - Rubber, Glass, Oil, Mica, Dry Wood

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 3

CC1 - Static / Charge Delmars Unit 3 - Static Electricity
Pages 71 through 85
Static - Not moving, i.e. sitting still.
Static Electricity - Electrons that are sitting still and not moving.
• Therefore - Static Electricity is a CHARGE not a current

Electric Charge - Module 2b, c Electrostatic Charges and Materials - Caused by electrons moving between positively
and negatively charged objects
Fundamental laws of charged bodies - two laws govern charged bodies • Negatively charged object - Something that has gained electrons
• Force of attraction - like charges repel, unlike charges attract. • Positively charged object - Something that has lost electrons
• Coulomb's Law - Strength of force of charged bodies • Insulators - Easily built up on insulators because it keeps the electrons from
flowing to a new location (See atomic structure)
• Conductors - Can only build up electrostatic charge if it is insulated from
surrounding objects (See atomic structure)
○ If either/both charges increase - the force increases and Use Cases - Static is harnessed in many useful ways such as:
vice-versa • Spray Painting
○ If the distance between charges doubles, the force • XEROGRAPHY (Photocopiers, laser printers)
decreases to 25% • Sandpaper manufacturing
○ If the distance between charges is halved, the force • Electronic air filters etc… AIR PRECIPITATOR
increases 4x
○ The most important thing to remember is it's based Nuisance Cases - Static is not always wanted
distance SQUARED, so any change that happens is • Vehicles - As they travel through dry air, they pick up a static charge. Can be
squared. harmful for vehicles carrying dangerous goods. Drag chains and bonding are
used to dissipate unwanted charge.
Field Forces - The force between electric charges • People - Caused by walking on carpets that are good insulators. Hold a metal
• Acts at a distance, just like gravity object and touch it to a grounded surface to discharge without feeling it.
• Electrostatic Field surrounds charged body - like the gravity Where's the fun in that?
around earth • Clothes Dryer - Because our clothes are mostly made of man-made materials
they are great insulators and thus build up charge easily.
Polarity - Refers to charge at one point with respect to another • Lightning - The biggest nuisance static charge of them all.
○ i.e. the relative state between TWO points …never one!
Natural Cases - Lightning strike
How bodies become charged - There are 3 methods • Always flows from negative to positive - if a cloud is positive and the ground
• Friction / contact - rubbing two dissimilar substances together is negative, the discharge will travel from the ground to the cloud.
• Conduction - When a charged body is brought into contact with • Average voltage of 15,000,000 volts!
an uncharged body some of the charge moves between them. • Lightning Rod - Tall object used to bleed strike current to ground
• Electrostatic Induction - A neutral object can be forced to lose • Lightning Arrestor - Path to ground that is brought near, but not touching an
protons if it has a path to ground, and you bring a negatively object such as a power line. Resistance is too high during normal operation
charged object near it. The electrons on the neutral object that for arc to occur, but during voltage spike, it provides a path to ground.
are near the negatively charged object will be forced away and
some electrons will flow down the ground path. If the path to Electroscope - instrument used to determine polarity of charged object
ground is then removed, the object will have a net positive
charge.
Neutralizing charges
• Bringing two objects with equal but opposite charges together
will cause electrons to transfer from negative to positive until
both are equal Producing Electricity - Module 3a
• Earth is a large object that can neutralize almost any charge
• Electrical systems use earth as a neutral to prevent dangerous Electromotive force (emf)
charge from building up. • The work-per-unit charge done by a source of energy on electric charges to
move them against an electric field. Charges in this case are electrons.
Metallic bond Energy is given to electrons and they can do work
• Atoms that are combined to form a piece of metal
• Each atoms shares valence electrons with atoms around it Sources of Electromotive Force (emf)
Anything that creates a difference in charge between two points
Random Electron flow - Like atoms bonded together where electrons are • Friction - Triboelectric effect - rubbing two dissimilar materials together
flowing in a random manner between atoms, object is balanced and causes transfer of surface protons between materials. Van de Graaff
electrons are not being directed. generator uses this principal.
• Chemical - Electrochemical effect - Breaking bonds between elements in
Directed Electron flow - Placing a surplus of electrons (negatively charged molecules. Car batteries use this principal while charging and discharging.
object) at one end of a conductor (metallic bond) and a deficiency of • Pressure - Piezoelectric effect - mechanical stress can cause the displacement
electrons (positively charged object) at the other, will cause directed of electrons within certain crystals. Used in microphones, sensors gas igniters.
electron flow between the two points until it is balanced. • Heat - Thermoelectric effect - occurs between the junction of two dissimilar
• This flow is referred to as ELECTRIC CURRENT metals when they are heated. Thermocouples use this. Thermopiles are
multiple thermocouples combined to increase voltage.
Electron Current Flow - Current always flows from negative to positive • Light - Photovoltaic effect - when light (photons) strike the surface of some
materials it releases electrons. Solar panels use this.
Conventional Current Flow - the thought that current flowed from • Magnetism - Magnetoelectric effect - The most widely used way of generating
positive to negative - while untrue it can be though of the flow of holes electricity. Moving a magnetic field in a certain direction relative to a
left behind as the electron travels through the conductor. conductor. Rotating the shaft of an electric motor using steam/water etc. will
cause this.

The law of the conservation of Energy - Energy may be neither created nor destroyed.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 4

CC1 - Electrical Quantities
Formula Units Key Delmars Unit 2 - Electrical Quantities
Equations will often use either the Quantity or the Electrical Unit symbol. Pages 50 through 70
Voltage - The force that pushes electrons through a conductor, voltage cannot flow
Electrical Quantity Symbol Electrical Unit Symbol
Current - The quantity of electrons moving through a conductor, current does flow.
Charge (quantity) Q Coulomb C
Coulomb - (C)- A quantity measurement for Electrons. The amount of charge moved by 1
Power P Watt W ampere in 1 second.. 1 Coulomb represents 6.25 quintillion electrons - (add 16 more
zeros). It is the SI unit of electrical charge, just like a liter is for liquid. 6.25 * 1018
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Note - Represented by 'Q' in formulas for Quantity!
emf or PD E Volt V
Ampere - (A) - Equal to 1 coulomb per second or - 1A = 1C/sec. An ampere is a quantity
Current (Intensity) I ampere A measurement over time. Just like Gallons Per Minute (GPM) in a water system.
Note - It's represented by 'I' in formulas because it's the INTENSITY of the current.
emf = electro-motive force / PD = potential difference
Volt - (v) - AKA Potential Difference (PD) or electromotive force (emf). The difference in
potential between two points of a conducting wire. Can be thought of electrical
pressure. 1 volt is the amount of potential to cause 1 coulomb to produce 1 joule of
work (V = 1J / C). Think of it as pressure (PSI) in a water system.
Recommended Watch Note - Represented by 'E' in formulas for Electromotive Force (EMF)

Tom recommended we check out the following Ohm - (Ω) - Unit of resistance to current flow, resistance is used to control the flow of
electrons. An Ohm is the amount of resistance that allows 1 Amp to flow at 1 volt.
video on the history of electricity Resistance causes heat-loss. Can also be thought of as friction.
Note - Represented by 'R' in formulas for Resistance - called impedance with AC power.
The BBC - Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity Watt - (W) - Measurement of power, or the amount of work that a given Voltage can do
with a given Amperage. Watts can also be thought of as "Work".
Note - Represented by 'P' in formulas for Power
Joule - (j) - The SI equivalent of the watt. Defined as 1 newton-meter. The amount of
work performed by 1 coulomb flowing through a potential of 1 volt.
Practice Exam App - CEPE 20XX Note - 1 Joule = 1 Watt per Second (J = W/s).
Jas recommended I check out CEPE 2018 for IP Horsepower - (hp) - 746 Watts. Wattage required to produce 550 ft-lb/s.
practice exam questions British Thermal Unit - (BTU) - Another measurement of energy defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1lb of water 1
Apple App Store Ohm's Law - (E = I x R) - It takes 1 volt to push 1 amp through 1 ohm. In a DC circuit, the
Google Play Store current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the
resistance. See Ohm's Law formula notes.
Single electrons are estimated to move at a speed of 3 inches/hour @ 1 Amp …

Engineering Units - Aka: Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power Words Example Converted to Base
giga G 1,000,000,000 109 Billion 250GΩ 250,000,000,000Ω
mega M 1,000,000 106 Million 250MΩ 250,000,000Ω
kilo k 1,000 103 Thousand 250kΩ 250,000Ω
BASE UNIT 1 100 One 250Ω 250Ω
milli m 0.001 10-3 Thousandth 250mΩ .250Ω
micro μ 0.000001 10-6 Millionth 250μΩ .000250Ω
nano n 0.000000001 10-9 Billionth 250nΩ .000000250Ω
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12 Trillionth 250pΩ .000000000250Ω

Note - One of the easiest ways to convert to the base unit is by memorizing the symbols and using the 'power of' formulas. Move theperiod to the right (for positive) or
to the left (for negative) either 3, 6, or 9 spots. If there is no period, it's at the right-hand side! For Example: 45.2MΩ becomes 45,200,000Ω after moving 6 spaces.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 5

CC1 - Conduction / Batteries Delmar's Unit 12 - Sources of Electricity
Pages 294 through 326

Voltaic Cell - A cell is a single is two dissimilar metals and an electrolyte, which
produces a small voltage. e.g. CR2032 (button cells), AA, AAA, AAAA, D, C "batteries"
Delmar's Unit 11 - Conduction are all just cells. The amount of voltage produced by an individual cell is determined by
Pages 283 through 293 the materials from which it is made.
• Cells use the Electrochemical effect to produce electricity with 3 components
○ Anode - The metal having excess positive Charge
Conduction - The transfer of electrons between potentials by touching.
○ Cathode - The metal having excess negative charge
• Conduction of electric current not only happens between objects
○ Electrolyte - The solution in which the anode and cathode sit.
touching, or through conductors. Batteries and electroplating
Battery - A device composed of multiple cells strung together in series. E.g. a 9v battery
require conduction through liquids, and fluorescent lamps require
is 6 AAAA batteries strung together.
conduction of electricity through a gas.
• Series - When batteries or cells are connected in series, their voltages add and
• Conduction through liquid and gas depends on the movement of
their current stays the same.
ions instead of just free electrons.
• Parallel - When batteries are connected in parallel, their voltages stay the
same, but their current adds.
Electrolyte - Water mixed with metallic salt ions such as magnesium
chloride.
Electromotive Series of Metals -A list of metals in order of their ability to accept or
• Pure water is in insulator, it requires an electrolyte be added before
receive electrons. Metals at the top accept electrons more easily than those at the
it will conduct.
bottom. The farther apart the metals are, the higher the voltage developed by a cell
○ Salts, Acids, Alkalies all work as electrolytes.
made of them.
Ion - an atom that is either missing or has an extra electron - an atom with a
charge. Electromotive Series of Metals
• Anion - Negatively charged ion - has an extra electron, used for (Partial List)
anodes.
Lithium
• Cation - Positively charged ion - missing an electron, used for
Potassium
cathodes.
Calcium
Sodium
Electroplating - the process of depositing atoms of one type of metal on
Magnesium
another.
Aluminum
• Electrolyte solution must contain ions of the metal to be plated
Manganese
• Metal ions to be plated are always positively charged (anode)
Zinc
• Object to be plated must be negatively charged (cathode)
Chromium
• Direct Current (DC) must be used
Iron
Cadmium
Electrolysis - the process of separating elements electrically
Cobalt
Nickel
Conduction in gasses - Air - At atmospheric air pressure, air is an excellent
Tin
insulator. Once an arc starts however, the air molecules become ionized,
Lead
creating a low resistance path, allowing for electricity to flow more easily.
Antimony
Copper
Ionization Potential - The amount of voltage, or potential, an electron must
Silver
possess to cause ionization in a given gas. The following factors determine
Mercury
the required voltage:
Platinum
• Atmospheric pressure - regularly 14.7PSI @ Sea Level - The higher
Gold
the pressure, the harder it is to ionize the gas. The lower the
pressure, the easier it is.
• Type of gas - Different gas molecules ionize at different voltages Primary Cell - Cannot be recharged. The chemical reaction causes one of the
(potentials). electrodes to be eaten away as power is produced.
Secondary Cell - Can be recharged.
Electron Impact - The most important factor in the ionization of a gas. When • Specific gravity - a measure of the amount of acid inside water. Measured with
electrons travel from their negative potential, to a positive potential in a gas, a Hydrometer.
the must have enough force to impact a surrounding gas molecule and
release more electrons, which will cause a chain reaction. Otherwise they Wet Cell - A cell in which the electrolyte is still a liquid
just bounce off and continue on to the positive terminal. The gas molecules Dry Cell - A cell in which the electrolyte is a paste.
become positively charged after they release their electron, so they are
attracted to the negative terminal, where they collect another electron and Current Capacity - The amount of current a particular type of cell can deliver is
become neutral again, allowing the process to repeat. determined by the surface area of it's plates.
• Low pressure means fewer gas molecules to bump into, which Charging Current - As a general rule, charging current should not exceed 1/10 the
makes it easier for an electron to pick up speed as it leaves the ampere-hour capacity. i.e. an 80 AH battery shouldn't be charged with a current
negative potential, thus making it more likely to strike a gas greater than 8A.
molecule with enough force to start the chain reaction.
• X-Rays, CRT displays and neon/fluorescent lights all use this AGM - Absorbent Glass Matt battery
principal. The lights however, are designed to NOT release electrons
when they are struck as they have 8 valence electrons, and will CCA - Cold Cranking Amperes - The max current the battery can supply at 68 / 20
instead emit light
• The northern lights (aurora borealis) are a natural example of this. Solar Cells - Constructed from a sandwich of P-Type and N-Type semiconductor
material. When photons hit the N-type material, they knock free electrons into the P-
Type material, causing current to flow.
• P-Type - Positive charge, lacking electrons - Semiconductor material is doped
with element containing 3-valence electrons.
• N-Type - Negative Charge, extra electrons - Semiconductor material is doped
with element containing 5 valence electrons

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 6

 Colour Code - Resistors can have 3-5 bands of colour to represent their value - See
CC1 - ResistΩrs colour code chart for numbers
• 3 Colour Bands - All bands represent ohms, no tolerance band - 20%
Tolerance.
• 4 Colour bands - First 3 bands are ohmage, 4th band is Tolerance.
○ For 2% - 10% resistors, first two bands are ohm values, third
Delmars Unit 5 - Resistors band is a multiplier for power of 10, or easier, the number of 0's
you add to the end.
Pages 103 through 120 • Gold and Silver Multipliers - If your multiplier band is gold or silver, it
means divide the first two numbers by a value. Gold is divide by 10, Silver
There are three primary types of resistors is 100.
• Fixed - the ohmic value cannot be changed
• Variable - the ohmic value can be changed or varied over a range Variable Resistors - A variable resistor's resistance can be changed in a set range.
Adjustable - the ohmic value can be adjusted but not designed to be It works by sweeping a wiper arm around a wound resistive wire in a circular
continually changed. Think of a wire wound resistor where you can adjust pattern. The resistance of the circuit will change based on where the tap is on the
one of the leads. resistive wire.
• Multi-Wound Variable resistors - Most variable resistors will perform
Resistors have two Primary Functions around a turn. Multi-Wound variable resistors add a screw to the
• 1 - Limit the flow of current through a circuit mechinism, so it can also wind upwards, allowing manufactuers to employ
○ Heaters and incandescent lights are also resistors. a longer resistive wire.
• 2 - Produce a Voltage Divider • Different names - Multi-Wound Resistors have several names
○ By connecting multiple resistors in series, you can divide the ○ Rheostat - only has two terminals, used to adjust the current in a
voltage into multiple values for running different devices. circuit to a specific value.
○ Potentiometer (pot) - has three terminals, the third terminal can
Power Rating - Rated in watts as the amount of heat they are able to dissipate, as be used to control the voltage, can be a rheostat if only two
resistors dissipate the energy as heat. Indicated by it's size (The larger the resistor, terminals are used.
the greater the power rating). Resistor power rating should not be exceeded or
the resistor will be damaged. Power Rating of a circuit can be determined using
one of the three power formulas. (P=EI, P=E2/R, P=I2R)
Tolerance - Determines a percentage of the labelled value of a resistor. For
3 Band Resistors
example, a 220Ω Resistor with a 20% Tolerance could be 176Ω - 264Ω. Tom said we only need to know 3 band resistors for now
Duty Rating - Some high-power resistors have a duty rating, meaning they need a
cool-off period after they have run for a certain period of time.
Colour Band 1 Band2 Multiply Tolerance
Fixed Resistors - Resistors that provide one ohmic value and cannot be
Bad Black n/a 0 X1
changed/adjusted They are typically produced in a range of standard values.
• Carbon Composition Resistor - the most common fixed resistor made up Booze Brown 1 1 X10 %
of Carbon graphite and a bonding resin. The carbon/resin proportions
Rots Red 2 2 X100 %
determine the Ω value.
○ Inexpensive and readily available Our Orange 3 3 X1K
○ Range from 1Ω to 22MΩ
Young Yellow 4 4 X10K
○ Power Ratings of , 1 and 2 watts - no bigger.
○ 5%, 10% or 20% Tolerance Guts Green 5 5 X100K
• Metal Film Resistors - Made by applying a metal film to a ceramic rod in a But Blue 6 6 X1M
vacuum. The resistance is determined by the type and thickness of the
metal film. Vodka Violet 7 7 X10M
○ Superior to Composition Carbon Resistor Goes Grey 8 8 X100M
○ Does not change value with age
○ 0.1% - 2% Tolerance Well White 9 9 X1G
○ Increased cost Get Gold X 0.1 5%
• Carbon Film Resistors - Similar to Metal Film Resistor, but made by
coating a ceramic rod with a film of carbon. Some Silver X 0.01 10%
○ Less expensive than metal film resistors Now None 20%
○ Better tolerance than a Composition Carbon Resistor
○ Kind of in-between the above two resistors.
• Metal Glaze Resistors - Similar to metal film resistor, but made by coating
ceramic rod with film of metal and glass.
○ 1% - 2% Tolerance
• Wire Wound Resistors - Made by winding a piece of resistive wire around
a ceramic core. Resistance is determined by Type, Diameter and Length
of resistive wire.
A 2.4KΩ Resistor with a range of 2.16Ω - 2.64KΩ
○ Used for high-power ratings Think - Breaking resistor for VFD!
24Ω x 100 = 2,400Ω = 2.4kΩ 10%
○ To be mounted vertically so air pulls through it's hollow core
○ Require a large amount of space
○ Can add (unwanted) inductance to high-frequency circuits
○ Nichrome - NiCr - is most commonly used to make the resistive Resistor Symbols
wire, as it can be heat-cycled without breaking down. It also has
a good temperature coefficient, meaning the resistance doesn't
Below are the four most common symbols for resistors
go up too much the hotter it gets.
○ Manganin - Lowest temperature coefficient of all metals. Made
for making precision wire wound resistors.

Fixed Resistor Rheostat Potentiometer

Non Adjustable Adjustable - two legs Adjustable - 3 legs

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 7

CC1 - Ohm's / Power Law

P-E-I-R Chart
Memorize at least Ohms Law (E=IxR), Power (P=ExI) and two
circled equations
Ohm's Law
It takes 1 volt to push 1 ampere through 1 ohm

Formulas

• E=IxR Volts = Amps x Ohms

• I=E/R Amps = Volts / Ohms

• R=E/I Ohms = Volts / Amps

Note - Draw the above diagram and put your finger over whichever unit you
want to solve for. The remaining units will be in their appropriate places.

Power Law - A.K.A Watt's Law

Coulombs Law
Strength of force between charged bodies at rest.

Formulas
P=ExI Watts = Volts x Amps Formula
• • F = (k * Q1 * Q2) / d2
• E=P/I Volts = Watts / Amps ○ F = Force in newtons
○ K = a constant based on the medium between the charges
• I=P/E Amps = Watts / Volts ○ Q1,2 = The charge in coulombs
○ D = The distance between the charge in meters
Additional Formulas - There are two additional power formulas we must
remember in order to find any P I E R value. Important takeaway - As bodies move closer, the force increases, as bodies move
farther away, the force decreases.

P = I2 x R Watts = Amps2 x Ohms

• I= Amps = ( Watts / Ohms )

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 8

CC1 - Measuring Instruments Ohmmeter - Used to measure Resistance.
• Analog ohmmeters use two basic reading methods, series and shunt.
Series measure high ohm values, while the shunt measures low ohm
values
• Typically read backwards from the other meters when they read
multiple values.
• Digital ohmmeters measure the voltage drop on a known internal
Delmar's Unit 9 - Measuring Instruments circuit when you add an unknown resistance to it, and use that to
determine the resistance.
Pages 200 through 249 • Power is required from the ohmmeter to measure resistance.
○ Never measure a live circuit! You will damage the meter.
Analog Meters - Kick Meters - Use a pointer and scale to indicate values
• d'Arsonval Movement - Moving Coil Meter - The most common Oscilloscope - Used to display a 2d image of a voltage waveform.
analog meter movement. A coil of wire suspended between two • Voltage is displayed on a quadra-graph , which is voltage (vertical) over
poles of a permanent magnet. time (horizontal)
• Taut Band - A method of suspending the coil of wire. These meters
operate on very small amounts of current and are often called Wattmeter - Used to measure true power in a circuit. Uses four leads, two
galvanometers. must be connected in-line with the circuit, allowing it to measure amperage.
• Operation - The coil is energized by the current being measured. The other two are connected across the load to measure voltage. Wattage is
The like polarity causes the meter to rotate away from the then measured using the power law inside the meter. Some wattmeter's use a
permanent magnet with the same polarity. The stronger the Current Transformer (CT) clip to get the circuit amperage instead of having to
current, the more it rotates away. This works for DC only. AC has to be installed in-line.
be rectified first before it will work. • Dynamic Wattmeter - do not contain a permanent magnet. Instead
• Full Scale Values - The current and/or voltage required to deflect the they use an electromagnet and moving coil.
pointer across the full scale of the meter (all the way to the right). • Electronic Wattmeter - Less expensive and more accurate than
• Interpolation - (Parallax error) - Looking at an analog meter from dynamic versions.
the wrong angle, the needle will be off. Often meters have a small
mirror strip along their scale, you should tilt it until the needle covers Recording meters - A meter that is able to record readings over a period of time
up it's reflection. and produce a graph of varying values.

Voltmeters - Used to measure…. Voltage. Voltage drop - Line Drop - Voltage lost due to the length of conductors
• Can be connected directly across the source without creating a dead Power Loss - Line Loss - Wattage lost due to the length of the conductors (I2xR -
short, as it has a very high resistance, so barely any current can flow heat loss)
through it. Multi-range meters use different resistances for their
different ranges.
○ 20kΩ per volt of DC
○ 5kΩ per volt of AC
• Low-impedance voltage testers do not require batteries and are
instead powered by the circuit you are testing. They are primarily
used for higher voltages (12-600v) due to their large current draw.

DC Ammeters - Used to measure current on DC circuits.

• Connects in SERIES with a circuit. i.e. you break the conductor path
and re-connect it using the meter leads.
• A very low-impedance device! Must be connected in series with a
load, so the load can limit the current flow.
○ Typically has impedance of around 0.1Ω
• Shunts are typically used for DC ammeters. It is a resistor that allows
most of the current to flow past the ammeter, while the ammeter is
scaled to show the proper reading using just a fraction of the
amperage. Multi-range DC ammeters will use selectable shunts.
○ The most accurate and safest style of shut is the Aryton
shunt. However it is typically on used on currents up to 10A

AC Ammeters - Used to measure current on AC circuits DC Ammeter - with adjustable Aryton Shunt.
• Connects in SERIES with a circuit. i.e. you break the conductor path
and re-connect it using the meter leads.
• A very low-impedance device! Must be connected in series with a
load, so the load can limit the current flow.
• Shunts can be used to increase an AC ammeters range but not
decrease it.
• Current transformers are used to change scales - using induction to
take a little bit of the amperage from the circuit and then scaling it.
The amount of induction can be varied to change the scale by
increasing the size of the secondary coil using different taps.
• Larger currents require larger current transformers (CT's) - large
toroid transformers are used and the wire can be wrapped around
them multiple times to reduce the scale of the meter.
○ AC Clamp-on ammeters are just these toroidal CTs, but they
have a split so you can put them on and pull them off easily.
○ DC and AC/DC Clamp-on ammeters use hall effect
generators, which produce a small voltage when current is AC Ammeter - with adjustable current transformer.
distorted in a magnetic field. The voltage can then be scaled
to represent amperage.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 9

CC1 - Circuits Overview

Circuits Circuit Diagrams

Found as various slideshows in CC1 Day Three. Found as various slideshows in CC1 Day 5.
Circuit - A circular journey or loop There are four primary types of electrical diagrams
Electrical Circuit - A circular journey or loop travelled by electrons • Pictoral, Block, Line, Wiring and Schematic
A working electrical circuit requires
• A Source - A device that changes a source of energy into EMF Pictoral Diagram
○ Think: Batteries, Generators, Thermocouples… • Designed for untrained people (See: the unwashed masses)
• Load(s) - Device that changes electrical energy into other forms of energy • Components are drawn as they would really appear in life
○ Think: Heaters, Lightbulbs, Motors… • Components are located relative to their actual circuit positions
• Conductors - The wires or conductors that electrons will follow • Wire colours are indicated by name
Think: Wires, PCB Traces, busbars… • Diagrams have a 3-Dimensional effect (bring your glasses)
• If any of these are missing, the circuit is incomplete and no current will
flow. Block Diagram
Open Circuit - A break in the circuit or any of the above conditions not being met. • A type of flow chart that indicates the relationship between circuit
I.e. The circuit path is open and current cannot flow. components or groups of components within the same housing
Closed Circuit - All conditions are met, and current will flow. • Shows logical sequence of events
Short Circuit - A parallel path of low resistance (bypassing the load) • Components are drawn in form of blocks, and connected to related
• Very dangerous! objects with lines.

Switches - Devices used to control the flow of current through a load by opening One Line Diagram
and closing the circuit. • Also called Single-Line diagrams or Riser Diagrams.
• Uses symbols we're used to seeing instead of blocks.
Fuses & Circuit Breakers - Devices used to protect circuits from excess current. • Typically the first drawing made in project design
• Represent clear picture of main inline components
Conventional Current - The (old) thought that current flow went from Positive to • Commonly start with highest voltage components at top and go lower
Negative. We now know that it flows form Negative to Positive. • Components typically labelled with name/type/catalogue number
• Do not show actual circuit position of components
Polarity - The charge at one point with respect to another • Does not show return path for the circuit.
• Important for determining the direction of current flow ○ Think of the line as being a conduit that contains the conductors
• Current flows through loads from negative to positive - but current flows
through sources from positive to negative. (Because a circuit is a loop) Wiring Diagram
• It is the 'map' of a circuit, or circuit map.
Direct Current (DC) • Shows the actual location of all the components of a circuit
• Polarities do not change • Components are shown in symbol form
• Electrons flow through the circuit in a single direction • Useful for initial wiring and tracing wires when troubleshooting
○ Think: Batteries, Thermocouples, Photocells, DC Generators. • Show exactly how everything is wired
• Wires only run vertical and horizontal, no angles here!
Alternating Current (AC) • When wires intersect, a dot represents they are electrically connected. No
• Changes direction continuously and at regular intervals dot means they are not connected electrically.
• Type of current produced by alternators
• Alternating current used in North America ns 60Hz Schematic Diagram
○ It "cycles" 60 times per second, or the polarity changes 120 • Shows electrical relationship between components, but not physical
times/sec. • Used to understand how circuit works and what it does
• It's a ladder diagram.
• Think: Ladder logic with pictures instead of tags.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 10

CC1 - Switches Switch Types
Throws are fixed contacts (think of them as outputs per pole)
Poles are moving contacts (think of them as inputs)

NO - Normally Open (no circuit path)

Switches NC - Normally Closed (circuit path)

Found as various slideshows in CC1 Day 5.

Throws Diagram Poles
Switches Control the flow of current with their two states
• Open: Current is interrupted
• Closed: Current will flow
SPST
Switches are neither a source, or a load
• They don't transform energy and do not have resistance.
1 Single Pole, Single Throw 1
Switches have at least two basic components
• Throws - A fixed Contact - Does not move
• Poles - A moveable contact - Moves when actuated to connect to a throw.
Dotted lines between the poles on wiring diagrams indicate that all poles
are activated together.
2 SPDT
1
Single Pole, Double Throw
Snap Switch - a spring loaded switch with a quick snap action to minimize arcing Called a 3-way on lighting circuits

Four most common types of snap switches for residential

• Single Pole - Generally for 120 volts (think: light switch)
○ SPST - Single Pole, Single Throw
• Double Pole - Generally for 240 volts
○ DPST - Double Pole, Single Throw
• Three Way - Controls a load from 2 locations
1 2
○ SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw
DPST
• Four way - Only used for lighting purposes - control light from multiple Double Pole, Double Throw
locations - Just a special switch, no acronym

Since switches interrupt current, we wire them using the hot colors
• Red, Black or Blue
• NOT WHITE or GREEN

Dimmer Switches - Allows control of the light level 0-100%

• Traditionally Rheostats (analog), but more commonly Triacs (digital) now.
• 600 watt standard and 1000 watt heavy duty variations for residential 2 2
Indicator Switches - Marked as to whether it is on or off DPDT
Toggle switch - Two position snap switch Double Pole, Double Throw
Knife switch - Moving element is a "knife" that sandwiches between tow
stationary contacts. Used in disconnect and isolating switches.
Isolating switch - Also known as a "safety switch" or disconnect switch Other Switches
• Not intended to interrupt current flow Symbols for other types of switches, all shown as NO
• Meant to physically isolate equipment from potential

Travellers - wires on a 3/4 way circuit that can be hot, between all of the switches

Three Way Circuit

Red lines are called Travellers
Flow Switch
Triggered by presence of flow Temperature Switch
Triggered by a set temperature

Limit Switch
Four Way Circuit Float Switch
Triggered when something physically
Middle switch is four way, connections can either be X or horizontal Triggered by the level of a liquid
touches it

Pressure Switch
Triggered by pressure of a liquid

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 11

CC1 - Protective Devices

Protective Devices
Found as various slideshows in CC1 Day 5.

Why do we need circuit protection?

• Too many amps result in unwanted / dangerous heat which can melt insulation Therefore,
we are protecting the dielectric of our conductors.

Overcurrent Protection - Protects the wire

Overload Protection - Protects the load (motor / device)

Two main methods of circuit protection are..

• Fuses - an element or link in a protective enclosure - which offer:
○ Overcurrent protection
○ Short circuit protection
○ Extremely high amperage - i.e. 2000 amps on 15 amp circuit
○ Opens slower on an overload
○ Generally speaking - the longer the fuse, the higher the voltage, the wider the fuse,
the higher the current it can handle
○ HRC Fuse - High Rupturing Capacity -prevent arcing after blowing and are much
more accurate as they aren't affected by outside conditions.
Circuit Breakers - Molded Case Circuit Breakers - which offer:
○ Overload protection
○ Slight over amperage protection - i.e. 16 amps on a 15 amp circuit
○ Operated by electromagnetism or thermal action
▪ Thermal action is performed by bi-metallic strip that heats up
□ Bi metals are two dissimilar pieces of metal. They expand at different
rates and bend when heated.
▪ Magnetic action is operated by a heavier magnetic field caused by high
amperage. (Like a solenoid valve)
○ Arc chute - a set of insulating barriers on a circuit breaker arranged to confine the
arc and prevent it from causing damage

Trip free breaker - Trips into a middle position, must be reset (turned off) before it can be
turned back on after a trip. Attempting to just hold it in the on position will not close the circuit.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 12

CC1 - Series Circuits

Delmars Unit 6 - Series Circuits

Pages 123 through 148 Series Circuits - Calculations
Calculations differ between Parallel and Series Circuits.
Series Circuit - A circuit that only has one path for current flow.

Voltage Drop - The amount of voltage necessary to push the current through a Voltage - The algebraic sum of all the voltage rises (supplies) plus all the
load. Measured by placing a voltmeter on either side of a load, or on multiple voltage drops (loads) must equal zero! - Kirchoff's Law.
loads at once. The sum of all the voltage drops must be equal to the source • Et = E1 + E2 + E3 etc…
voltage.
• The biggest resistance drops the most voltage in a series circuit.
Voltage Divider - A common use for series circuits is creating a voltage divider.
Current - The current remains the same throughout the entire series circuit!
This allows you to take an input voltage and split it into multiple voltage outputs
by using the power drop caused by resistors. Connecting conductors on either • It = I1 = I2 = I3 etc…
side of a resistor or groups of resistors in series will allow you to pull lower
voltages for different electronics. Resistance - The total resistance is the sum of all of the resistive loads.
• Unloaded Voltage Divider - Just a series circuit
• Loaded Voltage Divider - becomes a combination circuit!!! Connected
• Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 etc…
load should be at least 10x the resistance of the nodes it is connected to.
Power -
• Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 etc…

Tip - When doing math for series circuits, always fill out all 4 values for every
load and the total circuit. Using the W.I.R.E. can help keep it neat (Watts,
Amps, Ohms, Volts). Save time - Any loads sharing a resistance (or voltage)
will be the same.

Voltage Polarity - Voltage always flows from negative to positive in a DC circuit,

and from positive to negative through the source. The side of any of the above
resistors closest to the negative side of the 24v battery will be negative, and the
side closest to the positive side of the battery will be positive.
• For example: Using the voltage divider circuit above, when measuring
the 4Ω resistor, the Red dot will be negative, the Green dot will be
positive.
When measuring the 8Ω resistor the green dot will now be negative and
the yellow dot will be positive. This is because voltmeter measure the
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (PD) between the two points you are touching.

Batteries - in series increase the amps, but voltage remains the same. Series Circuit P-E-I-R diagram
It's a good idea to do this style of diagram for any
parallel circuit you're mapping out

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 13

CC1 - Parallel Circuits
Parallel Circuits - Calculations
Calculations differ between Parallel and Series Circuits.

Voltage - The voltage drop across any branch of a parallel circuit is the same
as the applied voltage. i.e. all branches are the same voltage as the source.

• = = = etc…

Current - The Total Current Flow is equal to the sum of the currents through all
the branches

• = + + etc…

Resistance - The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the
Delmars Unit 7 - Parallel Circuits resistance of the lowest value resistor, or branch, in the circuit. There are 3
Pages 149 through 172 different formulas for calculating resistance on a parallel circuit, though
sometimes you will have to combine 1 and 2 to figure out the total value. i.e.
Use formula 2 on a 3 branch circuit, if you end up with 2 matching resistors in
Parallel Circuit - A circuit that has more than one path for current to flow.
the end, use formula 1 to find the
Voltage Drop - Unlike series circuits, there is no change in voltage throughout a
Resistance Formula 1 - all resistors in the circuit are of equal value
parallel circuit. The voltage drop is equal to the source voltage, just like current
on a series circuit.
•
Resistance - Another area where Series and Parallel circuits are completely
different is resistance. Because there are multiple paths of different resistance R = The value of the shared single resistance
for current to flow, resistance is NOT simply adding up the totals for a parallel N = The number of resistors or branches
circuit. Every time a new path is added, the total resistance DECREASES. The
total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance of the Resistance Formula 2 - Product Over Sum - Find the sum of two different
lowest value resistor, or branch, in the circuit. branches (note - only works for a max of two resistors)

Current Dividers - All parallel circuits are current dividers! The amount of
current that flows through each resistor is inversely proportional to the •
resistance value. Which is to say a greater amount of current will flow through a
low-value resistor, and less current will flow through a high-value resistor. This can be used on circuits with more than two resistors, to help
reduce the number of branches you are dealing with.
Batteries - in parallel increase the amps, but voltage remains the same.
Resistance Formula 3 - Reciprocal Formula - Do it all at once with a calculator!

Note - this can be quickly done on a scientific calculator using the

inverse key ( or ) . Once you get your answer, make sure you
perform the inverse function on the total! On the Sharp EL-520
calculator press the following keys:

[ Ω's] [2nd F] [ ] [+] [ Ω's] [2nd F] [ ] [=] [2nd F] [ ] [=]

• If you are missing a single resistance but have the total, it can be
calculated using this same formula but subtracting the known
resistances from the total. The number you are left with is the
missing resistance.
Parallel Circuit P-E-I R diagram
It's a good idea to do this style of diagram for any parallel
circuit you're mapping out Power - Same old same

• = + + etc…

Tip - When doing math for series circuits, always fill out all 4 values for every
load and the total circuit. Using the W.I.R.E. can help keep it neat (Watts,
Amps, Ohms, Volts).
Save time - Any loads sharing a resistance (or voltage) will be the same.

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 14

CC1 - Test Study Sheet
J = W/s
Joules = Watts per Second

A = C/s
Amp = Coulomb per Second

C = 6.24 x 1018
Number of electrons in a Coulomb

P= I2 xR
V = 1J /C
Volt = 1 Joule per coulomb

P = E2 / R Power = Ability to do work or

rate of work being done 746W
Watts in a Horsepower

3 Band Resistors Series Circuits - Calculations

Tom said we only need to know 3 band resistors for now
• Power - = + + etc…
Colour Band 1 Band2 Multiply Tolerance
• Voltage - = + + etc…
Bad Black n/a 0 X1
Booze Brown 1 1 X10 % • Current - = = = etc…
Rots Red 2 2 X100 %
• Resistance - = + + etc…
Our Orange 3 3 X1K
Young Yellow 4 4 X10K
Guts Green 5 5 X100K Parallel Circuits - Calculations
But Blue 6 6 X1M
• Power - = + + etc…
Vodka Violet 7 7 X10M
Goes Grey 8 8 X100M • Voltage - = = = etc…
Well White 9 9 X1G
• Current - = + + etc…
Get Gold X 0.1 5%
Some Silver X 0.01 10% • Resistance -
Now None 20%

Extra Low Voltage: 0 - 30 volts

Low Voltage: 31 - 750 volts
High Voltage: 750+ volts

A 2.4KΩ Resistor with a range of 2.16Ω - 2.64KΩ

24Ω x 100 = 2,400Ω = 2.4kΩ 10%

Circuit Concepts 1 Page 15

Circuit Concepts 2 Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Series / Parallel Combination Circuits
3 Voltage Dividers
4 Bridge Circuits
5 3-Wire Distribution
6 Circular Mil Area (CMA) and Resistivity
7 Test Study Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 16

CC2 - Combination Circuits

Delmars Unit 8 - Combination Circuits

Pages 173 through 198

Combination Circuits - Combination circuits are a mix of series and parallel circuits together. You must
reduce a combination circuit to either a parallel or series circuit to apply P-E-I-R to it and solve for any
missing values.

Node - A junction point in a circuit path where the conductor splits into multiple directions

Rules for Series Circuits - Remember the three rules for series circuits!
• The current is the same at any point in the circuit
• The total resistance is the sum of all of the individual resistances
• The applied voltage is equal to the sum of all of the voltage drops across all of the resistors

Rules for Parallel Circuits - Remember the three rules for parallel circuits!
• The total current flow is equal to the sum of the currents throughout all of the branches
• The total resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of all the reciprocals of the branch resistances.
(see parallel circuits - calculations for an explanation…)
• The voltage stays the same throughout all parallel circuit branches.

Solving Combination Circuits - The first thing you need to do is determine if the circuit is easier to turn
into just a series circuit, or just a parallel circuit.

• Just a series circuit - if the circuit is mostly series with a small parallel branch, it will be easiest to
start by combining your resistances in the parallel branch to make it seem like a single resistor.
Do this by applying the PARALLEL circuit rules to the resistances. Now you have a "single" resistor
and can finish P-E-I-R for the rest of the circuit.
Once you have your series P-E-I-R values you can solve the individual parallel circuit P-E-I-R values.
The combined parallel resistors VOLTAGE, will stay the same across all resistances when broken
back down into separate resistors, allowing you to use Ohms law to solve for the remaining P-E-I-
R values.

• Just a Parallel circuit - if the circuit is mostly parallel with a few resistors in series, it's easiest to
combine the series resistors into a single parallel resistor value using the SERIES circuit resistance
rules. Now you have a "single" resistor and can finish P-E-I-R for the rest of the circuit.
Once you have your Parallel P-E-I-R values, you can solve for the combined resistor by
remembering that the CURRENT stays the same in a series circuit. This will give you two values
allowing you to solve using Ohms law.

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 17

CC2 - Voltage Dividers

Potentiometers - Redrawing
When dealing with Potentiometers, it's important to redraw them.

Potentiometers are variable resistors, you can use them to attach a load to an adjustable voltage.
However, you need to remember that the unused portion of the potentiometer doesn't just "go
away". It stays in series with the used portion and must be taken into account when calculating
the total circuit resistance.

Remember - You would typically connect a load that is at ~10x greater than the used portion of a
circuit divider, so it wouldn't have as big of an effect on the total circuit voltage.

• Example - a 100kΩ potentiometer is set to the half way point. A 50kΩ load is then attached.
○ Unused Portion - Still remains in series with the used portion of the potentiometer.
○ Used Portion - Is in parallel with the load
○ Load - Sits in parallel with the used portion on the potentiometer.

Redrawn Potentiometer Math

1. Combine the parallel resistances using product over sum
2. Add the remaining two series resistance values to get 75,000Ω
3. You can now use Ohms Law to get the current for the series and finally the voltage drop
over the parallel resistors.

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 18

CC2 - Bridge Circuits

Bridge Circuits Un-Balanced Bridge - Calculations

Slideshow CC2 Day 5. How to get a specific voltage across the middle of the bridge

Main uses - Originally Bridge Circuits were used for lab measurements,
now they're commonly used in the electronics industry for:
• Instrumentation
• Filtering
• Power Conversion

Construction - consists of two pairs of series resistors in parallel from each

other. A "bridge" is then added between the two resistor branches.
• Balanced Bridge - If both sides are of equal resistance the circuit is
considered "balanced" and no current will flow on the bridge,
replacing the bridge with a volt meter, it would read 0V.
• Unbalanced Bridge - If the resistances are not the same, the
bridge is not balanced and current will now flow in the jumper.

1 - Redraw the circuit - removing the volt meter may help you better visualize it.

Balanced Bridge - Calculations

Remember - this only works for BALACNED bridges. If the bridge is
unbalanced current will be flowing in the middle.

STOP TRANSPOSING EQUATIONS! Regardless of which resistor value is

missing, multiply the resistances that are diagonal from each other, and
divide by the resistance kitty-corner to Rx (or the unknown resistance)
2 - Determine the voltage for the values outlined in yellow by dividing Et by the
resistance of the branch.
3 - Determine the values outlined in green by adding or subtracting the desired
voltage (depending on requested polarity) to the known resistor next to Rx.
Remember, the polarity is determined by whichever pole (positive or negative) the
red lead is "closer" (has less voltage).
4 - Now you know the Voltage and Current for Rx! - Use Ohm's law to determine
the resistance.

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 19

CC2 - 3 Wire Distribution

Three Wire Distribution - 1Ø-3W Open Neutrals - 1Ø-3W

Three wire 120/240 Volt feeds most residential What happens when we have a break in our Neutral?
services
Balanced circuit - When the neutral breaks on a balanced circuit, there is no change
to the circuit at all. However, once the circuit becomes imbalanced (a load is turned
Three Wire Advantages - There are three main advantages to the North off) issues will arise.
American three wire system when compared to other systems in use. Unbalanced circuit - If the load is unbalanced and the neutral opens the loads may
- Two voltages - From one source become severely under or over voltage.
○ 120v = safer for most uses • This happens because the system becomes a series circuit with a 240v
○ 240v = lower amps on heavier loads source.
▪ Hot water tank / Dryer / Stove / Heating
- Lower Ampacity - By running at a higher voltage, amperage can be This is why we...
reduced • Never fuse the neutral
○ Reduces Voltage Drop and Power Loss • Never put a switch in the neutral
○ Reduces the required conductor size • Never open the neutral on a live system
▪ Saves on conductor cost and weight
- Improved Safety - Lower shock value from 120v. Calculating Values for an Open Neutral - Instructions are for a 120/240v Et line.
1) Solve for the resistances of your loads
Colour Coding a. Ensure you use the Voltage that they SHOULD be operating at (i.e.
- Line 1 and Line 2 are Black or Red 120 or 240)
- Neutral is White 2) Redraw your circuit without the Neutral line or any 240v loads as they are
- Ground is Green or bare copper not affected
3) Squish any parallel 120v loads to get single resistances
Grounded neutral - Makes it so a maximum voltage to ground if you touch 4) Squish any series 120v loads until you have your Rt.
it is 120v, not the full 240v. Unless you touch both L1 and L2 together. All 5) Using 240v as your Et, apply Ohms Law to figure out the It for the circuit.
metallic, non-current carrying parts are also bonded to ground. E.g. 6) Expand the circuit back out using your combined circuits math!
Electrical boxes, pipes, water tanks etc.
Figuring out voltage across the open
Service drops - overhead lines from pole top transformer to homes. 1) Start on any side of the open
○ Typically Made of aluminum because it's lighter 2) Begin traveling toward your destination, following the conductors
○ Neutral supported cable (NS / NSC) AKA - Triplex, duplex, a. Never travel the same conductor more than once.
quadraplex 3) Add any sources or loads that you travel + to - on
▪ Neutral (non-insulated) wire is used as messenger 4) Subtract any loads or sources that you go - to + on.
▪ Neutral wire has steel core for strength.

Typical Residential Wiring sizes:

- #14 - 15A - Plugs
- #12 - 20A - Kitchen plugs
- #10 - 30A - Dryer
Open Line - 1Ø-3W
- #8 - 40A - Stove What happens when we have a break in one of our Lines?
Balanced circuit - Always desired but not always possible. Line break - When one of our main hot lines breaks in a 3 wire circuit, it essentially
- Balanced Load - L1 & L2 (not N) have equal current. No current in becomes a 120v two wire circuit. The resistors on the broken side will now parallel
the neutral to each-other, but in series with what used to be the 240v load.
- Unbalanced Load - Current is flowing in the neutral, L1 and L2
have unequal current. Calculating Values for an Open Line - Instructions are for a 120/240v Et line.
- Neutral Current - The difference in current between L1 and L2. 1) Solve for the resistance of all given loads
○ An open neutral on an unbalanced circuit can cause major a. Ensure you use the Voltage that they SHOULD be operating at (i.e.
over-voltages! 120 or 240)
2) Redraw as a 120v 2 wire circuit
Cold Flow - Happens on Aluminum. The material will change shape and 3) Solve the circuit for unknown voltage and current drops
cause connection points to lose their grip. This is why you have to re- 4) To find the voltage across the break use Kirchoff's voltage law
tighten aluminum conductors the day after installation. You'll get another a. This voltage will ALWAYS be larger than 120v
half turn or so out of it.
Oxidizing - Aluminum conductors require Penetrox, an antioxidizing
compound.

Conductor Colours
Additional colours you will see outside of 3 wire residential are…

• Hot Colours - Red - Black - Blue - Yellow - Brown - Orange

• Neutral Colours - White - Grey
• Ground Colours - Green - Bare Copper

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 20

CC2 - CMA / Resistivity Metals - Resistivity and Temp. Coefficient
Element Resistivity Temp. Co
Silver 9.6 0.0038
Delmars Unit 10 - Conductor Sizes Copper 10.4 0.00393
Pages 250 through 281 Gold 14 0.0034
Aluminum 17 0.0039
American Wire Gauge - AWG - Used in North America for the diameters of round,
solid, nonferrous electrical wire. Gauge sizes are determined by the number of draws Steel 75
necessary to produce a given diameter of wire. IE: 14AWG had to be drawn through
Nichrome 600 0.0004
14 different dies to achieve it's final size.
Manganin 48.2 NONE! (ish)
Ampacity factors - There are 3 main factors that determine ampacity of a conductor
• Conductor Material - Metals have different Resistivities, or resistances!
Resistivity - Amount of resistance in a 1 foot long conductor with a diameter of
• Insulation Type - Different insulators can handle different temperatures
0.001" (1 Mil)
• Temperature - Resistance rises with temperature.
Temperature Coefficient - How much the resistance of a given metal increases
Conductor Resistance - There are 4 main factors that determine conductor resistance
with temperature.
• Material Type - Different materials have different resistivities!
• Diameter - A wider conductor will have lower resistance (more flow!)
• Length - A longer conductor will have higher resistance
• Temperature - Resistance rises with temperature!
Resistance Temp. Change - Calculations
Conductivity of wire - based on Circular Mil Area (CMA) Calculating Temperature Resistance change is pretty easy,
Mils - AKA: Thou - 0.001 of an inch. NOT MILLIMETERS you just need to add the change in resistance to the
original resistance value.
Circular Mils - CM - Wire cross section measurement. It's obtained by squaring the
diameter (in mils, or 0.001 inch) of the wire.

Convert Square Mil Area - SMA - LxW = SMA. Must first be converted to mils!
• Eg: 2" (2000 Mil) x 1/2" (500 Mil). = 1,000,000 SMA
• = New resistance with temp change
• Then convert to CMA by dividing by 0.7854
• = Original Resistance
Hint: .7854 is the top left corner of your calculator!
• = Change In resistance
Hint: When writing, always put CMA over SMA, because it should
always be a bigger number! If it's smaller, you did it wrong!

Solving for - Calculation

In order to calculate the change in resistance, you will
need to do the following calculation.

Circular Mil Area - Common wire sizes table

Remember: CMA is just the square of the Circular Mil Diameter.
• = Change in Resistance
• = Temp Coefficient
AWG In. Dia. Mil Dia. CMA ( ) • - (aka: DeltaT) - Change in temperature
#8 .128" 128 mils 16,384 CMA
Example:
#10 .102" 102 mils 10,404 CMA Solve For - 200Ω iron wire @ 20 running at 80
#12 .0808" 80.8 mils 6,528 CMA
1 - 200Ω x .005 x 60 = 60Ω
#14 .064" 64 mils 4,096 CMA 2 - 60Ω +200Ω = 260Ω

Tip: Take your CMA and multiply by 1.26 to get one wire size up, divide by 1.26 to get
one wire size down. (…approximates anyway…) Wire Types - CEC 2018
Wire types Table 19 - pg. 491 Table D1 - pg. 753
Conductor Resistance - Calculation Enamel / Varnish insulation for motor windings - high resistance, high
temperature resistance
Conductor Resistance can be determined by multiplying the resistivity of a conductor
by it's length (in feet) and dividing it by it's Circular Mil Area. ACWU90 NMSC (NMD) MIC FCC
Armoured Non Mineral Flat
Cable for Metallic Insulated Carpet
Wet and Sheathed Cable Cable
Underground Cable (magnesium oxide)
90 Rated Pyrotenex

• K = Resistivity (Ω) LVT DRT SOW

• L = Length (in feet) Low Dryer Service
• CMA = Circular Mil Area - (P. 266 in Delmar's for table) Voltage Range Oil
○ Or substitute for Square Mil Area (SMA) / .7854 Thermoplastic Thermoplastic Wet

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 21

 P = I2 x R
CC2 - Test Study Sheet
3 Band Resistors
Colour Band 1 Band2 Multiply Tolerance
P = E2 / R
Bad Black n/a 0 X1
Booze Brown 1 1 X10 % Series P-E-I-R Parallel P-E-I-R
Rots Red 2 2 X100 %
P- = + + P- = + +
J = W/sec
Our Orange 3 3 X1K
E- = + + E- = = =
A = C/sec
Young Yellow 4 4 X10K
I - = = = I - = + +
C = 6.24 x 1018
Guts Green 5 5 X100K
R-
V = 1J /C
R- = + +
But Blue 6 6 X1M
746W/HP
Vodka Violet 7 7 X10M
Goes Grey 8 8 X100M
Well White 9 9 X1G
Get Gold X 0.1 5%
Some Silver X 0.01 10%
A 2.4KΩ Resistor with a range of 2.16Ω - 2.64KΩ
Now None 20% 24Ω x 100 = 2,400Ω = 2.4kΩ 10%

Circular Mil Area - Math

Mil = 1/1000 inch = .001 inch CMA = Circular Mil Area = Mil2 SMA = Square Mil Area = Mil Length x Mil Width

SMA and CMA - Conversions

Tip - Always write your CMA above your SMA because the CMA should always be the bigger number! If it's not, you've done it wrong
Tip - Get the next smaller AWG size ( o O ) by multiplying by 1.26. Divide by 1.26 to go to the next larger AWG size ( O o ) (Start with #10 for an easy number!)
Tip - AWG is logarithmic - Every 3 wire sizes it should double. Or half the previous, IE: #21 = 812CMA - #18 = 1620CMA - #15 = 3260CMA

Resistivity / Temp. Coefficient CMA - Common Sizes

Element Resistivity Temp. Co AWG In. Dia. Mil Dia. CMA ( )
Silver 9.6 0.0038 #6 .162 162 mils 26,251 CMA
Copper 10.4 0.00393 #8 .128" 128 mils 16,384 CMA
Gold 14 0.0034 #10 .102" 102 mils 10,404 CMA
Aluminum 17 0.0039 #12 .0808" 80.8 mils 6,528 CMA
Steel 60-70 #14 .064" 64 mils 4,096 CMA
Nichrome 600 0.0004 #16 .0508" 50.8 mils 2,583 CMA
Manganin 48.2 NONE! (ish) #18 .0403" 40.3 mils 1,624 CMA

Conductor Resistance - Calculation

Conductor Resistance can be determined by multiplying the resistivity of a conductor by it's length (in feet) and dividing itby it's Circular Mil Area.

WIRE RESISTANCE TEMP CHANGE RES. SOLVE FOR Rc.

• K = Resistivity (Ω) • = New res. with temp change • = Change in Resistance

• L = Length (in feet) • = Original Resistance • = Temp Coefficient
• CMA = Circular Mil Area • = Change In resistance • - (aka: DeltaT) - Change in temperature

Circuit Concepts 2 Page 22

Circuit Concepts 3 Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 AC Generation 1
3 AC Generation 2
4 Inductance
5 Capacitance
6 Test Study Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 23

CC3 - AC Generation 1 Delmars Unit 15 - Alternating Current
Pages 367 through 383
Advantages of AC - The biggest advantage to AC over DC, is the fact that AC can be
transformed, while DC cannot. Transformers allow voltage to be stepped up or down,
Delmars Unit 13 - Magnetic Induction reducing current, conductor size, heat loss, etc.
AC Waveforms - Because AC reverse direction, it must have a waveform
Pages 327 through 347
• Square wave - An instant change between positive and negative polarity
Magnetic Induction - One of the most important concepts of electricity. • Triangle wave - When voltage rises and falls at a constant rate
Generators, alternators, motors and transformers use this principal.
• Electricity - Whenever current flows through a conductor, a magnetic • Sine Waves - The most common - produced by all rotating machines, has a
field is created around the conductor gradual cycle. Named because the voltage at any point along the waveform is
• Magnetism - Whenever a conductor cuts through magnetic lines of equal to the maximum or peak value times the Sine of the angle of rotation. The
flux, a voltage is induced on that conductor highest voltage is reached when the armature is cutting the most flux lines at
the center of the magnet.
Polarity - The Polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the polarity of
the magnetic field in relation to the direction of movement.
Induction - The three factors concerning electromagnetic induction are:
• The Conductor, The Magnetic field, The Relative Motion
How much Voltage - The 3 factors that determine the induced voltage are:
• Wire Turns - The more turns, the more flux lines you cut
• Flux Density - In order to induce 1 volt, the conductor must cut 1Wb of
magnetic flux (100,000,000 flux lines) in 1 second
• Speed - The faster you turn, the more flux lines you cut per second.
Lenz's Law - An induced voltage or current opposes the motion that causes it.
Sine Wave Values - Several measurements of voltage and current are important
Inductors and Current - When an Inductor is switched on, it's magnetic field
induces an inverse current onto it's conductors which pushes against the • Peak to Peak - The measurement from the maximum value in the positive
oncoming current, causing a slow rise to full current. This induced voltage is direction to the maximum value in the negative direction
proportional to the rate of change of current • Peak Value - AKA: Amplitude - Measured from zero to the highest value in either
the positive or negative direction. (half of peak to peak value)
Inductance - henry (H) - A coil has an inductance of 1 henry when a current
change of 1 ampere per second results in an induced voltage of 1 volt. • RMS Value - Root Means Square (Effective Value) - The DC power equivalent
Inductance is determined by the physical construction of the coil. supplied by an AC circuit, also the instantaneous value at 45 of it's cycle.
( or
• Number of turns of wire • Average Value - Measured by rectifying AC voltage into DC, and measuring the
• How close the turns are to each-other average voltage supplied between the "bumps" or
• Permeability of the core material
• Cross Sectional Area (CSA) of the core Material ○ Example 1 - Average voltage is 150 - what is effective?
• Length of the core material 150v / .637 = 235.5v peak x .707 = 0.707 166.5v effective
R-L Time Constraint - The time it takes for current in an inductor to reach it's • Instantaneous Value - A voltage or current measurement at any single angle in
full Ohm's law value. Time = Inductance (in Henrys) Resistance (in Ω) the rotation or point on the Waveform.
• Peak Power - Peak power or wattage is your peak voltage multipled by your
Voltage Spike - When power is cut to an inductor, the collapsing magnetic field peak current.
induces a reverse voltage onto the circuit. A diode placed backwards between
the positive and negative leads allows this voltage to loop and bleed off • Average Power - Average power is the peak power multiplied by 0.5
between the diode and inductor, and not affect other components. Resistive Loads - AC can have Resistive, Inductive or Capacitive loads depending on the
• DC Circuits - Often called a "Flyback Diode" - Flyback is the term used phase-angle of the voltage and current, and the amount of true power produced. AC
for the voltage spike caused by an inductor. Resistive loads are loads that contain pure resistance such as electric heating equipment
• AC / DC Circuits - Use a Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV). Like a diode, but and incandescent lighting. They are characterized by the fact that they produce heat,
works in two directions, allowing it to be used on AC circuits. It's like a and the current and voltage are in phase with each-other.
pressure relief valve that only activates when it detects a voltage spike.
True power - True power, or watts, can only be produced when both current and voltage
Flemings Left-Hand Generator Rule - The forefinger (index finger) points in the are either positive or negative. - When like signs are multiplied the product is positive,
direction of the field flux, the thumb points in the direction of thrust, the when unlike signs are multiplied the product is negative. Because the current and
center (middle) finger points in the direction of the current induced into the voltage are both either positive or negative at the same time, the product, watts, is
armature. always positive.
Skin Effect - When current flows through a conductor connected to a source of DC,
THumb THrust electrons flow through the entire conductor. Eddy currents in AC conductors cause most
Forefinger Flux of the electron flow to be pushed outward, so most of the flow is on the outside or
"skin" of the conductor which increases the overall resistance of the conductor. This is
Center finger Current of greater concern with higher frequencies, and is not taken into account for our power
frequency of 60Hz. High frequency circuits employ a conductor with greater surface
area, such as a flat copper tape or braided (multi-stranded) wire to over come this.

Calculate Frequency Cycle Time Effective Average (E I) Instantaneous Value (E I) Power Values (P)
∠
∠
• F = frequency (cycles/sec) • T = Time (sec.) • = RMS Current or Voltage • = Angle Voltage or Current • = Max/Peak Power
• P = Poles (poles are pairs!) • F = Frequency • = Average Current or Voltage • = Max/Peak Voltage or Current • = Average Power
• N = Turns • = Max / Peak Current or Voltage • ∠ = sin of the given angle • = Max / Peak Volt/Curr.

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 24

CC3 - AC Generation 2
AC Generation - Left Hand Rule AC Generation - Faraday's Law
Notes taken from - Circuit Concepts → Power Point PDF → AC Principals The Magnitude of voltage induced in a turn of wire is proportional to the
rate of change of flux passing through that turn.
Flemings Left-Hand Generator Rule - This rule uses three fingers on your lefty
hand to show you the direction of electron flow through a conductor when
moving through a magnetic field. Faraday's Law - Calculation
• The forefinger (index finger) - points in the direction of the field flux (tip
of the finger points to the south pole)
• The thumb - points in the direction of thrust, or the direction of motion
of the armature. Therefore…
• The center finger (middle finger) - points in the direction of the current
induced into the armature.

THumb THrust • = Voltage generated (in volts) (AKA: EMF - Electro-motive Force!)
• Instantaneous voltage! That's why it's a small 'e'
Forefinger Flux
• = Flux density of the field in tesla (T)
Center finger Current • = Active length of conductor in the field in meters (m)
• = relative velocity of the conductor at right angles to the magnetic field in
meters per second (m/s)
Example - Below we can see an armature rotating counter clockwise through a
set of poles. Using the left hand rule we can determine that: Overview - Essentially, Faraday's law states that the magnitude of the
induced voltage (e) can be controlled by altering any of the three variables
Finger Description ( ). It's kind of like Ohms law for AC power generation. Any time the
Thumb Points downwards with the direction of armature rotation conductor cuts flux lines ( ) at the rate of one weber per second, an EMF of
1 volt will be induced into the conductor.
Forefinger Pointing toward the South Pole, with wrist at the North Pole
It does not matter if the conductor is in motion, or the field is in motion, all
Center Finger Points to show current is flowing CCW through the armature that is required is relative motion between the two.
Cheater chart - If you have difficulty transposing equations (like me!) you
can use a this triangle to help you remember the different transpositions:

Just cover the value you need to solve for with your finger, and perform
whatever action you need to based on what's left. Multiply any letters on
the bottom row, then divide the top number by that result (if applicable)
For example: If you need to solve for length, cover the with your finger,
that leaves the and on the bottom row. Multiply those values together,
and then divide by that number for your result. For more clarification,
compare the triangle to what I've transposed above.

Remember: In the picture above that BCIT always uses for these questions, the
polarity is asked for the LOAD. The current flows from - to + through a load.
Your middle finger is pointing in the direction of current through that load.

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 25

 Current Lag - In a purely inductive circuit, the current will lag the voltage by 90 . This
hinders the development of any true power (watts).
CC3 - Inductance Power in Inductive circuits - In resistive circuits, the true power (watts) is the product
of the Voltage and Current (E x I). In a purely inductive circuit no true power, or
Delmars Unit 16 - Inductance in AC circuits watts is produced due to the out of phase current and voltage. The wattage is
Seventh Edition - Pages 389 through 408 instead stored in a magnetic field, which is then fed back into the circuit once the
magnetic field collapses.
Inductance - One of 3 major types of loads on AC circuits. Opposes changes in
current and causes current to lag voltage. Current lag is fixed with Capacitance! Reactive Power - VAR - Although the generated power isn't TRUE power, it still exists,
know as Reactive power or Volt-Amperes-Reactive (VAR) power. The calculation for
Inductive Loads - One of the primary load types on AC Circuits, for example: VAR is the same as the Power Law for watts. However, instead of using the source
• Transformers, Generators, Motors, Contactors, Solenoids etc, voltage and current, you use the inductive form.
Counter Electro-Motive Force - CEMF - Whenever current flows through a coil
of wire, a large magnetic field is created, expanding outwards. We know that VAR - Calculation
whenever a conductor cuts through magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated.
This voltage is 180 out of phase with the source voltage (EMF), therefore we
call it Counter EMF (CEMF). • = Volt Amp Reactive power (VAR)
• Recall: Faradays law • = Voltage applied to the inductor (V)
When the magnetic field collapses, the same thing happens again, only the lines • = Current applied to the inductor (A)
of flux are now moving the opposite direction, causing the generated EMF to
flow in the same direction as source, slowing down the shut-off process. Impedance Triangle - Because the resistance is 90 out of phase with the reactance,
they form a right triangle that we call the Impediance Triangle.
Inductance on AC vs DC circuits - On a DC circuit, CEMF is only generated during
power-on and power-off. Once the magnetic field is established, there is no The total current limiting effect caused by an inductor can be calculated using this
more relative motion between the conductor and the flux. On AC circuits triangle, and is considered the Impedance, represented by the letter 'Z' on the
however, because the voltage is constantly increasing and decreasing, the hypotenuse. For example: what is the Impedance of an 'pure' inductor with 100Ω of
magnetic lines are always moving, constantly generating a CEMF. resistance and 10Ω of Reactance? Use the Pythagorean theorem to find out!
Inductive Reactance - CEMF limits the flow of current through the circuit just as
resistance does, but it's NOT resistance. It's called INDUCTIVE REACTANCE, and
it's symbolized by the letter 'X' (or ), the opposite side of the impedance
triangle. Inductive Reactance is proportional to the 3 factors of Fardays Law:
• The strength of magnetic field
• Number of turns of wire
• velocity of the cutting action (relative motion)
Reactance Equation - Reactance is measured in Henries (H). The reactance of a CEMF Calculation - To figure out how much Counter EMF (or back EMF) is being
circuit can be determined with the following equation: generated by an inductor, use the following equation:

Reactance - Calculation Induction - Calculation

• = Reactance in Henries (H)

• = Frequency in hertz (Hz) • = Generated Voltage (CEMF) in Volts (V)
• = Inductance in Henries (F) • = Inductance in Henries (H)
• = Value of Current Change in Amps (A)
Inductor Symbols - Inductors use a variety of symbols in drawings depending on • = Time for change to occur in Seconds (S)
how they are made up, different cores will produce different amounts of flux.
L/R Time Constant - Due to the CEMF generated by an inductor, it takes time for the
Air Core Ferrite Core Iron Core Variable current to fully establish itself on inductive circuits. This time is split into 5 time
constants called 'Tau' ( ) and can be calculated with the following formula:

Inductor Quality - Q - The quality of an inductor is the ratio of inductive Tau - (Time Constant) - Calculation
reactance to internal resistance. Inductors constructed with larger wires will
have lower internal resistance and therefor be of a higher quality.
Inductors with a Q of 10 or greater are considered to be pure inductors, Once
• = Tau - Time in sec. for 1 time constant (S)
inductance is 10 times greater than the resistance, the resistance is negligible.
• = Inductance in Henries (H)
• = Resistance in Ohms (Ω)
Quality - Calculation • = Time to stable current/voltage in sec.
You will typically be asked either how long a single time constant is (your result), or
how long until a steady state of on or off is reached (multiply your result by 5).
• = Quality Rise or Fall of at given Tau - If you need to find either the rise or fall of current or
• = Reactance in Henries (H) voltage across an inductive circuit at a given Tau, use one of the following equations:
• = Internal Resistance in Ohms (Ω)
Rise of Current Fall of Current
Inductors In Series - As with Resistors, Inductors connected in series sum:
• = + + ( (
Inductors in Parallel - As with Resistors, inductance is the inverse sum of all of • = Variable on your calculator [ 2nd F ] [ In ]
the values, there are three main methods to achieve this: • = Given Tau for the question (always negitive!)
• = Full circuit voltage/current (I x R)
Same Values Product Over Sum Reciprocal Method
Remember: The voltage drop across an inductor lowers over time. This would be the
voltage drop across the load! If you need it across the inductor, you must subtract
the load voltage drop from your source voltage. (Kirchhoff's voltage law)

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 26

CC3 - Capacitance
Delmars Unit 19 - Capacitors RC Time Constant - Capacitors charge and discharge at exponential rates split into 5
Seventh Edition - Pages 455 through 483 time constants called Tau ( ) - This is known as the RC Time Constant.

Capacitor - A device that stores energy in an electromagnetic field that opposes Tau for Capacitors - Calculation
changes in voltage. Used to correct current lag caused by inductance. The
Capacitance of a capacitor is determined by three factors:
1. The Surface area of the plates (A) • = Tau - Time in sec. for 1 time constraint (S)
2. The distance between the plates (d) • = Resistance in Ohms (Ω)
3. The type of dielectric used (K) • = Capacitance of the circuit in Farads (F)
• = Time to stable current/voltage in sec.
Current Flow - Only happens during the 5 (tau) that a capacitor is charging or
discharging. Once the voltage drop across the plates of the capacitor is equal You will typically be asked either how long a single time constant is (your result), or
that to the source voltage, current flow stops. I.e. Current can only flow during how long until a steady state of on or off is reached (multiply your result by 5).
the time the capacitor is charging or discharging.
Rise or Fall of at given Tau - If you need to find either the rise or fall of voltage or
current across an Capacitor at a given Tau, use one of the following equations:
Non-Polarized Polarized Trimmer Variable
When dealing with capacitors, as the voltage rises across the capacitor, the current in
the circuit will fall, until there is no more flow in the circuit (the cap is fully charged).

Note - The + sign is only to indicate the polarity, it's not normally there Rise Fall
think of the negative side as being weighed down by all the electrons.
( (
Leakage Current - The flow of electrons through the dielectric between the
negative plate and the positive plate of over time. • = Variable on your calculator [ 2nd F ] [ In ]
Dielectric Stress - Capacitors store their energy in the dielectric by stretching the • = Given Tau for the question (always negitive!)
orbit of the electrons contained in the dielectric. The positively charged • = Full circuit voltage/current (I x R)
nucleolus is attracted to the plate covered in electrons, while the negatively Remember: The voltage drop across a capacitor RISES over time until the circuit is
charged electrons orbiting it are attracted to the positively charged plate. effectively shut off. So this would be the voltage drop across the Capacitor! If you
Dielectric stress is proportional to the voltage difference between the plates. need it across a load in series with the capacitor, you must subtract the capacitor
voltage drop from your source voltage. (Kirchhoff's voltage law)
DC Working Voltage - DCWV - The maximum rated voltage a capacitor can take
before the dielectric stress is too great, and the dielectric breaks down, causing Using Percentages to calculate rises and falls - If you don't want to use the
a short and allowing current to freely flow between plates. button on the calculator to calculate voltage drops you can also use percentages, if
• When working with AC voltages, you must go by the PEAK voltage you forget the percentages you can use your calculator to figure it out by using :
• A capacitor running at 1/2 of its voltage rating will have a lifespan of 8x
one run at it's rated voltage. Tau Rise % Calculation Fall % Calculation
Dielectric Constant - DCWV and therefore maximum capacitance can change 1 63.2 36.8
depending on the type of dielectric used. This is represented by the "K" in the
2 86.4 13.6
above capacitance calculation. (See Page 462 Fig 19-11 for a complete chart)
3 95.0 5.0
Material DC Material DC
4 98.2 1.8
A Vacuum 1 Bakelite 4.0 - 10.0
5 99.3 0.7
Air 1.006 Pure Water 81
Notice how the fall percentage is just the remainder of the rise percentage.
Dry Paper 3.5 Titanium Dioxide 90 - 170
Mica 6.4 - 7.0 Ceramic 1200
Farads - the unit of capacitance is the Farad. A capacitor has a capacitance of
ONE FARAD when a change of 1 VOLT across it's plates results in a movement of
ONE COULOMB. This is the equation for that statement:

Charge - Calculation

• = Charge in Coulombs (C)

• = Voltage in Volts (V)
• = Capacitance in Farads (F)
Capacitors in Series - Because they split the voltage source between them,
capacitors in series act as if you've just increased the space between the plates.
Therefore, we add them the same way resistance is added in parallel.

Same Values Product Over Sum Reciprocal Method

Capacitors in Parallel - They receive the full source voltage, so it's like increasing
the plate size on a single capacitor. Therefore they sum.
• = + +

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 27

 Stored Energy - Calculation Induction - Calculation
CC3 - Test Study Sheet Inductors -
Capacitors - Therefore…
• = Energy in Joules (J)
• = Inductance in Heneries (H)
• = Current in Amps Squared (A2)
• = Capacitance in Farads (F)
• = Generated Voltage (CEMF) in Volts (V)
• = Voltage Squared (V2)
• = Inductance in Henries (H)
• Cycle - A full AC Waveform (1 up, 1 down) • = Value of Current Change in Amps (A)
Charge - Calculation • = Time for change to occur in Seconds (S)
• Alternation - Half of a cycle / AC Waveform
• = Rate of change in amps or seconds (A or S)
• Period - The time it takes (in seconds) to complete
one cycle (or two alternations)
• Average - You cannot AVERAGE a Full AC cycle, • = Charge in Coulombs (C) Tau - (Time Constant) - Calculation
only alternation because the +/- cancel out. • = Voltage in Volts (V)
• Energy = Ability to do work 1 Joule = 1 Watt-sec • = Capacitance in Farads (F)
• Power = Rate work is done 1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec
• DC Effective Ω = Only conductor's base resistance
Faraday's Law - Calculation Therefore…

• AC Effective Ω = DC Effective Ω + Skin, Hysteresis,

Radiation, Eddy, Dielectric losses = SHRED
• = Instantanious Voltage generated (V)
• = Flux density of the field in tesla (T) • = Tau - Time in sec. for 1 time constraint (S)
Impedance Triangle Power Triangle • = Active length of conductor in meters (m) • = Inductance in Henries (H)
• = Conductor to Magnetic Field Velocity in • = Resistance in Ohms (Ω)
meters per second (m/s) • = Time to stable current/voltage in sec.
Rise of Current (resists) @ given Tau
(
Fall of Current (assist) @ given Tau
(
Tau % Calculation
1 63.2
VALUE S RULE SERIES CALCULATION P RULE PARALLEL CALCULATION 2 86.4
P - Power / Watts Sum = + + Sum = + + 3 95
E - EMF / Volts Sum = + + Same = = = 4 98.2
I - Current / Amps Same = = = Sum = + + 5 99.3

R - Resistance / Ω Sum = + + Sum-1 =

L - Inductance Sum = + + Sum-1 Tau for Capacitors - Calculation
=
C - Capacitance Sum-1 = Sum = + +
• = Tau - Time in sec. for 1 time constraint (S)
Q - Charge Same = = = Sum = + + • = Resistance in Ohms (Ω)
• = Capacitance of the circuit in Farads (F)
Voltage and Current - Replace any "E" with an "I" to calculate current! • = Time to stable current/voltage in sec.

RMS / Effective (AC) Average (DC) Instantaneous

Inductance - Calculation
∠ REMEMBER: N2 changes ON THE SQUARE
• = RMS Voltage • = Average Voltage • = Instantanious Voltage
• = Max / Peak Voltage • = Max / Peak Voltage • = Max/Peak Voltage
• Can also use sin45 for 0.707 • To convert the other way, divide! • ∠ = sin of the given angle
• To convert the other way, divide! • To convert the other way, divide! • = Inductance in Henries (H)
• = Number of turns on the coil (Squared)
• = Permiability in Wb/A Tm
Power and Frequency - Pay close attention to the vocab with Frequency/Cycle! • = Area of the core in Square Meters (m2)
• = Length of the core in meters (m)
Peak Power (W) Avg. Power (W) Frequency (Hz) Cycle Time
Capacitance - Calculation
REMEMBER: Does NOT change on the square!

• = Capacitance in Farads (F)

• = Dielectric Constant (will be given?)
• = Max/Peak Power • = Max/Peak Power • Hz = frequency • T = Time (in seconds) • = Area of the plate in Meters Squared (m2)
• = Max / Peak Voltage • = Average Power • P = Poles (Not in pairs!) • AKA: Period • = Distance between the plates in meters (m)
• = Max / Peak Current • = Turns (in RPM) • Hz = Frequency

Circuit Concepts 3 Page 28

RLC Circuits Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Inductive Reactance
3 ZEP Triangles and Q-Factor
4 Power Factor & Parallel RL Circuits
5 Parallel Practical Inductors
6 Capacitive Reactance
7 Series with P-E-I-R
8 Parallel with P-E-I-R
9 P-E-I-R and Practical Inductors
10 Motor Calculations
11 Dual-Sine Phase Displacement
12 Test Study Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

RLC Page 29
RLC - Inductive Reactance
Calculating Inductive Reactance - Series Example Question
Practical Inductors - In Purely Inductive Circuits
RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 1 → RL AC Lesson 1 Slideshow - Pages 1-24 "A 120V 60Hz AC circuit has three inductors connected in series with the following
values 550 mH, 250 mH and 300 mH, calculate the Inductive Reactance values for
each inductor, the total circuit, as well as the line current"
Inductors - Oppose change in current / Capacitors - Oppose Change is Voltage
AC Circuits - Voltage is constantly changing, therefore Inductors and Capacitors
have a constant effect on the circuit.
AC Sinewave - Instantaneous Voltages change the most at the beginning, middle
and end of the sinewave. Anywhere it is crossing the midpoint.

Think of it as a falling object or a skier going down a hill, the farther down • Step 1 - Calculate the Total Line Induction by summing it
the curve, the faster they go, slowing down as they round over the top.
→
• Remember - The sinewave's RATE OF CHANGE
○ Rate of change is the GREATEST at 0 and 180 • Step 2 - Calculate each Inductive Reactance using the formula
○ Rate of change is the LEAST at 90 and 270
Resistive-Inductive Circuits - R-L Circuit - An example of a series R-L Circuit would → →
be a motor. It is an inductor due to the motor windings, but as you apply load, it → →
becomes resistive adding extra resistance to the circuit. Inductance interferes with
the relationship between Current and Voltage, and it's ability to generate power. → →

I-E Phase in a Purely resistive circuit - the voltage and current waveforms are in → →
phase with each-other. This means they cross the center line at the same time.
• Step 3 - Calculate the line current using good ol' ohms law
I-E Phase in a Purely Inductive Circuit - The CEMF being generated by the inductor
"pushes" the Current back making it 90 out of phase with the Voltage. → →
The Current LAGS the voltage by 90
When the Current and Voltage are 90 out of phase the circuit cannot generate
power. It is all being stored in the inductors electromagnetic field.
Calculating Inductive Reactance - Parallel Example Question
"A 120V 50Hz AC circuit has three inductors connected in parallel with the following
values 550 mH, 250 mH and 300 mH, calculate the Inductive Reactance values for
each inductor, the total circuit, as well as the line current"

Purely Resistive Circuit Purely Inductive Circuit

The voltage and current are in-phase The Voltage is leading the current
(cross midpoint at the same time) (crosses midpoint before it!)

I-E Phase in an RL Circuit - When you have both resistance and inductance in an AC
• Step 1 - Calculate the Total Line Induction via the reciprocal method
circuit, the Voltage and Current will be out of phase by some amount between 0
and 90 . This phase is determined by the ratio of Resistance to Inducance.
→
Inductive Reactance - - The opposition to current flow in an inductive circuit.
Think of it as the "resistance" (R) of purely inductive circuits. • Step 2 - Calculate each Inductive Reactance using the formula

Inductive Reactance - Calculation → →

→ →
→ →
• = Inductive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)
• = Frequency In hertz (Hz) → →
• = Inductance in Henries (H)
• Step 3 - Because this is a PURELY INDUCTIVE circuit, all of the branches
Notice - Inductive reactance is directly proportional to Frequency and Inductance. current will be in phase with each-other. Therefore we can calculate each
of the individual branch circuits and add them to get the total. We can
Inductance In Series - As with Resistors, Inductors connected in series sum: double-check our work by doing it to the total as well.
• = + +
→ →
Inductance in Parallel - As with Resistors, inductance is the inverse sum of all of
the values, there are three main methods to achieve this: → →

Same Values Product Over Sum Reciprocal Method → →

+ + → →
→ →

RLC Page 30
 Power Triangle - Finally, in order to determine the power (wattage) of a series
RLC - ZEP Triangles + Q-Factor inductor circuit, we can use a Power Triangle. This will be a similar triangle to the
Impedance and Voltage Triangle, meaning the share the same phase angles!
• The Adjacent side - For your True Power which is measured in Watts and is
Practical Inductors - Voltage, Power & Impedance Triangles determined by using Note - (R, NOT X or Z)
RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 1 → RL AC Lesson 1 Slideshow - Pages 25-45 • The Opposite side - For your Inductor power, which is measured in VAR
and determined by using
I-E Phase in a Purely Inductive Circuit - The CEMF being generated by the inductor
• The Hypotenuse - For your Apparent Power, measured in Volt-Amps and is
"pushes" the Current back making it 90 out of phase with the Voltage.
determined by using Pythagoras Theorem
I-E Phase in an RL Circuit - When you have both resistance and inductance in an AC
circuit, the Voltage and Current will be out of phase by some amount between 0 Example - Determining Series Power with a Power Triangle
and 90 . This phase angle is determined by the ratio of Resistance to Inducance.
" For the previous example, determine the Total Power, VAR and Apparent Power"
Determining I-E Phase Angle - The actual phase angle of the voltage and current
can be determined using the Impedance Triangle in a series circuit. The higher the • Step 1 - Determine your Total Power in watts (adjacent side)
resistance in the circuit, the more in-phase the voltage and current will be.
→ →
Example - Determining Series Phase with an Impedance Triangle
• Step 2 - Determine your VAR in watts (opposite side)
" A circuit has a resistance (R) of 20 Ω and a reactance ( ) of 15 Ω what is the
total circuit Impedance and the phase angle between Voltage and Current? " RP → →
• Step 1 - Using the Impedance Triangle and Pythagoras Theorem, • Step 3 - Build yourself a Power Triangle and solve for Apparent Power. This
determine the total circuit Impedance. will be the hypotenuse side of the triangle.

→ →
→ →
• Step 2 - Determine the phase angle between the voltage and current

→ → Conclusion - Voltage, Power & Impedance Triangles

Three Similar Triangles - All three calculation on this page are similar triangles.
→ →
That is to say - Voltage, Power and Impedance triangles for a series circuit all share
→ → the same angles. The "lengths" of each side may be different, but their ratios are
the same and therefore the angles are the same.
Voltage Drop - With practical inductors, the voltage drop across the resistance and
inductor are also 90 out of phase. To find the voltage drops you must first use the
Total circuit Impedance (Z) and Source Voltage to find the total current. The two
voltage drops will add VECTORALLY to equal the source voltage. Therefore, we can
use a SIMILAR TRIANGLE to the Impedance triangle, called the Voltage Triangle.
Example - Determining the Voltage Drops of the above example

" If the above example had a source voltage of 120V @ 60Hz determine
the voltage drop across the resistance and the inductor "

• Step 1 - Determine the total circuit current using the circuit impedance
→ →

• Step 2 - Use the current to determine the voltage drop over the Inductor Q-Factor - Inductive Reactance to Effective Resistance
→ → Q-Factor - AKA: The Figure of merit - the ratio between Inductive Reactance ( )
and the effective Resistance ( ) of a coil. Remember: Q-Factor doesn't have a unit
• Step 3 - Use the current to determine the voltage drop over the Resistor like "Ohms" or "Volts", it is simply a ratio.
→ →
Q-Factor - (quality) - Calculation
• Step 4 - Add the inductor and resistor voltages vectorially to double-check.
You can use the same impedance triangle as earlier, but instead of
resistance, replace that with the voltage drops. They are similar triangles. →
• = Ratio of Inductive Reactance to Resistance
• = Inductive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)
• = Resistnace of coil in Ohms (Ω)
• Tan-1 of Q = Theta Degrees

Example - Determining the Q-Factor for the example circuit used on this page
" For the previous example, determine the inductor's Q-Factor"

→ • Step 1 - Divide the inductive reactance by the coil's resistance

→
→ →

RLC Page 31
RLC - Power Factor & Parallel RL Circuits
Power Factor - In RL AC Circuits Parallel RL AC Circuits - Solving using the Power Triangle
RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 1 → RL AC Lesson 1 Slideshow - Pages 46-61 RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 1 → RL AC Lesson 1 Slideshow - Pages 62-88

Resistive Circuit Power - Power in a purely inductive circuit is always a net positive Parallel RL AC Circuits - The previous page of notes use 3 different triangles to solve
result, regardless if the waveform is positive or negative. Therefore, you always series RL AC circuits. In a parallel circuit they are no longer similar triangles, so we
get a positive result, and peak power. can only use the Power Triangle to solve the circuit.
Voltage - The one thing all branches in a parallel circuit have in common is the
voltage across each branch. Therefore, VOLTAGE be your reference point.
Power Triangles - You must make multiple Power Triangles on parallel circuits
• Branch Triangles - You must make a power triangle for each branch of a
parallel circuit. (Remember: Each branch is a series circuit)
• Circuit Triangle - You must make a power triangle for the whole circuit
i. Add every branch Watts Together
ii. Add every branch Lagging VARs together
iii. Calculate Apparent Power for the entire circuit
iv. Calculate the Power Factor and Line Current

Calculating a Circuit - Parallel Example Question

"A 120V 60Hz AC Circuit has and inductor in parallel with a resistance. The resistor
The Product of Two Negatives is always a positive! has 15Ω of resistance the inductor has 25Ω of Reactance. Calculate the circuit."

Inductive Circuit Power - In an inductive circuit with resistance, because the

Voltage and Current are out of phase with each-other, this is not the case
• Positive Voltage Positive Current Positive Power
• Negative Voltage Negative Current Positive Power
• Positive Voltage Negative Current Negative Power
• Negative Voltage Positive Current Negative Power
• Step 1 - Calculate the circuits True Power using Voltage and Resistance
Lagging VARs - (Volt Amps Reactive) - The positive and negative power waveforms
will cancel each-other out. The more out of phase the current and voltage, the → →
stronger this effect. This "lost" or "wattless power" is called VAR, and is often
referred to as Lagging VAR, because the current is lagging behind the voltage. • Step 2 - Calculate the circuits VAR using Voltage and Reactance
→ →

• Step 3 - Calculate the circuits Apparent Power using a Power Triangle

• W - True Power - Actual, usable electricity → →

• VAR - Reactive Power - Wasted electricity
• VA - Apparent Power - Total combined electricity ( ) • Step 4 - Calculate the circuits Current using Apparent Power and Voltage
→ →
Wattmeter - A wattmeter is a combination of a voltmeter and an ammeter. They
measure TRUE POWER in WATTS. Not the apparent power in VA. • Step 5 - Calculate the Resistor Current using Voltage and Resistance
Power Factor - PF - The ratio of True Power to Apparent Power. The higher the → →
ratio, the more efficient your power consumption is.
• Step 6 - Calculate the Inductor Current using Voltage and Reactance
Power Factor - Calculation → →
Note: and will add vectorially to make . I.e.: 2 4. 2 .33
→
• Step 7 - Calculate the circuits Impedance using either current or VA
• = Power Factor percentage (Decimal) → →
• = True Power in Watts (W) → →
• = Apparent Power in Volt-Amps (VA)
• = You can also just use the CAH of any of the • Step 8 - Calculate the Phase Angle using any of SOH CAH TOA (TOA shown)
triangles to figure out what the PF is.
→ →
You can plug all these numbers into a Power Triangle as above and use the
Pythagorean Theorem or SOH CAH TOA to get any of the other numbers. • Step 9 - Calculate the Power Factor SOH CAH TOA or Watts / VA.
Pro Tip: Use to get theta of the triangle! → →

RLC Page 32
RLC - Parallel Practical Inductors Anna's 7 steps - These are the 7 steps Anna gave us during class one day
1. Solve for XL using given frequency.
2. Solve for Z coil
Parallel Practical Inductors - In RL AC Circuits 3. Solve for I coil
RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 2 → RL AC Lesson 2 Slideshow - Pages 1-8 4. Use I2R and I2XL to solve for watts and vars of the coil.
5. Solve for watts and vars of the other branches.
Parallel Practical Inductors - Series circuits with practical inductors are treated the 6. Build power triangle for the whole circuit
same way as series circuits with pure inductors wired in series with resistance. 7. Solve for VA, , , Power Factor and Z
Parallel circuits with practical inductors are more involved.
Overview - The rules for parallel circuits remain the same
1. Solve for impedance of the branch
2. Solve for current in that branch
3. Solve for watts and vars of that branch
a. Do this for as many branches as you have • Step 6 - The R and L branch of our circuit only have a single component on each
4. Build a power triangle for that whole circuit of them. That means we can simply use Watts Law on each of them to calculate
• We are basically breaking everything down into rectangular values their True Power and VAR.
Remember: = + … and = + ... → →
→ →
Calculating a Circuit - Parallel Example Question
"A 240V 60Hz AC Circuit has a 20 Ω Resistance (R) in parallel with a 25 Ω Pure
inductor (L) and a Practical inductor (LR) with 106.1mH of inductance and a
Q-factor of 1.33. Calculate the Power Factor and the total line current."

• Step 7 - Add our two power triangles together to get a total circuit power
triangle from which we'll do our remaining calculations

• Step 1 - Use on LR to calculate it's Inductive Reactance

→ →

• Step 2 - Use the Q-Factor formula to figure out the resistance of LR

→ →

• Step 4 - Calculate the impedance of the LR branch using a triangle

→ →

• Step 3 - Calculate the current of the LR branch using the impedance (Z)
→ →
Circuit Total Power and Reactive Power
• Step 4 - Use this current to get the voltage drops across each component
• Step 8 - Calculate the circuit Apparent Power (AP) using Pythagoras theorem
→ →
→ →

• Step 5 - Use the current to get the power from each component of LR
→ →
→ →

→ →

• Step 9 - Calculate Power Factor using the above triangle

→ →

• Step 10 - Calculate the total circuit current using Apparent Power and Voltage
→ →
Now we've got a Power Triangle with all the information from the Practical
inductor branch in it! We just need to calculate and add our other two branches
wattage and VAR to get our total circuit information.

RLC Page 33
RLC - Capacitive Reactance
Capacitive Reactance - In RC AC Circuits Calculating Capacitive Reactance - Series Example Question
RLC Circuits → PPT → Aaron Lesson 2 → RL AC Lesson 2 Slideshow - Pages 1-
" A 120V 60Hz AC circuit has a 1 capacitor in series with a 4.5 resistor "
Inductors - Oppose change in current / Capacitors - Oppose Change is Voltage
I-E Phase in a Purely resistive circuit - the voltage and current waveforms are in
phase with each-other. This means they cross the center line at the same time.
I-E Phase in a Purely Capacitive Circuit - The Voltage Drop and static charge "pulls"
the Current ahead making it 90 out of phase with the Voltage.
The Current LEADS the Voltage by 90
When the Current and Voltage are 90 out of phase the circuit cannot generate
power. It is all being stored by the capacitor as charge.
Use the power of triangles to solve for the following:
(I won't be showing the triangles, but will show what trig function I'm using)

Purely Resistive Circuit Purely Capacitive Circuit

The voltage and current are in-phase The current is leading the voltage
(cross midpoint at the same time) (crosses midpoint before it!)

I-E Phase in an RC Circuit - When you have both Resistance and Capacitance in an
AC circuit, the Voltage and Current will be out of phase by some amount between
0 and 90 . This phase is determined by the ratio of Resistance to Capacitance.
Capacitive Reactance - - The opposition to current flow in a capacitive circuit.
Think of it as the "resistance" (R) of purely capacitive circuits.

Capacitive Reactance - Calculation

• Step 1 - Find the Capacitive Reactance of the Capacitor (C)
→ →
• = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)
• Step 2 - Use and Resistance of (R) to calculate the circuit impedance (Z)
• = Frequency In hertz (Hz)
• = Capacitance in Farads (F) → →
Notice - Capacitive Reactance is Inversely proportional to Hz and Capacitance
• Step 3 - Use and the circuit Voltage (E) to calculate the circuit current (I)
Capacitance in Series - Because they split the voltage source between them,
capacitors in series act as if you've just increased the space between the plates. → →
Therefore, we add them the same way resistance is added in parallel.
• Step 4 - Use the current to solve for the voltage drop across the resistor
Same Values Product Over Sum Reciprocal Method → →

• Step 5 - Use this current to solve for the voltage drop across the capacitor
→ →
Capacitance in Parallel - They receive the full source voltage, so it's like increasing
the plate size on a single capacitor. Therefore they sum. • Step 6 - Solve for the Apparent Power by using the voltage and current
• = + + → →
Reactive Power - In inductive circuits, you deal with lagging VARs. In Capacitive 2
• Step 7 - Solve for the True Power using and the resistance of (R)
circuits, you deal with LEADING VARs, because the current is leading the voltage.
2 →
Resistance - Creates TRUE POWER in WATTS →
Inductive Reactance - Creates REACTIVE POWER in LAGGING VARs.
Inductive Capacitance - Creates REACTIVE POWER in LEADING VARs • Step 8 - Solve for Reactive Power using Current and Capacitive
Rea^^ctance
ELI the ICE man - a phrase to help remember what is leading what
Inductive (L) Circuit - E-L-I - Voltage leads Current → →
Capacitive (C) Circuits - I-C-E - Current leads Voltage
• Step 9 - Use any of the 3 triangles we've built to get our angles
→ →
→ →
→ →

• Step 10 - Use the Power Triangle (or any really) to calculate Power Factor
→ →

RLC Page 34
RLC - Series with P-E-I-R • Step 4 - Now that we have our total resistance, we can calculate current
using Ohms Law! This is the magic number on Series circuits, because it
Solving Series RLC Circuits - P-E-I-R & Z-E-P Method stays the same across all devices!

PEIR & ZEP - This page will teach you how to easily solve any Series RLC circuit → →
and keep it organized using P-E-I-R and Z-E-P.
• P-E-I-R - This is a simple chart used that tracks the Power (P) Voltage (E) Total R L↑ C↓
Current (I) and Resistance (R) of each component in ANY circuit. Once
you get ANY TWO rows in a given column, you can use Ohms Law or the P
Power Law to solve the remainder. E
(NOTE: Some people use W-I-R-E for this, whatever floats your boat)
I
• Z-E-P - The three triangles we'll be using to solve the series circuits.
R
Impedance (Z) Voltage (E) and Power (P)
This method is for the kids in the back of the class, the ones that might struggle • Step 5 - We now have two pieces of information for every device! We can
with the equations / math of it all… such as yours truly. calculate the entire circuit, but lets start with Voltage Drops…
Remember: Ohms law states that
INDUCTORS ADD VAR and CAPACITORS TAKE IT AWAY
This is why I put a ↑ next to my Inductor column, and a ↓ next to my cap. → →
Example Question - Series RLC Circuit → →
" A 347V 60Hz AC circuit has a 120 Ω Resistor in series with a 200 inductor → →
and a 100 capacitor. Solve for EVERYTHING"
Total R L↑ C↓
P
E
I
R
• Step 1 - Draw out a PEIR diagram and fill in what you know
• Step 6 - Now we can calculate the Power row using the Power Law. There
are multiple ways to do this, but I love PIE, so…
Total R L↑ C↓
Remember: The Power law states that
P
→ →
E
→ →
I
→ → ↑
R
→ → ↓
• Step 2 - Use your equations to get the VARs for your L & C ( and )
Total R L↑ C↓
→ →
P ↑ ↓
→ →
E
Total R L↑ C↓
I
P
R
E
• Step 7 - Our PEIR Chart is done! Let's make a Z-E-P triangle.
I
R

• Step 3 - Use an Impedance Triangle to calculate - Remember: The

X side (opposite) is all of your inductance (L) minus your Capacitance (C)

Total R L↑ C↓
P
• Step 8 - Finally, Lets solve for Power Factor and and call it a day.
E
I → →

R → →

RLC Page 35
RLC - Parallel with P-E-I-R • Step 4 - Now that we have our amps, it's easy to solve for Power - PIE!

Solving Parallel RLC Circuits - P-E-I-R & Power Method → →

PEIR & Power - Parallel circuits can also use a P-E-I-R table and a Power (P) → → ↑
triangle to solve them. There are just a few extra rules to remember: → → ↓
1. I total and R total must come from the Power Triangle. You have to
have your E total and P total to get them, don't try to add them from Total R L↑ C↓
the other columns or using an impedance triangle.
2. It's parallel so VOLTAGE is now your special number, not current. P ↑ ↓

INDUCTORS ADD VAR and CAPACITORS TAKE IT AWAY E

This is why I put a ↑ next to my Inductor column, and a ↓ next to my cap. I
Example Question - Parallel RLC Circuit R
" A 240V 60Hz AC circuit has an 80 Ω Resistor in series with a 600 inductor • Step 5 - It's time to make our Power Triangle. Remember to subtract your
and a 25 capacitor. Solve for EVERYTHING" capacitive VAR from your inductor VAR. Look: We can tell that current will
be LEADING, because we have more capacitance than inductance!

• Step 1 - Draw out a PEIR diagram and fill in what you know

Total R L↑ C↓
P
E
I Total R L↑ C↓
R P ↑ ↓
E
• Step 2 - Use your equations to get the VARs for your L & C ( and )
I
→ →
R
→ →
• Step 6 - Now we can use Power Law to figure out our total current
Total R L↑ C↓
→ →
P
E Total R L↑ C↓
I P ↑ ↓
R E
• Step 3 - We already have two numbers in our device columns! Nice. It's I
easier to solve for current first, THEN solve for Power.
R
Remember: Ohms law states that
• Step 7 - Now we can use Ohms Law to figure out total Impedance!
→ →
→ →
→ →
→ → Total R L↑ C↓
P ↑ ↓
Total R L↑ C↓
E
P
I
E
R
I
R • Step 8 - Finally, Lets solve for Power Factor and and call it a day.

Pro Tip: If you're bad with Ohms Law and the Power → →
Law, don't fret. Just draw these two things up, and
→ →
cover the letter you want to solve for →

You should also remember this in case you're only One final note - In this particular circuit, the VAR total is negative, meaning that the
given Power and Resistance → current is LEADING the voltage. That's why our Power Triangle is upside down.

RLC Page 36
RLC - PEIR & Practical Inductors • Step 5 - This coil is a SERIES circuit inside of a parallel circuit. That means
we need the CURRENT across both device, because it'll be the same.
Solving Parallel RLC Circuits - P-E-I-R & Power Method Use Ohms Law to figure that out. ( )

PEIR & Practical inductors - Sometimes you'll be given a circuit with a practical → →
inductor. Don't worry. It's a tiny bit more work, but you can easily get through
it. Just remember that the branch with the practical inductor can be treated like
it's a series circuit with a resistor and a pure inductor on it. Coil Total ↑
First thing you're going to do is make a baby series P-E-I-R table for only the P
practical inductor. Remember, it's just a resistor and an inductor in series. Fill
out this table and then combine it with your whole parallel circuit P-E-I-R table. E
I
Example Question - Parallel Practical Inductor RLC Circuit
R
" A 240V 60Hz AC circuit has an 80 Ω Resistor in series with an inductor with
25 mH of inductance and 12 Ω of resistance and a 25 capacitor. " • Step 6 - We now have two pieces of information! Calculate the Voltage
Drops first to keep the math easiest.
Remember: Ohms law states that

→ →
→ →

Coil Total ↑
• Step 1 - Draw out a PEIR diagram for the COIL and fill in what you know. P

Coil Total ↑ E

P I

E R

I • Step 7 - Now that we have our amps, it's easy to solve for Power - PIE!
R
→ →
• Step 2 - We need to get the Inductance of the coil before anything else → → ↑

→ →
Coil Total ↑

Coil Total ↑ P ↑

P E

E I

I R

R • Step 7 - You could calculate a power triangle for this to figure out your coil
total VA, but you don't need to. You just have to add the R and L columns
• Step 4 - Build an impedance triangle to figure out the coil impedance to your main circuit's P-E-I-R table and solve the rest of the circuit!

Total R ↑ C↓
P ↑
E
I
R

• Step 8 - We need to get the Vars of the Capacitor before anything else

→ →
Coil Total ↑
P Total R ↑ C↓

E P ↑

I E

R I
R

Note - See how each resistance means a different thing on the P-E-I-R table? • Step 9 - Finally, we can work out our amperages, and start picking away at
When you're looking at the TOTAL column, you're talking about impedance (Z). this P-E-I-R table just like a regular Parallel table. See the notes page titled
When you're looking at Inductors, it's Inductive Reactance ( ) and when you're "RLC - Parallel with P-E-I-R" if you need step-by-step instructions.
looking at Resistors, it's good ol' resistance (R). But they're all Ohms. It should be just one page back…

RLC Page 37
RLC - Motor Calculations Pro Tip: If you're bad with Ohms Law and the Power
Law, don't fret. Just draw these two things up, and
cover the letter you want to solve for →

RLC Circuits and Motors - What do we do with motors? You should also remember this in case you're only
given Power and Resistance →
RLC and Motors - Sometimes you'll be given an RLC circuit with a motor. The
thing you need to remember is that a motor is just a practical inductor. That is
to say it can be treated like an inductor and a resistor in series. The hard part is
parsing the information you're given for a motor. Here's some typical Example Question - Adding a Motor to P-E-I-R
information you'll be given for a motor branch:
• Horsepower - This is how many watts of work a motor will perform. As Now that we have our power triangle, let's see how we would add this into one of
a unit, it's pretty useless, so we translate it to watts with this equation: our PEIR tables. We'll just do a small "series" PEIR table, but you can add it into
your total circuit PEIR table just like we did on the PEIR & Practical Inductors page.
○ Power Out (Pout) =
• Efficiency - Motors aren't perfect (is anyone, really?) Some of the • Step 1 - Draw out a PEIR diagram for the Motor and fill in what you know.
electricity flowing to them gets wasted on heat, mechanical loss and
other things. That means it's drawing more power than it's using. This is Motor Total ↑
represented by Efficiency (η) and is calculated with this equation: P ↑
○ Efficiency (η) =
E
• Power In - Power In (Pin) is the power (in watts) needed to run the
motor at full horsepower after all of the losses occurred. You can I
calculate Power In with this equation: R
○ Power In (Pin) = (as a decimal)
• Power Factor - You'll need to know the Power Factor (percentage in • Step 2 - Start by calculating the total amps in the circuit. Remember, a
lagging vars) to calculate the Apparent Power of a motor and add it to motor is like a resistor and inductor in series, so current stays the same!
your P-E-I-R table. Remember, Power Factor is Calculated like this:
→ →
○ Power Factor (PF) =
Calculating a Motor - With any of the above information we can calculate a
motor just like we would a Practical Inductor. Let's see how we do it. Motor Total ↑
P ↑
Example Question - Calculating a Motor
E
" Calculate a motor with the following information: A 240V 60Hz
2.6HP motor with a Power Factor of 70% Lagging and efficiency of 60% " I

• Step 1 - Start out easy by calculating the Power Out (Pout) R

→ → • Step 3 - Alright, we've got two numbers in each column! Let's use the
Power law to solve for the voltage drops first.
• Step 2 - Now that we have Pout, we can calculate the Power In (Pin) Remember: Power law states that

η → → → →
→ →
We've now got two pieces of information for a Power Triangle!

Motor Total ↑
P ↑
E
I
R

• Step 4 -Finish it off by calculating the resistance with Ohms Law.

Remember: Ohms law states that
• Step 3 - Calculate the Apparent Power by transposing the PF equation
→ →
→ → → →

• Step 4 - So now we have two sides of our Power Triangle, let's calculate → →
the VAR using good ol' Pythagorean Theorem.
Motor Total ↑
P ↑
E
I
R

• Step 5 - You're totally done calculating the motor! All you have to do now
is add the and columns to your circuit's PEIR table and calculate the
rest of your circuit! Check out the "RLC - Parallel with P-E-I-R" page for a
→ → detailed guide on it. Should be two pages back…

RLC Page 38
RLC - Dual-Sine Phase Displacement

Oscilloscope - Key Terms Step 1 - Measure your waves by counting how many divisions and segments they
span for a full waveform (One bump up, one bump down) Also, measure the
Divisions - (Pictured in Blue) - Sometimes referred to as Centimeters, what they number of segments between your waveforms
really mean are the big boxes in the picture. The oscilloscope above is a 10x10 grid
3.8 Divisions Wide & 0.6 Divisions Apart
of divisions! The VALUE (in time) of the horizontal divisions is set by the user
typically using a Time per Division (Time/Div) knob. This value will be given.
Step 2 - Calculate degrees per division and phase between waveforms
Segments - (Pictured in Red) - Divisions are pretty large, and sine waves often fall
→ →
between divisions. Therefore, the divisions are segmented. On the oscilloscope
above, each division is split into 5 segments, giving them a value of 0.2 divisions → →
each. Think of it like a tape measurer. You don't just have inch marks on there We can tell the Current is 56.84 LEADING in this example
• as it crosses the horizontal line BEFORE the voltage.
Measuring Length - (Example in Purple) - In the top right-hand corner there's an Step 3 - Solve for Power Factor by using (56.84 in this example)
example of counting divisions. You'll use this to count from the start of a sine
wave to the end of one (remember: two alternations - 1 up, 1 down) You can see → →
the purple arrows span over three, but not quite four divisions. The bottom of the
Step 4 - Calculate Apparent Power using or converting the
arrow is near the third segment mark of the fourth division. Therefore, we would
and values to RMS ( ) and multiplying them.
say that distance is 3.6 divisions.
• If each division was set to 10 volts, that would make it 36 Volts → →
• (
Step 5 - Solve for True Power by multiplying your Apparent Power by Power Factor
NOTE: We're using Volts per Division in this example, because we're measuring the
vertical axis. The Horizontal axis would be TIME. → →

Example - Calculate the above waveforms Step 6 - Just for "fun" (See: Practice) solve for VAR using Pythagoras Theorem
" The Green wave has a Peak voltage of 120V and the Yellow wave has a peak → →
current of 6.8A. Solve for Power Factor and True Power of the waveforms "

RLC Page 39
 Circuit Concepts
RLC - Test Study Sheet Inductive Reactance - Calculation
Faradays Law
In CEMF (V)
• = Inductive Reactance in Ohms (Ω) Induction
• = Frequency In hertz (Hz) In Henries (H)
• = Inductance in Henries (H)
Stored Energy (L)
Note - Inductive reactance is directly In Joules (J)
proportional to Frequency and Inductance.
Stored Energy (C)
In Joules( J)
• Cycle - A full AC Waveform (1 up, 1 down)
• Alternation - Half of a cycle / AC Waveform
Capacitive Reactance - Calculation Tau
Inductance
• Period - The time it takes (in seconds) to complete
one cycle (or two alternations) Tau
• Average - You cannot AVERAGE a Full AC cycle, Capacitance
• = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)
only alternation because the +/- cancel out. • = Frequency In hertz (Hz) Charge
• Energy = Ability to do work 1 Joule = 1 Watt-sec • = Capacitance in Farads (F) in Coulombs
• Power = Rate work is done 1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec Notice - Capacitive Reactance is Inversely Inductance
• DC Effective Ω = Only conductor's base resistance proportional to Hz and Capacitance Change on square
• AC Effective Ω = DC Effective Ω + Skin, Hysteresis,
Capacitance
Radiation, Eddy, Dielectric losses = SHRED
Resonant Frequency - Calculation No square
Voltage / Current / Power / Frequency
Quality - Calculation
Peak → RMS
• = Resonant Frequency in Hertz (Hz)
Average → Peak • = Inductance in Henries (H)
• = Capacitance in Farads ( )
Instantaneous E ∠ • PF = 100% at resonance - Max current flow so only
count actual resistance (no reactance)
Peak Power

Average Power Reactance (Xnet) - PARALLEL Circuits • = Inductive Reactance in Ohms

Frequency • = Quality rating of the inductor (Decimal)
(not in pairs!) • η = Motor Efficiency ( )

Cycle Time • = Net reactance in Ohms

(one Period) Horsepower - Calculation
• = Inductive Reactance (↑) in Ohms
• Capacitive Reactance (↓) in Ohms

Impedance - PARALLEL Circuits

• = Horsepower (Power Out) in Watts (W)

• = Impedance in Ohms • = Apparent Power (Power In) in VA (VA)
• = Resistance in Ohms • η = Motor Efficiency ( )
• = Inductive Reactance (↑) in Ohms
• Capacitive Reactance (↓) in Ohms
Solving Motors with HP, PF and Efficiency.
Power Factor - Calculation
1-
2-
3-
Example - 3HP / 70% Power Factor / 87% Efficiency
1-
2- 87η
3- (Apparent Power)

• = True Power in Watts (W)

VALUE S RULE SERIES CALCULATION P RULE PARALLEL CALCULATION • = Power Factor in Decimal Form
• = Apparent Power in Volt-Amps ( )
P - Power / Watts Sum = + + Sum = + +
to get
E - EMF / Volts Sum = + + Same = = =
I - Current / Amps Same = = = Sum = + + Power Factor - PARALLEL Circuits
R - Resistance / Ω Sum = + + Sum-1 =
L - Inductance Sum = + + Sum-1 =
C - Capacitance Sum-1 Sum = + + • = Parallel Power Factor (decimal form)
= • = Impedance in Ohms
Q - Charge Same = = = Sum = + + • = Resistance in Ohms

RLC Page 40
Electronics Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 How semiconductors are made
3 Diodes (PN Junction)
4 AC Power Rectification
5 AC Power Rectifier Math
6 AC Power Rectifier Equations
7 Zener, LED and other Diodes
8 Bi-Polar Junction Transistors (BJT)
9 JFETs, MOSFETs & IGBTs
A Three-Phase Power Rectification
B Three-Phase Rectifier Equations
C Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
D SCR Equations
E TRIACs, DIACs, UJTs and Other Thyristors
F Digital Logic Gates Overview
10 Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hex Numbering Systems

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Electronics Page 41
Electronics - Semiconductors
Note - If the title is Electronics, it's Year 1/2, if the title is 3lectronics, it's year 3!

Semiconductors - Crystal Lattice Structures

Industrial Motor Control Book - Chapter 56 - Pages 480 through 485

Pure N-Type P-Type

● Semiconductor ● Valence ● Penta-valent ● Free ● Tri-Valent ○ Hole

Atom Electrons Atom Electrons Atom

Semiconductor - Any element with 4 valence electron such as Silicon, Germanium, Selenium, Carbon
• Silicon - The most common semiconductor material, as it is relatively inexpensive and has a very high heat tolerance.
Unfortunately Silicon devices also have larger voltage drops (they are less efficient)
• Germanium - Another common semiconductor material, used in low voltage, low current applications due to it's low
voltage drop. However, it is much less heat tolerant than silicon, and more expensive.
Crystal Lattice Structure - The structure formed when semiconductors atoms are combined in a process called Covalent
bonding. The atoms group in a mesh sharing one of their four valence electrons with one another until nearly all of the
atoms have 8 valence electrons.
Covalent Bonding - The process in which atoms can link up by sharing their valence electrons
Pure semiconductor - When only semiconductor atoms are used, the net product is an excellent insulator. Nearly all atoms
will have 8 valence electrons. To make this more useful we add impurities to semiconductors in a process called "doping".
Doping - other materials (impurities) will be added to semiconductor atoms in a process called "doping". This allows the
semiconductor to either have a net positive or net negative charge.
• N-Type Doping - When a Penta-valent (5 valence electrons) material is added to a semiconductor, there will be an
excess of free electrons, giving it a net negative charge. This results in an "N-Type" semiconductor
○ Penta-valent doping materials: Arsenic or Antimony
• P-Type Doping - When a Tri-valent (3 valence electrons) material is added to a semiconductor there will be missing
electrons called "holes" , giving it a net positive charge. This results in a "P-Type" semiconductor.
○ Tri-valent doping materials: Indium, Aluminum, Boron or Gallium
Negative Temperature Coefficient - A material where resistance gets LOWER the HOTTER it gets. Semiconductors have
negative temperature coefficients!
Thermal Runaway - When a material with a negative temperature coefficient gets hot it's resistance lowers which allows
more current to run through it, making it hotter and allowing even more current through, and on and on until it melts…
P&N Semiconductors - Not special on their own. You have to sandwich them together in order to get something truly
useful out of them. How you combine semiconductors determines what kind of solid state device is formed.
PN Junction - By sandwiching a single P-Type semiconductor next to a single N-Type semiconductor, you get a PN
Junction, what's more commonly called a Diode.
Transistor - By sandwiching an N-Type between two P-Types, or vice-versa, you get a device called a Transistor.

Electronics Page 42
 PN Junction Math - Equations
Electronics - PN Junction There are two primary types of questions when it comes to PN Junction diodes
Current Flow theory - When asked about resistance, or what load is on, you only
Diodes - The PN Junction worry about the bias of a diode to see if current would flow or not. Remember that
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 57 - Pages 486 through 489 current doesn't flow through reversed bias diodes, they act like an open switch.

The PN Junction - AKA: The Diode - When a P-type and N-type semiconductor are Example: Solve for resistance below. Eliminate the diodes, remove reverse bias,
sandwiched together, you get a diode. This device only allows current to flow in replace forward bias with plain conductors. Now you just have a combination circuit
one direction and can solve it using equations learned in Circuit Concepts II.
• Anode - The Positive side of the diode (P-Type) - An 'A' on it's side
• Cathode - The Negative side of the diode (N-Type) - a line like it's polarity
• Barrier - The point where the two semiconductors meet.

Forward Bias - Allow current flow - It is installed forward with the flow of current.
Reverse Bias - Stops current flow - It is installed backwards to the flow of current.
Leakage Current - Tiny amount of current that can travel backwards through a
diode (from P to N). Apply too much voltage, and you can destroy the diode.
P.I.V Rating - Peak Inverse Voltage- The max reverse bias voltage a diode can take
before letting the smoke out AKA - Critical breakdown voltage / avalanche
Diode Rating - Diodes are rated based on their P.I.V and Maximum Current (I)
Barrier Potential - The voltage drop (lost as heat) at the barrier of the diode.
Every semiconductor has a different barrier potential, the load will only receive 1. Eliminate Reverse Bias 2. Combine Series Loads
the voltage leftover after all of the barrier potential "drops" are subtracted. Fwd. bias will act like a conductor 6 plus 6 is 12 ohms!
• Silicone (Si) - .7v drop - Widely used due to price and heat tolerance
• Germanium (Ge) - .3v drop - better material, but weak to heat, best for
low voltage / low current circuits.
Eg: 10 V source through 1 Si diode = 8.3v at load (10 V - 0.7 V = 9.3 V)
Depletion Zone - When you put the two different semiconductor materials
together, the electrons from the N-Type material are attracted to the hols from
the P-Type material. The very few edge electrons will actually be able to fill the
adjacent holes. This creates a small barrier called a Depletion Zone, and it
requires the Barrier Potential we discussed above, to overcome it.
3. Combine Parallel Loads 5. Combine Series Loads
Heat Sync - Device used to pull heat (caused by voltage drop) from Diodes. Inverse sum of 6 and 12 is 4 ohms! 4 plus 6 is 10 ohms! Problem solved.
Typically made of aluminum fins, some have fans or liquid to cool them further.
Checking Diodes with a DMM Actual circuit math - Two key things to remember about PN Junction Diodes:
• Diode Checker - A good diode will read the VOLTAGE DROP in fwd. bias • They Block current flow when reverse biased (as seen above)
In reverse bias it will read 0 or OL • Their voltage drop is always the same (0.7V for Silicon, 0.3V for Germanium)
○ A shorted diode will read 0V - 0.4V in both directions ○ Therefore, any loads parallel with the diode must share the same
• Ohm Meter - Forward Bias = Low Ohms / Reverse Bias = High Ohms voltage drop. In the below case we had to add them together using
the series rules and use ohms law to determine the current.
Inductive Circuits - use diodes to dissipate unwanted energy from DC coils and
motors. When power is cut from a DC coil, the collapsing magnetic field results in
a large voltage spike being generated in the opposite direction of the previously
applied power source. This can cause arcing at the cut-off point and prematurely
wear out the contacts.
A diode is added between the positive and negative conductors close to the coil,
in reverse bias to the DC source. This will block the regularly flowing current, but
give the induced reverse voltage spike a path to "wear itself out".
These diodes go by a few names:
Arc Suppression Diode / Free Wheeling Diode / Clamp Diode / Fly-back Diode

A Solved PN Junction drawing - (Numbers are rounded)

Notice how loads parallel with the diode have very little effect

Normal Operation - Blocks Flow Solving with Diodes - Like solving a combination circuit, but with a new component
where VOLTAGE stays constant. Unlike loads where RESISTANCE stays constant.

PN Junction Diode - Misc. Math Notes

• When doing PN junction diode math, we do not say a diode has resistance -
because it changes dramatically based on temperature.
• If you want , you must use - Do not try to add up the resistances.
• Always assume diodes are silicon, unless it specifically states "germanium"
• If a diode is used to "bypass" resistors in parallel, you still need to count the
Reverse Voltage Spike - Allows Flow 0.7V for the resistors in parallel (see above example).

Electronics Page 43
 Power Rectification - Filtering Circuits
Electronics - Rectum-fryers Filtering Circuits - The problem with using JUST a rectifier is you get pulsating DC.
It's not a steady input of power that electronics tend to like. To solve this we use
Power Rectification - Overview Filtering Circuits. They reduce the ripple and smooth out the pulses.
Electronics → Power Point PDF → 2 Electronic Rectifiers.pdf - Pages 1-28 Capacitor Filter - The simplest filter - If you add a capacitor in parallel with the load it
Power Rectification - Turning AC into DC - Because diodes only allow current to will act like a source when the diode is blocking the 2nd half of the waveform.
flow one way, you can turn AC current into DC current by using diodes. • PIV of diode must be 2x peak value because both the capacitor and the
source voltage are pushing back on it when the cycle reverses
Half-wave rectifier - This is when you use a single diode to rectify AC. It only • Has poor voltage regulation when load values change.
allows one alternation (half of the waveform) through, so you get what's called a
"Pulsed" DC signal. It's only on for half of the cycle, and there's a gap in between
pulses the same length as the initial pulse. The P.I.V Rating of the diode used
must be at least the peak value of the AC input!

Inductor Filter - If you add an inductor in series with the load it provide a CEMF that
resists changes in voltage, smoothing out the waveform
• Chokes rising currents, boosts falling currents
Full-Wave Bi-phase Rectifier - A rectifier that uses a center tapped (double-coil)
• Does NOT allow for full peak values, closer to RMS or average.
transformer and only two diodes. You're essential taking a 3-wire circuit and
putting a diode on the L1 and L2 lines, while putting your load on what would
normally be the "neutral". The P.I.V Rating of these diodes has to be DOUBLE
the peak voltage of the load, because we're going across two transformer coils.

LC Filters - Combining an inductor and a capacitor gives you an even smoother

waveform. They can be combined as either Choke Input or Capacitor Input. You
can also double-down and combine both to make a Pi Filter!
• Choke Input LC Filter - Putting the inductor before the capacitor
○ The inductor reduces the voltage the capacitor will charge to
○ The voltage across the load will be closer to RMS instead of peak

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier - if you use four diodes in a "bridge" setup, two of the
diodes allow half of the AC waveform through, and the other two diodes allow
the other half, giving you a much more constant current. As with Half-waves, the
P.I.V Rating of the diodes used must be at least the peak value of the AC input!
Terminal Colour Code - Yellow = AC Source / Red = DC Pos. / Black = DC Neg.
• Capacitor Input LC Filter - Putting the capacitor before the inductor
○ The inductor generates CEMF for the caps discharge cycle
○ Voltage across the load will be closer to RMS instead of peak
○ Inductance improves voltage regulation with load changes

Power Rectification - Formulas

Half-Wave Formulas - Only let half the AC wave through, so the math is half! • Pi Input LC Filter - Putting a capacitor both before and after the inductor
○ Removes ripple to an even higher degree
Half-Wave ○ Resulting load voltage is closer to RMS than peak
Voltage or Current Power

• = Average Voltage or current • = Average Power

• = Peak Voltage or current • = Peak Voltage
• To convert the other way, divide! • = Peak Current

Full-Wave Formulas - We're using twice the AC, so everything is gonna double! Filtering Circuit Summary - There are many variations of filtering circuits available,
each have their advantages and disadvantages. Some provide higher average
Full-Wave values, while others provide better voltage regulation. Just remember:
Voltage or Current Power • If you're told a circuit provides "maximum filtering" that means the average
value of voltage is equal to the peak value of the AC input.
○
• = Average Voltage or current • = Average Power
Example - A 120 VAC circuit with maximum Filtering's Average DC output:
• = Peak Voltage or current • = Peak Voltage
○
• To convert the other way, divide! • = Peak Current

Electronics Page 44
Electronics - Rectifier Math
Rectifier Math - Half-Wave Calculations
Half-Wave Math - You're going to be asked for a bunch of values when it comes to solving Half-Wave circuits. In the example below we're also adding a transformer into the
mix, but all the "source" (primary coil) calculations can be done using the ratios we learned in in the transformers section. The capacitor is only in the equations sometimes…

Solve For Steps Description

The peak voltage of the AC waveform ( AC Voltage in Waveform ) - Can also use
The VAC signal produced by the secondary, what a volt meter across the secondary (before the diode) would read
The Average VDC signal found at the load, this is what a volt meter across the load would read (without a capacitor)
( The total dissipated power is half because we're only using half the AC waveform. DO NOT CALCULATE WITH LOAD!
Minimum Voltage Capacitor dielectric must be able to withstand without letting the smoke out
Peak Inverse Voltage Diode must withstand is just the Peak AC value trying to go backwards through it
Because it's also acting like a source, the PIV Doubles when capacitor is present!
The ripple frequency on half-wave circuits is always the same as the source frequency
A theoretical number - if you had perfect filtering the DC voltage would never fall below the peak AC value

Rectifier Math - Full-Wave Calculations

Full-Wave Math - There are a few different things when it comes to calculating Full-Wave vs. Half-Wave, but most of it is just comes down to doubling certain values because
we're now using both halves of the AC waveform. In the example below we're also adding a transformer into the mix, but all the "source" (primary coil) calculations can be
done using the ratios we learned in in the transformers section. The capacitor is only in the equations sometimes…

Solve For Steps Description

The peak voltage of the AC waveform ( AC Voltage in Waveform ) - Can also use
The VAC signal produced by the secondary, what a volt meter across the secondary (before the diode) would read
The Average VDC signal found at the load, this is what a volt meter across the load would read (without a capacitor)
( The total dissipated power is the full amount you'd expect because we're using the full waveform.
Minimum Voltage Capacitor dielectric must be able to withstand without letting the smoke out
Bridge Doesn't matter if there's a cap or not, it's just the peak voltage
We're using both sides of the waveform so the ripple frequency on full-wave circuits is DOUBLE the source frequency
A theoretical number - if you had perfect filtering the DC voltage would never fall below the peak AC value

Full-Wave Bi-Phase Rectifiers - When doing the math for bi-phase rectifiers, because they're center-tapped you need to pay close attention to the value you're looking for,
you're going to have two voltages, Line to Line and Line to Neutral, just like with a 120/240 V center tapped transformer.
• Is the question asking you for the Voltage across BOTH coils or just ONE?
• Peak Inverse Voltage is going to have to be the peak LINE TO LINE voltage, - not just line to neutral.

Electronics Page 45
Electronics - Rectifier Voltage & Current Relationships
Note - Check the Year 3 Electronics Notes for an even better version of this chart - it's on the page titled 3lectronics - Rectifier Voltage and Current Relationships 2

Half-Wave Full-Wave Center-Tap Full-Wave Bridge

Load Waveform
(Just Diodes)

Load Waveform
(with Capacitor)

Load Waveform
(with Inductor)

Load Waveform
(Maximum Filtering)

Load Voltage -
(DC Average)

Load Voltage -
(AC RMS)

Load Current -
(DC Average)

Load Current -
(AC RMS)

Source Voltage -
(Per secondary coil for
transformer circuits)

Peak Inverse Voltage

(Diode P.I.V)

Load Power

Ripple Hertz

Electronics Page 46
 Diodes - Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Electronics - Other Diodes Industrial Motor Control Chapter 59 - Pages 493 through 499
LEDs - Light Emitting Diodes - Are PN junction-style diodes that have been doped
Diodes - Zener Diodes with specific impurities that will cause light to be emitted from the barrier.
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 58 - Pages 490 through 492
Zener Diode - A special type of diode used specifically for voltage regulation. It is to
be placed in Reverse Bias to the source (anode to neg terminal) in parallel with
sensitive electronics. Anything connected parallel to a Zener will have a constant
voltage drop even if the current through the load changes.
• Forward Bias - Acts just like a regular diode, with a voltage drop of .7v
• Reverse Bias - Designed to run at a fixed voltage called Zener Voltage.

The Symbol for an LED

Forward Bias - When LEDs are installed Forward Bias, they will emit light, so
long as their voltage drop is reached.
Reverse Bias - When LEDs are installed Reverse Bias, they will fry very quickly.
LED's have a very low P.I.V, around 6 volts.
A PN Junction Diode A Zener Diode
Colour Drop
Zener Voltage Rating - The regulated voltage when reverse current is flowing.
Typically available in the 2 - 200 volt range with 10% steps. (P.I.V of a Zener) Germanium 0.3 V Voltage Drops - To get different colours,
different doping agents have been used to
Wattage Rating - Zener diodes are rated in power (wattage) rather than current. Silicon 0.7 V
create each LED. This material difference
Typically available in the 250 mW to 5 W range. Infrared 1.0 V means that different coloured LEDs will
Source voltage - Must be HIGHER than the Zener voltage, or it won't pass current. have different voltage drops across them.
Red 1.3 V
If you're not being given a specific voltage
Series Resistor - When installed parallel with a load, the zener requires a resistor be Amber 1.6 V drop, use the ones in this table
placed in series with the circuit. This series resistor must be sized properly to drop
the remaining voltage after the zener and load have dropped their required voltage. Green 2.1 V
Eg: A 12v Zener and load are parallel to a 16v power supply. A resistor must White 3.5 V
be installed in series that can handle a 4v voltage drop.
If the input then increases to 18v, the Zener will allow even more current Current Consumption - Typically around 10 - 50 mA.
through thanks to it's negative temperature coefficient. The Series Resistor • The lower the current, the dimmer the led, but longer it's life
will now have to be able to handle a 6v voltage drop. • The higher the current, the brighter the LED, but shorter it's life
LED Resistors - due to their low current requirements, you must have a properly
sized resistor in series with the LED to prevent over-current.
LED Math for sizing resistors - Source voltage minus LED voltage = Resistor
voltage. Select your current between 10-50 mA. Use ohms law on the resistor
to get required resistance.
Example: A green LED uses 2.1 V, that leaves 9.9V left for the resistor.
We'll use 25mA for this LED. Now we have Voltage and Current for the
Resistor and can use Ohms Law to find the required resistance value.

Zener Diode Math - There is some basic math to be used with our combination
circuit math when it comes to Zener diodes. The thing to remember is that the Zener
keeps the voltage constant over both itself and the load.
In this example, we have a fixed 16v power supply and a rheostat ( ) connected.
Let's see what happens to the circuit current when we adjust the rheostat

Sizing a Resistor for a simple LED circuit

Diodes - Photodiodes
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 59 - Pages 493 through 499
Photo Diode - A diode that decreases in resistance, allowing more current to
flow, the more light it receives. Must be connected in Reverse Bias.

The Symbol for a Photodiode

Electronics Page 47
Electronics - BJT (Transistor)
Transistors - Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Transistors - Math and Measurements
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 57 - Pages 486 through 489 Industrial Motor Control Chapter 57 - Pages 486 through 489
Conventional Current Flow - Electronics are easier to analyze from Positive to Transistor Measurements - There are a number of measurements you need to know
Negative (Conventional Current Flow) due to all of the arrows included on when working with transistors, but they're all pretty simple. Most of them are just
electronic components. Also, drawings don't usually show a return path voltage drop measurements between two points. Use the below diagram to see
(negative), instead they use a ground or chassis symbol. where they are taken from.
The Transistor - A solid state switch (or potentiometer) - Basically two diodes
sandwiched together back to back. Two of the same type of semiconductor are
placed on either side of the opposite type of semiconductor. When a small
current is applied to the middle semiconductor, it allows current to flow between
the two outside semiconductors. Represented by a 'Q' in drawings.

A PNP Transistor An NPN Transistor

P-Type, N-Type, P-Type N-Type, P-Type, N-Type

Transistor Parts - A Transistor consists of three main parts, where you attach the
wires to. They are known as the Base, Collector and Emitter. (Three legs)
• Base - Connects to the middle-type semiconductor. This is where you
apply a small current to allow the main current to flow between the
A Simple NPN Circuit
Collector and the Emitter.
Note - The Base (B) could also be powered from a secondary power source
• Emitter - Has a small indicating arrow. If the arrow points toward the
Base, it is a PNP transistor. If the arrow points towards the circuit, it's an Voltage Common Collector - The Source voltage
NPN transistor. Draw the line at the tip of the arrow to know +/-
○ Remember NPN - the arrow is Not Pointing iN / Resistor Load / Resistor Collector - The load you are powering
• Placed in series with the transistor (usually after collector)
/ Voltage drop across the Resistor Load/ Resistor Collector
• - Remember, it's in series with the transistor!
/ Current at the Resistor Load / Resistor Collector
Resistor Base - The resistor limiting the current flow to the base
• Transistors need a current limiting resistor (Resistor Base)
Voltage drop across the Resistor Base
A PNP Transistor An NPN Transistor • (.7v for silicon or .3v for germanium)
• VCC in this case, or whatever source is supplying the base.
Voltage Drop - There are two voltage drops when dealing with transistors Current at the Resistor Base (Same as )
• Base > Emitter Drop - Just like diodes, transistors have a voltage drop
of .7 V across the base and the emitter. To be taken off the base voltage Total Current =
source, not the collector voltage source, when sizing a base resistor. • Current in the Load branch and the Base branch added up
• Collector → Emitter Drop - The voltage allowed between the collector Current at the Base (same is ) - Part of calculating Beta
and emitter. The higher this number, the less current flow is happening.
Current at the Collector - part of calculating Beta
When the voltage drop across the C E is the same as the source, you
know the collector is fully "open". Just like an open switch. Voltage drop across the Collector to the Emitter
• .1V if transistor is fully closed (100% active)
Beta ( ) - The ratio of current applied to the Base, vs current allowed to travel
• Source voltage (VCC) if transistor is fully open (0% active)
between the collector and emitter - 1:100 unless otherwise stated.
• Commonly available with Betas ranging between 1:10 - 1:500 Voltage drop from Base to Emitter - same as PN diode voltage drop
• Important for figuring out Resistor Base voltage drop!
Alpha ( ) - The ratio of current in the collector to current in the emitter. • Germanium - 0.3 V drop
Always less than one! - Solve for it by dividing your Beta by your Beta+1 • Silicon - 0.7 V drop
Biasing - Setting the voltage / current across the transistor(C E) and in turn the Voltage drop between Base and Collector - Tom says it's not useful.
load. Anywhere between 0.1v (Saturated) and (Cut-off).
Beta ( ) = - The ratio of collector current to base current
Cut-off - - The ransistor is at 0%. Full off / open. • 1:100 unless otherwise stated
Saturated - - The transistor is at 100%, full on / closed. Alpha ( ) = - The ratio of collector current to emmiter current
Cascading - Connecting multiple transistor together in series. You multiply their • or
Betas ( ) to get the new transistor beta value. • Always less than 1!
• Eg:
• Note: You can buy pre-built cascaded transistors in a single package
called "super Beta" or "Darlington" or "Darlington pair" transistors.
Diode Test Function on DMM - Reverse bias will read OL, forward bias will read
the voltage drop!
MOV = Metal Oxide Varistor - a protective device for AC and DC circuits. Clips
voltage spikes above it's rating. Acts like back-to-back zener diodes.

Electronics Page 48
 Transistors - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
3lectronics - Other Transistors Electronics → Scott's Files → Extra Info → Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor . PDF
IGBTs - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors - The love-child of a MOSFET and a BJT.
Transistors - The Field Effect Transistor (FET) It's essentially a Darlington pair, but you're using a MOSFET to control the gate of
Electronics → Scott's Files → Extra Info → Field Effect Transistors . PDF your second transistor, because they're faster acting.
FETs - Field Effect Transistors - BJTs are current driven devices, FETs are voltage
driven devices. Current is slower to start and stop than voltage, so these devices
are much faster than current driven devices. There are two types of FETs:
• J-FET - Junction Field Effect Transistor
• MOS-FET - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
○ Sometimes called Insulated Gate (IG-FET)
They are unipolar rather than bipolar, meaning they use EITHER electrons or holes
to operate, rather than both.
FETs VS BJTs - There are both similarities and differences between them
• Similarities
MOSFET-BJT Equivalent IGBT Schematic Symbol
○ Gate → Base , Source → Emitter , Drain → Collector
• Differences Transconductance Device - The IGBT is a transconductance device. This is an
○ FET Gates are reverse-biased expression of the performance of a BJT/FET/IGBT. The larger the transconductance
○ FET is voltage controlled THERE IS NO BASE CURRENT figure for a device, the greater the Gain / Amplification / Beta its capable of.
○ FETs are "Normally Open" while BJTs are "Normally Closed"
▪ Although MOSFETs can be either NO or NC! IGBT Construction - These have a Collector, Emitter and Gate. Current will flow
between the collector and emitter when voltage is applied to the gate.
• MOSFET Gate - Used because they activate with voltage instead of current,
which is much FASTER (current is hard to build up and even harder to stop)
• BJT Collector/Emitter - Used because it has a very low voltage drop across
the two points, so you get lower I2R losses, and can handle more current.
Amplification Ratio - The ratio between the output and input signal.
• BJTs - This is the ratio between output current in input current (BETA)
J-FET Silicon Layup - N-Type JFET Schematic Symbol • MOSFET - The ration of output current change to input voltage change
• IGBT - Acts as a power BJT whose base current is provided by a MOSFET
J-FET Construction - Made of a main channel of either N or P, with two thin bars of
MOSFET Operation - A positive input signal across the Gate and Emitter will turn the
the other silicon type running along it.
device on, and allow current to flow between Collector and Emitter
• Source - Connected to one side of main silicon channel, typically connected
• Only requires a very small voltage to activate and maintain conduction
NEGATIVE - it's the SOURCE of electrons.
No signal (or slightly negative) across the Gate and Emitter will stop all current flow.
• Drain - Connected to the main channel, opposite to the source, typically
connected POSITIVE - it's where the electrons DRAIN out of it. Unidirectional Device - Devices that can flow current both ways (between Source
• Gate - Connected to the two thin bars of opposing material. Connected and drain or collector and emitter) are called bi-directional. Devices where current
REVERSE BIAS - Negative to P-Type Gate, Positive to N-Type Gate. can only flow in one direction through those two points are called unidirectional
• BJTs - Unidirectional Devices, Electrons flow from Emitter to Collector.
J-FET Operation - You can connect power between the Drain and Source, and the
channel will allow current to flow freely, no restrictions. If you start adding voltage • MOSFETs - Bi-Directional Devices, Doesn't matter what way they flow.
to the gate, it will begin to restrict current flow in the channel, the higher the • IGBTs - Use a BJT as the current carrier, therefor they are UNIDIRECTIONAL
voltage applied to the gate, the less current will flow through the channel.
IGBT Advantages - There a few a few advantages IGBTs have over other devices
• Pinch-off - how much current is being restricted by the depletion region
• High voltage capability
that's being created by the Gate.
• Low "ON" resistance
• Saturation - The point when adding more voltage across the drain and
source will have no effect on increasing drain current. • Easy to turn "ON" and "OFF"
• Cut-Off - When the depletion region has completely closed the channel so • Fast switching Speeds
no current can flow • Zero (extremely low) drive current
IGBT Uses - Used mostly for high-voltage Pulse-width modulated (PWM) control. It
can switch high voltages at high frequencies without breaking a sweat
• Variable Speed Control
• Switch-mode power supplies
• Solar power DC-AC inverters
• Frequency converter applications (VFDs)

MOS-FET Silicon Layup - N-Type MOSFET Schematic Symbol

MOS-FET Construction - Fancy new-ish FET - Consists of a substrate with of one

silicon type, with a channel of the opposite type in it. Whatever type of channel
silicon is the type of FET it is.
Uses a silicon dioxide insulating layer between the gate and channel.
MOS-FET Operation - Designed to run in either Depletion or Enhancement Mode
Here's what happens as you apply more and more voltage to the gate:
• Enhancement Mode (NC) - Gate is fwd biased, depletion region reduces,
channel resistance decreases, current flows more easily source to drain
Standard MOSFET - Depletion Mode E-MOSFET - Enhancement Mode
• Depletion Mode (NO) - Gate is reverse biased, depletion region gets Adding Gate Voltage, DECREASES flow Adding Gate Voltage, INCREASES flow
larger, channel resistance increases, source to drain current is restricted It's like a Normally Open device It's like a Normally Closed device.

Electronics Page 49
 Polyphase Half-wave rectifier - Must be Wye Connected because you need the
3lectronics - 3Φ Rectifiers star point to act as the negative side of your DC circuit. When you only use a single
diode per-phase you'll only let half of the waveform through per cycle.
This is not a type of rectifier you would see in the field very often, if at all.

Polyphase Rectification - Overview

Electronics → Scott's Files → 3 Phase Rectifiers X . pdf - Pages 1-23
Polyphase Power Rectification - You can get an even stronger (less ripple) DC
signal when rectifying Three-Phase circuits. The half-wave rectification of three
phase gives you more of a solid DC signal than a full-wave single-phase!
Values we care about - When it comes to polyphase rectifier calculations for
math questions, there are only a few values we care about:
In the above picture, you can see the diode is only letting the top half (first 180 ) of
⚫ Peak Voltage - - The instantainous voltage at the tip top of the sine each waveform through. This means the load is only seeing half of each cycle, but
wave, you'll need this to convert between and since it's 3-Phase, there's a lot more making it through than even with single -phase
⚫ Peak-to-Peak Voltage - - The voltage when measured from the top full-wave rectifiers.
of the sinewave to the bottom of the sine wave, it's just
⚫ RMS Voltage - - The Root Means Square Voltage. This is what your
voltmeter reads when measuring AC circuits. On a rectifier, this would
be the voltage you'd measure BEFORE the diode using an AC multimeter.

Calculations - There are like 5 different ways to do any given calculation. For
example, you can use or or - Just use the method you're
most comfortable with, I personally stay away from roots and cos.
See next page for alternate (and better) equations!!!
• Peak Voltage -
• Peak-to-Peak Voltage -
• RMS Voltage -
• DC Maximum Voltage -
A diagram of the INPUT side of a rectifier and where those values sit. • DC Minimum Voltage -
I just used a single diode as an representation here. In reality, each phase • DC Average Voltage -
gets its own diode, or in the case of full wave, each phase gets two diodes. • Ripple Voltage -
• Ripple Frequency -
⚫ DC Maximum Voltage - - This is just another way of saying the Peak • PIV Rating -
Voltage, except we're talking about the waveform on the load side of the
Polyphase Full-wave rectifier - Delta or Wye doesn't matter because we're now
diode. It's still the same as Peak Voltage on the source side though.
using line to line, we don't need a ground. Instead of using one diode per phase
With Half-Wave we use PHASE values to calculate this, because it's
we now use two, for a total of six diodes. This lets both the "push" and the "pull"
always a Wye connection. With Full-Wave we use Line values.
or top and bottom of the waveform to be utilised.
⚫ DC Minimum Voltage - - This is the lowest voltage the DC ripple
gets to before it runs into the next waveform and climbs to Peak again.
The remaining waveform below the DC Minimum voltage line might as
well not exist to the DC load, sometimes we draw the ripple without it.
⚫ DC Average Voltage - - What the DC Max and DC Min average out
to, the DC voltage you measure AFTER the diode using a DC multimeter.
⚫ Ripple Voltage - - The Voltage difference between Max and Min.
Pretty useless for us apparently, but we may get a question on it .

Because we're using both sides of the waveform now, you can see there is HALF as
much ripple when compared to the three-phase half-wave rectifier.
It's as if you took the bottom half of the sine-wave graph and folded it upwards.

Calculations - The calculations are a little bit different for full-wave rectification,
A diagram of the OUTPUT side of a rectifier and where those values sit
lots of the stuff on the DC side is higher thanks to more bumps making it through.
Remember - The waveforms below the green line don't really exist as far
as the DC load is concerned, that's why I faded them out in the diagram I've highlighted any values that are different from Half-Wave rectification.
See next page for alternate (and better) equations!!!
• Peak Voltage - s
• Ripple Frequency - The frequency of the ripples on the load side of the
diodes. It depends on your source frequency, and what kind of rectifier • Peak-to-Peak Voltage -
• PIV Rating - The maximum voltage a diode can block before it lets the • RMS Voltage -
smoke out. Requirements differ based on rectifier type, see the next • DC Maximum Voltage -
page for all the formulas for this kind of stuff. • DC Minimum Voltage -
• DC Average Voltage -
• Ripple Voltage -
• Ripple Frequency -
• PIV Rating -

Electronics Page 50
3lectronics - Rectifier Voltage & Current Relationships 2

Single Phase Single Phase Single Phase Three Phase Three Phase
Half-Wave Full-Wave Center-Tap Full-Wave Bridge Half-Wave 3 Pulse Full-Wave 6 Pulse

Output Waveform

Diodes Required 1 2 4 3 6
DC Form Factor -
Diode Current -
Total Power -
Load Resistance -
Ripple Frequency -
Diode PIV Rating -
Ripple Voltage -

EXAMPLE
60 Hz Supply
5 Ω Load

Electronics Page 51
 SCR for AC Rectification - As with any diode, the SCR is a rectifier when used on AC
3lectronics - SCR (PNPN) circuits. It will only let one direction of the waveform through
Because AC waveforms drop to zero during their cycles, the SCR will automatically
shut off once a pulse finishes, no need for an adjustable resistor. This means you
Thyristors - Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) have to re-trigger the gate after each pulse of AC.
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 57 - Pages 507 through 511 Because the SCR is still a diode, it will block the 2nd half of each AC waveform.
Thyristors - Digital devices with only two states, on or off. Adjusting AC Output Voltage - SCR gates have a certain level of current they will
SCR - Silicon-Controlled Rectifier - This is essentially just a diode that you can turn activate at. if you adjust the amount of resistance on the gate leg of an SCR, you
on and off by applying voltage to the gate. If you use a device to turn the gate on will change the point on an AC waveform that it will fire.
and off at the right time, you can cut portions of the waveform off, adjusting how You can calculate this using ohms law if you know all the values.
much voltage it's letting through, SCRs can operate up to 25,000 Hz! Say you were trying to fire an SCR that needed 500mA to activate the gate, based
If a BJT transistor is a 0-100% dimmer switch, the SCR is a regular light switch. on how much resistance is on the gate circuit, you'll change at what point of the
You can't vary how much current is flowing like a BJT, but you can change WHEN waveform your gate is opening, and how much of the voltage it's letting through.
in the waveform you turn it on, which has a similar effect for voltage. These diagrams are just for theory, we'll cover the math on the next page
In the "off" state - no voltage applied to the gate - the SCR will not pass voltage High R Mid R Low R
forward OR reverse. In the "on" state - voltage applied to the gate - it will pass
voltage forward bias, just like a regular diode. 120 V 60 V 30 V
They call it a Silicon-Controlled Rectifier, because it's mostly used to rectify AC 0.5 A 0.5 A 0.5 A
into DC, and also control the amount of voltage it lets through.
240 Ω 120 Ω 60 Ω
The Lower the resistance, the less voltage it takes to hit the gate current.
The faster the gate opens up in the cycle, the more voltage it lets through
Voltages are all Instantaneous - See next page for calculations

A PNPN Junction Schematic Symbol

P-Type, N-Type, P-Type, N-Type Anode, Cathode and Gate

Off State - when the gate is low (no voltage applied to it), the full voltage of its
circuit path will drop across the SCR. If you measured it with your meter you'd
read the full voltage across the anode and cathode, just like an open switch.
However, because there is no current flow, there are no watts developed. All 3 above examples combined into one graph
• Example - If we have our set to 240 Ω on this 120V PEAK circuit, it's going
On State - When the gate is high (voltage applied to it) the SCR will allow current to take 120 V of the voltage to drop on the gate before it activates.
to flow, however, it will only drop about one volt, and the current will be
determined by whatever load the SCR is in series with. You can use Ohms law to The downside to a "dumb" system like this using a resistor to trigger the gate, is you
can't get past the 90 point, or half the voltage. That's because it's just going to
figure out how many watts of loss the SCR is developing.
trigger at the first time it sees that instantanious voltage on the rise.
• Example - 100 Ω Load -
If you want to trigger it on the fall, you have to use a capacitor.
Holding Current - On a DC circuit, once you apply the anode polarity to the gate,
the SCR will turn on and you will not be able to turn it off again, until the current Resistor Capacitor Triggering - By firing the gate using current from a capacitor, you
flowing through the SCR hits a low enough level. can delay the firing time by however long it takes to charge the cap. Remember:
The current required to keep the SCR on is called the Holding Current.
Tau for Capacitors - Calculation
Turning off an SCR on a DC circuit - Aka: COMMUTATING - Once the SCR is active,
the gate has no control over it anymore. You can even disconnect the gate from
the anode and current will still flow. In order to turn the SCR off, you something
• = Tau - Time in sec. for 1 time constraint (S)
like a variable resistor in series with the load, that can choke the current low
• = Resistance in Ohms (Ω) - What we change!
enough that the SCR will drop below holding current and shut off.
• = Capacitance of the circuit in Farads (F)
There are two other setups that can naturally commutate an SCR on a DC circuit:
• A Normally Closed (NC) switch in series with the Anode and Cathode
• A Normally Open (NO) switch in parallel with the anode and Cathode

The resistor now charges the capacitor - The capacitor fires the gate!
raise the resistance to charge it slower, and fire it later.
A Simple DC SCR circuit
Current will flow when is adjusted to allow enough current to activate Conduction angle - The duration (in degrees) of the waveform that actually makes it
the Gate. It will continue to flow until is adjusted to restrict current to through the SCR. It's just going to be 180 minus your firing angle.
below the Holding Current value. It's 180 because that's the end of the pulse.
• Example - Firing angle of -

Electronics Page 52
3lectronics - SCR 1Φ Calculations

Half-Wave SCR Equations Full-Wave SCR Equations

Average Voltage - The average DC voltage the load sees after the SCR
has cut the waveform down.

Firing Angle - The angle (in degrees) on the sinewave that the resistor
circuit will trip the gate and fire the SCR

Instantaneous Voltage - The exact voltage on the sine wave that the
SCR will be firing at.

Barrier Voltage - The voltage at which the gate will open. If your circuit
has a diode in series with the gate, you must include it's 0.7 V drop

Resistor Resistance - If you're not given your resistor values, you can
calculate them by dividing gate voltage and gate current

Resistor Voltage Drop - The voltage required to drop over the resistors
in order for the gate to fire at the desired firing angle

Firing Angle - Calculation DC Average Voltage - Calculation

Or • = Voltage experienced by the load in (V)

• = Peak voltage of the waveform in Volts (V)
• = Instantanious Voltage at firing angle in Volts (V)
• = Cos of Firing angle in degrees ( )
• Full-Wave = Multiply by , not
• = Firing angle in Degrees ( )
• = Instantanious Voltage at firing angle in Volts (V) Conduction Angle - Calculation
• REMEMBER subtract Diode & Gate E drop to value!
• = Peak voltage of the waveform in Volts (V)
• = Voltage experienced by the load in (V)
• Full-Wave = Multiply by , not • = Conduction Angle in Degrees ( )
• = Length of one alternation (half a wave)
• = Firing angle in degrees ( )

Electronics Page 53
3lectronics - Other Thyristors
Thyristors - The Triac
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 64 - Pages 514 through 517
Thyristors - The Uni-Junction Transistor (UJT)
Thyristors - Triggering Devices - Digital devices with only two states, on or off. Industrial Motor Control Chapter 61 - Pages 504 through 506
Triac - Bi-directional device - From a functional standpoint, this is essentially two UJT - Two bases, one emitter - it's essentially a trigger device, just like a Diac who's
SCR's connected back to back, so instead of passing DC like an SCR, it passes AC. breakover voltage can be adjusted instead of having to order one based on the
voltage you need. You adjust it using an RC circuit (resistor capacitor)
• Electron Current flows from Base 1 to base 2
• Electrons Can also flow from Base 1 to emitter

SCR Silicon Layup Schematic Symbol

A PNPN in parallel with an NPNP MT2, MT1 and Gate

Applications - Triacs aren't TRULY just two SCRs back to back, they don't have as UJT Silicon Layup Schematic Symbol
much silicon in them as that device would, so they aren't meant for high-current She's pretty basic. Emitter , 2 like polarity bases
applications. Due to silicon construction, they're limited to about 400 Hz and
they're typically used for applications needing around 0-45 Amps: How It works - Think of it as a light switch. Base 2 and Base 1 are the hot wire
you'd wire through it. And the emitter is the toggle switch.
• Heating Elements, Small Motors, Light Dimming
• In an "off" state, the switch is open, and current cannot flow through the
wire between base 1 and base 2.
• In an "on" state, the switch is closed and current can flow.
• To turn the switch (emitter) on, it has to have 10V more than Base 1. So if
Base 1 had a potential of 5V, Emitter would have to be 15 volts.
• The switch will turn off again once the emitter drops to only 3 volts above
the base voltage.
Why we use it - Unlike the Diac, which allows through a fixed voltage, we can
adjust HOW MUCH voltage gets fired from the base to the gate you're trying to
control. It also puts out a much "sharper" spike for more accurate voltage control.
Resistive Triac Circuit - No firing diode needed! Use AC! This is over-simplified, Testing UJT - Using an ohm meter, connect the positive lead to the Emitter, you
most will use a capacitor to get full dimming, and employ a Diac (next!) should get continuity between the emitter and BOTH bases.
Next, connect the negative lead to the base and test both leads, there should be
Phase Shifting - Just like in SCR's if you want to adjust the voltage below the NO continuity between the bases and emitter.
point (half-way), you'll have to use a capacitor in the circuit. However, you will
also have to add in a Diac, which is sort of like two Zener diodes in series.

Thyristors - The Diac

Industrial Motor Control Chapter 63 - Pages 512 through 513
Diac - Bi-directional Diode - From a functional standpoint, this is essentially two
Zener Diodes inversed, in series. It's primary function is to phase-shift triacs.
• Similar to a UJT (unijunction transistor) but it can function on AC.
Think of how an ohm meter and diodes work, and use your noodle
How it works - It's job is to give a specific, repeatable voltage on a Triac gate to figure out how this would or wouldn't let current pass
circuit to make sure the output waveform is stable. It does this by letting a very
specific AC voltage through. It will only allow a specific voltage through, once the Essentially - both Diacs and UJTs exist to ensure the gate circuit of an SCR or triacs
applied voltage falls below it's conduction level, it shuts off. are punched by the correct amount of voltage immediately, so they open up
The firing voltage (break-over voltage etc) is determined by the manufacturing quickly and provide a constant, non-fluctuating voltage.
process, so you order them based on what voltage you need.

Thyristors - The Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)

LASCR - So, the standard SCR is essentially a
Latching Relay. It only conducts when we give
the gate a tickle. The LASCR is the same as an
SCR, but the base current is supplied by light!
The gate can still be used to attach an adjustable
resistor that will bleed off some of the current
created by the light, to adjust the sensitivity.
It can handle more current through it than a
A Capacitor Control Circuit for a Triac LASCR Schematic Symbol photodiode, so that's why they're used instead.
The Diac ensures the voltage released from the Capacitor is at its absolute
peak before it triggers the gate on the Triac, just to filter out any small Max Specs - Typically designed for 3 Amps 400 Watts max
ripples and swells in the current being blasted out of the capacitor.

Electronics Page 54
 Summary - Below is a summary of the 6 logic gates with "Truth Tables"
3lectronics - Digital Logic USASI symbols are Blue NEMA symbols are Yellow

Digital Logic - The Five Basic Gates AND - - Output turns on when ALL Inputs are ON
Industrial Motor Control Chapter 50 - Pages 434 through 441
Digital Logic - Digital devices have two states, On-Off, Yes-No,1-0 etc. Relays are a A (IN) B (IN) Y (OUT)
great example of a digital device. Digital Logic takes digital devices to the next
level by using Logic Gates. There have been a few generations of Digital Logic: 0 0 0
• RTL - Resistor-Transistor Logic - Not used much anymore 0 1 0
• DTL - Diode-Transistor Logic - Not used much anymore
• TTL - Transistor-Transistor Logic - Modern, operates on 5 Volts 1 0 0
• HTL - High-Transistor Logic - Industrial, handles voltage spikes, 15 volts 1 1 1
High / Low - The term's High and Low essentially mean on and off when it comes
to inputs and outputs. On a TTL system, "High" would mean 5V being applied, on
an HTL system, "High" would mean 15V is being applied. "LOW" means 0V. OR - - Output turns on when ANY or ALL Inputs are ON
Logic Gates - There are 6 basic logic gates, AND, OR, NOR, XOR, NAND and
Inverter. There are both USASI and NEMA symbols for each logic gate.
A (IN) B (IN) Y (OUT)
• AND - Can have 2 or 3 input legs, and a single output. The output will
only turn on when all of the input legs are high. 0 0 0
• OR - Easy going, The output will turn on when either or just one of the 0 1 1
input legs are high.
1 0 1
• NOT - AKA: Inverter - Single input leg and single output leg. Each does the
opposite of the other - simple! 1 1 1
• XOR - Stand for eXclusive OR - The Output will only turn on if just ONE of
the input legs is high, doesn't matter which.
• NOR - Stands for Not OR - The opposite of the OR gate, the output only NOT - - (inverter) Output does the OPPOSITE of the input
turns on when all of the inputs are OFF.
• NAND - Stands for Not AND - The output is always on, unless all of the
inputs are high, then the output will turn off.
A (IN) Y (OUT)
You can see based on the logic of the inputs and the outputs how you could chain
1 0
these devices together to get a logic machine that is far more advanced than just
a relay (aka: I see voltage, I flip switch). 0 1
This logic can make for far more advanced motor control and pilot devices.
Integrated Circuits - Logic gates are typically housed in small chips called IC's or
integrated circuits. These will typically have 14 pins, and each leg will connect to XOR - - Exclusive OR, Output turns on with ONLY ONE input
a different one of the logic gate legs.

A (IN) B (IN) Y (OUT)

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR - - Opposite of OR, Output is on when ALL inputs are OFF

TI SN7500N Quad IC What's Inside that SN7500N

A (IN) B (IN) Y (OUT)
Testing ICs - While power is applied to the device, ICs can be tested by measuring 0 0 1
the input and output pins and comparing what the results should be with IC
datasheets. If a pin that is supposed to go high when voltage is applied to another 0 1 0
pin isn't, you know that IC is probably fried. 1 0 0
In the above example, if you measured 5V on both pins 4A and 4B, but the pin
1 1 0
marked 4 Y had no voltage on it, you would know the chip is bad.
These days we typically just replace whole cards though, and send the old one to
be refurbished (see: garbage can)
NAND - - Output turns OFF when ALL Inputs are ON
Symbols - There are NEMA and USASI symbols, listed to the right. Just remember,
if a symbol has a little white circle on any of the legs, it means the leg does the
opposite of whatever it's being told to do. A (IN) B (IN) Y (OUT)
• If an input has a white circle, it will be off when it's "on" and vice versa
0 0 1
• If an output has a white circle, it will be off when it's supposed to be on
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Electronics Page 55
 Hexadecimal System - The base 16 system, used in lots of networking and PLCs.
3lectronics - Number Systems You treat it just like we did the decimal system, but use 16X instead of 10X , and
you'll have to remember that A-F mean 10-15.
Hexadecimal Subscript - If you see a number with an "16" subscript, you know they
Number Systems - Decimal, Binary, Hex, Octal mean it's an Hexadecimal system number. For example 4258 would mean...
Electronics → Scott's Files → Extra Info → Numbering Systems
Numbering Systems - We need to have a general grasp of four different numbering
systems in Level 3 Electrical: Decimal, Octal, Binary and Hexadecimal
All of these number systems have stuff in common:
• They all have a Base or Radix - Number of unique digits they use Converting FROM Decimal - OK, so there's a long, but pretty simple way to convert
Decimal uses Base 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 FROM decimal, to any other base system.
• Divide the decimal number by the new base
Octal uses Base 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
○ You will be given an Answer, and a Remainder
Binary is Base 2 0, 1 ○ If the number divides evenly, the remainder is considered ZERO
○ Every time you divide, the remainder becomes a digit in the new
Hexadecimal is Base 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,0,A,B,C,D,E,F
base, starting from the right (least significant digit) and moving left
• They all count 0 as a digit, so the largest digit is one less than base • Divide the new answer by the base again, and repeat the above steps.
• All of them put their Most Significant Digit on the Left, and flow right. ○ The last remainder is the Most Significant Digit (far left)
• Numbers belonging to a system can be identified with a subscript
○ Example - Octal 13628 or Hexadecimal 136216 Note from me - It's a little strange, because you'll have to work with remainders,
not decimal points. If, like me, you were NOT a mathlete in high school and are a
Calculators - It's a good idea to have as good of a grasp of them as possible, but few years out, here's a refresher… If you divide 354 by on your calculator, you'll
you can use your Sharp EL-520XT calculator to convert, or an online tool like this: get 44.25 and 0.25 isn't a remainder, it's a decimal meaning 0.25 (or 1 quarter) of
https://www.rapidtables.com/convert/number/hex-dec-bin-converter.html the 8 you divided by. Multiply 8 by .25 and you'll find that the REMAINDER is 2.

REMEMBER - A NUMBER RAISED TO THE POWER OF ZERO EQUALS 1!

Example - Octal of 35410
Decimal System - The most common numbering system, we all use it every day.
First Division →
Decimal Subscript - If you see a number with a "10" subscript, you know they mean
2nd Division →
regular old decimal system. For example 42510 would literally mean 425.
3rd Division →

As you can see, we really didn't have to do the 3rd division, there was just a
remainder of 5, because you can't divide 5 by 8 and get anything but a remainder.
But, I'm trying to make this simple, and pad the content, I've got some space to fill.
In other words, there are FOUR 100's, Two 10's and Five 1's in the number 425.
If you're anything like me, you've probably never thought of our numbers like that, Example - Binary of 3710
but yeah. I guess that's how they technically work… First Division →
Octal System - The base 8 system, used mostly with old-school PLCs. You treat it 2nd Division →
just like we did the decimal system above, but use 8X instead of 10X
3rd Division →
Octal Subscript - If you see a number with an "8" subscript, you know they mean
it's an Octal system number. For example 4258 would mean... 4th Division →

5th Division →

6th Division →

In other words, FOUR TWO FIVE octal equals Two-hundred and seventy seven.
Example - Hexadecimal of 261910
First Division →
Binary System - The base 2 system, 0 and 1. Denoted by a 2 subscript. You treat it
just like we did the other systems above, but use 2X instead of 10X or 8X 2nd Division →

Binary Subscript - If you see a number with an "2" subscript, you know they mean 3rd Division →
it's a Binary system number. For example 4252 would mean...
With hex as above, you just have to remember that 10 through 15 are A through F

Using a Sharp EL-520XT - If you look at your calculator, above the bottom right
buttons, you'll see orange labels with HEX, BIN, OCT, DEC. This is how you convert
numbers. Here's an example of converting HEX to DEC:
Binary-Coded-Decimal (BCD)- CAREFUL!!! - If you're asked to use BCD, or if you see Example - Lets convert A3B to the other number systems:
a BCD subscript on a bunch of 1's and 0's, you don't use the method above on the I chose to start with hex because it's the only tricky one for entering the letters, but
whole string! You have to split the binary into groups of FOUR numbers, starting you just use the green letters you'd use for the Store and Recall function.
from right to left, convert each block of 4 into it's own number, and THAT is the
[ ]=A [ ]=B [ ]=C [ ]=D [ log ] = E [ In ] = F
number they're asking for. The reason we start from right to left, is the far LEFT
number might be missing some zeros. If there are "leading zeros" they don't put ○ Press [ 2nd F ] then [ ] to change to HEX entry mode
them in, so if the far left group of four was 0011, they'd write it as 11, and you wont ○ Press [ ] to enter the letter "A"
notice unless you cut it into groups of 4 starting at the far right. ○ Press [ 3 ] … to enter the number… "3".
Example: Let's convert 792 to Binary, and to BCD - For the Standard binary, ○ Press [ ] to enter the letter "B"
you could break it down like we did the 1001 number above, but for BCD, ○ Press [ = ] to let the calculator know that's the full number
we have to convert each number into a block of four 1's and 0's and then ○ Press [ 2nd F ] then [ = ] to convert it to Decimal = 261910
just string them together. ○ Press [ 2nd F ] then [ ] to convert it to Octal = 50738
○ Standard Binary = 11000110002 ○ Press [ 2nd F ] then [ ] to convert it to Binary = ERROR!
○ BCD = 011110010010BCD 2619 has too many digits in binary, it can only show up to 10, use an online calc or
convert it to decimal then use the division way above to convert it to Binary.
7 = 0111 9 = 1001 2 = 0010

Electronics Page 56
Trig and Vectors Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Formula Transposition
3 Pythagorean Theorem
4 SOH-CAH-TOA
5 Impedance and Power Triangles
6 Vectors

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Trig and Vectors Page 57

Formulas - Transposition

Transposition - Rearranging Formulas Transposition - "Advanced" Example

Advanced Transposition - Here is an example of a slightly more advanced
Transposition - Often you'll be given details of a circuit that will require you to
transposition where you're dealing with an equation that has numerators and
have to move around a formula in order to solve a question. This process is
denominators on one side of it - let's solve for Permeability ( )
called Transposition.
Basic rules of Transposition - Transposition requires you to get the value you
are looking for alone on it's own side of the equation. Here is what you can do
to all the other values:
• First and foremost - Anything you do to one side, you do to the other. • Step 1 - First thing I like to do is re-write the formula so we can define each
That is the most basic rule of transposition. That's how you move things piece of the formula more clearly:
from one side to the other.
• Addition / Subtraction - If you need to get rid of a number that is being
added or subtracted in the old formula, you do the opposite of what it's
doing (if it's being added, subtract it and vice versa)
• Multiplication - When dealing with a number that's being multiplied by
• Step 2 - First things first, we can't touch ANY of the numerators (top symbols)
another number, you divide by the number you want to get rid of.
until we get rid of the denominator (bottom symbol). Because a denominator
• Squares - If something is being squared, and you need to get rid of it, is DIVIDING the numerator, we MULTIPLY it out. Remember, this just simple
square root it! deletes it from the right side, and adds it to the left.
• Numerators - If a something you need to get rid of is the numerator of
another number (sit's on the top of a division line), you cannot do
ANYTHING to it, until you get rid of it's denominator FIRST!
• Denominator - Typically one of the first things you'll deal with - in order
to get rid of a denominator, you simply multiply by whatever is in the
denominator position. This will leave the numerators by themselves.

Transposition - Simple Example ↓

Simple Transposition - Here's an example of a simple transposition, this is
anything without a numerator/denominator in the formula - solved for Tesla ( )

• Step 1 - First thing I like to do is re-write the formula so we can define • Step 3 - Now that we're only left with a bunch of symbols that are multiplying,
each piece of the formula more clearly: we can get rid of them with simple division. Let's get rid of both Area ( ) and
Number of turns ( ).

• Step 2 - We need to get rid of the Length ( ), so divide it out! Whatever

we do to one side, we need to do to the other.

→
↓
Notice how dividing by length ( ) on the right side gets rid of the L on
the top and the bottom, but dividing by it on the left side keeps it there.
• Step 3 - Repeat step two but with the Velocity ( ) Because we already
have a denominator on the left side, the new one is added as a
multiplication to the previous one.

Step 4 - Swap the sides to make it more clear, and get rid of any extraneous
symbols if you like. (you don't have to though, you can keep it how it is, it
→ means the exact same thing, this is just cleaner and how you'd find it written
on a test or an equation sheet)
Step 4 - Swap the sides to make it more clear, and get rid of any
extraneous symbols if you like. (you don't have to though, you can keep
it how it is, it means the exact same thing, this is just cleaner and how
you'd find it written on a test or an equation sheet)

Trig and Vectors Page 58

Trig - Pythagorean Theorem

Triangles - "It's pretty much just half a square" - Bogdan - If Pythagorean Theorem
you add measurements of all angles you will always get 180
• Isosceles - "Same Leg" in Greek - Two equal sides and
two equal angles. The two equal angles are always
opposite the equal sides. Therefore:
• Equilateral - "Equal Sides" in Latin - All sides are equal,
all angles are equal (60 )
• Obtuse - A triangle featuring one angle measuring
more than 90 .
• Right - A triangle with one 90 angle. The side
opposite of the right angle is the Hypotenuse and is
always the longest side of a right triangle.

Trig and Vectors Page 59

Trig - Sohcahtoa
Solving - for Sin, Cos and Tan
If you're given at least two sides you can solve for the
angles and the other side using SOH-CAH-TOA.
Triangles - How do they work?
Angles - There are a few things to know about angles
• in a right angle, in a triangle, in a circle
• Acute angle - an angle less than
• Obtuse angle - an angle greater than
• Complementary angle - two angles that add up to
• Supplementary angle - two angles that add up to SOH - Sin = Opposite / Hypotenuse - The sine of an acute angle is the length of
the side opposite that angle divided by the length of the hypotenuse of the
Right Triangles - Trigonometric ratios express the relationships between the
triangle
Asides and the acute angles of a right triangle. In order to use these ratios you
first need to know the names of these sides in relation to acute angles. sin
• The Hypotenuse - The side opposite to the right angle.
• The Opposite Side - The side opposite to the given acute angle sin

• The adjacent - The side that connects the hypotenuse and opposite, sin
and forms half of the acute angle.

CAH - Cos = Adjacent / Hypotenuse - The cosine of an acute angle is the length of
the side adjacent that angle divided by the length of the hypotenuse of the
triangle

cos

cos
The Trigonometric Ratios - You can use the trigonometric ratios to measure
the acute angles of a right triangle or to find the lengths of the sides of a right cos
triangle.
Sine (sin) - Opposite / Hypotenuse
TOA - Tan = Opposite / Adjacent - The tangent of an acute angle is the length of
Cosine (cos) - Adjacent / Hypotenuse the side opposite that angle divided by the length of the side adjacent to the
acute angle.
Tangent (tan) - Opposite & Adjacent
tan
Inverse Trigonometric Functions -
Using the inverse trigonometric functions (represented with a -1) on a decimal
retrieved by the Sin, Cos or Tan button will result in the actual degrees. tan

• E.g.: pressing: .876 [2nd F] [sin] [=] displays 61.1635... or 61 (ish)

tan
Don't use calculated numbers in SOHCAHTOA if you can, only use given
numbers! This will help lower the chances of an error.

Solving - for Opposite, Adjacent and Hypotenuse

If you have one angle and one length, you can solve for any side.
Use this Diagram as a reference for the following examples

• Use the Coloured triangles to the right just as you would the Ohm's/Power Law triangles, cover the letter you need!
• Calculate "Sin / Cos / Tan of " on your calculator by using [sin] [cos] [tan] button, followed by the [ ] and hit [=]

Example 1 -
Solving for Opposite -
Solving for Adjacent -

Example 2 -
Solving for Opposite -
Solving for Hypotenuse -

Remember - always try to solve triangles using GIVEN values. If you use CALCULATED values rounding errors can compound and you could end up being wrong!

Trig and Vectors Page 60

Trig - Impedance / Power Triangles

Trigonometry - Impedance / Power Triangles

Notes taken from - Circuit Concepts → Power Point PDF → Trig Vectors
Impedance Triangle - Series AC circuits containing resistance and reactance can be
illustrated as a right angle triangle called an impedance triangle. All measured in Ohms (Ω)
Impedance - The restriction of power flow from ALL sources, not just resistance as we
learned last year.
Resistance - Same thing it meant last year.
Reactance - Other forms of power restriction
Impedance Triangle - AC circuits can also use the power triangle to calculate the
relationship between the various types of power. .
Apparent Power - - Measured in Volt-Amps (volts x amps)
Reactive Power - - Measured in Volt-Amps Reactive
True Power - - Measured in Watts
According To our Teacher: for the purpose of the first upcoming test, the most important
thing to remember are what sides represent what on the two triangles

Impedance Triangle Power Triangle

• Hypotenuse = - Impedance • Hypotenuse = - Apparent Power

• Opposite = - Reactance • Opposite = - Reactive Power
• Adjacent = - Resistance • Adjacent = - True Power

Solving the Triangles - Remember, you can solve these triangles using either Pythagorean
Theorem or SOHCAHTOA (see year 1 notes pages 20-21)
• Whenever possible use given numbers (not calculated) to solve for the unknown. This
will help reduce rounding errors.
• Otherwise, keep as many decimal spaces as possible to help reduce rounding errors
Angle symbols - Various Greek letters are used to label the angles, but there are no hard
and fast rules for which is which. Theta (ϴ) is most important
Alpha (α) - Beta (ϐ) - Theta (ϴ) - Phi (φ)

Trig and Vectors Page 61

Trig - Vectors

Trigonometry - Vectors
Notes taken from - Circuit Concepts → Power Point PDF → Trig Vectors
Polar Coordinates - 60V @ 25 Converted to Rectangular - 54.38 , j27.99
Terminology - Vector, Scalar and Phasor - These three terms represent something
that has some form of numerical value or quantity
Converting - Rectangular to Polar - If you are given coordinates of 10,j15 you know
• Scalar - A straight line where it's length is proportional to a quantity that
that you have an adjacent with a length of 10, and an opposite with the height of 15.
has magnitude, but no direction Think: Mercury thermometer
• Vector - A quantity which also acts in a certain direction in relation to • Calculate Hypotenuse - Using Pythagoras Theorem we know that
another vector or a reference point. Drawn with an arrowhead to . So
indicate direction Think: Force, Motion, Voltage and Current • Calculate Angle - Using SOH CAH TOA, we know that if we have our Opposite
• Phasor - A rotating vector. As a phasor rotates through 360 , if you take and Adjacent we can get our Tan.
individual snapshots of it, each snapshot would be a vector. ○ Our Polar form would be 18.03V @ 56.31 (see example)
X-Y Coordinates - Vectors are plotted on a dual-axis graph (X-Y Graph)
⚫ Quadrants - The four corners of the graph, labelled I, II, III, and IV
⚫ X Axis - The Horizontal Axis
⚫ Y Axis - The Vertical Axis (coordinates typically start with a 'j')
⚫ Origin - The center of the quadrigraph, where the X and Y meet
⚫ Coordinate - An X,jY point on the graph. Always put the 'X' value first!
An arrow pointing from the origin to the coordinate would be a Vector
⚫ Degrees - Each of the four quadrants cover a 90 of a circle. If a vector is
between 0-90 it's in Quadrent 1. 90-180 is Quadrent 2, etc. Rectangular Coordinates - 10,j15 Converted to Polar - 18V @ 56
⚫ Polarity - Always note the polarity (or angle) of each number. This will
indicate which quadrant the number is located! POLARITY MATTERS! Adding in-phase vectors - When vectors are in-phase (Same degrees/angle) Add the
magnitudes together to get your resultant vector

Adding 180 out of phase vectors - When vectors are exactly 180 out of phase, you
simply subtact the magnitudes to get your resultant vector. The direction of the new
vector will be the same as whichever vector was larger

Adding differently phased vectors - To add vectors with different phases from each-
other, you simply take the rectangular coordinates, and add them together. Use your
new X and Y numbers to plot your new triangle
For Example - 8 Volts @ 70 + 12 Volts @ 25
• Step 1 - Use SOH-CAH-TOA to find the length of your opposite/adjacent sides
Polar Vectors Opposite Adjacent
The X-Y graph used to plot Vectors 8V @ 70 7.52 2.74
A vector would be an arrow starting at the origin, and pointing to the coordinate
12V @ 25 5.07 10.88
Polar Vectors - Magnitude and Angle - When dealing with vectors in Polar form,
you'll be given the Magnitude in Volts or Amps, and the Angle in Degrees. This • Step 2 - Add the Opposite sides up, and add the Adjacent sides up. This will
can be plotted as a vector on the X,Y graph which acts as a hypotenuse. give you new rectangular X,jY coordinates. Put these on a triangle, and use
the Pythagoras Theorem to find the Hypotenuse (Volts) and SOH-CAH-TOA to
Rectangular - X, jY coordinates - When dealing with vectors in rectangular form, find your angle ( )
you are given the coordinates, which act as the Opposite and Adjacent sides of a
triangle. The "Y" coordinate should always be preceded with a "j" so you can tell Resultant Vector Opposite Adjacent
them apart. For example: the above would be 2,j3
18.54V @ 42.76 12.59 13.61
Converting - Polar to Rectangular - If you are given 60 Volts @ 25 you know that
you have a hypotenuse with a value of 60, and an angle of 25 . Calculator Buttons - You can also use your Sharp EL-520 to add vectors:
• Calculate X Coordinate - The 'X' coordinate is your adjacent. This can be • FIRST! Switch To complex Mode: [Mode] → [3]
found with (hypoteneuse) = 54.38 • [2nd F] → [8] → [First Vectors Magnitude] (8 Volts)
• [DMS] → [First Vectors Angle] (70 )
• Calculate Y Coordinate - The 'Y' coordinate is your opposite. This can be
found with (hypotenuses) = 27.99 • [+] (we now need to add the 2nd vector)
• [Second Vectors Magnitude] (12 Volts)
○ Our Rectangular Coordinates would be 54.38,j27.99 • [DMS] → [Second Vectors Angle] (25 )
• Calculator Buttons - You can also use your Sharp EL-520 to find it: • [=] Will display resultant vectors Volts (18.54)
○ [60] [2nd F] [STO] [25] [2nd F] [9] ='X' [2nd F] [ ] = 'Y' • [2nd F] → [ ] Will display the resultant vectors Angle (42.76)
• Remember! Switch back to normal mode: [Mode] → [0]

Trig and Vectors Page 62

Magnetism Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Magnets, how do they work?

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Overview
3 Definitions
4 B-H Graphs
5 Formulas
6 MMF
7 Flux/Reactance
8 Permeability
9 Flux Density
10 Magnetizing Force
11 AC Generation and Induction
12 Test Study Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Magnetism Page 63
Magnetism - Overview

Electrical Systems Tech - Chapter 4 Important Points - Summary

PDF available on Magnetism/AC Gen Day 1 1. Magnetism is used to produce electricity & electricity produces magnetism
Magnetism - Discovered 2000 years ago in mineral called magnetite (lode stone) 2. Transformers, relays, motors and generators all rely on magnetic properties
in Asia Minor near people known as the Magnetites. 3. Atoms of ferromagnetic materials combine by sharing their valence electron
Artificial Magnets - Can be made by stroking a piece of steel with a load stone or 4. A substance that has it's electrons aligned is said to be magnetized
other magnet. Soft irons can easily be magnetized but lose the magnetism 5. A magnet is a substance that has the property of attracting magnetic materials
quickly. Aka: "High Permeability, Low Reluctance"
Steel is the opposite. It is difficult to magnetize and does not lose it after. Aka: 6. Magnetism is imaginary lines called flux lines
"Lower Permeability, High Reluctance" 7. Magnets have north and south polarities. Magnetism is greatest at the poles
Permanent Magnets - Magnets that do not lose their charge such as Lodestone, 8. Flux lines travel from north to south externally, south to north internally.
Hard steel, alloys of Nickle and Cobalt. 9. The greater the concentration of flux lines, the stronger the magnetic field
Temporary Magnets - Magnets produced by electric current. Although they still 10. Residual magnetism is what remains after the magnetizing force is removed
retain a very small amount of residual magnetism which is important for AC 11. Permeability is the ability to conduct lines of flux
generation.
12. Reluctance is the opposition to magnetic flux
Modern Magnets - Classified by alloy used. 13. Retentivity is the ability to retain magnetism
Alnico - Aluminum (Al), Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) 14. Saturation occurs when all domains have been aligned
Cunife - Copper (Cu) Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe)
15. Electron flow through a conductor will produce a magnetic field around it
Bar Magnet - A magnetized straight bar of steel. 16. Left hand rule - Thumb is direction of current, fingers are magnetic direction
Poles - Named after the direction they point when the magnet is suspended. 17. Electromagnets are current carrying conductors wound around iron core
Ferromagnetic Substances - Materials that readily respond to magnetic fields - 18. Electromagnet strength is based on number of windings, and current
Iron, Steel, Nickel, Cobalt and Alloys such as Alnico & Cunife. 19. Magnetizing Force ( )=NxI
Paramagnetic Substances - Slightly ATTRACTED by strong magnetic fields - 20. Coil left hand rule - Thumb is north pole, fingers are direction of current.
Aluminium, Platinum, Chromium, Sodium and Oxygen. 21. Parallel conductors will attract when current flows in same direction
Diamagnetic Substances - Slightly REPELLED by strong magnetic fields - Bismuth, 22. Parallel conductors will repel when current flows in opposite direction
Copper, Zinc, Mercury, Silver, Gold, Glass and Water. 23. Flux density ( ) is number of flux lines based on Webers per Square Meter.
Nonmagnetic Substances - Cannot be magnetized - Wood, Rubber, Paper, Wax 24. Magnetic field intensity (H) is measured in ampere turns per meter.
and Plastics.
25. Hysteresis is the lag behind electrons aligning during magnetic direction swap
Permeability - Determines if a substance is magnetic or not.
Quantity Symbol Unit of Measure
Ferromagnetic 50 - 5000
Flux Weber ( )
Paramagnetic Slightly > 1
Flux Density Tesla (T) or Weber per Meter2 ( )
A vacuum 1
Reluctance Amp-Turns per Weber ( )
Diamagnetic Slightly < 1
Permeability Flux Density over Magnetizing Force ( )
Non-magnetic 0
Magnetizing Force Amp-Turns per Meter (
Ceramic Magnet - Non-metallic, ferromagnetic material with very high
permeability. Made from powdered metal oxides called ferrites.
Electrons and Magnetism - An electron that spins while it rotates in it's orbit
produces a magnetic field in concentric circles around itself. The polarity of field
is determined by which direction the electron spins.
• In non-magnetic materials an equal number of electrons are spinning in a
clockwise and counter-clockwise direction. This means their magnetic
fields cancel each-other out.
• In magnetic materials, the number of electrons spinning clockwise and
counter-clockwise are NOT equal, so the magnetic fields do not cancel
out. The uncancelled spinning electrons arrange themselves into groups
called domains. These domains can be aligned to magnetize the
material.
Magnetic Field - Composed of invisible lines of force called "Flux" that travel from
the North pole, to the South pole. These flux lines are strongest at the poles, and
weakest in the middle.
• Flux lines are continuous and form closed loops
• Flux lines have direction or polarity
• Flux lines never cross one another
• Flux lines follow the path of least resistance

Magnetism Page 64
Magnetism - Definitions Magnetism - Definitions
Magnetism Day 1 - Magnetic Terms and Formulas

Alloy - A combination of two or more elements (usually metallic) used to make

Delmars Unit 4 - Magnetism permanent magnets. E.g: Alnico - Iron, aluminum, nickel and cobalt.
Pages 86 through 102 Electromagnet - A temporary magnet made of a core and coil of wire that produces a
magnetic field only when current flows through the coil of wire. Solenoid, relay etc…
Magnetic Field - Not evenly distributed. It is much stronger at the ends
(poles) and weakest in the middle. Ferromagnetic - any material that can be magnetized

Earths Magnetism - Magnetic flux lines leave the Magnetic north pole (south) Flux Density - The quantity of magnetic flux lines per unit area. The unit of flux density
and enter the magnetic South pole (north). It's opposite, just like electrical is the "Telsa". One Tesla is one Weber per meter2.
currents, travels from negative to positive.
Hysteresis - The tendency for a magnetic field to lag behind the force creating it. Causes
• Magnetic North - The earths south pole
frictional heat called Hysteresis losses when polarities are reversed.
• Magnetic South - The earths north pole
Magnetic Flux - the invisible lines of force that exist within a magnetic circuit. They are
Clamp-on Ammeter - uses the magnetic field to measure amps. The more so small we count them in groups of 100,000,000 (100 million!) called "Weber"
current flows through a wire, the more magnetic flux.
Magnetic Screen / Shied - A substance used to divert magnetic lines from sensitive
Non-Ferrous Metals - Non magnetic metals, typically used for conductors ie: equipment by providing an easier path for them to travel through. E.g: Soft Iron.
Copper, Aluminum.
Magnetizing Force - The magnetomotive force applied per unit length of magnetic
Ferro-Magnetic Materials - Metals containing iron, which is magnetic. circuit. Sometimes called Magnetic Field Strength.

Current flowing in the same direction through multiple conductors ADDS, Permeability - a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux can be established within
Current flowing in the opposite direction through multiple conductors will a material. How easy it is to magnetize something.
cancel each-other out.
Reluctance - The opposition a material offers to the establishment of a magnetic flux.
Left hand rule - Equivalent to the resistance of an electrical circuit.
• Conductor - Your thumb represents the direction on current flow.
Residual Magnetism - The permanent magnetism retained by a material after the
The fingers point in the direction of flux.
magnetizing force is removed.
• Coil - Your thumb points to the north pole, your fingers represent
the direction of current. Coercive Force - Used to get rid of residual magnetism. The amount of current flowing
in the opposite direction that is required to remove the residual magnetism.
Domains - magnetic molecules in an object that can be aligned to create
magnetic regions. Saturation - condition where any further increase in magnetizing force does not produce
any appreciable increase in magnetic flux density for an electromagnet.
Demagnetizing - Three ways to demagnetize an object • Practical saturation - The law of diminishing returns. It will take too much
Pass it through an alternating, weakening magnetic field energy to align any more domains.
Striking it with force • Theoretical saturation - You've lined up all the domains, there are no more
Heating something to it's Curie Temperature (iron = 770 ) physical domains to align.

Magnetomotive Force Magnetizing Force Permeability

The "EMF" of magnetic circuits The MMF applied per unit length of core The ability for an object to be magnetized

• = Magnetomotive Force
• = Number of turns in the coil • = Magnetic Field Strength • = Permeability
• = Current in the coil • = Magnetomotive Force • = Flux Density
• = Length of the core, in meters • = Magnetic Field Strength
Result is in Ampere-Turns ( )
(amps per turn of coil!) Result is in Ampere-Turns per meter ( ) Result is in Webers per Ampere-turn meter ( )

Flux Flux Density Reluctance

The Ohms Law of Magnetism The quantity of flux lines per meter2 The opposition to magnetic flux

• = Weber (Wb) • = Flux Density • = Reluctance

• = Magnetomotive Force • = Weber (Wb) • = Magnetomotive Force
• = Reluctance • = Area which the force is being applied • = Weber (Wb)

Result is in Weber ( ) Result is in Tesla ( T ) Result is in Ampere-Turns per Weber ( )

1 weber = 108 lines of force. (100,000,000) aka: Webers per Meter2 ( )

Magnetism Page 65
Magnetism - B-H Graph

Magnetism / AC Gen - Day 3 Notes

Various slides on learning portal

B-H Graph - Refers to the relationship between Flux • Retentivity - The greater the distance between point
density ( ) in Tesla, and the magnetising force ( ) in C and F, the greater the retentivity. It keeps it's
amper-turns per meter to determine permeabiliy ( ). magnetism much better.
Permeability is not constant in ferrous materials. Typically • Coercive force - The points where the curve crosses
it decreases as flux increases (see - law of diminishing the horizontal axis. (point C and F)
returns). We can plot this on a B-H Graph. • Residual Magnetism - The points where the curve
• The knee - The point where the curves level out, crosses the vertical axis (point B and E)
and the material is practically "full" of flux lines.
This is called Saturation (point b) Eddy Currents - another form of loss - When flux
• Graph Shapes - Tall and narrow curves like that of flows through a thick piece of steel magnet, it can
soft iron, make good temporary magnets. Wide flat form eddy currents around impedance. The energy is
on top curves like that of hard steel, make good lost as heat. This is why we make magnets out of
permanent magnets due to their high retentivity. laminated steel.
• Hysteresis - The greater the distance between point Air Gap - Causes Fringing - You lose magnetism in an
C and F, the more hysteresis losses will occur when air-gap. Think of a clamp-on ammeter. If you don't
attempting to demagnetize or change the polarity close the jaws properly, the reading will be lower.
of the magnet. (I2R loss of magnetism) The thicker Leakage - Round cores have less leakage than square
the curve, the more energy is lost during cores.
demagnetization. This curve could be considered a
hysteresis curve.

Magnetism Page 66
Magnetism - Formulas

Quantity Symbol Unit of Measure

Magnetomotive Force Amp-Turns ( )

Current Amperes (A)

Flux Weber ( )

Flux Density Tesla (T) or Weber per Meter2 ( )

Reluctance Amp-Turns per Weber ( )

Permeability Flux Density over Magnetizing Force ( )

Magnetizing Force Amp-Turns per Meter (

Area In meters squared

Length In meters

Turns Number of turns on a coil

Magnetomotive Force Magnetizing Force Permeability

The "EMF" of magnetic circuits The MMF applied per unit length of core The ability for an object to be magnetized

• = Magnetomotive Force
• = Number of turns in the coil • = Magnetic Field Strength • = Permeability
• = Current in the coil • = Magnetomotive Force • = Flux Density
• = Length of the core, in meters • = Magnetic Field Strength
Result is in Ampere-Turns ( )
(amps per turn of coil!) Result is in Ampere-Turns per meter ( ) Result is in Webers per Ampere-turn meter ( )

Flux Flux Density Reluctance

The Ohms Law of Magnetism The quantity of flux lines per meter2 The opposition to magnetic flux

• = Weber (Wb) • = Flux Density • = Reluctance

• = Magnetomotive Force • = Weber (Wb) • = Magnetomotive Force
• = Reluctance • = Area which the force is being applied • = Weber (Wb)

Result is in Weber ( ) Result is in Tesla ( T ) Result is in Ampere-Turns per Weber ( )

1 weber = 108 lines of force. (100,000,000) aka: Webers per Meter2 ( )

Magnetism Page 67
Magnetism - MMF
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/NyvHuv-9QnU

Magnetomotive Force (MMF) Can be thought of as the Voltage of electro-magnetic fields. It is calculated by multiplying the
number of turns on an electromagnet, but the current flowing through it Results are in Amps per Turn of Coil, or Amp-Turns.

Magnetomotive Force Example Diagram

Use this diagram for the below examples

Therefore:

• = Magnetomotive Force
• = Number of turns in the coil
• = Current in the coil
Result is in Ampere-Turns ( )
(amps per turn of coil!)

Example 1 - Solve for Magnetomotive Force

A coil with 3 turns has a current of 10 amps flowing through it. What is the MMF?

Example 2 - Solve for Current

A coil with 200 turns has an MMF of 960A t flowing through it. What is the Current?

Example 3 - Solve for number of turns

A coil with an MMF of 1480A t and a current of 8A must have how many Turns?

Turns

Magnetism Page 68
Magnetism - Flux / Reluctance
VIDEO LINK
Flux: https://youtu.be/OJWB-BBvhiY
Reluctance: https://youtu.be/1jb3ggUY3f8

Flux ( ) are the invisible lines of force in a magnetic circuit It can be thought of as the "Current" of a magnetic circuit.
Flux lines are so small we count them in groups of 100,000,000 (108) called "Weber" (Wb). In other words 1 weber = 108 lines
of force. (100,000,000 or 10 million). To get Webers, you simply divide the MMF by the Reluctance.
Reluctance - Is the opposition to the setting up of flux lines. Resistance is the electrical equivalent.

Flux/Reluctance Calculation Example Diagram

Use this diagram for the below examples

Therefore:

• (phi) = Weber (Wb)

• = Magnetomotive Force
• = Reluctance
Flux - Result is in Weber ( )
Reluctance - Result in Amp-turns per
Weber ( )

Example 1 - Solve for Flux

A coil with 3000 A t has a reluctance of 350 A t/Wb. How many Webers of Magnetic Flux does it have?

Example 2 - Solve for Magnetomotive Force

An iron core with a reluctance of 350 A t/Wb has a magnetic flux of 18 . What is the MMF through the coil?

Example 3 - Solve for Reluctance

A coil has an MMF of 1600A t and an magnetic flux of 32 . How much Reluctance does it have?

Magnetism Page 69
Magnetism - Permeability
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/Q8LR6uuVe3U

Permeability ( ) is the measure of the ease with which magnetic flux can be established within a material. In other
words, how easy it is to magnetize something. The results are in Webers per Amp-turn Meter.

Permeability Calculation Example Diagram

Use this diagram for the below examples

Therefore:

• = Permeability
• = Flux Density
• = Magnetic Field Strength
Result is in Webers per Amp-turn
meter ( )

Example 1 - Solve for Permeability

A coil producing 18.6 Tesla of flux has a magnetizing force of 2.5 A t/m. What is the Permiability of the core?

tm

Example 2 - Solve for Flux Density

A core has a permeability of 18.6 Wb/A t m the coil has a magnetizing force of 32 A t/m. How much Tesla is generated?

Example 3 - Solve for Magnetizing Force

A core has a permeability of 12.5 Wb/A t m and 375 Tesla of flux. What is the Magnetizing Force?

Magnetism Page 70
Magnetism - Flux Density
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/Q8LR6uuVe3U

Flux Density (T or Tesla) is the quantity of magnetic flux lines per unit area. The unit of flux density is the "Telsa". One Tesla is
one Weber per meter squared. Or, 100,000,000 Flux lines per Meter2.

Example Diagram
Use this diagram for the below examples
Flux Density Calculation

Therefore:

• = Flux Density
• = Weber (Wb)
• = m2Area the force is being applied
Result is in Tesla ( T )
aka: Webers per Meter2 ( )

Example 1 - Solve for Flux Density

A coil producing 120Wb of flux of an area of 3.5 . What is the flux density of the magnetic circit?

Example 2 - Solve for Weber

A magnetic circuit producing 36 is covering an area of 5.25 . How much Flux is generated?

Example 3 - Solve for Area - Don't know if this is worded right…

A magnetic circuit produces 375 Tesla at 1500Wb. What is the area of coverage?

Magnetism Page 71
Magnetism - Magnetizing Force
VIDEO LINK
https://youtu.be/W4nHYNPTfHM

Magnetizing Force (T or Tesla) is the magnetomotive force applied per unit length (in meters) of magnetic circuit. Sometimes
called Magnetic Field Strength.

Magnetizing Force Calculation Example Diagram

Use this diagram for the below examples

Therefore:

• = Magnetic Field Strength

• = Magnetomotive Force
• = Length of the core, in meters
Result is in Ampere-Turns per meter
( )

Example 1 - Magnetizing Force

A core that is 2 meters long has a magnetomotive force of 600 , what is the flux density of this magnetic circuit?

Example 2 - Solve for Magnetomotive Force

A core that is 3.2 meters long has a Flux Density of 28 , what is the magnetomotive force of this circuit?

Example 3 - Solve for length of core

A magnetic circuit produces 840 of force and has a flux density of 32 . What is the Length of the core?

Magnetism Page 72
AC Gen - Induction Delmars Unit 15 - Alternating Current
Pages 367 through 383
Advantages of AC - The biggest advantage to AC over DC, is the fact that AC can be
transformed, while DC cannot. Transformers allow voltage to be stepped up or down,
Delmars Unit 13 - Magnetic Induction reducing current, conductor size, heat loss, etc.
AC Waveforms - Because AC reverse direction, it must have a waveform
Pages 327 through 347
• Square wave - An instant change between positive and negative polarity
Magnetic Induction - One of the most important concepts of electricity. • Triangle wave - When voltage rises and falls at a constant rate
Generators, alternators, motors and transformers use this principal.
• Sine Waves - The most common - produced by all rotating machines, has a
• Electricity - Whenever current flows through a conductor, a magnetic gradual cycle. Named because the voltage at any point along the waveform is
field is created around the conductor equal to the maximum or peak value times the Sine of the angle of rotation. The
• Magnetism - Whenever a conductor cuts through magnetic lines of highest voltage is reached when the armature is cutting the most flux lines at
flux, a voltage is induced on that conductor the center of the magnet.
Polarity - The Polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the polarity of
the magnetic field in relation to the direction of movement.
Induction - The three factors concerning electromagnetic induction are:
• The Conductor, The Magnetic field, The Relative Motion
How much Voltage - The 3 factors that determine the induced voltage are:
• Wire Turns - The more turns, the more flux lines you cut
• Flux Density - In order to induce 1 volt, the conductor must cut 1Wb of
magnetic flux (100,000,000 flux lines) in 1 second
• Speed - The faster you turn, the more flux lines you cut per second.
Lenz's Law - An induced voltage or current opposes the motion that causes it. Sine Wave Values - Several measurements of voltage and current are important
• Peak to Peak - The measurement from the maximum value in the positive
Inductors and Current - When an Inductor is switched on, it's magnetic field
direction to the maximum value in the negative direction
induces an inverse current onto it's conductors which pushes against the
oncoming current, causing a slow rise to full current. This induced voltage is • Peak Value - AKA: Amplitude - Measured from zero to the highest value in either
proportional to the rate of change of current the positive or negative direction. (half of peak to peak value)
• RMS Value - Root Means Square (Effective Value) - The DC power equivalent
Inductance - henry (H) - A coil has an inductance of 1 henry when a current
supplied by an AC circuit, also the instantaneous value at 45 of it's cycle.
change of 1 ampere per second results in an induced voltage of 1 volt.
or
Inductance is determined by the physical construction of the coil.
( • Average Value - Measured by rectifying AC voltage into DC, and measuring the
• Number of turns of wire average voltage supplied between the "bumps" or
• How close the turns are to each-other
• Permeability of the core material ○ Example 1 - Average voltage is 150 - what is effective?
• Cross Sectional Area (CSA) of the core Material 150v / .637 = 235.5v peak x .707 = 0.707 166.5v effective
• Length of the core material • Instantaneous Value - A voltage or current measurement at any single angle in
the rotation or point on the Waveform.
R-L Time Constraint - The time it takes for current in an inductor to reach it's
full Ohm's law value. Time = Inductance (in Henrys) Resistance (in Ω) • Peak Power - Peak power or wattage is your peak voltage multipled by your
peak current.
Voltage Spike - When power is cut to an inductor, the collapsing magnetic field • Average Power - Average power is the peak power multiplied by 0.5
induces a reverse voltage onto the circuit. A diode placed backwards between
the positive and negative leads allows this voltage to loop and bleed off Resistive Loads - AC can have Resistive, Inductive or Capacitive loads depending on the
between the diode and inductor, and not affect other components. phase-angle of the voltage and current, and the amount of true power produced. AC
• DC Circuits - Often called a "Flyback Diode" - Flyback is the term used Resistive loads are loads that contain pure resistance such as electric heating equipment
for the voltage spike caused by an inductor. and incandescent lighting. They are characterized by the fact that they produce heat,
and the current and voltage are in phase with each-other.
• AC / DC Circuits - Use a Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV). Like a diode, but
works in two directions, allowing it to be used on AC circuits. It's like a True power - True power, or watts, can only be produced when both current and voltage
pressure relief valve that only activates when it detects a voltage spike. are either positive or negative. - When like signs are multiplied the product is positive,
when unlike signs are multiplied the product is negative. Because the current and
Flemings Left-Hand Generator Rule - The forefinger (index finger) points in the
voltage are both either positive or negative at the same time, the product, watts, is
direction of the field flux, the thumb points in the direction of thrust, the
always positive.
center (middle) finger points in the direction of the current induced into the
armature. Skin Effect - When current flows through a conductor connected to a source of DC,
electrons flow through the entire conductor. Eddy currents in AC conductors cause most
of the electron flow to be pushed outward, so most of the flow is on the outside or
THumb THrust
"skin" of the conductor which increases the overall resistance of the conductor. This is
Forefinger Flux of greater concern with higher frequencies, and is not taken into account for our power
frequency of 60Hz. High frequency circuits employ a conductor with greater surface
Center finger Current
area, such as a flat copper tape or braided (multi-stranded) wire to over come this.

Calculate Frequency Cycle Time Effective Average (E I) Instantaneous Value (E I) Power Values (P)
∠
∠
• F = frequency (cycles/sec) • T = Time (sec.) • = RMS Current or Voltage • = Angle Voltage or Current • = Max/Peak Power
• P = Poles (poles are pairs!) • F = Frequency • = Average Current or Voltage • = Max/Peak Voltage or Current • = Average Power
• N = Turns • = Max / Peak Current or Voltage • ∠ = sin of the given angle • = Max / Peak Volt/Curr.

Magnetism Page 73
Magnetism - Test Study Sheet Trigonometry - Pythagoras Theorem

Therefore:

Magnetism - Formulas

Trigonometry - SOHCAHTOA

Quantity Symbol Unit of Measure

Magnetomotive Force Amp-Turns ( )

Current Amperes (A)

Flux Weber ( ) (1Wb = 108 lines of flux)

Flux Density Tesla (T) or Weber per Meter2 ( )

Reluctance Amp-Turns per Weber ( )

Permeability Weber per Amp-Turn Meter ( )

Opposite Adjacent Hypotenuse
Magnetizing Force Amp-Turns per Meter (

Area In meters squared

Length In meters

Turns Number of turns on a coil

Vocab - Important words to remember - Mag day 5 - 2 AC Principles Pg. 35 Remember - a few points
• A/C - Alternating current periodically changes in both magnitude and direction
One "alternation" = HALF a cycle (sin wave) -
• Cycle - The distance from one point on a waveform to where it starts to repeat itself (1 bump up, 1 bump down) when asked to do math based on an alternation
• Period - The time it takes (in seconds) to complete one cycle (1 bump up, 1 bump down) value, remember that an alternation is only
• Frequency - The number of complete cycles in one second ( Multiple pole pairs = multiple cycles per rotation!) HALF of the sin wave. If you're finding freq. (Hz),
• Amplitude - The maximum height of the waveform above or be low the 0 axis. "volume" of the wave. you need to double the time value you're given
for the "alternation" to get a full cycle (then
• Alternation - Half of a cycle - one cycle of the sinewave contains TWO alterations, each "bump" is an alteration.
divide 1 by that number to get Hz!)
• Left-Hand Rule for Coils - Thumb points toward north, fingers are direction of current
• Left-Hand Rule for Conductors - Thumb points toward current flow, fingers are direction of magnetic flux You can't AVERAGE a FULL sin wave - if a
question asks you for the average value of a sine
wave voltage, the answer is ZERO because the
Voltage and Current - Replace any "E" with an "I" to calculate current! two halves of a sin wave cancel each-other out.
You can however, average one "alternation"
RMS / Effective (AC) Average (DC) Instantaneous (half) of a sin wave.
(Bogdan says this won't be on the test…)
∠ Peak-To-Peak cannot be measured with a DC
• = RMS Voltage • = Average Voltage • = Instantanious Voltage meter! - It is strictly an AC waveform (Sin wave)
• = Max / Peak Voltage • = Max / Peak Voltage • = Max/Peak Voltage function, so a DC meter would read ZERO!
• To convert the other way, divide! • To convert the other way, divide! • ∠ = sin of the given angle One Period (cycle) - time to complete a full
• To convert the other way, divide! waveform in seconds. (Hz = 1 (sec) / period time)
Frequency (Hz) - number of cycles in a second.
Power and Frequency - Pay close attention to the vocab with Frequency/Cycle!
e=blv (flux, conductor length, velocity) - Used
to identify factors affecting voltage generated.
Peak Power (W) Average Power (W) Frequency (Hz) Cycle Time Note - Just because you increase the frequency,
doesn't mean you increase the voltage.
Wiggy - Solenoid and plunger tester (old school,
contact required tic tester. (Solenoid and
plunger tester)
Paired Poles - Multiply given poles by 2 if
question says "paired poles"

• = Max/Peak Power • = Max/Peak Power • Hz = frequency • T = Time (in seconds) Hysteresis - Lag of flux behind voltage, causes
• = Max / Peak Voltage • = Average Power • P = Poles (watch for pairs!) • Hz = Frequency power loss.
• = Max / Peak Current • = Turns (in RPM)

Magnetism Page 74
Three-Phase Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Overview and Phasors
3 Wye and Delta
4 Delta Current Flow Example
5 3-Phase Problem Model
6 Wye and Delta Connections
7 Power Factor Correction and Capacitors
8 Power Factor Example Questions
9 4-Wire Neutral Currents
10 Unbalanced Delta Load
11 Effects of Fault Conditions
12 Wattmeters and Protection
13 Mixed Load Calculations
14 Test Study Sheet

!!! STUDY THIS SECTION BEFORE YOUR 3RD YEAR BEGINS IF YOU CAN !!!
3rd year comes out swinging with this package and you don't have long to learn it. Lots of people fail the first two tests
(Three-Phase and Three-Phase Transformers) and then are stuck playing catch-up for the rest of the term.
I did the worst on 3-Phase than any other test I did at BCIT.

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Three Phase Page 75

 BCIT Instructor James Doyle made a FANTASTIC set of videos you should watch to
3Φ - Overview / Phasors really get a fundamental understanding of how three-phase works, I've peppered
them throughout the pages, or you can watch them all here:

VIDEO PLAYLIST LINK

ITA Binder - Three-Phase Characteristics
Section A5 - Pages 8 through 12 BCIT - 3-Phase Video Playlist
Polyphase Systems - Any system that has two or more phases. Three-Phase
systems are the most common Polyphase system.
Advantages - Four key advantages of three phase over single phase are ITA Binder - Phasors
• Machines have 1.5x kVA rating for single phase of same frame size Section A5 - Pages 12 through 17
• Distribution requires only 3/4 as much copper for the same energy
• 3 Sine Waves means more constant power to a machine Phasors - Rotating vectors used to represent Sinusoidal Voltage and Current
• Motors do not require a starting winding quantities that vary with time. Think: Trig and Vectors from Year 2, but for 3 phase.
Watch a video example here: No 1 3P ADVNTGS Phasor Conventions - Take these into consideration when working with phasors
• Length of phasor most often represents effective value of sine wave
Generating Three-Phase - If you take a simple single-phase generator and add two
• Math is done the same way as with Vectors (See: Trig and Vectors)
more stationary armature winding pairs at 120 apart, you will get three separate
• Phasors rotate in counter-clockwise from zero degrees at 3'oclock
sine waves out of the generator. (Aa / Bb / Cc )
• The Positive CCW phasor on a diagram is said to "lead" the Reference
Watch a video example here: No 2 GENERATE 3PHASE • The Negative CW phasor on a diagram is said to "lag" the Reference
• Phasors sharing a diagram must have same frequency
• A diagram represents a snapshot of phasors "frozen in time"
• Placing one of the phasors on the 0 degree axis makes adding them easier.
• In series circuits current is the same, so that should be the reference axis
• In parallel circuits voltage is the same, so that should be the reference axis
• In 3 phase circuits, phase A (Red) should be the reference phasor
• Similar waveforms sharing a diagram should be drawn to the same scale
• Dissimilar waveforms sharing a diagram will have different scales
• Open Arrowhead = Voltage Phasor - Closed Arrowhead = Current Phasor

A Three Phase Alternator

In the below diagram you can see how, as the rotor moves by each phase, it peaks
as the south pole crosses directly in front of the capital letter winding.

Diagram Subscripts - When reading diagram, current and voltage subscript order
matters! This determines the direction of current/voltage and therefore if a phasor
is positive or negative.
It's the same concept as CC 1,2 and 3 from Years 1 and 2. In 3 phase sources
electricity is flowing from pos to neg, in loads it drops from neg to pos.
• Across a source - The first subscript is more positive
• Across a load - The first subscript is more negative

A Phase - Red | B Phase - Blue | C Phase - Green

Colours for distinguishing only - actual CEC Colour Code is below

Phase Sequence - The order in which the three phases reach their positive peaks.
They are either A-B-C or C-B-A and can be reversed by one of two methods:
• Change the direction of the prime mover (hard!)
• Interchange any two line leads
Watch a video example here: No 3 PHASE ROTATION
Colour Coding - The Canadian Electrical Code [ 4-032 (3) (c) ] requires that the
three phases be identified by the following colour code:
PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C NEUTRAL
Remember - Electromotive Force (EMF) is assumed to be a voltage rise, and
RED BLACK BLUE WHITE or GREY
Potential Difference (PD) is assumed to be a voltage drop!

Three Phase Page 76

 Line-to-Line Math - In a Wye system, the line voltage is higher than the phase voltage
3Φ - Wye (Y) & Delta ( ) by a factor of the square root of 3 (1.732), but the current is the same.
Eg:

ITA Binder - Learning Task 2 In a Delta system, the line current his higher than the phase current by a factor of the
square root of 3 (1.732), but the voltage is the same.
Section A5 - Pages 12 through 17
Eg:
Winding Connections - There are two different connection methods we use to
connect our three phases. Those are Wye / Star (Y) and Delta ( ). Wye - Calculations Summary
• Wye (Y) - If you tie the three lowercase letters (abc) together in a star
point, you can use this as your Neutral point. Using this neutral and a
lead from the capital letter end of each winding, you have your three
phases and a neutral. (A, B, C and N). This is sometimes also called a
Star configuration. Delta - Calculations Summary
○ Watch a video example here: No 4 3P WYE CONNECTION
• Delta ( ) - If you connect [ b → A ] - [ c → B ] - [ a → C ] - this forms a
complete armature loop, a line attached to each of these junctions is
brought out of the casement to give you your three phases (A, B and C)
○ Watch a video example here: No 5 3P DELTA CONNECTION Three-Phase Apparent Power - Two different formulas can be used to calculate the
Apparent Power in VA (Volt Amps), which you use will depend if you're given Line
information or Phase information.

Apparent Power (VA) - Calculation

Or

Wye / Star (Y) Configuration Delta ( ) Configuration Balanced Three-Phase Watts - Two different formulas can be used to calculate the
Watts in W (Watts) in a balanced 3-phase system. This works for both and Y,
Grounding Wye Star Point - The neutral must be grounded for various reasons because of ohms law! One has high current and low voltage, the other the opposite!
• It reduces transient overvoltage caused by induction and arc faults Note - If you need a refresh on PF - check out the RLC - Power Factor page
○ Also increases lifespan of insulation and equipment
• Lightning Protection - low impedance path to ground Power (W) - Calculation
• Ground faults easier to find - they trip fuses immediately
• Protection trips faster - low impedance ground path allows more current
• Ground faults limited to phase voltage, not line voltage
or
Grounding in a Delta - Because a Delta system is not grounded, if a single phase
shorts to ground, it will not trip protection. TWO phases must develop shorts to
ground before this happens. Because of this, the CEC requires a ground PF = Power Factor ( ) - The angle between Phase Voltage & Current
detection device such as 3 lights connected between each phase and ground, Remember: In a purely resistive load, PF = 1
which will extinguish when a ground fault is present. The grounded phase must
have a higher voltage - this is required to be the A phase. Why Root 3? Watch a video example here: No 6 WHY ROOT 3
Watch a video explanation here: No 21 GFDS UNGROUNDED DELTA
Balanced Load - When all three phases have an equal impedance. Loads can become
Phase Voltages - Each coil will have the same voltage drop across it, but they will unbalanced during fault condition or by addition of a single phase load.
be in different phases, .
Calculating Resistance - Sometimes you'll be asked to calculate individual resistances
Line-To-Line Voltage an Current - Voltage and Current act differently depending from Ohm Meter Readings, how you do it depends on the configuration.
on which configuration you're using: • Wye Resistance - When measuring resistance across Wye connected lines,
• Wye - Line Voltage HIGHER than phase / Line Current SAME as phase you will be going through two legs worth of resistance connected in series.
• Delta - Line Voltage SAME as phase / Line Current HIGHER than phase You simply add the two phases resistances together.
• Delta Resistance - Delta current has two paths. One directly through a single
Phase Currents in Wye - Because the line voltages are shifted 30 degrees when coil, and another through the two other coils connected in series. Now you'll
added together on a Wye configuration, but the line current stays the same, the need to pull out Circuit Concepts 1 math to add it up!
current is out of phase with the voltage by 30 . ○ If you're working backwards on delta use
Watch a video example here: No 7 WYE VECTORS
Currents in a Delta - Because there is no neutral conductor, the sum of the three
currents in a delta connected system must equal zero.

Measure Wye - Example Measure Delta - Re-draw it like below!

True Phase Angles Re-drawn for Ease of Reading

On an XY graph, the 3 phases would be Here's the same image re-drawn so Step 1 - Re-draw it! Step 2 - Add Series Step 3 - Add Parallel
120 apart, but the Line voltage values it's easier to read, you don't however This helps visualize it easier 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω
would be shifted 30 as pictured above, get to see the phase shift between
but current stays the same! the voltage and current Working backwards the above would be
*Thanks to @ThePleaser#6816 for providing the backwards formula!

Three Phase Page 77

3Φ - Delta Current Flow Example

Three Phase Page 78

3Φ - 3 Phase Problem Model
3 Phase - Easy Problem Solving Method
When it comes to solving three-phase problems, there is a simple system you can employ to help guide you through all of the equations you'll need to solve for any of the
Voltages, Currents or Power numbers on a circuit. Instructor James Doyle shares this method in a video (linked below).
Essentially, you can draw out a source, lines and a load according to your problem. Remember that Source determines Voltage,Load determines Current.
• Start at the source and work your way to the load solving for Voltage.
• Then, start at the load and work your way back to the source solving for current.
• Now you have all the information you need to solve for Power using any of the Source, Line or Load values.
Remember, you can jump in anywhere on the step list depending on your starting information.

Watch a video example here: No 10 3P PROBLEM MODEL

Step 1 - Phase Voltage Step 2 - Line Voltage Step 3 - Load Voltage

Start at the Source and find your Phase Voltage → Calculate Line Voltage based on Y or ∆ Source → Calculate voltage drop over each load

or or or
↓
Step 6 - Phase Current Step 5 - Line Current Step 4 - Load Current
Calculate Line Current based on Y or ∆ Load ← Calculate Line Current based on Y or ∆ Load ← Calculate Current flowing through each load

↓ or or or

Step 7 - Total Power

Calculate Total kVA from Source → Step 8 - Power Double-Check
Calculate Total kVA from Source → Step 9 - Power Triple-Check
Calculate Total kVA from Source

PEIR Tables - When solving one of these questions I really like to use a P-E-I-R table (some people use W-I-R-E) to keep my information organized. It's a great way to solve
problems that use Ohms or the Power Law. Once you have two values in a column you can solve for any of the other values. Just remember when it comes to three-phase
power you'll have to involve either or depending on the circuit configuration.

Source Line Load Pro Tip: If you're bad with Ohms Law and the Power
Law, don't fret. Just draw these two things up, and
P Step 7 Step 8 Step 9
cover the letter you want to solve for →
E Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
I Step 6 Step 5 Step 4 You should also remember this in case you're only
given Power and Resistance →
R N/A N/A Step 4

P-E-I-R Table Helpful Advice

An example table showing you which steps solves for each value If you're bad at math like me, and not already doing this, give it a try.

Three Phase Page 79

3Φ - Y / Calculations
Source and Load - Formula sheet
Calculations - Your Wattage, Voltage and Current values will change based on
both the alternator and the load configuration. Here's a summary of equations
Remember - When dealing with mixed Wye-Delta circuits, sources determine line
Wye - Calculations* Delta - Calculations*
Voltage, Loads determine line Current!
Watch a video example here: No 9 SOURCES and LOADS
How to use P-E-I-R Tables with 3-Phase - Any time I deal with a three-phase
circuit I draw a PEIR table with a column for every item you can calculate current,
voltage, power or resistance for. Then, I fill in any of the cells with information
the question gives, and using either basic Ohms and Power law in a single
column, or the formulas listed below, I fill everything else out in the table.
Once the whole table is filled, you should be able to answer almost any question, • = • =
unless it involves a Power Triangle, but that's easy to add on after. • = Line Voltage • = Line Current
• = Phase Voltage • = Phase Current
You'll notice the equations say either "Ph" for Phase or "Ln" for Line, but there
• = Square Root of 3 or 1.732 • = Square Root of 3 or 1.732
are source phases and load phases! Don't worry, if you're working in the
"Source" and you need to reference a Phase value, it's talking about the phase * Thanks @Trystan#8815 for pointing this out!
value in the source. If you're working in the Load, it wants the load Phase value.

Y Source - Y Load ∆ Source - ∆ Load

Y Source Line Y Load Source Line Load

P P

E E

I I

R N/A N/A R N/A N/A

Y Source - ∆ Load ∆ Source - Y Load

Y Source Line Load Source Line Y Load

P P

E E

I I

R N/A N/A R N/A N/A

Remember - It might seem like there's lots going on here but there isn't. For one thing, your POWER equations never change, which is nice. The other thing to remember
is that in Wye connected devices the Phases are in SERIES with the line, where as in Delta connected devices the Phases are parallel with the lines. I like to pretend the
Phases are my volt-meter leads. On a 600V system if you were to touch your volt meter on either side of a Wye Phase you would be touching the Neutral with 1 lead, and
a single hot with the other so you would read 347V, if you did that to a Delta Phase, you would be touching two lines at the same time and get the full 600V.

Three Phase Page 80

3Φ - PF Correction & Caps
ITA Binder - Learning Task 8 Capacitor Installation Location - There are 4 main locations to install capacitors
Section A5 - Pages 75 through 83 ⚫ A - After the OLR - Most efficient, turns on and off with motor but OLR must
be sized accordingly as less current will be traveling through it.
Power Factor - Just as in Single-Phase AC circuits, Power Factor is the ratio of
⚫ B - After the Contactor - Still turns on and off with motor, but no need to
true power to apparent power. We use the symbol (theta) to represent it.
de-rate the OLR. Preferred method by switchgear/MCC manufacturers.
Balanced system calculations - Total power is equal to the sum of the power
⚫ C - Before the Contactor - Recommended for jogging / plugging / reversing
generated in all three loads. In balanced systems, each load generates the same
motors, not turned on and off with the motor.
power, so you can just multiply a single load by 3 to get the total power output.
⚫ D - On the main feeder - Used for large capacitor banks that will correct the
Low Power Factor Loads - Typically induction motors and ballast-type lighting, entire buildings power. Cheaper, but can cause over-correction.
kVARs are drawn and create a magnetic field instead of powering the device.
This Lagging power factor can be corrected by connecting capacitors in parallel
with the load. Capacitors have a leading power factor. Remember - Capacitors
do not draw wattage as they have negligible resistance.
Unity Power Factor - Achieved when leading kVAR equal to lagging kVAR,
however loads are typically only corrected to about 90%.
Watch a video example here: No 25 PF CORRECTION
How to Correct Power Factor - There are three basic methods typically used
1) Individual Capacitor units - Installed at each inductive load
+ Turns on and off with the load
+ Lower Line Losses caused by far-away capacitors
- High installation costs due to extra labour and materials
2) Large Bank of Capacitors - Installed at central distribution point
+ Lower upfront cost - more economical
- Requires switching of capacitors based on load requirements
3) Combination of 1 & 2 - individual capacitors will be installed at larger Discharge Resistors - Certain capacitors can store a charge for a considerable time
motors, and banks will be used to balance other loads. after power is removed, so some manufacturers place discharge or bleeder resistors
Capacitor Construction - Capacitors for three-phase come in two-ish flavors across the terminals of the capacitor to allow the charges to drain after use.
• Single Phase Capacitors - You can put 3 single-phase capacitors onto a 3- Capacitor Safety - There are a few things to remember when it comes to safety:
phase system, one for each line, but they will be larger than their 3- • They require adequate ventilation and an ambient temperature >40
phase counterparts for the same kVAR rating.
• Never operate beyond nameplate voltage and/or frequency rating
• Three Phase - pre-constructed and wired in either Wye or Delta, they
are much smaller than using individual Single Phase capacitors. • Do not over-size capacitors or exceed unity as motor damage can occur.
○ Wye connected capacitors - Used for higher voltage • Refer to manufacturers data for proper installation and use of capacitors
applications to reduce the phase-insulation requirements. • The CEC requires capacitor disconnects on feeder or branch circuits have a
○ Delta connected Capacitors - Used for high current applications warning notice such as:
to reduce the phase-capacity ratings.
WARNING - CAPACITOR CIRCUIT
Wait 5 minutes after opening, then
short capacitors before handling
Capacitor Ratings - Can be custom made, but standard sizes available range from
2kVAR to 100kVAR at voltages of 208V, 240V, 480V and 600V.
Nameplate Information - Includes Manufacturers name, kVAR rating, single or three
phase RMS Voltage rating and the Frequency rating. The current rating is not
typically included, you will have to calculate it so you can size protection
Calculating Amperage Ratings - It's easy to calculate amperage ratings for capacitor
banks, we just transpose our VAR formula from to:
A Wye Connected Capacitor Bank A Delta Connected Capacitor Bank
Note - If you need help transposing equations (I did!) check out page 37 of my Year 1/2 Notes.

Changing Capacitor Configuration - Sometimes you'll be asked questions about Capacitor Current Rating - Calculation
what happens to a particular capacitor if you were to change from a Wye to a
Delta connection or vice-versa. Here's an example P-E-I-R table:

Line ∆ CAP Y CAP

Example - What's the rated current for a 10kVAR, 480V 60Hz Capacitor?
P 30,000 VAR 10,034 VAR
E 600 V 600 V 347 V → → → 12 A
I 16.67 A 9.638 Now we can use this power triangle to correct Power Factor… on the next page.
R 36 Ω 36 Ω

Just as with solving load problems - the Reactance (Ω) does not change, so that's
what gets copied over to the new configuration. When you expand your math
using Ohms/Power Law using the different voltage, you'll find the change in
voltage leads to a change in current which in turn changes the VARs by a factor
of 3, just like with standard loads!

Three Phase Page 82

 Calculating Currents - You will often also be asked for the line current
3Φ - PF Example Questions before and after a Power Factor change. There are a few ways to calculate
this depending on what information is readily available

Solving for Power Factor Correction - Example

Line Current - Calculations Summary
Calculating PF Correction Capacitors - We use power triangles, just as we do with
single phase to size our PF correction capacitors on three phase. The difference is or
that you must use formulas that deal with the line and phase value relationships.
To size a capacitor you must use a power triangle!
Example Question - Calculate Line Currents
" Calculate the line currents for the previous question for
both before and after the Power Factor correction "

• Before Correction - We have enough information to use either of

the above equations. However, if we hadn't already calculated the
apparent power, the first equation would be easiest to use.

→ → →
The Power Triangle - It's baaaaack!
or
Example Question - Creating a Power Triangle
→ → →
" Make a power triangle for a 75kW 480V three phase motor with a PF of 80% "
• After Correction - Using either of the same formulas, we can
• Step 1 - We have Watts and PF, so we can calculate our kVA - Remember,
PF is used as , it sounds fancy but it's just your PF as a decimal calculate the line current after PF is corrected to 90%. Once again,
the first formula is much easier, because you don't need the VA, you
can do this using the wattage, which never changes.
→ → 93,750 VA

• Step 2 - Now we have our Adjacent (W), and our Hypotenuse (VA) so we → → →
can use our buddy Pythagorean Theorem to figure out Opposite (VAR)!
or
→ → 56,250 VAR
→ → →

• Step 3 - We can figure out our angle theta ( ) using SOH-CAH-TOA,

ooooor we could just use the power factor and a calculator. Your choice… Capacitor Current - Although we did it on the previous page, we might as
well calculate what kind of line current the capacitor in this question would
Sharp EL-520XT: [2nd F] [COS] → [0.8] → [=] have to handle using the formula below:

Capacitor Current Rating - Calculation

Example Question - Calculate Capacitor Current

" Calculate the rated current for the 20kVAR, 480V 60Hz capacitor "
Example Question - Correcting Power Factor
" What size capacitor in kVAR would correct the above motor to 90% PF " → → →

• Step 1 - Good news, the wattage stays the same, the only value that
changes is the VA and VAR, we just need to draw another power triangle " If the above Capacitor is connected in delta, how many kVAR would
with our new Power Factor. it be able to produce when hooked up in Wye"

→ → 83,333 VA Get Delta Resistance - Divide your Delta VAR by your voltage and 3 to get
phase current, then divide your voltage by your current to get Reactance
• Step 2 - Use Pythagorean Theorem to figure out VAR Once you have the Capacitive Reactance, you can divide your Wye voltage
by that number, and build back up to Power.
→ → 36,324 VAR Here's an example P-E-I-R table:

• Step 3 - Now we know what the VAR will be once the PF capacitor is Delta Cap Wye Cap
installed, so if you subtract this new VAR number from the old VAR
number we got above, you'll know how many VAR the capacitor is P 20,000 var 6,656 VAR
E 480 V 277 V
I 13.889 A 8.01 A
R 34.56 Ω 34.56 Ω

You'll notice that just like everything Delta to Wye or Wye to Delta, the
difference is that a Wye circuit will generate about 1/3 the power of Delta.

Three Phase Page 83

 Complex Mode - Finally, you can add all of the vectors together using complex
3Φ - 4 Wire Neutral Currents mode on your calculator. There's lots of steps, but it's mostly repetition.
• Step 1 - Switch your calculator to COMPLEX mode [MODE] → [3]
ITA Binder - Learning Task 5
Section A5 - Pages 49 through 53
Wye Neutral Wire - There are two advantages having a neutral wire (also • Step 2 - Enter POLAR COORDINATE mode [2nd F] → [8] - you will see the
sometimes called an Anchor, because it anchors your phase angles!): symbol ' ' appear in the top left-hand side of the screen
1) Can also power single phase loads between L1 , L2 or L3 and Neutral.
The Neutral conductor carries current imbalance back to the source.
2) The Neutral can be used as a grounding point, improving safety
Neutral vs Common Conductor - The CEC has two specific definitions between a • Step 3 - Enter your first Amperage value - in this case → [12]
neutral and a common conductor. A neutral is a line that is used with all 3 other • Step 4 - Press the DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) button - you will see a
phases to bring unbalanced current back to source. A Common conductor is '∠ ' symbol appear on the equation line, now you can tell it the angle!
used with two phases and will carry the same current as them.
Watch a video explanation here: No 18 3P4W Y GROUNDED NEUTRAL
Balanced Loads - With a balanced three-phase load, all three currents are equal • Step 5 - Press [0], as our first phasor is the reference phasor at 0
in magnitude and apart, meaning their vector sum is zero, and no current • Step 6 - Press the Plus button [+] to add the 2nd phasor
travels on the neutral wire. • Step 7 - Enter your second Amperage value - in this case → [10]
If you add balanced load phasors together with the Head to Tail method, they • Step 8 - Press the [DMS] button - once again a ' ∠ ' symbol will appear
will form an equilateral triangle which sums to zero. • Step 9 - Enter [120] for your second angle
• Step 10 - Press the Plus button [+] to add the 2nd phasor
• Step 11 - Enter your third Amperage value - in this case → [6]
• Step 12 - Press the [DMS] button - once again a ' ∠ ' symbol will appear
• Step 13 - Enter [240] (or -120) for your second angle
• Step 14 - Press [=] to get your Neutral Current - should be [5.29A]

A Balanced Three-Phase, four-wire load Vector Sum to Zero • Step 15 - Press [2nd F] → [ ] to view the angle of the resultant vector
Calculating Neutral Current - Sometimes you'll be asked what the neutral
current is with an unbalanced load. There are three ways to easily calculate this,
using an equation derived from the Law of Cosines, Translating the polar REMEMBER! Set your calculator back to normal mode when you're done
coordinates into rectangular form and adding them manually, or in Complex by pressing [MODE] → [0] - you will see "DEG" appear at the top middle
Mode on a calculator.
Watch a video explanation here: No 22 NEUTRAL CURRENT

Neutral Current - Law of Cosines Calculation

Two-Line Lighting Circuits - Sometimes three phase circuits will use two phases
and a neutral conductor to supply lighting circuits. Even if the lighting circuits are
Example Question - Calculating Unbalanced Loads balanced you'll find if you add them vectorially there is still current on the neutral.
Here's an example - " L1 and L2 each carry 10 Amps, calculate the resultant "
" If what is ?"
Using the Complex Mode method above, our screenshot would look like this:
Law of Cosines - First, lets solve this by plugging our currents into the calculation
we learned above… careful entering it on a calculator!

→ 5.29A
Polar to Rectangular - Using SOH-CAH-TOA we can convert our Amplitude and As you can see, you end up with on the neutral!
Angle to rectangular coordinates, add them then convert them back to polar.
• Step 1 - Convert from Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates
using either SOH-CAH-TOA or your Sharp EL-520XT calculator:
X= Y=
[Amplitude] [2nd F] [STO] [Degrees] [2nd F] [9] ='X' [2nd F] [ ] = 'Y'

Polar X Y
→ 12 j0
→ -5 -j8
→ -3 j5.2 Calculations done using a Sharp EL-520XTBBK
Totals 4 -j3.5 Most calculators can do these functions, but this is the one I know how to use. My
year 1 teacher told us it's the calculator the ITA gives out during the IP exam, you
• Step 2 - Convert our Totals back into Polar Coordinates using good old can't bring your own so it's probably a good idea to get to know how to use it!
Pythagorean theorem - Staples carries it for around $24 and most stores stock it…
https://www.staples.ca/products/2706057-en-sharp-el520xtbbk-scientific-calculator
→ 5.3A

Three Phase Page 84

3Φ - Unbalanced Delta Load
ITA Binder - Learning Task 6
Section A5 - Pages 56 through 64
Unbalanced Phase Angle Calculations - Sometimes you'll be asked questions that
require you to calculate the phase angle of an unbalanced load. Because Phases Complex Mode - Or, you can add all of the vectors together using complex mode
share lines in a Delta configuration, their currents mix together. on your calculator. There's lots of steps, but it's mostly repetition.
Sometimes you'll be asked to add these phase currents together to find the total • Step 1 - Switch your calculator to COMPLEX mode [MODE] → [3]
load. You can do this using the Polar to Rectangular method, or Complex Mode on
your calculator
Line Values - You'll use 2 different loads depending on which line you're calculating
• Line A - Loads A and C
• Line B - Loads A and B • Step 2 - Enter POLAR COORDINATE mode [2nd F] → [8] - you will see the
• Line C - Loads B and C symbol ' ' appear in the top left-hand side of the screen

IMPORTANT - Regardless of what method you use, just remember when you add
the two vectors, your first vector is it's at , and your second vector is at .
Watch a video explanation here: No 23 I LINE UNBALANCED DELTA • Step 3 - Enter your first Amperage value - in this case → [24]
• Step 4 - Press the DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) button - you will see a
Example Question - Adding Delta Currents '∠ ' symbol appear on the equation line, now you can tell it the angle!
" Three Resistive loads of 10Ω, 20Ω and 30Ω are Delta connected to a
240 V three-phase supply. Calculate the three line currents"

• Preparation Step 1 - Draw out an P-E-I-R table (we don't need P) and fill in • Step 5 - Press [0], as our first phasor is the reference phasor at 0
what you know • Step 6 - Press the Plus button [+] to add the 2nd phasor
• Step 7 - Enter your second Amperage value - in this case → [12]
• Step 8 - Press the [DMS] button - once again a ' ∠ ' symbol will appear
Load A Load B Load C
E 240 V 240 V 240 V
I
• Step 9 - Enter [60] for your second angle
R • Step 10 - Press [=] to get your resultant Vector's Amperage
• Step 11 - Press [2nd F] → [ ] to view the angle of the resultant vector
• Preparation Step 2 - Now Use Ohms Law to figure out the Current in each
load and add the result to our P-E-I-R table (without the P).
• Step 12 - Clear the screen with [ON/C] and repeat steps 3-12 for the
→ → remaining vectors, you should get the following:
→ →
Line B (A-B) Line C (B-C) Line A (C-A)
→ →

Load A Load B Load C

E 240 V 240 V 240 V
REMEMBER! Set your calculator back to normal mode when you're done
I 24 A 12 A 8A by pressing [MODE] → [0] - you will see "DEG" appear at the top middle
R

Polar to Rectangular - Using SOH-CAH-TOA we can convert our Amplitude and

Angle to rectangular coordinates, add them all together, and then convert them
back to a resultant Amplitude and Angle (y tho?)
• Step 1 - Convert from Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates using
either SOH-CAH-TOA or your Sharp EL-520XT calculator:
X= Y=
[Amplitude] [2nd F] [STO] [Degrees] [2nd F] [9] ='X' [2nd F] [ ] = 'Y'

Polar X Y
→ 24 j0
→ 6 -j10.39
Totals 30 -j10.39
Calculations done using a Sharp EL-520XTBBK
• Step 2 - Convert our Totals back into Polar Coordinates using good old Most calculators can do these functions, but this is the one I know how to use. My
Pythagorean theorem - year 1 teacher told us it's the calculator the ITA gives out during the IP exam, you
can't bring your own so it's probably a good idea to get to know how to use it!
→ Staples carries it for around $24 and most stores stock it…
Now repeat these steps for all 3 Lines https://www.staples.ca/products/2706057-en-sharp-el520xtbbk-scientific-calculator

Three Phase Page 85

 Four Wire Open Load - If the previous wye example was a 4 wire circuit, and it had
3Φ - Effects of Fault Conditions an open load, you'd just measure line voltage, nothing special, but this condition
makes it harder to troubleshoot, as that's exactly what you'd measure across a
working load.
ITA Binder - Learning Task 6 Four Wire Open Neutral - If you have an unbalanced load, so the neutral is carrying a
Section A5 - Pages 56 through 64
current and that neutral breaks your smaller impedances drop less voltage and
Unbalanced Loads - If a fault condition such as an open occurs on a balanced load therefore current, your larger impedances will drop more voltage and therefore
or one of the lines supplying it, the load will become unbalanced. current. If you're working on a circuit and your phase voltages are different, the
cause is often a broken neutral.
Wye - Three Wire Open - When one phase opens on a three-wire wye circuit it's
called Single Phasing. This will cause the remaining two loads to be connected in Watch a video explanation here: No 20 3P4W BROKEN NEUTRAL
series across the remaining two lines, just like a single phase series circuit. For Unbalanced Delta - Similar to unbalanced Y circuits, once again it's a re-hash of
example, if Line A is open, you no longer get Phase A-B or C-A, you only have B-C Circuit Concepts 1 and 2 math - Kirchhoff's, Power and Ohms law.
Watch a video explanation here: No 15 VOLTAGE TRAMPOLINE
Delta - Open Line - When one phase opens on a three-wire Delta circuit it's also
• Effect on Resistance - Your resistances are now in series! Just sum your called Single Phasing. Unlike the Wye circuit, all 3 loads stay in play. However, now
resistance values to know the new total line resistance. two of them are connected in series, and one is parallel to those loads, both of these
• Effect on Current - In a series circuit, current is the same on the whole resistance paths will be supplied by a single phase, and all the math will reflect this.
line, so simply divide your voltage by your total resistance. Watch a video explanation here: No 16 3P3W DELTA OPEN LINE
• Effect on Voltage - Remember Circuit Concepts 1 and Kirchhoff's law! • Effect on Resistance - You have two paths, one single load sits parallel to
Your voltage will be dropping over each resistor according to their size. two series loads. To find total resistance, you would have to sum the two in
• Effect on Power - Just like a series circuit, the power law to multiply your series with each other, and then Inverse Sum your two parallel values.
total voltage by your total current. You'll find power drops by • Effect on Current - Total line current would be the sum of both parallel
approximately 1/2 when compared to it operating in three phase. branches added together, so you have to solve your voltage drops across
each resistor, figure out your current in each branch and add them together
• Effect on Voltage - Full line voltage would be dropping over each branch. So
your single resistor would have full line voltage dropping over it, while the
two series resistors would share the voltage drop.
• Effect on Power - Multiply your line current by your voltage and power
factor to find the total power, or solve total power for both branches and
add them together. You will find the power drops by 1/2 when compared to
it operating in three phase.
As always, it can help to re-draw the circuit to picture it better…
Single Phasing - There's only one current path!

Wye - Four Wire Open - When one phase opens on a four-wire wye circuit, it acts
just as it normally would, but with only two of the loads. It would be very similar
to the two-line lighting circuits we talked about on the last page.
Watch a video explanation here: No 19 3P4W Y OPEN LINE
• Effect on Current - There would be current on the neutral equal to that of
the current on your phases at a phase angle ( )
• Effect on Power - You lose one of your loads, so you would only develop
2/3rds of the power compared to it operating in three phase

↓ Re-drawn as a simple combination circuit ↓

Four Wire Open - 2/3rds of the circuit is working!

Wye - Open in the Load - If you were to measure voltage across any of the dead
loads in the example above with the open in the fuse, you'd get a reading of .
That's because the entire line is at the same potential. Measuring voltage across
the open load on a 208V 3 wire circuit with 104V dropping across the two working Delta - Open Load - If an open occurs in one of the phases, it's called an open-delta
resistors would get you 180V. You can see this in the below diagram. load. This is very similar to the 4 Wire open line Wye as two of the loads will
continue to act normally, but the one open load will not generate any power.
Watch a video explanation here: No 17 3P3W DELTA OPEN LOAD
• Effect on Current - This is where it differs from the 4 Wire Wye with an open
line. The line that connects between the two working loads will carry
because it's acting as normal with two working loads.The
remaining two loads will carry just like a wye configuration
because one of their two loads is open.
• Effect on Power - You lose one of your loads, so you would only develop
2/3rds of the power compared to it operating in three phase. The easiest
3 Wire Open Load Example Diagram - Where the 180V vector comes in
way to calculate this is to calculate the power generated by both remaining
Because we only have the "A" Phase left, and it's dropping equally over two phases and add them together. The open phase generates no power.
resistors, it's split into two 104V phasors. We're measuring from the open to the
point in between them.

Three Phase Page 86

 Power Factor - The two wattmeter method will also let you determine the Power
3Φ - Wattmeter / Protection Factor of a BALANCED three-phase load by using the following formula

Power Factor - Calculation

ITA Binder - Learning Task 7
Section A5 - Pages 68 through 72
Watt Meter - A wattmeter is a device that is connected in-line to measure current
and across the line to measure TRUE POWER (watts), not VA.
Ballparking Power Factor - Different power factor ranges will affect the two
If you're using a wattmeter reading to fill in a power triangle, it will be the wattmeter method in different ways, check it out!
BOTTOM (adjacent) side of it! Dividing the wattmeter reading by your Power
Factor will give you your VA. PF Value Effect on Wattmeter readings
Single Wattmeter Method - If you have a balanced three phase load with a
neutral, you can measure one of the phases with a single wattmeter by 100% Each Wattmeter reading is one-half of the total power
connecting the current coil in line with one of the phase conductor5.s, and
connecting the voltage coil to the neutral point. 50% - 100% One Wattmeter reads higher than the other
Total three phase power can be calculated by multiplying the result by 3
50% One wattmeter reads zero, the other reads the total power

0-50% One wattmeter reads down-scale while one reads up-scale.

Reverse the voltage coil connection on the down-scale meter to
correct the reading then subtract the reading from the meter
with reverse polarity from the other wattmeter

ITA Binder - Learning Task 3

Section A5 - Page 33
Ground-fault detection for ungrounded systems - Three-phase three-wire delta
systems are ungrounded. Therefore if one of the phases becomes grounded
during use, the over-current protection will not activate. It would take TWO
Three Wattmeter Method - Connect the current coils in series with each of the phases to come into contact with ground before that happened.
line conductors, connect the voltage coils to a neutral line (if applicable) or The CEC requires a system be put into place to indicate the presence of a ground
connect them all together in a Wye as demonstrated below. fault. A very common system is employed using 3 lights.
Total three phase power will be all three measurements added together
Fault Indicating Lights - By tapping a line voltage capable light off of each phase
and then tying the other sides of the light into a common Wye shape and ground,
you will have lights that glow dimly at under normal conditions.

Two Wattmeter Method - If you're feeling particularly adventurous you can use
Under a ground-fault condition there is no longer a potential difference between
two single-phase wattmeters to measure three-phase circuits. This method can
the ground and the faulted phase, the whole ground essentially becomes the
be used on either Wye or Delta loads.
faulted phase! This lack of potential difference means the light tapped into the
Connect each of your wattmeters in series with different conductors using their faulted phase will NOT glow while the other two lights will have full line-to-line
current coils, then connect both of their voltage coils to the remaining conductor. voltage across them and glow much brighter.
Total three-phase power can be calculated by adding the two readings

Three Phase Page 87

3Φ - Mixed Load Calculations
3 Phase - Mixed Load Calculations
Sometimes you'll be asked to solve for current on a mixed load circuit. This is pretty straight forward, but you'll have to bust out your power triangles. (See: year 2 notes - RLC
section for refresher) I'll give a quick drawn example below, but you should also check out James Doyles video example (linked below) he explainsit well.
Watch a video example here: No 10 3P PROBLEM MODEL

3Φ3W - 480V Source

❶ Solve - Wye Load Line Current ❷ Solve - Delta Load Line Current ❸ Solve - Combined Load Current

Load Line Load Line

P P ↓
E 277 V 480 V E 480 V 480 V
I 5.77 A 5.77 A I 10 A 17.32 A ↓
R 48 Ω R 48 Ω

❹ Solve - Capacitor Bank Current ❺ Solve the Motor - Get VA and Watts! ❻ Solve - Get Motor Line Current
Solving Motors with HP, PF and Efficiency.
Cap Bank Line Motor Line
1-
P 30 kVAR 2- P 100 kVAR
3-
E 480 V 480 V E 480 V 480 V
100HP / 93.25% Efficiency / 80% PF
I 20.83 A 36.08 A 1- I 69.44 A 120.28 A
2- η
3- Apparent Pwr

❼ Combine - Build a Motor - Cap Power Triangle ❽ Solve - Divide New VA by Line Voltage ❾ Combine - Add Resistive Loads to Triangle

❿ Solve - Divide New VA by Line Voltage

Three Phase Page 88

 Solving Motors with HP, PF and Efficiency.
3Φ - Test Study Sheet 1-
2-
Horsepower - Calculation

3-
Example - 3HP / 70% Power Factor / 87% Efficiency
1-
2- 87η
3- (Apparent Power)

Power Factor - PARALLEL Circuits • = Horsepower (Power Out) in Watts (W)

• Cycle - A full AC Waveform (1 up, 1 down) • = Apparent Power (Power In) in VA (VA)
• Alternation - Half of a cycle / AC Waveform • η = Motor Efficiency ( )
• Period - The time it takes (in seconds) to complete
one cycle (or two alternations) • = Parallel Power Factor (decimal form) Power Factor - Calculation
• = Impedance in Ohms
• Average - You cannot AVERAGE a Full AC cycle, only
• = Resistance in Ohms
alternation because the +/- cancel out.
• Energy = Ability to do work 1 Joule = 1 Watt-sec
• Power = Rate work is done 1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec Capacitive Reactance - Calc
• DC Effective Ω = Only conductor's base resistance
• AC Effective Ω = DC Effective Ω + Skin, Hysteresis,
Radiation, Eddy, Dielectric losses = SHRED
• = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)
• = Frequency In hertz (Hz) • = True Power in Watts (W)
• = Capacitance in Farads (F) • = Power Factor in Decimal Form
• = Apparent Power in Volt-Amps ( )
Notice - Capacitive Reactance is Inversely
proportional to Hz and Capacitance to get

Delta - Calculations*
Delta Line Resistance - Calc**

• = Resistance of each Phase (Ω)

• = Line-to-Line Resistance (Ω)
** Thanks @ThePleaser#6816 for this formula!

Frequency (Hz)
• =
• = Line Current
• = Phase Current
• = Square Root of 3 or 1.732
Voltage / Current / Power / Frequency Wye - Calculations*
Peak → RMS • Hz = frequency
• P = Poles (NOT in pairs!)
Average → Peak • = Turns (in RPM)

Instantaneous E ∠ Ratios - Calculations***

Peak Power

Average Power
• = Power at New Voltage • =
Frequency
• = Power at Old Voltage • = Line Voltage
(not in pairs!)
• = Old Voltage • = Phase Voltage
Cycle Time • = New Voltage • = Square Root of 3 or 1.732
(one Period)
*** Thanks @Alwin#8759 for this formula! * Thanks Trystan#8815 for pointing this out!

Line to Line Phase Y Phase Y Line to Line

Cap Current Rating - Calculation
Total Power Power Per-Phase Power Per-Phase Total Power
P

E
Would be Complex Mode - Sharp EL-520XTBBK
I
Would be
R N/A N/A

Converting Delta ↔ Wye - You have to get it down to the PHASE values, the actual coil or resistor that makes up the phase doesn't
change. Regardless of what configuration you put it in, it will still generate the same voltage / have the same voltage dropand have
the same resistance and therefore have the same current carrying capability it had before.

Three Phase Page 89

Transformers Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Single Phase Transformers
3 P-E-I-R and Voltage
4 Dual Coil Transformers Page 1
5 Dual Coil Transformers Page 2
6 Paralleling Transformers
7 Connection Testing and Calculations
8 Multi-Tap Transformers
9 Boosting and Bucking Configurations
10 3-Wire Single Phase Transformers
11 3-Wire Autotransformers
12 Instrument Transformers

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Transformers Page 90
 Transformer Polarities - Transformers will have high voltage windings (marked with
Transformers - Single Phase an H) and low voltage windings (marked with an X). Each of these letters will have
binder post numbers. Even and odd numbers have opposite instantaneous
polarities from each-other.
Delmar's Unit 27 - Single-Phase Transformers • High voltage winding uses and
Seventh Edition - Pages 623 through 669 • Low voltage winding uses and
• When and are positive, and are negitive and vice versa
Transformer - A magnetically operated machine that changes the values of
Remember: when looking at a transformer with the high-voltage terminals at the
voltage, current and impedance without changing frequency.
top, terminal will always be the top left.
• Operation - Transformers operate on the principal of Mutual Induction
Additive and Subtractive - Transformers can come as Additive or Subtractive
• Efficiency - 90% - 99% efficient - Most efficient machines known
formats. This has to do with where the low voltage coil ( and ) posts are
• Classes - Three most common classes of transformers are: located relative to the High Voltage coil posts ( and )
1. Isolation Transformers
• Additive - polarities are kitty corner to each-other
2. Autotransformers
○ is across from and is across from
3. Current transformers (see unit 9 in Delmar's)
• Subtractive - polarities are directly across from each-other
Turns ratio - all values of a transformer are proportional to it's turns ratio. This is ○ is across from and is across from
the ratio of input windings to output windings.
EG: 1000 input turns and 100 output turns makes a 10:1 ratio.
Conservation Of Energy - So where do the volts go on a step-down transformer?
They turn into amps! (in a pure transformer - ignoring losses!)
E.g. 4:1 1000V @ 1A transformer makes 250V @ 4A

Transformer Formulas
An Additive Transformer A Subtractive Transformer
across and across across and across
Voltage & Turns Voltage & Current Turns & Current
Voltage testing to determine Additive or Subtractive - You can use a voltmeter to
see if you have an additive or subtractive transformer by supplying a small voltage
to the and terminals, and then connecting a bridge between the terminal
and the X terminal located directly below it. Connect a volt meter between the
Primary (Input) Coil Secondary (Output) Coil terminal and the X terminal located directly below it.
• = No. Turns Primary • = No. Turns Secondary • If the reading is higher than the source voltage, it's additive
• = Voltage of Primary • = Voltage of Secondary • If the reading is lower than the source voltage, it's subtractive.
• = Current in Primary • = Current in Secondary If you're unsure of which terminals are and use an ohm meter. The coil with
the greater resistance will be the High Voltage side, because it has more copper.
Essentially : Volts per Turn on the Primary = Volts Per Turn on the Secondary
Fault Current - The current that would flow if a dead short is placed across the load
Isolation Transformers - Magnetically Coupled - Primary and Secondary coils are
side. Critical for sizing fuses and things. Interrupting capacity must be sufficient to
physically and electrically isolated from one-another.
stop max current, but current size should be just above load requirement
• Sometimes built as 1:1 ratio, just to electircally isolate two circuits
• Helps reduce voltage spikes, they don't transfer well to the secondary.
○ Because they're very quick, they don't get a chance to actually
build up in the secondary due to the exponential curve (Tau!) Distribution Transformers - multi-tapped secondary? Sounds like the 1Ø-3W
feeding your home! You get both 120V and 240V from a single 240V primary
transformer coil! This is one of the most common Isolation Transformers.
Control Transformers - Another common type of Isolation Transformer. Used to
reduce line voltage to the value required to operate control circuits
Think: HVAC, Industrial motor controls etc.
Most commonly come in a 2:1 ratio, for 240V input and 120V output.
Transformer Core Types - There are multiple transformer core types
How they work - - Faraday's Law in action! Isolation transformers work • Laminated steel - Made of multiple layers of steel laminated together and
by generating a magnetic field with the pirmary coil which then induces into the then epoxy coated. A thin layer of oxide builds on each layer of steel which
secondary coil. Because we're using AC power, the magnetic field is constantly acts as an insulator and reduces eddy currents which cause losses.
expanding and contracting as it alternates directions. This means the cutting of ○ Should have Low Retentivity, high permeability and high resistance.
flux lines never ends, and therefore voltage is always being induced.
• Toroid Core - Made by tightly winding a single ribbon of silicon steel tape
Excitation Current - Current flow in the primary required to magnetize the core into a toroid (circle). Design reduces flux leakage, very efficient.
Step-Down Transformer - Any transformer used to reduce (step down) voltage. Reactors - An inductor used in series with a low impedance device used specifically
I.e. Where the voltage or current on the secondary is less than the primary. to prevent inrush current
Step-Up Transformer - Any transformer used to increase (step up) voltage. Inrush Current - The thin layers of laminated steel in a core give it a very low
I.e. Where the voltage or current on the secondary is greater than the primary. reluctance. This allows for very high current flow while all of the magnetic domains
align when the transformer is first turned on. Once the domains are all aligned
Multi-Tapped Windings - Isolation transformers designed with more than one
(remember: Practical Saturation in level 1!) the current then settles.
set of lead wires connected to the primary or secondary. Allows for multiple
voltages in a single transformer. Because the domains are constantly changing direction with AC, it also depends on
the direction the domains are facing and where in the cycle the AC signal is when
• E.g. 120V, 208V & 240V multi-tapped primary
power is connected to the transformer
Or 12V, 24V & 48V multi-tapped secondary
Multi-tapped secondary windings can be connected electrically between taps Auto-Transformers - Variac - Unlike Isolation Transformers, Auto-Transformers use
• using one coil of wire, and splicing into it at various turns a single winding to transform electricity. This single winding is multi-tapped and a
load can be connected to any of the taps to change the voltage received.
or can be completely electrically separated from each-other
• using multiple, separate coils of wire each with a different no. of turns There is no electrical isolation with auto-transformers. The load is electrically
connected to one side of the primary.
When calculating multi-tapped windings you would simply treat each secondary
as a completely different transformer. Think: Potentiometer or multi-tapped resistor. Similar principal.

Transformers Page 91
 Solving Additive vs Subtractive - As simply as possible
Transformers - P-E-I-R & Voltage Adding or Subtracting - It's easy to get caught up in polarity and tracing lines when
it comes to additive and subtractive questions. Here's a dead simple way to solve
Solving Transformers - Using our old friend P-E-I-R tables them. Just remember: Even numbers and odd numbers have opposite polarities

Solving Transformers - It's easy with P-E-I-R and ONE RULE: Example Questions - Additive and Subtractive
Volt-Amps In = Volt Amps out - That means if your voltage is going down, your
" Assuming the high voltage is applied, what would the
current is going to go up, and vice versa! This means that the power row (P) of
volt-meter read in the following diagrams "
your PEIR table will be the same for the primary and secondary coil! This is the
key to being able to solve the whole table.
600 V / 120 V Transformer 120 V / 36 V Transformer
Example Question - Solve a Basic Transformer with P-E-I-R
" Solve all variables for a transformer that steps 600V down to 120V,
has 500 turns on the primary, 100 turns on the secondary and must
supply a 2.4kW load with a 60% lagging power factor "

• Step 1 - Draw out a PEIR diagram with one column for the primary coil,
and one column for the secondary coil, and fill in what you know
Primary Secondary
P
E
I Our meter leads are touching the Our meter leads are touching
same polarity ( and ) that opposite polarities ( and ) that
R means it's going to be subtractive! means it's going to be additive!
Well, that doesn't tell us much, we need to know 2 pieces of information…
It's just that simple. Even numbers share the same polarities with each-other
• Step 2 - Convert the True Power we've been given into Volt-Amps and odd numbers share the same polarities with each-other.
→ → When any terminal with a "1" is positive, any terminal with a "2" is negative.

Primary Secondary Example Questions - Advanced Additive and Subtractive

P " What value must be induced on the high voltage side of the
E transformer for the volt meter to read 550 V "

I 1440 V / 120 V Transformer

R

• Step 3 - Now we can use our basic Power Law to solve for the current
→ →
→ →

Primary Secondary
P
E
I
• Step 1 - Determine the ratio of the transformer
R
Ratio → →
• Step 4 - Now we can use good ol' Ohm's Law to solve for the resistance
• Step 2 - Determine if our transformer is additive or subtractive.
→ → ○ Our leads are touching both terminals with a "2" - its subtractive!
→ → • Step 3 - Some really basic math using our subtractive ratio
○ Our ratio is 12:1, and our transformer is subtractive. That means
Primary Secondary that 12 of a certain voltage, minus one of those voltages is going
to give us our 550 volt reading. In math, this would look like:
P
▪
E (if this were an additive transformer, it would be )
I ○ So we know 11 of something makes 550 V. Well that's easy, just
R divide 550 volts by 11 to find out what that something is!
▪
• Step 5 - PEIR table done! All we need now is the ratio, lots of ways to ○ If we take our magical 50 volt number and multiply that on each
get that. Any of the following will do, just remember that it's the big side of our ratio, we have our primary and secondary voltages.
number the small number, so watch out when using current! ▪
Ratio → → • Step 4 - Double-check to see if our numbers add up
Ratio → → (Remember: it's subtractive!)
○
Ratio → →

Transformers Page 92
 Side Note - on kVA Ratings
Transformers - Dual Coils 1 The only time maximum kVA throughput is reduced from full value between the
Primary and Secondary side of a dual-winding transformer, is when only one coil
Dual Winding Coils - Parallel Connections (half) of either transformer side is in use.
i.e. you're using 1 coil on the primary, and two on the secondary, or vice versa
Reading Dual Winding Coil Ratings - 480/240V - 240/120V @ 10kVA
The Voltage and kVA ratings are for both coils on each side together! Dual Winding Coils - Series Connections
• Primary Coils: Each coil can handle a maximum of 240V at 5kVA
• Secondary Coils: Each coil can handle a maximum of 120V at 5kVA Series Connection - Bridging and together gives you one long coil
• kVA adds between the coils, Voltage acts dependant on series or parallel • Half the voltage full current per primary coil
Parallel Connection - Bridging and together and and together ○ Gives you full voltage on each coil
• Full Voltage but half current per primary coil ○ Splits your VA between each coil
○ Gives you full voltage on each coil • Gives your current two separate paths back to source
○ Splits your VA between each coil • Induces the maximum voltage onto to the secondary
• Gives your current two separate paths back to source • Each COIL can only handle half the over-all kVA
• Induces the maximum voltage onto to the secondary
• Each COIL can only handle half the over-all kVA

Secondary Coils - May also be connected in Series, and share the same rules
Secondary Coils - May also be connected in Parallel, and share the same rules Series Connection - Bridging and together gives you one long coil
Parallel Connection - Bridging and together and and together • Voltage reduced by 2:1 ratio in the above example (120V → 60V)
• Voltage reduced by 2:1 ratio in the above example (240V → 120V) • Series Circuit so voltage adds, load still has access to 120 Volts
• Parallel Circuit so load would have access to only 120 Volts • Load still has access to full 10kVA ( )
• 10 kVA in means 10kVA out, load can pull full 10 kVA.

Battery Analogy
Battery Analogy The coils can be thought of as batteries connected in series.
The coils can be thought of as batteries connected in parallel. The voltage adds, but the currents do not.
The currents can add, but the voltages do not.

Transformers Page 93
Transformers - Dual Coils 2 and P-E-I-R tables

Dual Winding Coils - Series Primary Parallel Secondary Dual Winding Coils - Parallel Primary Series Secondary
Thinks to note - There are a few interesting things when you start to mix parallel Thinks to note - There are a few interesting things when you start to mix parallel
and series primaries and secondaries. You get different voltage/current ratios and series primaries and secondaries. You get different voltage/current ratios
• Primary is essentially one long coil, each half dropping 120V • Primary is two small coils at full input voltage (240V in this case)
• Secondary is two small separate coils in parallel with each-other • Secondary is essential one long coil, each half collecting 120V
• Secondary will get half the voltage but twice the current • Secondary will get DOUBLE the voltage, but only half the current
○ Remember: ○ Remember:
• Useful for powering low-voltage devices that require high current • This is essentially just an isolation transformer at this point.

Primary P-E-I-R table Primary P-E-I-R table

Remember: Coils connected in series have their voltages added together. Remember: Coils connected in parallel have their voltages added together.

Primary Primary
P 10,000 VAR 5,000 VAR 5,000 VAR P 10,000 VAR 5,000 VAR 5,000 VAR
E 120 V 120 V E 240 V 240 V
I 41.67 A 41.66 A 41.66 A I 41.67 A 20.83 A 20.83 A
R R

Secondary P-E-I-R table Secondary P-E-I-R table

Remember: Coils connected in parallel have their currents added together. Remember: Coils connected in series have their voltages added together.

Secondary Secondary
P 10,000 VAR 5,000 VAR 5,000 VAR P 10,000 VAR 5,000 VAR 5,000 VAR
E 60 V 60 V E 120 V 120 V
I 166.6 A 83.3 A 83.3 A I 41.67 A 41.67 A 41.67 A
R R

Transformers Page 94
 Paralleling Transformers - Example
Transformers - Paralleling Example - This example doesn't show any voltages, ratings or anything like that. It's
just to show that, no matter if a transformer is set to series or parallel, is additive or
Transformers - Installing transformers in parallel subtractive, as long as they meet the 3 rules, you can parallel them together.
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 25-45
Why Parallel Transformers? - When connected in parallel, the kVA ratings for
each transformer are added together, giving you much more available power.
e.g. 20kVA + 100kVA + 50kVA = 170kVA available
Paralleling transformers - There are a few rules when paralleling transformers
1. Both must have the same overall secondary voltage ( )
2. Both must have the same percent impedance (%Z)
3. Both must have the same instantaneous polarity (in connection)
○ This third one just means hook the thing up right! One bus gets
all the positives, one bus gets all the negatives.
Why the same voltages? - If you connect two transformers in parallel with
different voltage potentials between them, there will be a current path
developed between the two points of different potential. This is BAD. The extra
current that is constantly cycling will add to the full load current, and could
destroy the windings.

Additive and Subtractive transformers paralleled together

The key is even numbers go to one bus, odd numbers go to the other per transformer
It doesn't matter that one transformer uses even on L1 and odd on L2 and the other
does the opposite, as long as it is consistent throughout for each transformer.

Paralleling Transformers - Voltmeter Closure Test

Voltmeter Closure Test - When installing transformers in parallel, it's important that
you do a voltmeter closure test before connecting the final leg of additional
transformers. This test will prevent a short circuit fault and Kablaziflam.
The impedance of the windings combined with the voltage difference can actually
You should expect to see 0V, or close to zero volts. If you see a different voltage
generate a significant current flow between the paralleled sources!
(typically double your 'X' voltage), you should NOT connect the final leg, and take a
2nd look at your transformer connections.
Why the same impedance? - If two transformers have different impedance
ratings, that means the transformer with lower impedance will be more heavily
loaded than the other. This causes uneven load distribution, and the transformer
will burn out when trying to deliver the full kVA.
Why proper connections? - When you're connecting two transformers to the
same bus, you greatly increase the chance of installing a short circuit. Proper
polarity must be observed so one doesn't connect a positive side and a negative
side to the same bus. Current would just cycle between the two sides of the
transformer virtually un-opposed until a fuse blew or the windings melted.

Twice our expected voltage! Uh oh! Don't hook up the last wire.
Check out the polarities! on both transformers are on the L1 line,
that means needs to be on the XL1 line for both transformers.

The impedance of the windings combined with the voltage sums of the sources adds
up to a lot of current! Don't hook these things up backwards.

Remember when connecting transformers to a bus - It's all about the polarity!
Even and odd numbered terminals on a transformer have opposite polarities.
That means you should never have an even number connected to the same bus as
an odd number on the same transformer!
• For Example: If is connected to L1, should be connected to L2.
Then must be considered your L1, and must be considered your L2
on the secondary side.
This example is regardless of the transformers internal connections being made
series or parallel. Never have even and odd numbers on the same bus on the Zero Volts, that's better! Go ahead and hook up the final leg.
same transformer! They can be reversed on separate entire transformers on the Assign instant polarities to your even and odd numbers and trace from the red
same bus, but only if the even/odd numbers are consistent between both input voltmeter lead to the black lead. You will find that you'll add 240V on the 1st
and output busses. transformer, and take it away when you get thorough the 2nd.

Transformers Page 95
 Transformers - Calculations
Transformers - Testing & Calcs Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 245-248

Calculating %Z - Once you get a short circuit voltage from the short circuit test, you
can calculate your Impedance percentage (%Z). This is simply the percentage
difference between the short circuit and the rated voltages.

%Z - Calculation

Transformers - Efficiency Testing

Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 241-244 " A short circuit test has 3.6V generate rated current on a 120V winding "
Open Circuit Test - NO Load Copper losses measurement - Used to measure
CORE LOSSES in the of a core of a coil caused by eddy currents and hysteresis.
Performed with a wattmeter (or ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel)
connected to the "X" side of the transformer
Calculating Efficiency - Now that we have our Core Losses (S.H.R.E.D.) and our
1. Isolate the high-voltage terminals so there is no dangerous back-feed
Copper Losses (S.H.R.E.D) we can do a single calculation to figure out our
2. Apply the full-rated low voltage to the low voltage terminals transformer's overall efficiency using the following calculation:
3. Read the wattmeter - this will be your no-load core losses
a. Since the "H" side is isolated (no load connected) the only Efficiency - Calculation
current flow is magnetizing current.
b. This is the current that creates heat in the core due to eddy
currents and the hysteresis effect.

" You perform a short circuit test and an open circuit test on a 150kVA transformer,
and they measure 1829W and 2198W respectively "

Calculating Available Fault Current - Calculating the available fault current will tell
you how much current would flow should the terminals on the secondary "X" coil
become shorted. Use the following calculation:

The basic setup of an Open-Circuit test Fault Current - Calculation

Wattmeter setup in red - Ammeter / Voltmeter in blue

Short Circuit Test - FULL Load Copper losses measurement - Used to measure
COPPER LOSSES in the of a core of a coil caused by heat, skin effect, resistance
" Calculate available fault current for 120kVA 1200-240V with a %Z of 2.5% "
etc. This test is also Performed in much the same way as an open-circuit test,
however we will be connecting to the "H" side of the transformer. Place a
• Step 1 - Calculate the full load current using kVA and the "X" voltage
wattmeter (or ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel) on the "H" side of
the transformer. → →
1. Short circuit the "X" side by placing a jumper between the terminals Always divide the full kVA by the lower of the two numbers on the coil!
2. Slowly increase the supply voltage until the rated current is flowing • Step 2 - Using the full load current and the %Z, calculate fault current
3. Read the wattmeter - this will be your full-load copper losses
4. Read the voltage - this will be used to calculate the short circuit current

(Kablaziflam!)

Percent Voltage Regulation - As the current through transformer windings changes,

the voltage drops across the internal resistances also changes.
The voltage drops in the primary will affect the voltage induced in the secondary.
The voltage drops in the secondary cause the terminal voltage of the transformer to
differ from the voltage induced in the secondary windings.
The percent voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in voltage from no-
load to full load, calculated with the following:

The basic setup of an Short-Circuit test Voltage Regulation - Calculation

Wattmeter setup in red - Ammeter / Voltmeter in blue

Key Takeaways - we shouldn't have to calculate any of these on the test but…
• Resistive loads have good (low values due to good power factor)
• Inductive loads have meh (higher values if power factor is bad)
• Capacitive loads have BAD (Negative % values, uh oh!)
Note - This is the topic we just skimmed over in morning class, were told it's
interesting to learn, but the most we should need to know were the key takeaways.

Transformers Page 96
 A note on the example questions - All of the calculations we did were just
Transformers - Multi-Tap transpositions of two main formulas. You can do little triangles like this to help you
solve any multi-tap primary questions for missing information:

Transformers - Multi-Tap Transformers Ratios / Percentages Ratio / Voltages

Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 100-123
Multi-Tap Transformer - A transformer designed to compensate for line drop
and percent voltage regulation by having multiple taps that can be used to adjust
the volts per turn ratio. The taps can be on the Primary or Secondary side:
Primary Taps - The higher the percent tap you're using, the lower the
voltage will be induced on the secondary, because you're dividing the • = New ratio (XX:1) • = Voltage on the primary coil (V)
input voltage by more turns! (adding more turns) • = Original coil ratio (XX:1) • = Voltage on the secondary coil (V)
If the secondary is under voltage go down a tap if it's over voltage, go up a tap! • = Tap placement % (decimal) • = Ratio at given voltages (XX:1)
Secondary Taps - The higher the percent tap you're using the more
Multi-Tap Secondary - Multi-tapped secondary's are a little more straight forward.
voltage you'll induce on the load, it's the opposite of the primary!
Once again, the coil is tapped at multiple different turn values. You can connect a
Calculating Ratios - The key thing you need to be able to do is calculate the new load between any two taps to draw the current at a specific voltage
turn ratios for each tap. From there, you can calculate the induced voltages. 1. Make sure you know how many volts/turn the secondary is
To do this, simply multiply the original ratio by the percentage as a decimal. 2. Multiply the Volts/turn ratio by howw many turns you're utilizing
Example Questions - Multi-Tap Primary
" Using the 2.4kV-120V transformer below, determine the turns ratio
at each of the tap percentages on the high voltage side "

A Multi-Tapped Secondary Transformer

Connecting a load between the Common (C) and any of the other taps will give you
the listed voltage. Remember to use your Volts/turn!

On-load tap changers - change taps while transformer is under load. A coil (acting
2400V - 120V Multi-Tap Transformer as a reactor) is connected in series with the moveable contacts to prevent short
circuiting when switching contacts

• Step 1 - Calculate the original turns ratio by dividing your voltages When the reactor-pad is between two contact points, it generates a large CEMF
acting like a buffer to slow the current spike long enough for it to move completely
→ → to the next pad. Neat!
• Step 2 - Multiply each tap percentage by the ratio to get the new ratios
→ →
→ →
→ →
→ →
→ →

" If a primary voltage of 2520V is applied and the 105% tap

is used, what is the new secondary voltage? "
• Step 3 - Simply divide the new source voltage by the 105% ratio above In a resting state on a pad, the reactor has current flowing up each leg in opposite
directions, this creates two opposing magnetic fiends, canceling each-other out.
→ →

" What primary voltage would need to be applied to get

110 V on the secondary side using the 95% tap? "
• Step 4 - Just multiply your desired voltage by the 95% ratio above
→ →

" What tap position (in percent) would need to be used to maintain
110 V on the secondary if the primary voltage falls to 1540 V? "
• Step 5 - Divide the new primary and secondary voltages to find the ratio
→ → While switching pads, a large swell of current will attempt to jump between pads.
This creates a single direction magnetic field in the reactor, generating CEMF to
• Step 6 - Divide the new ratio by the old 100% ratio to get a percentage! push back against the current, and reduce heat.
→ →

Transformers Page 97
 Please Note - In the below diagrams I switch between Additive and Subtractive
Transformers - Boost/Buck transformers (reverse the and pole positions) just to keep the diagram
clean and understandable. Some test questions may just draw the lines
between the poles differently instead of doing this.
Transformers - Boost/Buck Auto-Transformers Just remember!! - All even numbers are one polarity while all odd numbers are
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 187-202
the other polarity. while
Boost/Buck Connections - You can get FAR MORE kVA out of a single coil
transformer than it is rated for by connecting it like it's an auto-transformer. They
are also much smaller than a traditional autotransformer so they are ideal in
applications that require compact equipment such as a parking garage.
Downside to Boost/Buck connections - By connecting the primary and secondary
sides together you are eliminating the magnetic separation that a transformer
would normally have. This makes the transformer far less safe.
Boost vs Buck - So what's the difference between boost and buck?
• Boost Configuration - Connecting the primary and secondary coil series
aiding so their voltages are adding - the voltage drop across the load will
be (Primary Voltage PLUS Secondary Voltage)
• Buck Configuration - Connecting the primary and secondary coil series
opposing so their voltages are subtracting - the voltage drop across the
load will be (Primary Voltage MINUS secondary voltage)
Step up vs Step Down - You can use boost/buck connections with both step up and
step down transformers. There are a few differences Step Down Additive Transformer - Boost connection (series aiding)
• Step Down - Provide the most kVA output from a transformer, like
waaaaaay more, but require a large input voltage.
• Step Up - Provides slightly more (or less) kVA than the transformer is
designed to output, but runs high voltage loads from low voltage sources!
Additive vs Subtractive coils - It doesn't matter what kind of coil you use, both
additive and subtractive coils can be connected in boost/buck configurations. You
just need to pay attention to instantaneous polarities! Otherwise you might buck
when you want to boost or vice versa!
Connecting Boost/Buck - It's easy to connect a boost/buck configuration, you
connect it the exact same way you test if a transformer is additive or subtractive,
only instead of a voltmeter, you connect your load.

Step Down Subtractive Transformer - Buck connection (series opposing)

Additive Transformer in Boost Subtractive Transformer in Buck

Remember - Even numbers are one polarity, while odd numbers are the other!
P-E-I-R and Boost/Buck coils - When solving boost/buck circuits, once again the
easiest way to keep everything straight is with PEIR tables. You'll need 3 total.
One for the Primary one for the Secondary and one for the Load.
Calculating Boost/Buck circuits - 600V/120V 15kVA Transformer Example
First - Calculate the Voltage Drop across the load
• Boost -
• Buck -
Second - Calculate the current flowing through the load using power law
• It's in series with the secondary divide your kVA by the secondary voltage Step Up Additive Transformer - Boost connection (series aiding)
•
Third - Calculate the kVA of the load using it's voltage and the current
• Boost -
• Buck -
Fourth - Calculate the current in the Primary coil using the Power Law
•

Primary Secondary Load

P
E
I
R

P-E-I-R Table for Boost Example Above

Keep it organized with a PEIR table and you'll always know when you can Step Up Subtractive Transformer - Buck connection (series opposing)
calculate another number. You only need two numbers in each column.

Transformers Page 98
Transformers - 3-Wire Single Phase A few things to remember - sticking points that teachers said to watch for:
- Don't exceed kVA on one side, even if you have headroom on the other.
- Minimum kVA of the coil is the kVA of the coil with the most draw x 2!!
- At 100% PF VA for coils can be calculated using the volts and amps of that coil
Transformers - Calculating Single Phase 3-Wire Systems - If you must, add 100% of the VA from 120V loads, and 50% from 240V.
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 47-53
- If you're told there's a power factor other than 100% for one or more loads you
Overview - Calculating single phase 3 wire circuits is very similar to calculating must first calculate the True Power (W) of the load and then divide that number
them like we did in Level 01. The difference is now we're dealing with power by the power factor in decimal form. This will give you your VA, and it's what you
factors (sometimes), volt-amps and their interaction with current. should be putting for the P of your loads P-E-I-R table.
- E.g. 240V 16Ω load with a PF of 70%.
P-E-I-R Tables - Once again, the easiest way to solve these types of circuits is by
- First calculate amps -
using PEIR tables for each of your components, filling in what you know and then
- Next calculate watts -
calculating the rest as you add more information to each table.
- Finally convert to VA -

EXAMPLE CIRCUIT - 2400V-120/240V - 100%PF - =9 - =12.5 - =16

Bold text is given information, highlighted text is calculated! See step-by-step below to see how they are calculated.

Example Calculation steps - Solving for everything Step 5 - Now that we have currents in all our PEIR tables, solve for VA / Watts
→ →
Step 1 - Make P-E-I-R Tables for everything!!! The Primary coil, both secondary
coils and each of the 3 loads should all have their own PEIR table. → →
→ →
Step 2 - We have Voltage and Resistance for all 3 of our loads, calculate currents
→ →
→ → → →
→ →
Step 6 - Finish off your secondary PEIR tables by calculating the Ohms values
→ →
→ →
Step 3 - Using the above values, calculate the current in your secondary coils. → →
• Coil 1 - Supplies and - sum those currents Step 7 - Add your Secondary Coils VA together to get your primary coils VA
→ →
→ →
• Coil 2 - Supplies and - sum those currents
Step 8 - Finish up the primary P-E-I-R table in case you need any of that info
→ →
→ →
Step 4 - Draw your Current Arrows on the diagram using the calculated values → →
• Top - leaves - 13.3A drops off at and 15A heads to
Step 9 - Calculate your minimum sized transformer by multiplying the larger of your
• Bottom - is entering - 9.6A coming from and 15A from secondary VA values by two!
• Neutral - Carries the difference between and - the arrow will be •
facing the same direction as the lower current value ( in this example)
Note: If the 3 wire circuit is an AUTO-TRANSFORMER 3-Wire, you wouldn't have to
→ → multiply the kVA number by 2, you would just go by the largest kVA number on
either of the two coils, because they're a primary and a secondary "unfolded"

Transformers Page 99
Transformers - 3-Wire Auto-Tx A few things to remember - sticking points that teachers said to watch for:
- Don't exceed kVA on one side, even if you have headroom on the other.
- Minimum kVA of the coil is the kVA of the coil with the most draw x 2!!
Transformers - Calculating Single Phase 3-Wire Systems - At 100% PF VA for coils can be calculated using the volts and amps of that coil
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Single Phase Transformers - Pages 47-53 - If you must, add 100% of the VA from 120V loads, and 50% from 240V.
Overview - You can connect a 1:1 isolation transformer in a series aiding (boost) - If you're told there's a power factor other than 100% for one or more loads you
configuration to act like a single phase 120/240V three wire system! It's not must first calculate the True Power (W) of the load and then divide that number
super safe or practical for most people, but you should understand how it works. by the power factor in decimal form. This will give you your VA, and it's what you
should be putting for the P of your loads P-E-I-R table.
• Must be connected Series Aiding (no true X or H side, as it's a 1:1)
- E.g. 240V 16Ω load with a PF of 70%.
• Boosting, not bucking - so it can supply 240V with a 120V source - First calculate amps -
• Currents sum on the primary and secondary coils to get total line current - Next calculate watts -
• Middle conductor carries difference, it is essentially a neutral - Finally convert to VA -

EXAMPLE CIRCUIT - 120V 1:1 Isolation Transformer - 100%PF - =8A - =10A - =12A
Bold text is given information, highlighted text is calculated! See step-by-step below to see how they are calculated.

Example Calculation steps - Solving for everything Step 5 - Finish off the PEIR tables by calculating for resistance using ohms law
→ →
Step 1 - Make P-E-I-R Tables for everything!!! The Primary coil, both secondary
coils and each of the 3 loads should all have their own PEIR table. → →

Step 2 - In the above example we were given currents instead of resistances, → →

start by drawing your Current Arrows on the diagram using the given values → →
• Top - leaves - 8A drops off at and 12A heads to
→ →
○ That also means Coil has a current of 20A
• Bottom - is entering - 10A coming from and 12A from → →
○ That also means Coil has a current of 22A
Step 6 - Find the minimum sized transformer by picking the larger of the two VA
• Neutral - Carries the difference between and - the arrow will be
values on the coils. This is a 1:1 transformer, so whatever kVA you get on one side,
facing the same direction as the lower current value ( in this example)
you can get from the other side as well. No need to multiply it!
→ → •

Step 3 - The supply (source) current is just the sum of the two coil currents. A note on P-E-I-R Tables - if you struggle with math and have a tough time keeping
organized start using PEIR tables! As soon as you get any two pieces of information,
→ → you can figure out the other two pieces of information with just a few formulas.
Yes, it's a two-step process for some of the math, but you only have to remember
Step 4 - We have Voltage and Current for our loads and coils, calculate power
Ohm's Law, Power Law and one other equation (in case you're given Power and
→ → Resistance). I write these at the top of all my notes pages when I'm doing math:
→ →
→ →
→ →
→ → If you've never used the circle or triangle method before, all you have to do is cover
the letter you want to solve for with a finger, the other two will be in the position to
→ →
solve for the covered letter. E.g. Cover "R", "E" is over "I", so divide "E" by "I".

Transformers Page 100

Transformers - Instrument
Transformers - Instrument Transformers
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Transformers - Pages 249-279
Instrument Transformers - An instrument transformer is a special type of
transformer that is used to step-down high voltage or high current circuits to a
safe level that can be read with conventional tools. There are two primary
types of instrument transformers. One for current, one for voltage.
CT - Current transformers - Just like an AC amp-clamp, it's essentially just a coil
of wire that acts like the secondary coil of a transformer. Put the conductor
you want to measure through the middle of the coil and the magnetic field
from that conductor induces onto the coil of wire generating a much smaller
current onto the CT. The coils of wire are specifically sized to step the current
down by a certain factor. In the example on this page, it's a 200:5 CT, meaning
for every 200A of current on the conductor, the CT will read 5A.
• Current Ratio is always SOMETHING:5
• 5 Amps max on secondary, that's why it's a ##:5
• The magnetic flux is proportional to the CEMF
• Reads a magnetic square wave
• Must be shorted-out when not in use - Do not leave leads open!
dangerous voltages are generated!
• Available in wound, window, open gate An Instrument Transformer circuit reading both Voltage and Current
OK, so this circuit looks pretty confusing, but it's NOT THAT BAD. Trust me. It's really just
a wattmeter that is connected to a circuit using two step down devices instead of plugging
straight in. That's because a 12kV 200A watt meter would probably be the size of a
mini cooper. Let's go through each component and the math for them

Example Circuit - 12kV source, load drawing 120A of current

Potential Transformer - (PT) - On the left of the circuit you can see the potential
transformer connected to both lines of the AC circuit. Remember, this is just a plain old
single coil transformer. It says it's a 12kV:120V transformer.
⚫ Find the base voltage ratio - Convert the 12kV-120V to an " XX:1 " ratio
○
⚫ Uncalibrated Voltmeter - - A 0 to 150 V meter, don’t get distracted by the
150V. It'll never display more than 120V, because that's all our PT is capible of
putting out (remember, it's 12kV - 120V) This will show you the stepped down
voltage, the actual number of volts being induced on the secondary of our PT.
If you multiply that by 100, you'd get the actual line voltage.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 120 V

A 1000:5 Current Transformer (CT) ⚫ Calibrated Voltmeter - - Same as the meter above, but it has been calibrated
1000A Primary to 5A secondary to display the 12kV - 120V range when all it's reading is the same 0 - 120V as .
This model can be opened so it can be installed without This meter displays what is on the primary side of the PT.
having to re-run your primary wire through the middle ○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 12,000 V

PT - Potential Transformers - These are just step-down transformers that step

large voltages down to smaller voltages that can be read much more safely Current Transformer - (CT) - On the right of our circuit you can see the current
with conventional voltmeters. In the example on this page, we're stepping transformer. It's a single coil that one of our circuit's conductors runs through. The same
12,000 volts down to 120, something easily readable with any voltmeter. way you'd hook up your AC amp clamp to the circuit. It says it's a 200:5 current
transformer, so for every 200 Amps flowing through the coil, it'll generate 5.
• Ratio can be almost anything! Same as a regular transformer. ⚫ Find the base current ratio - Convert the 200A:5A to an " XX:1 " ratio
• Just steps down really big voltages to smaller ones ○
⚫ Uncalibrated Ammeter - - A 0 to 5A meter, this will display the current flowing
on the secondary side of our CT. If you multiply the number displayed on this
meter by 40, you would get the current flowing in the line above.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 3 A

⚫ Calibrated Ammeter - - Same as the meter above, but it has been calibrated
to display the 0 - 200A range when all it's reading is the same 0 - 5A as . This
meter displays what is on the primary side of the CT.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 120 A

Wattmeter - (W) - The wattmeter in the above example is measuring both the stepped
down voltage and current. So it's going to display a small number, but how do you know
what to multiply it by to know the actual line power?
A 100:1 Potential Transformer ⚫ Find the Wattmeter ratio - Multiply your other ratios together
12kV Primary 120V secondary
You ain't buyin' one of these for 200 bucks from Automation Direct ⚫ In the example above, the meter would be getting 120 V and 3 A
like you can the current transformer above, I can tell you that much

Transformers Page 101

3Φ Transformers Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Transformers Review
3 Overview
4 Basic Wiring
5 Mixed Wiring
6 Winding Equations
7 Wye High - Wye Low
8 Delta High - Delta Low
9 Delta High - Wye Low
10 Wye High - Delta Low
11 Multi-Winding Transformers
12 4-Wire and Open Delta Transformers
13 Autotransformers
14 Autotransformers / Compensator Math
15 Buck and Boost
16 Instrument Transformers
17 Instrument Transformer Protection
18 Harmonics
19 Formula Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

3Φ Transformers Page 102

 Calculating %Z - Once you get a short circuit voltage from the short circuit test,
Transformers - Review you can calculate your Impedance percentage (%Z). This is simply the percentage
difference between the short circuit and the rated voltages.

Level 2 Notes - Transformers %Z - Calculation

Transformer - A magnetically operated machine that changes the values of voltage,
current and impedance without changing frequency.
• Operation - Transformers operate on the principal of Mutual Induction
• Efficiency - 90% - 99% efficient - Most efficient machines known " A short circuit test has 3.6V generate rated current on a 120V winding "
• Classes - Three most common classes of transformers are:
1. Isolation Transformers
2. Autotransformers
3. Current transformers (see unit 9 in Delmar's)
Calculating Efficiency - Now that we have our Core Losses (S.H.R.E.D.) and our
Turns ratio - all values of a transformer are proportional to it's turns ratio. This is Copper Losses (S.H.R.E.D) we can do a single calculation to figure out our
the ratio of input windings to output windings. transformer's overall efficiency using the following calculation:
EG: 1000 input turns and 100 output turns makes a 10:1 ratio.
Conservation Of Energy - So where do the volts go on a step-down transformer? Efficiency - Calculation
They turn into amps! (in a pure transformer - ignoring losses!)
E.g. 4:1 1000V @ 1A transformer makes 250V @ 4A

Transformer Formulas " You perform a short circuit test and an open circuit test on a 150kVA
transformer, and they measure 1829W and 2198W respectively "
Voltage & Turns Voltage & Current Turns & Current

Calculating Available Fault Current - Calculating the available fault current will
Primary (Input) Coil Secondary (Output) Coil tell you how much current would flow should the terminals on the secondary "X"
coil become shorted. Use the following calculation:
• = No. Turns Primary • = No. Turns Secondary
• = Voltage of Primary • = Voltage of Secondary
• = Current in Primary • = Current in Secondary Fault Current - Calculation
Essentially : Volts per Turn on the Primary = Volts Per Turn on the Secondary
How they work - - Faraday's Law in action! Isolation transformers work by
generating a magnetic field with the pirmary coil which then induces into the
" Calculate available fault current for 120kVA 1200-240V with a %Z of 2.5% "
secondary coil. Because we're using AC power, the magnetic field is constantly
expanding and contracting as it alternates directions. This means the cutting of
flux lines never ends, and therefore voltage is always being induced. • Step 1 - Calculate the full load current using kVA and the "X" voltage
→ →
Step-Down Transformer - Any transformer used to reduce (step down) voltage.
I.e. Where the voltage or current on the secondary is less than the primary. Always divide the full kVA by the lower of the two numbers on the coil!
Step-Up Transformer - Any transformer used to increase (step up) voltage. • Step 2 - Using the full load current and the %Z, calculate fault current
I.e. Where the voltage or current on the secondary is greater than the primary.
Multi-Tapped Windings - Isolation transformers designed with more than one set
of lead wires connected to the primary or secondary. Allows for multiple voltages
in a single transformer. (Kablaziflam!)
• E.g. 120V, 208V & 240V multi-tapped primary
Or 12V, 24V & 48V multi-tapped secondary Percent Voltage Regulation - As the current through transformer windings
Multi-tapped secondary windings can be connected electrically between taps changes, the voltage drops across the internal resistances also changes.
• using one coil of wire, and splicing into it at various turns The voltage drops in the primary will affect the voltage induced in the secondary.
or can be completely electrically separated from each-other The voltage drops in the secondary cause the terminal voltage of the transformer
• using multiple, separate coils of wire each with a different no. of turns to differ from the voltage induced in the secondary windings.
When calculating multi-tapped windings you would simply treat each secondary as The percent voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in voltage from no-
a completely different transformer. load to full load, calculated with the following:
Transformer Polarities - Transformers will have high voltage windings (marked
with an H) and low voltage windings (marked with an X). Each of these letters will Voltage Regulation - Calculation
have binder post numbers. Even and odd numbers have opposite instantaneous
polarities from each-other.
• High voltage winding uses and
• Low voltage winding uses and
Key Takeaways - we shouldn't have to calculate any of these on the test but…
• When and are positive, and are negitive and vice versa
• Resistive loads have good (low values due to good power factor)
Remember: when looking at a transformer with the high-voltage terminals at the • Inductive loads have meh (higher values if power factor is bad)
top, terminal will always be the top left. • Capacitive loads have BAD (Negative % values, uh oh!)
Excitation Current - Current flow in the primary required to magnetize the core.
Transformers are considered ACTIVE devices. When current flows in the
secondary, it cancels out some of the flux on the primary winding which in turn
reduces the impedance on the primary coil, allowing more current to flow. It's self
regulating based on how much load you put on it!

3Φ Transformers Page 103

 Transformer Configurations - The windings of a three-phase transformer can be
3Φ Xfrmr - Overview connected in both Wye or Delta
• Wye Connection - Achieved b y connecting the 3 similarly labelled ends (i.e.
small letters > a,b,c or ) into a star-point or Neutral
BCIT Instructor James Doyle made a FANTASTIC set of videos you should watch to
really get a fundamental understanding of how three-phase transformers work, I've • Delta Connection - Connecting opposite label ends on the 1st and 2nd
peppered them throughout the pages, or you can watch them all here: transformer, 2nd and 3rd transformer and 3rd and 1st transformer.
Because transformers have two sides, there are four possible configurations, here
VIDEO PLAYLIST LINK they are with video explanations posted below them.
Y→Y ∆→∆ ∆→Y Y→∆
BCIT - 3-Phase Transformer Video Playlist No 32 CSA Y2Y No 33 CSA D2D No 34 CSA D2Y No 35 CSA Y2D

ITA Binder 2 - Three-Phase Characteristics

Section P3 - Pages 8 through 12
Transformers - As with single-phase systems, there are three-phase transformers,
and most of the same rules apply to both of them. Transformers change Volts and
amps with minimal impedance and no moving parts, just a constantly changing
magnetic field and stationary wires.
Watch a video introduction here: No 26 OVERVIEW TXR
Single-Phase vs Three-Phase - You can use three separate single-phase
transformers to transform 3-phase, but there are some key advantages to using a
ready-built 3-phase transformer aka: a Polyphase transformer such as:
• Higher efficiency
• Smaller footprint Wye Connected Transformer Delta Connected Transformer
• Lower cost
• Less complex i.e. phases are already interconnected Phase Displacement - Depending on the above configuration used, you will have to
have a specific phase displacement for your transformer.
There are also a few minor advantages to using three single-phase transformers:
CSA doesn't specify Primary and Secondary, but use High and Low sides when talking
• Repair one phase, leaving others running
about transformers. This way the phase displacement stays consistent.
• Simpler and less expensive to repair, replace just one
• Only need to stock a single, less expensive unit as a spare • Like Connections - For Y to Y and ∆ to ∆ there should always be a phase
displacement of .
Watch a video explanation here: No 31 POLY OR BANK

Y → Y - Angular Displacement ∆ → ∆ - Angular Displacement

• Mixed Connections - For Y to ∆ and ∆ to Y must have a phase displacement

of with the high side leading the low side for standard A,B,C phase
rotation. And the high side lagging the load side for B,A,C phase rotation.

Three Single Phase Transformers in a Bank Y → ∆ - Angular Displacement ∆ → Y - Angular Displacement

Diagrams - There are set rules for drawing transformer diagrams, here are a few:
• Numbering is used instead of arrows - H1 and X1 are in place of the tail while
H2 and X2 are in place of the head
• When making diagrams, always draw the High (H) side of the transformer
first (on the left), regardless if it's for step up or step down.
• For mixed configurations, the high side must always be leading by
Primary, Secondary, Step Up, Step Down - Sometimes it can be confusing when
drawing your phase diagrams as to Primary, Secondary, Step Up and step down.
When dealing with a Phasor Diagram description, you have two words, and they can
be either Wye or Delta, the order of these words matters!
• The first word is the PRIMARY side, or the side you connect to the source
• The second word is the SECONDARY side, or the side you connect the load
• In a Step Down configuration, the PRIMARY is the HIGH VOLTAGE
• In a Step Down configuration, the SECONDARY is the LOW VOLTAGE
A Polyphase Transformer • In a Step Up configuration, the PRIMARY is the LOW VOLTAGE
• In a Step UP configuration, the SECONDARY is the HIGH VOLTAGE
Transformer Construction: Just like single-phase transformers, a three-phase
transformer is constructed of a laminated steel core, however three-phase Delta to Wye Step Down Wye to Delta Step Down
transformers are designed to have 3 vertical legs, both the high and low coils for Delta Primary - Wye Secondary Wye Primary - Delta Secondary
each phase are wrapped around one of these vertical legs. See the polyphase Delta High Voltage - Wye Low Voltage Wye High Voltage - Delta Low Voltage
transformer image just above for what this looks like.
At any instant, the flux on any one leg of the transformer equals the phasor sum of Delta to Wye Step Up Wye to Delta Step Up
the flux on the other two legs. Delta Primary - Wye Secondary Wye Primary - Delta Secondary
Delta Low Voltage - Wye High Voltage Wye Low Voltage - Delta High Voltage

3Φ Transformers Page 104

 Delta to Delta Configuration - Drawing the phases head-to-toe with even numbers
3Φ Xfrmr - Basic Wiring touching odd gives for both sides of the transformer gives you a delta to delta
connection. Start by drawing you’re A-Phase on the high side at , and connect
the other two phasors head to tail until you get a triangle. Remember - regardless of
ITA Binder 2 - Three-Phase Characteristics which is high and which is low we always draw the high side first as the left diagram.
Section P3 - Pages 8 through 12 Watch a video example here: No 33 CSA D2D
Basic Configurations - When it comes to wiring the high and low side, the two "basic
configurations" I'm referring to are Wye to Wye and Delta to Delta.
Wye to Wye Configuration - The sides and sides of all 3 phases are tied
together to give us a star-point. The Starpoint on the secondary is grounded and
becomes the neutral. Below is a diagram. Remember - regardless of which is high
and which is low we always draw the high side first as the left diagram.
Watch a video example here: No 32 CSA Y2Y

∆ - High Side ∆ - Low Side

Delta to Delta Wiring - Just as with Wye to Wye you can use additive or subtractive,
but once again the polarities matter. Just make sure the even numbered terminals
and odd numbered terminals are doing what the should
Watch a video example here: No 37 WIRING D2D

Y - High Side Y - Low Side

Wye to Wye Wiring - The physical wiring of the transformer bank can be done in
multiple ways depending on what you want to achieve, because there are 3
separate windings we can wire them as: Additive, Subtractive or some combination
of the two. Just be careful what side your even and odd terminals sit on.
When it comes to what terminal to put on what line, you reference your phasor
drawing (see example above). The draw lines between the transformer H and X
terminals and their respective lines on the phasor drawing.
Watch a video example here: No 36 WIRING Y2
• Additive Wiring - Even numbered terminals sit across from odd numbered
terminals and vice-versa.
• Subtractive Wiring - Even numbered terminals sit across from even
numbered terminals and odd numbered terminals sit across from odd.
• Mixed Wiring - You can even mix Additive and Subtractive transformers as
Delta to Delta - Additive Transformers
long as you put the same polarity on your lines (ie: all the 1's or all the 2's)
Notice how the and terminals line up with the Lines in the phasor
drawing above? That's how you make the connections, using a phasor drawing.

Closure Test - Before you ever close a transformer with a Delta Secondary you must
always perform a closure test! Here are the step by step instructions:
• Step 1 - Connect all legs of the Primary coils
• Step 2 - Connect all but ONE leg of the secondary coils
• Step 3 - Power the Primary (source) on
• Step 4 - Measure the voltage between the one leg you haven't connected
and the point where you intend to connect it.
○ 0V - Everything is OK! You can finish setup
○ 2x Secondary Voltage - You've wired one backwards and will cause
Wye to Wye - Subtractive Transformers Wye to Wye - Additive Transformers
a dead short if you proceed! Check all your connections.
Wrong Connections - So what happens if you hook up one of the three transformers
backwards? In a Wye, it's not exactly dangerous like in a Delta, but it will give you
incorrect meter readings. Because you're flipping one of the phases by , they
are now only 60 degrees away. When testing between it and another line you will
get phase voltage instead of Line voltage.
So if you see Phase voltage between A and B as well as B and C, but you see Line
voltage between A and C, you know that Phase B must have it's polarities reversed.

- A failed Closure Test 0(ish) Volts - Safe to proceed!

You never want to be testing between an and an or an and an . This is

what it might look like as a phasor diagram:

3Φ Transformers Page 105

3Φ Xfrmr - Mixed Wiring
ITA Binder 2 - Three-Phase Characteristics
Section P3 - Pages 8 through 12
Delta to Wye Configuration - Once you've built the Wye side, start building the
Mixed Configurations - When it comes to wiring the high and low side, the two side, but remember, the phasors have to be at the same angle, in the below
"mixed configurations" I'm referring to are Delta to Wye and Wye to Delta. example this will shift the delta clockwise by .
REMEMBER - Regardless of which is high and which is low (step up vs step down) In the example below I didn't do anything fancy, I literally just picked up the phasors
we always draw the high side first, as the LEFT diagram. from the Wye side, and dragged them into a different location. If you look at them,
Delta to Wye Configuration - This is apparently one of the most frequently used the A, B and C phase are all pointing in the exact same direction
connections. Once you've built the Delta side, start building the Wye side, but Watch a video example here: No 35 CSA Y2D
there are two tricks to remember with this particular layout.
• 1 - Phasors have the most voltage at the arrow head, and since we want
the most voltage we can, the line that is at the arrow head on the delta
side, goes with the phasor pointing at it. This will result in your lines being
connected to differently labelled phasors.
• 2 - Phasors have to be at the same angle between the two sides. That
means whatever angle it's been drawn on the high side, you need to draw
it on the same angle for the low.
In the example below I didn't do anything fancy, I literally just picked up the
phasors from the Delta side, and dragged them into a different location. If you
look at them, the A, B and C phase are all pointing in the exact same direction
Watch a video example here: No 34 CSA D2Y Y - High Side ∆ - Low Side

Wye to Delta Wiring - Everything is done as the previous examples, except you wont
use Watch a video example here: No 39 WIRING Y2D

∆ - High Side Y - Low Side

Delta to Wye Wiring - Everything is done as the previous examples, including

except you wont use a neutral on the Delta side. Watch for polarities!
Remember to be careful with Phase and Line now, since like I noted in green above
your lines have switched phasors. This is probably the most difficult part.
Watch a video example here: No 38 WIRING D2Y

Wye to Delta - Additive Transformers

Notice how the and terminals line up with the Lines in the phasor
drawing above? That's how you make the connections, using a phasor drawing.

Closure Test - Once again, before you ever close a transformer with a Delta
Secondary you must always perform a closure test! Check the Delta-to-Delta
writeup on the previous page for a detailed walk-through.

Main Take-aways - Really there are only a few takeaways from these last two pages
• Draw the high side first
• Do your wiring according to your phasor diagrams
• Pay attention to polarity!
• Always perform a closure test on Delta secondaries!

Delta to Wye - Additive Transformers

3Φ Transformers Page 106

3Φ Xfrmr - Winding Equations
WYE HIGH - WYE LOW Wye to Wye

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

DELTA HIGH - DELTA LOW Delta to Delta

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

WYE HIGH - DELTA LOW Wye to Delta

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Line Voltage Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

DELTA HIGH - WYE LOW Delta to Wye

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Line Voltage Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

Multi-Winding Transformers - All Values are based on 600V, 10A, ~10.4 kVA

Parallel Wye Series Wye Parallel Delta Series Delta

346V, 5 A Per coil 173.2V, 10 A Per Coil 600V V, 2.88 A Per coil 300V, 5.77 A Per coil

3Φ Transformers Page 107

3Φ Xfrmr - Y High - Y Low
WYE HIGH - WYE LOW

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

kVATOTAL
kVAPHASE
ELINE Primary
ELINE Secondary
Turns Ratio
Primary Primary Secondary Secondary
Line Phase Line Phase
P
E
I
R

3Φ Transformers Page 108

3Φ Xfrmr - ∆ High - ∆ Low
DELTA HIGH - DELTA LOW

Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
Turns Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

kVATOTAL
kVAPHASE
ELINE Primary
ELINE Secondary
Turns Ratio
Primary Primary Secondary Secondary
Line Phase Line Phase
P
E
I
R

3Φ Transformers Page 109

3Φ Xfrmr - ∆ High - Y Low
DELTA HIGH - WYE LOW

Primary Coil Voltage

kVATOTAL
Secondary Coil Voltage
kVAPHASE Turns Ratio
ELINE Primary Line Voltage Ratio
Primary Line Current
ELINE Secondary
Primary Phase Current
Turns Ratio Secondary Line Current

L2L Volts Ratio Secondary Phase Current

Primary Primary Secondary Secondary

Line Phase Line Phase
P
E
I
R

3Φ Transformers Page 110

3Φ Xfrmr - Y High - ∆ Low
WYE HIGH - DELTA LOW

kVATOTAL Primary Coil Voltage

Secondary Coil Voltage
kVAPHASE
Turns Ratio
ELINE Primary Line Voltage Ratio

ELINE Secondary Primary Line Current

Primary Phase Current
Turns Ratio Secondary Line Current
L2L Volts Ratio Secondary Phase Current

Primary Primary Secondary Secondary

Line Phase Line Phase
P
E
I
R

3Φ Transformers Page 111

 HIGH Side Vector LOW Side Vector

3Φ Xfrmr - Multi-Winding HIGH LOW

VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
How to wire a Dual Winding Transformer - With 16 different connection types to
chose from, it can be hard to know which one to use when. DELTA DELTA
You will be given a Parallel Coil Rating / Series Coil Rating any time you're told about a PARALLEL SERIES
transformer, such as 300V/600V to 120V/240V 10kVA Transformer.
The 300V and 120V ratings are PER-WINDING, while the 600V and 240V ratings are
when BOTH WINDING are connected in series. When your line voltage lines up with HIGH LOW
the coil voltage, you use a DELTA configuration. When it doesn't you use a Wye. VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

REMEMBER: On SERIES - VOLTAGES ADD while on PARALLEL - CURRENTS ADD DELTA DELTA
Watch a video example of this here: Tx 11 Dual winding Tx connections SERIES PARALLEL

Just follow this guide to figure out what to use:

• Parallel Delta - Line Voltage matches Low Number HIGH LOW
• Series Delta - Line Voltage matches High Number VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
• Parallel Wye - Line Voltage is Low Number
• Series Wye - Line Voltage is High Number WYE DELTA
PARALLEL PARALLEL
Example - You have three 300V/600V to 120V/240V - 10 kVA Each
Connection Connection
HIGH LOW
300V Parallel Delta 120V Parallel Delta
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
600V Series Delta 240V Series Delta
WYE DELTA
301-599V Parallel Wye 121-239V Parallel Wye
SERIES SERIES
>600V Series Wye >240V Series Wy

HIGH Side Vector LOW Side Vector

HIGH LOW
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
HIGH LOW
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE WYE DELTA
PARALLEL SERIES
WYE WYE
PARALLEL PARALLEL

HIGH LOW
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
HIGH LOW
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE WYE DELTA
SERIES PARALLEL
WYE WYE
SERIES SERIES

HIGH LOW
HIGH LOW VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
DELTA WYE
WYE WYE PARALLEL PARALLEL
PARALLEL SERIES

HIGH LOW
HIGH LOW VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
DELTA WYE
WYE WYE SERIES SERIES
SERIES PARALLEL

HIGH LOW
HIGH LOW VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
DELTA WYE
DELTA DELTA PARALLEL SERIES
PARALLEL PARALLEL

HIGH LOW
HIGH LOW VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
DELTA WYE
DELTA DELTA SERIES PARALLEL
SERIES SERIES

3Φ Transformers Page 112

 ITA Binder 2 - Open Delta
3Φ Xfrmr - 4-Wire & Open Delta Section P3 - Pages 51-53 as well as 78 and 79
Open Delta - Created when one of 3 transformer windings is removed from a
ITA Binder 2 - Three-Phase Four-Wire Delta Transformer delta connection. It can be useful for the following:
Section P3 - Pages 51-53 as well as 78 and 79 • Temporarily supply 3-phase power during transformer maintenance
• Initially supply a system that is expected to expand in the future
Four-Wire Delta Transformer - You can't supply single phase loads such as lighting • Supply loads with a majority single phase, only minor 3-phase.
with a regular delta, but you can use a Four-Wire Delta.
kVA Capacity - Because there is an entire coil missing, the other two coils have to
To connect single-phase loads the system must be grounded. So we ground the
make up for it. That means they'll be putting out a lot more current than in a true
center winding of ONE of the phases on the LOW SIDE. This will give us three
delta, so you can't pull as much kVA as you normally would.
separate voltages out of a delta coil.
You must not exceed 57.7% of normal rated load!
This will result in one of the line voltages to ground being higher than the other
two (see diagram below). kVA Equations: There are 3 different equations you can use to solve it, using one,
Canadian Electrical Code - The CEC requires Phase A to be the high phase and the two or three transformer kVA load.
high phase must not be in the same enclosure as the Neutral! • 1 Transformer - It can handle a single transformers kVA
• 2 Transformers - It can handle 86.6% of the total kVA of 2 transformers
• 3 Transformers - It can handle 57.7% of the total kVA of 3 transformers
○ For example - If each transformer was 100kVA
▪
▪
▪
Maximum Line Current - Because two windings are in series with two lines the
maximum line current is limited to the maximum phase current! No more !
But, the maximum LOAD current of a three-phase load will still have to be
meaning that it can supply far less kVA than normal.

Neutral - Phase Voltages - You will ground the B-Phase in the middle, which will
give you different voltages depending on where you measure Open-Wye to Open-Delta - Primarily used in rural areas where load is mostly
• Line B to Neutral - 1/2 of single phase and small three-phase loads. Supply authorities will do this because
• Line C to Neutral - 1/2 of you only run two phases and a Neutral. Here's an example with equations:
• Line A to Neutral - High Leg!
Open Wye to Open Delta - 4160V to 480V Using two 100kVA Transformers
High-Leg Voltage - There a few ways to solve for the High-Leg voltage, by adding
phasors, straight math or using Pythagorean Theorem. The easiest for me to
remember is Pythagorean Thereom, you just cut your delta in half to make the
triangle you want to solve the opposite side on.
Phasors - ∠ ∠
Math -
Phyth -

3Φ Transformers Page 113

 Open-Delta Autotransformer - Commonly used in construction of reduced-voltage
3Φ Xfrmr - Auto Transformers starters for small three-phase motors. Wye and Open Delta are most common
types of autotransformer connections.
Advantages - There are a number of advantages to Open-Delta autotransformers
ITA Binder 2 - Learning Task 4 - Autotransformers • One less transformer than previous two discussed
Section P3 - Pages 87 through 94 • Changing voltage steps only requires two tap changes!
Autotransformers - Only transform part of the input energy. The rest is • Doesn't suffer from phase displacement like delta to delta
conducted directly to the load. Therefore they require less copper and a smaller • More compact than wye to wye
iron core than an isolated winding transformer to supply the same kVA load.
Common Winding - Where the magic happens. Current flows through here and
produces a flux that counters the flux in the series part of the winding
Advantages - There are 4 primary advantages to autotransformers:
• Costs less to manufacture
• Smaller than isolated winding transformer for same kVA rating
• Fewer coil and core losses make it more efficient
• Lower %Z so better full load to no load voltage regulation
Disadvantages - There are a few very important autotransformer disadvantages:
• Lower %Z means available fault current is MUCH HIGHER fault current. Extended-Delta Auto-tx. - Similar to Delta-to-Delta but permits voltage ratios higher
They rely on line and load impedance to limit fault currents than 2:1. - An' that's all the ITA has to say about that! (Looks cool as frig tho)
• No electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuits so any
voltage spikes / disturbances are transferred
• An open in the common part of the line will cause near full primary
voltage across your load. This typically limits voltage ratios to 3:1 max.
► Because of these hazards the electrical code limits their indoor use, as
such they are mostly used outdoor.

Single Zig-Zag Autotransformer - Used to provide a neutral (3-phase 4-wire) where

it's not otherwise available such as in a delta connected secondary system by
allowing for the grounding of the neutral point in a delta-connected secondary.
Advantages - There are a few advantages to Zig-Zag Autotransformers:
• Unlike the wye connection, can supply single-phase loads while still
Happy, Healthy Autotx. Why we limit them to 3:1 maintaining stable phase Voltages. However, you'd need a higher kVA
rating than a straight Wye connection.
• Eliminates third harmonic (180 Hz) signals created by VFDs and computer
circuits. Under normal operating conditions, only these small excitation
Types of Three-Phase Autotransformers
currents flow through the windings of a zigzag transformer. These currents
Wye-Connected Autotransformer - Can step up or down voltages, used in large produce counter-emf equal to the applied voltages of the windings.
motors as compensator starters that reduce the voltage applied to a motor during Unbalanced Loads - If a zigzag circuit contains an unbalanced wye-connected load,
startup. Not good for single-phase loads as it causes voltage imbalances. Zig-Zag the neutral current is divided equally among the three legs of the zig-zag. Because
connection is used for single-phase / three-phase combo loads. these three currents are in phase with each-other the MMF created by the coils at
• Advantages - Simplest, most efficient 3-Phase the top of each leg oppose the currents created at the bottom of each leg, and they
Auto-tx. Doesn't create any phase displacement cancel each-other out.
between primary and secondary circuits.
• Disadvantages - If not properly tied to system
ground, 3rd harmonic voltages between L and N
may cause insulation problems in windings.
Tertiary windings (special insulation) which allow
3rd harmonic magnetizing current to flow are
used to overcome this

Delta-Connected Autotransformer - Can step up or down voltages, but ratio of

primary to secondary must not exceed 2:1 or 1:2. Suffers from phase
displacement as ratio increases, but doesn't suffer from third harmonic issues like
Wye-Connected Autotransformers.

A Zig-Zag Phase Diagram Zig-Zag Winding Arrangement

Look at this absolute mess - Even coils oppose odd coils, providing a
< 2:1 Ratio - Nice! Delta Autotransformer > 2:1 Ratio - BOoo! I'm not remaking it… noise-cancelling effect

3Φ Transformers Page 114

 Open-Delta Autotransformer - Everything is essentially the same as the Wye
3Φ Xfrmr - Compensator Math Connected on the left, the only difference is that line and phase voltage are the same.
Because all the math I used below uses Line values, there's no real change.
Keep in mind he Open Delta 57.7% of total kVA DOESN'T APPLY to autotransformers
ITA Binder 2 - Learning Task 5 - Autotransformer Math
Open-Delta Connected Compensator Voltage - Just like the Wye an open delta phase
Section P3 - Pages 97 through 101
will have taps placed along it that use a percentage of the coil. The joining end of
Compensator - When an autotransformer is used to start a motor it's called a each phase will be marked Zero (0) as reference, the open end 100%. Whatever
compensator. These devices reduce the inrush current and motor-starting percentage of the coil is in use is the percentage of voltage you will get out of it. The
torque. The two most common are Wye and Open-Delta. only difference is, there is no PHASE voltage, because
Wye Connected Compensator Voltage - Each phase will have taps placed along it
that use a percentage of the coil. One end of each phase will be marked Zero (0)
as reference, the other 100%. Whatever percentage of the coil is in use is the Torque - The starting torque of the motor is directly proportional to the SQUARE of
percentage of voltage you will get out of it. the voltage supplied to the motor. If you square the percentage as a decimal, you'll
see what percentage of torque you're getting.

Torque - The starting torque of the motor is directly proportional to the SQUARE
of the voltage supplied to the motor. If you square the percentage as a decimal, Primary Line Current - Because you only tap the secondary, your primary line voltage
you'll see what percentage of torque you're getting. will stay the same, reducing it's current.

Primary Line Current - Because you only tap the secondary, your primary line Total kVA - kVA delivered to the load can be calculated using secondary values
voltage will stay the same, reducing it's current.

Total kVA - kVA delivered to the load can be calculated using secondary values Open-Delta Connected Compensator - Example

600V Line @ 80% Tap - Motor is drawing 20A from Secondary

Wye Connected Compensator - Example

600V Line @ 80% Tap - Motor is drawing 20A from Secondary

• Available Starting Torque - Square root of tap percentage:

○
• Tap-to-Tap Voltage - AKA: secondary line voltage:
○
• Secondary Phase Voltage - Voltage between tap and zero mark:
• Available Starting Torque - Square root of tap percentage: ○
○ • Primary Line Current - Remember, primary still runs at 600V:
• Tap-to-Tap Voltage - AKA: secondary line voltage: ○
○ • Total kVA - Power being pulled by the motor in reduced voltage state:
• Secondary Phase Voltage - Voltage between tap and Neutral: ○
○ ○ As with regular 3-phase, If there was a power factor, you just multiply
your kVA by the decimal form of PF to get your kW.
• Primary Line Current - Remember, primary still runs at 600V:
○
A note on Ratios - Remember, you might be given a weird starting voltage at a given
• Total kVA - Power being pulled by the motor in reduced voltage state: ratio, you can use these two triangles to figure out voltages or other ratios from them
○
Ratios / Percentages Ratio / Voltages
○ As with regular 3-phase, If there was a power factor, you just
multiply your kVA by the decimal form of PF to get your kW.

• = New ratio (XX:1) • = Voltage on the primary coil (V)

• = Original coil ratio (XX:1) • = Voltage on the secondary coil (V)
• = Tap placement % (decimal) • = Ratio at given voltages (XX:1)

Don't forget to check out my Level 2 Transformer notes on Multi-Tap windings.

3Φ Transformers Page 115

3Φ Xfrmr - Buck and Boost
ITA Binder 2 - Learning Task 5 - Buck and Boost
Section P3 - Pages 101 through 105
Buck and Boost transformers - These are special isolated-winding transformers that
have been wired to be used as autotransformers. They are used to compensate for
Line Drop, non-standard voltage machines or to transform between two similar
standard voltages (208V → 240V etc.). We call these open delta auto transformers.
You do this by connecting the High and Low coils in series.
• Boost - Connect to
• Buck - Connect to
Buck and Boost Voltages - When you're bucking or boosting, you'll either be
subtracting with a Step-Down (bucking) or adding with a step up (boosting) one coils
voltage from the other. Just like in 2nd year!
• Boost -
• Buck -
Watch a video example here: Tx 25 Calculation Open Delta Auto Tx

Full disclosure - I'm struggling with understanding Boost/Buck Open Delta Autotransformers, so use the following information at your own risk. I've found the easiest way
to solve them is to use a P-E-I-R Table with four columns. One for the Line side - low voltage, one for the Line side - High Voltage, and one for each side of the Coil, H and X.
You fill it out just like you would a regular 3-Phase P-E-I-R Table, with the Line kVA being root 3 higher than E and I combined. But the currents are where it gets funny, just
remember that and are in series with each-other, so they share the same current. Depending on the question, you may have to solve a different one first.

P kVA per Transformer kVA per Transformer

Max kVA it can make Max kVA it can make
Boost:
E Buck:

I Aka: Common Curr.

The Teacher in the above video explains it really well with an example, maybe watch that and see if it helps you.

Side Note - Like I said, I'm not 100% confident in this, so make sure you give it a try before committing to it. It
appears to be working for me, but it's kinda janky. If you have a better way of doing it please feel free to reach
out to me on discord @ Dantwan#6069

3Φ Transformers Page 116

3Φ Xfrmr - Instrument
Transformers - Instrument Transformers
Transformers → Power Point PDF → Transformers - Pages 249-279
Instrument Transformers - An instrument transformer is a special type of
transformer that is used to step-down high voltage or high current circuits to a
safe level that can be read with conventional tools. There are two primary
types of instrument transformers. One for current, one for voltage.
CT - Current transformers - Just like an AC amp-clamp, it's essentially just a coil
of wire that acts like the secondary coil of a transformer. Put the conductor
you want to measure through the middle of the coil and the magnetic field
from that conductor induces onto the coil of wire generating a much smaller
current onto the CT. The coils of wire are specifically sized to step the current
down by a certain factor. In the example on this page, it's a 200:5 CT, meaning
for every 200A of current on the conductor, the CT will read 5A.
• Current Ratio is always SOMETHING:5
• 5 Amps max on secondary, that's why it's a ##:5
• The magnetic flux is proportional to the CEMF
• Reads a magnetic square wave
• Must be shorted-out when not in use - Do not leave leads open!
dangerous voltages are generated!
• Available in wound, window, open gate
An Instrument Transformer circuit reading both Voltage and Current
PT - Potential Transformers - These are just step-down transformers that step
large voltages down to smaller voltages that can be read much more safely OK, so this circuit looks pretty confusing, but it's NOT THAT BAD. Trust me. It's really just
with conventional voltmeters. In the example on this page, we're stepping a wattmeter that is connected to a circuit using two step down devices instead of plugging
12,000 volts down to 120, something easily readable with any voltmeter. straight in. That's because a 12kV 200A watt meter would probably be the size of a
mini cooper. Let's go through each component and the math for them
• Ratio can be almost anything! Same as a regular transformer.
• Just steps down really big voltages to smaller ones
Example Circuit - 12kV source, load drawing 120A of current
Potential Transformer - (PT) - On the left of the circuit you can see the potential
transformer connected to both lines of the AC circuit. Remember, this is just a plain old
single coil transformer. It says it's a 12kV:120V transformer.
⚫ Find the base voltage ratio - Convert the 12kV-120V to an " XX:1 " ratio
○
⚫ Uncalibrated Voltmeter - - A 0 to 150 V meter, don’t get distracted by the
150V. It'll never display more than 120V, because that's all our PT is capible of
putting out (remember, it's 12kV - 120V) This will show you the stepped down
voltage, the actual number of volts being induced on the secondary of our PT.
If you multiply that by 100, you'd get the actual line voltage.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 120 V
A 100:1 Potential Transformer A 1000:5 Current Transformer (CT)
12kV Primary 120V secondary 1000A Primary to 5A secondary ⚫ Calibrated Voltmeter - - Same as the meter above, but it has been calibrated
to display the 12kV - 120V range when all it's reading is the same 0 - 120V as .
Three-Phase and Instrument Transformers - The only real difference with This meter displays what is on the primary side of the PT.
three phase instrument transformers is you're going to have to watch more ○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 12,000 V
than one line at a time.
Typically with BCIT questions, they're going to give you two wattmeters, and Current Transformer - (CT) - On the right of our circuit you can see the current
two sets of PTs and CTs. Add the two watt meters results together, multiply it transformer. It's a single coil that one of our circuit's conductors runs through. The same
by the Power Ratio to get the circuits power. No root3 required! way you'd hook up your AC amp clamp to the circuit. It says it's a 200:5 current
transformer, so for every 200 Amps flowing through the coil, it'll generate 5.
⚫ Find the base current ratio - Convert the 200A:5A to an " XX:1 " ratio
○
⚫ Uncalibrated Ammeter - - A 0 to 5A meter, this will display the current flowing
on the secondary side of our CT. If you multiply the number displayed on this
meter by 40, you would get the current flowing in the line above.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 3 A

⚫ Calibrated Ammeter - - Same as the meter above, but it has been calibrated
to display the 0 - 200A range when all it's reading is the same 0 - 5A as . This
meter displays what is on the primary side of the CT.
○ In the Example above, this meter would be displaying 120 A

Wattmeter - (W) - The wattmeter in the above example is measuring both the stepped
down voltage and current. So it's going to display a small number, but how do you know
what to multiply it by to know the actual line power?
The example on the right side of this page is from year 2, but everything still ⚫ Find the Wattmeter ratio - Multiply your other ratios together
applies, except the final wattage. You'd have to do what I just said above
instead. ⚫ In the example above, the meter would be getting 120 V and 3 A

3Φ Transformers Page 117

3Φ Xfrmr - CT/PT Protection
ITA Binder 2 - Learning Task 6 - Instrument Xfrmers.
Section P3 - Pages 108 through 117
Ground Fault Detection - Sometimes we use instrument transformers to provide
Instrument Transformers - An instrument transformer is a special type of Delta circuit ground fault detection. The legs of your instrument transformers
transformer that is used to step-down high voltage or high current circuits to a are tied to the 3 lines, while the legs are tied to ground.
safe level that can be read with conventional tools. There are two primary
The X side of your instrument transformers are delta connected to lamps that will
types of instrument transformers. One for current, one for voltage.
glow with across them when operating normally.
PT - Potential Transformers - For safely measuring voltage
There is an alarm relay connected across all 3 transformers in the same way you
• Step Voltages down to maximum of 120 V
• Ratio of XX:1, get ratio by dividing PT top coil voltage by 120 V would do a delta closure test. When the system is operating normally, it will see
0V across it.
• Top Coil Voltage will change depending on Wye or Delta connection
CT - Current transformers - For safely measuring currents
• Steps Current down to maximum of 5A
• Current Ratio is always XX:5 - Divide XX by 5 for an XX:1 Ratio
• Must be shorted-out when not in use - Dangerous Voltages!
• Sometimes used to monitor large motors, and use smaller OLR
Just remember that both CTs and PTs will just measure the current or voltage
for whatever wire they're connected to and step it down. The tricky part
comes with HOW they're connected. PTs can be connected to read Line
(Delta) or Phase (Wye), and CTs can be connected to read either Line or Phase.
LOOK AT THE DRAWINGS CAREFULLY AND USE 3-PHASE LOGIC.
Wattmeters - 1 to 3 wattmeters will often be connected to your CTs and PTs
• Ratio is calculated by multiplying your by your
○ e.g.
• Circuit total watts calculated depending on number of wattmeters
○ 1= - For balanced loads only
○ 2 or 3 = Sum total of all wattmeters (add them together!)
• Remember, the result will be in WATTS, or TRUE POWER, not VA!
○ If you need VA, you have to multiply Watts by Power Factor
Watch Video Example Pt.1 here: Tx 28 Calculation Instrument Tx part 1
Watch Video Example Pt.2 here: Tx 29 Calculation Instrument Tx part 2
Window CT protection circuit - There is an alarm-relay protection circuit that
utilizes a Window-type CT and a Zig-Zag or wye-delta grounding transformer. When there ground fault on one of the lines the instrument transformer for the
Because the window-type CT is wrapped around all 3 wires, the currents faulted line will now have no potential difference and the light will go out,
cancel each-other out and it sees no current flow. meanwhile the other two will have line voltage across them, causing them to glow
brighter (sound familiar?) The alarm relay will see 120V, trip and can be used to
activate an audio/visual alarm or PLC.
Watch a video example here: Tx 30 Calculation PTs in ground fault detection

In the event of a fault condition, the zigzag transformer provides a high

resistance path back to the other lines, imbalancing the currents causing a
current to show up on the CT, this activates an imbedded alarm relay.

3Φ Transformers Page 118

3Φ Xfrmr - Harmonics
EW Industrial Book 6th Edition - Harmonics Unit
Unit 22 - Pages 321 through 329
Harmonics - Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents that operate at a
frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental power frequency. Detecting Harmonics on Single-Phase - On single-phase systems you can
use two ammeters to check for harmonics. One must be a True RMS meter,
For Example - 60Hz Power has harmonics of and
the other must ben an Average meter. Clamp both meters onto the same
coil and use the following equation to get the ratio:

A ratio of 1 would indicate no harmonic distortion, while a ratio of 0.5 would

indicate sever harmonic distortion.
Detecting Harmonics on Three-Phase - Since harmonics typically occur in
four-wire wye-connected systems, we'll have to measure all three lines
using a true RMS and an Instantaneous Peak meter such as an oscilloscope.
Once you have all that information, use the following equation to get your
Total Harmonic Derating Factor (THDF):

Causes - There are many causes of harmonic pollution including This will give you a number between 0 and 1.0. Take this number and use it
• Fluorescent Fixtures - nonlinear inductors, DC ballasts as a derating factor by multiplying your kVA by it. This will be the maximum
• Switching DC loads such as motor Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) kVA you should be running that system at.
• Personal computers and printers
Removing harmonics - You can remove harmonics using ZigZag
Effects - There are also many effects from harmonic pollution including transformers or high pulse converters. ZigZag transformers will cause two
• Excessive neutral currents inverse signals of the harmonics to be induced in the core at the same time,
○ 3rd, 6th and 9th harmonics are in-phase with three-phase power in these two inverted signals cancel each-other out.
wye circuits, causing phases to become additive in the neutral
• Solenoids and lighting ballasts can cause heat to be generated in windings I have no idea what a pulse converter is. Material doesn't cover it.
• Bearing failure in motors if bearings are insulated type
• Blown fuses on PF correction capacitors due to high voltage/currents
• Overheated transformers in delta windings of delta wye transformer
○ 3rd harmonics from load side circulate in the primary side increasing
the SHRED effects and building heat
Harmonic Sequence - Harmonics are classified by name, frequency and sequence.
The sequence refers to phasor rotation with respect to the fundamental waveform.

Name Frequency Sequence

Fundamental 60 Hz +
2nd Harmonic 120 Hz -
3rd Harmonic 180 Hz 0
4th Harmonic 240 Hz +
5th Harmonic 300 Hz -
6th Harmonic 360 Hz 0
7th Harmonic 420 Hz +
8th Harmonic 480 Hz - A Zig-Zag Phase Diagram Zig-Zag Winding Arrangement
Look at this absolute mess - Even coils oppose odd coils, providing
9th Harmonic 540 Hz 0
I'm not remaking it… a noise-cancelling effect
Positive harmonics - Rotate in the same direction of the fundamental waveform and
can cause overheating of conductors, transformers and circuit breakers.
Negative harmonics - Rotate in the opposite direction of the fundamental waveform
and can cause overheating of conductors, transformers, circuit breakers as well as
motors. This is because they rotate in the opposite direction, which weakens the
magnetic fields of an induction motor, causing it to produce less torque, operate
below normal speed, draw more current and over heat.
Triplens - Have zero sequence, no phasor rotation, however will cause much trouble
in three-phase four-wire systems such as 208/120 and 480/277.
Transformers are designed to run at 60Hz. The harmonic frequencies increase the
SHRED effects, building heat and causing premature destruction.

3Φ Transformers Page 119

 Dual Winding Transformer Wiring Guide
3Φ Xfrmr - Formulas Just follow this guide to figure out what to use:
• Parallel Delta - Line Voltage matches Low Number
Wye to Wye • Series Delta - Line Voltage matches High Number
• Parallel Wye - Line Voltage is Low Number
Primary Coil Voltage • Series Wye - Line Voltage is High Number
Secondary Coil Voltage Example - You have three 300V/600V to 120V/240V - 10 kVA Each
Turns Ratio
Connection Connection
Primary Line Current
300V Parallel Delta 120V Parallel Delta
Primary Phase Current 600V Series Delta 240V Series Delta
Secondary Line Current 301-599V Parallel Wye 121-239V Parallel Wye
Secondary Phase Current ( ) ( )
>600V Series Wye >240V Series Wye
Delta to Delta
( ) ( )
Primary Coil Voltage
Secondary Coil Voltage Tapped Transformers Ratio / Voltages

Turns Ratio
Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

Wye to Delta 4-Wire Delta - Solve High Phase

• = Voltage on the primary coil (V)
Primary Coil Voltage • = Voltage on the secondary coil (V)
Secondary Coil Voltage • = Ratio at given voltages (XX:1)

Turns Ratio Ratios / Percentages

Line Voltage Ratio

Primary Line Current
Primary Phase Current
Secondary Line Current
Secondary Phase Current

Delta to Wye
• = New ratio (XX:1)
Primary Coil Voltage
• = Original coil ratio (XX:1)
Secondary Coil Voltage • = Tap placement % (decimal)
Turns Ratio
Open Delta - kVA Calculation
Line Voltage Ratio
• 1 Transformer - It can handle a single transformers kVA
Primary Line Current • 2 Transformers - It can handle 86.6% of the total kVA of 2 transformers
Primary Phase Current • 3 Transformers - It can handle 57.7% of the total kVA of 3 transformers
○ For example - If each transformer was 100kVA
Secondary Line Current ▪
Secondary Phase Current ▪
▪

Boost and Buck - Using Open Delta Auto-Transformers - Use at your own risk… works for me so far though!

P
Max kVA it can make kVA per Transformer kVA per Transformer Max kVA it can make
E Boost:
Buck:
I
Aka: Common Curr.

%Z - Calculation Fault Current - Calculation Efficiency - Calculation Voltage Regulation

3Φ Transformers Page 120

DC Machines Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Magnetism Review
3 DC Generator Parts
4 Generator Voltage Buildup
5 Generator Connections
6 Generator Drawings
7 Shunt / Series Math
8 Compound Math
9 DC Motor Overview
10 DC Motor Connections
11 DC Motor Calculations
12 - 19 Generator and Motor Equation Sheets

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

DC Machines Page 121

 Left-Hand Rule for Conductors - Your thumb represents the direction on current
DC Machines - Magnetism flow. The fingers point in the direction of flux
Left-Hand Rule for Coils - Your thumb points to the north pole, your fingers
Alloy - A combination of two or more elements (usually metallic) used to make represent the direction of current.
permanent magnets. E.g: Alnico - Iron, aluminum, nickel and cobalt. Flemings Left-Hand Generator Rule - This rule uses three fingers on your lefty
Clamp-on Ammeter - uses the magnetic field to measure amps. The more current hand to show you the direction of electron flow through a conductor when
flows through a wire, the more magnetic flux. moving through a magnetic field.
• The forefinger (index finger) - points in the direction of the field flux (tip
Demagnetizing - Three ways to demagnetize an object of the finger points to the south pole)
• Pass it through an alternating, weakening magnetic field (or AC field) • The thumb - points in the direction of thrust, or the direction of motion
• Striking it with force of the armature.
• Heating something to it's Curie Temperature (iron = 770 ) • The center finger (middle finger) - points in the direction of the current
Domains - Magnetic molecules that can be aligned to create magnetic regions. induced into the armature.

Earths Magnetism - Magnetic flux lines leave the Magnetic north pole (south) and
enter the magnetic South pole (north). It's opposite, just like electrical currents,
THumb THrust
travels from negative to positive.
• Magnetic North - The earths south pole Forefinger Flux
• Magnetic South - The earths north pole
Center finger Current
Electromagnet - A temporary magnet made of a core and coil of wire that produces
a magnetic field only when current flows through the coil of wire. (Think: relay)
Current flowing the same direction through multiple conductors ADDS, currents
B-H Graph - Refers to the relationship between Flux density ( ) in Tesla, and the
flowing the opposite direction through multiple conductors cancel each-other out.
magnetising force ( ) in amper-turns per meter to determine permeabiliy ( ).
Ferromagnetic - any material that can be magnetized Permeability is not constant in ferrous materials. Typically it decreases as flux
• Ferro-Magnetic Materials - Metals containing iron, which is magnetic. increases (see - law of diminishing returns). We can plot this on a B-H Graph.
• Non-Ferrous Metals - Non magnetic metals, typically used for conductors
○ ie: Copper, Aluminum.
Flux Density - The quantity of magnetic flux lines per unit area. The unit of flux
density is the "Telsa". One Tesla is one Weber per meter2.
Hysteresis - The tendency for a magnetic field to lag behind the force creating it.
Causes frictional heat called Hysteresis losses when polarities are reversed.
Iron and Magnetic Lines of Force - Because iron is very permeable, magnetic lines of
force will distort to include it in their field, making it a temporary magnet. This
process is also referred to as Magnetic Induction!
Magnetic Field - All magnets have two points opposite each-other called Poles
where the field force is the strongest (where the magnetic flux is more dense)
• Poles are where magnetic lines of force enter and leave the magnet
• Its not possible to have one pole without the other
• Magnetic Material acted on by a magnetic force is a magnetic field
• Invisible lines of force leave the south pole and enter the north pole
Magnetic Lines of force - These are invisible lines of force that leave the north pole
of a magnet and enter the south pole.
• Do not begin and end at the north pole - form a loop through the magnet A B-H Graph
• Represent tension like elastic bands - making them as short as possible
• Always trying to collapse inwards making it difficult to pull magnets apart The knee - The point where the curves level out, and the material is practically
• Magnetic lines of force repeal each other "full" of flux lines. This is called Saturation!
• Flux lines cannot intersect or cross each-other • Point B

Magnetic Flux - the invisible lines of force that exist within a magnetic circuit. They Graph Shapes - Tall and narrow curves like that of soft iron, make good
are so small we count them in groups of 100,000,000 (100 million!) called "Weber" temporary magnets. Wide flat on top curves like that of hard steel, make good
permanent magnets due to their high retentivity.
Magnetic Screen / Shied - A substance used to divert magnetic lines from sensitive
equipment by providing an easier path for them to travel through. E.g: Soft Iron Hysteresis - The greater the distance between point C and F, the more hysteresis
losses will occur when attempting to demagnetize or change the polarity of the
Magnetizing Force - The magnetomotive force applied per unit length of magnetic magnet. (I2R loss of magnetism) The thicker the curve, the more energy is lost
circuit. Sometimes called Magnetic Field Strength. during demagnetization. This curve could be considered a hysteresis curve.
Permeability - a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux can be established Retentivity - The greater the distance between point C and F, the greater the
within a material. How easy it is to magnetize something. retentivity. It keeps it's magnetism much better.
Reluctance - The opposition a material offers to the establishment of a magnetic Coercive force - The points where the curve crosses the horizontal axis.
flux. Equivalent to the resistance of an electrical circuit. • Points C and F
Residual Magnetism - The permanent magnetism retained by a material after the Residual Magnetism - The points where the curve crosses the vertical axis
magnetizing force is removed. • Points B and E
Coercive Force - Used to get rid of residual magnetism. The amount of current Eddy Currents - another form of loss - When flux flows through a thick piece of
flowing in the opposite direction that is required to remove the residual magnetism. steel magnet, it can form eddy currents around impedance. The energy is lost as
Saturation - condition where any further increase in magnetizing force does not heat. This is why we make magnets out of laminated steel.
produce any appreciable increase in magnetic flux density for an electromagnet. Air Gap - Causes Fringing - You lose magnetism in an air-gap. Think of a clamp-on
• Practical saturation - The law of diminishing returns. It will take too much ammeter. If you don't close the jaws properly, the reading will be lower.
energy to align any more domains.
• Theoretical saturation - You've lined up all the domains, there are no more Leakage - Round cores have less leakage than square cores.
physical domains to align.

DC Machines Page 122

 Permanent-Magnet Field Poles - Small generators called magnetos typically use
DC Gen - Parts permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field. They have a low flux density
when compared to their electromagnetic counterparts. Commonly used for small
gasoline engines (ATVs, Motorcycles etc), non-digital tachometers and meggers.
DC Machines - DC Generator Parts Electromagnet Field Poles - Provide a much higher and more controllable flux density
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 1-30
than permanent magnets. Winding current can be provided two ways:
DC Generators - AKA: Dynamo - Very similar to a DC motor, however generators • Separately Excited: A DC Source external to the machine
tend to have open frames while motors are typically totally enclosed. • Self-excited: DC is supplied by the armature of the generator itself. The field
• A Device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy coils may be connected in either series or parallel (shunt) with the armature.
• Operates on the principle of magnetic induction
Series Field Windings - few turns of very large wire - They have a low resistance and
Armature - The rotating part, or Rotor of the generator. Consists of a high-strength are connected in series with the armature. Terminal leads will be labeled S1 and S2.
steel shaft with soft iron laminations that are slotted so they can hold the insulated For large-horsepower machines they can be wound with square or rectangular wire,
coil windings. This rests centered in the housing on sleeve or ball bearings. allowing them to fit more conductor in the same space.
Ball Bearing - Your typical bearing made of a raceway and hardened steel balls. • High Current, Large Wire, Low Resistance, Series Connected, Small voltage
Available in open or sealed. If it's an open-type it'll have to be lubricated with drop, Few turns of wire
grease. Careful not to over-grease them, this increases friction and shortens life.
Sleeve Bearing - A light-duty bearing almost like a bushing. Will be lubricated with a
drip of oil or an oil wick. Smaller form factor vs. most conventional bearings.
Armature Windings - There are 3 types of Armature Windings - Lap, Wave & frogleg
• Lap Windings - For High current, Low Voltage applications - Built with large
wire to handle high currents with windings connected in parallel for current
generation. Used for things like automobile starters.

Shunt Field Windings - many turns of small-gauge wire - Have high resistance
resulting in lower current to field circuit. This means they can be can be controlled by
a field rheostat to finely tune how much voltage is generated.
• Wave Windings - For Low Current, High Voltage applications - Have their • Low Current, Small Wire, High Resistance, Parallel Connected, Large Voltage
windings connected in series so the voltage adds, but current is the same. drop, Many turns of wire
Never contain more than two parallel paths for current to flow. Used for
small generators and hand-cranked megohmmeters.

• Frogleg Windings - For Moderate current and voltage applications - A

combination of the previous two, coils are connected in series -parallel. The
most common type of winding.

DC Machines - DC Power Generation - a quick overview

Commutator - A Commutator is a copper ring split into segments with an insulating

material (such as mica) between these segments. This is mounted to the shaft
opposite of the input, and has the Armature Windings terminated to it. Its purpose
is to convert the induced AC to a uni-directional current.

Generating a DC signal - using image above for example - If you rotate the shaft (far
left), the armature (middle) will spin, causing the coils of wire contained in it to cut
through the flux lines generated by the Field Poles (middle top and bottom).
Brushes - Spring-loaded, conductive brushes (a wear part) ride against the • The Cutting of the Flux Lines generates an AC Sinewave
commutator to carry the power to the outside circuit. Typically made of Carbon, • The Commutator ensures that each brush gets the correct polarity of the
electro-graphite, graphite, copper graphite or some combination of those. sinewave so it can generate a pulsed DC signal similar to what you would get
with a rectifier.
Brush Holders - The device that provides spring tension to the brushes and holds
them against the commutator with 1-2 PSI of pressure. Often made of brass. • The more wires contained in each segment on the armature, the more
voltage is generated. EG - if each loop of ware was 2V and there were 20 of
To obtain sparkless commutation some motors have rotatable brush holders:
them, you'd get a 40V peak sinewave.
• Motors - Rotate the brushes in the opposite direction of armature rotation
• Generators - Rotate the brushes in the same direction of armature rotation • The more Segments of wire contained on the Armature, the more, and closer
the "pulses" of DC will be, smoothing out the waveform a little.

DC Machines Page 123

 DC Machines - Armature Reaction
DC Gen - Voltage Buildup DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 40-48
Mechanical Neutral Plane - MNP - The physical center point in between the field
DC Machines - DC Generator Voltage Buildup windings where the armature is designed to spin true (straight) in a generator.
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 32-39 Electrical Neutral Plane - ENP - The magnetic center point between the windings
that must be lined up with the mechanical neutral plane in order for the armature
Stator Field Poles - When it comes to electromagnetic field poles there are two
coils to cut flux lines evenly and generate power as expected
flavours, self-excited and Separately Excited.
Armature Reaction - A factor effecting terminal voltage of DC generator. It impairs
• Self-Excited Fields - Most common - Field poles powered by the armature.
commutation by affecting condition of brushes and commutator.
Relies on residual magnetism in the field core to start the process.
• Separately Excited Fields - Field poles powered by an external source When an armature is delivering current to a load, a magnetic field surrounds the
such as a battery, rectifier circuit or secondary DC generator. armature conductors at a right-angle to the field poles, which distorts the main field
established by the field poles in the direction of rotation, which means the
armature coils are no longer cutting the magnetic fields and generating current
when they should be.

Self-Excited Circuit Separately Excited Circuit

Voltage Build-Up - We can determine the total emf generated in an armature
using Faraday's Law ( ) This voltage is a function of the following: This can cause sparking at the brush and commutator. Early commutators were
• [ Fixed ] Number of Poles, Paths and active conductors built with rotatable brushes to help adjust / compensate for this.
• [ Variable ] Rotational speed of the armature & Flux per pole Modern ways of dealing with this are Interpoles and Compensating Windings.
Taking into account the fixed numbers we can't change, you can calculate the Interpoles - AKA: Commutating Poles - Positioning additional narrow field poles
generated voltage with the following formula: with a few turns of large gauge wire on the mechanical neutral plane (between the
main poles) can help straighten out the main pole field back to the MNP. They have
Generated Voltage - Calculation the same polarity as the pole ahead of it in direction of rotation in generators, and
the pole behind it in motors. These are to be wired in SERIES with the armature.
Opening them would stop the armature.

• = Generated Voltage in Volts (V) Compensating Windings - In high-performance DC generators compensating

• = Constant ( fixed information above ) windings are placed in the main pole faces and connected in series with the
• Φ = Flux (excitation) in webers (W) armature. These can help further reduce Armature Reaction, but due to their high
• = Rotational speed of Armature in RPM cost aren't used nearly as often.

Example - Generated Voltage Calculation

" A Generator running at 900 rpm has a generated voltage of 100 V.
If the excitation remains the same and the speed is increased
to 1800 RPM, what is the new generated voltage? "
Since voltage is proportional to the product of flux and speed, and flux did not
change, then voltage is directly proportional to speed only.
• Because the speed doubled, the voltage will too - 1,800 RPM = 200 V
Residual Magnetism - A self-excited generator requires armature voltage to
produce field current, since voltage is Zero at instant start-up there is no flux for
conductors to cut through. Therefore, we need residual magnetism to be present DC Machines - Losses and Efficiency
on the field poles. This is a weak magnetic field the conductors can cut to
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 49-52
produce a low voltage, which slowly increases the current flow on the field
windings until the generator reaches it's no-load voltage ( ) Losses - Losses include all energy drawn from the source that is not available at the
output of the machine, there are 3 power losses in DC Generators:
Flashing the field - When there is no residual magnetism, you can briefly use a • Mechanical - AKA: Rotational - Losses caused by the physical rotation of
separate DC source (such as a 12V battery) to establish current through the field the armature including bearing friction and windage (cooling air)
coils and start the generator. Always disconnect the shut field from the low • Electrical - AKA: Copper - The same losses since level 1!
resistance armature before "flashing the field". • Magnetic - AKA: Core - Losses from the action of magnetic fields on the
Direction of Rotation - It is possible that the direction of rotation may be incorrect materials inside the generator such as the frame, poles and armature. Also
for the polarity of the residual magnetism. In this case the generated voltage includes the heating losses from hysteresis and eddy currents.
produces a field current that strips away the magnetism from the poles. You Efficiency - The ratio of power out to power in. The power out is the power
cannot typically reverse the direction of the prime mover, so the simplest solution available at the output terminals, the power in what is drawn from the prime
is to re-flash the field. mover as mechanical energy from the shaft rotation.
Critical Field Resistance - Voltage build-up requires the generated voltage from Machine ratings are always what is AVAILABLE FROM the machine.
the residual magnetism to be as strong as possible. • I.e. A 100kW DC generator can deliver 100kW to a load
• For build-up to occur, the field resistance curve must lie below the Therefore, the prime mover must deliver MORE than the machine rating to
saturation curve overcome all of the losses discussed above.
• Field resistance should be as low as possible!
• Set field rheostats to their minimum value of resistance during start-up Example - Efficiency Calculation

Prime Mover Speed - Because generated voltage is proportional to the product of " A 100 kW DC generator is operating at full load. If the prime mover
field flux and armature speed, too slow of an armature rotation can also result in is delivering 125 kW to the shaft, determine the efficiency "
failure of voltage build-up.

DC Machines Page 124

 Series Generators - Not a super practical machine, as a load must be connected
DC Gen - Connections across the line terminals in order to allow for field current to generate a magnetic
field and start producing electricity with the generator.
Until a load is applied, the only source of excitation is residual magnetism so the
DC Machines - DC Generator Connections no-load terminal voltage of Series Generators is extremely low.
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 49-75 Compound Generators - Any generator with TWO sets of field poles
DC Generator Types - Categorized with respect to their field winding connections, • Shunt Field - The main source of excitation - in parallel with the armature
they come in three different flavours: • Series Field - A smaller coil with heavier wire - used to either aid (boost) or
• Series Generator - Field windings are series with armature oppose (buck) the shunt field. Because it's in series with the armature it's
• Shunt Generator - Field windings are parallel with the armature magnetic field strength changes as loads are added and current increases.
• Compound Long or Compound Short Shunt Generator - Two sets of field Basically used to automatically adjust the voltage up as the load changes!
windings used, one in series one in parallel with the armature

Series/Shunt Field Polarities - There are two different ways to wire the Shunt and
Series Generator - Impractical Shunt Generator Field coils. You can wire them so their magnetic fields are either "aiding"
(cumulative) or "opposing" (differential) one another.
• Cumulative Field Coils - Aiding - When current flows from 2 to 1 on both
field coils, they're said to be Cumulative Compound
• Differential Field Coils - Opposing - When current flows from 1 to 2 on one
coil but from 2 to 1 on the other, they're said to be Differential Compound
Compounding - The relationship of magnetic field strength between the two field
coils determines the amount of compounding of the DC generator.
Compound Long Shunt Generator Compound Short Shunt Generator Remember, this is all adjusted using field rheostats!
• Over Compounded - The output voltage at full load is greater than the
NEMA Standard - National Equipment Manufacturer's Association - There is a output voltage at no load. The series field winding has too much control.
standardized labeling system that generators use for electrical connections. • Flat Compounded - Ideal! - The output voltage is the same at full load as it
As with Transformers, it is a letter followed by a number: is at no load. The series field winding increases the output voltage by an
amount equal to the losses of the generator.
• Letter Meanings • Under Compounded - The output voltage is less at full load than no load.
Device Current Flow
○ = Armature (Source)
The series field is too weak, curve similar to a shunt generator.
Armature (+) → (-) ○ = Field Shunts
○ = Series field coils
Field Shunt (-) → (+)
○ = Line Leads (Load) Legend:
Series Coils (-) → (+)
• Number Meanings
○ Current flows from EVEN to ODD ⚫ Rated Output ( )
Line Leads (-) → (+)
○ Or High to Low ⚫ Over Compounded
⚫ Flat Compounded
Hard & Fast Rules - Here are a few things to keep in mind with generator leads
• is ALWAYS POSITIVE ⚫ Under Compounded
• Regardless of NEMA, if current flows the same direction through each ⚫ Shunt
component (2 → 1 or 1 → 2) the machine is going to spin it's NEMA direction. ⚫ Differential
• If you change either just the armature leads or BOTH COIL leads (or even just
the Shunt), that will reverse the direction of the machine. DRAW IT OUT!!
Shaft Rotation - Shaft rotation direction as observed by standing behind the machine Generator Characteristic Curves
on the commutator end: These are the NEMA directions:
• Generator = Clockwise (CW) Differential Compound Generators - The series coil opposes the shunt coil,
• Motor = Counter clockwise (CCW) causing the terminal voltage to be greatly reduced as the current flowing through
Shunt Generators and Field Rheostats - Often, on shunt generators we include a the armature increases. This is mostly used in applications such as DC arc welding.
rheostat in series with the Field Shunt to control the terminal voltage and therefore A strong initial current flow is required to overcome contact resistance, but a much
the magnetic field, which is the easiest way to adjust the output of the DC Generator. lower voltage is required to maintain the arc.
Series Field Shunt Rheostat - AKA: Series Field Diverter - The rheostat permits part
of the current that normally flows through the series field to flow through the
resistor. This reduces the amount of magnetic flux produced by the series field,
which can adjust the amount of compounding. (Shown in blue below!)

A Field Rheostat (left)

No-Load Voltage - When a Shunt Generator is operating at no load, the generated
voltage ( ) will be across leads and . This is the rated voltage of the generator
E.g. A voltmeter would read 600V on a 600V rated generator
Loaded Voltage - When an external load is connected across leads and , the Countertorque - The magnetic field generated in the armature is opposite in
value of current that flows through the armature is determined by the impediance of polarity to that of the poles, meaning they are attracted to each-other.
the load. Three armature factors reduce output voltage when under load: This attraction adds turning resistance called countertorque that must be
• Internal Armature Resistance causes a slight IR drop
overcome. It is proportional to the output / armature current if the excitation
• Armature Reaction (field weakening) is increased with the current
current remains constant, so it increases with the load.
• Reduction of armature voltage also reduces field shunt voltage
This countertorque can also be used to provide a Dynamic / Regenerative braking
These compounding effects lead to more voltage drop and a less efficient generator.
action in DC motors.

DC Machines Page 125

 Example - A2,F1,L1 - A1,F2,S2 - S1,L2
DC Gen - Drawings 1) It's spinning CW - We know this because L1 (always positive) is connected to
A2, which must be negative for the standard clockwise input.
2) It's a Compound - We know this because it's got both coil types (F & S)
DC Machines - DC Generator Drawings
3) It's a Short Shunt - We know this because our middle number set has three
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 92-105
connection points, meaning the armature connects directly to both coils
Drawing DC Generator Circuits - Sometimes you're going to be given what looks like 4) It's Cumulative - F1 is Positive (because it's touching L1) and S1 is Positive
just a mess of numbers, and asked to draw a generator circuit. Just remember, this is because it's touching L2, which negative in this example. This means they
really just the internal wiring of the generator that you're mapping out. have the same polarities and will be working with each-other.
It's very similar to when we would re-draw control circuits to find the number of
wires in a conduit, except there's always just 3 wires Example - Simple Re-draw
Numbering Layout - So you'll be given 3 groups of numbers, each separated by a
dash, they'll look something like this: " Using the NEMA numbering convention, redraw the following circuit:
" A#,B#,C# - D#,E# - F#,G#,H# " A2,F1,L1 - A1,S1 - S2,F2,L2 "
The letters and numbers will correspond with the NEMA system below. The three
groups just mean each of those terminals are connected together by a single wire.
Step 1 - Let's start by re-drawing our first set of numbers: A2, F1, L1
It's your job to remember what each device letter means, and to draw them together.
• L1 - The most important, this is ALWAYS positive, so we know this is going to
Polarities - A big thing to remember when dealing with these redraws is the be the positive side of our circuit.
Polarities! When you redraw them make sure you put your current arrows in the • F1 - There is going to be a Field Shunt in our circuit
diagram and figure out if the coils are differential or cumulative and what direction
• A2 - This is our armature lead, and because A2 is connected to L1, we know
the prime mover must be turning the generator shaft
it's also going to be positive, which also tells us that it is going to be spinning
NEMA Standard - National Equipment Manufacturer's Association - There is a CLOCKWISE, as current will be flowing →
standardized labeling system that generators use for electrical connections.
As with Transformers, it is a letter followed by a number:
• Letter Meanings
Device Current Flow
○ = Armature (Source)
Armature (+) → (-) ○ = Field Shunts
Field Shunt (-) → (+) ○ = Series field coils
○ = Line Leads (Load)
Series Coils (-) → (+)
• Number Meanings
Line Leads (-) → (+) ○ Current flows from EVEN to ODD
○ Or High to Low
Hard & Fast Rules - Here are a few things to keep in mind with generator leads
Our Drawing So Far
• is ALWAYS POSITIVE
• Regardless of NEMA, if current flows the same direction through each
Step 2 - Let's move on to our 2nd set of numbers: A1, S1
component (2 → 1 or 1 → 2) the machine is going to spin it's NEMA direction.
• If you change either just the armature leads or BOTH COIL leads (or even just • A1 - The negative lead of our Armature
the Shunt), that will reverse the direction of the machine. DRAW IT OUT!! • S1 - An input to a Series Coil! We know we have a COMPOUND GENERATOR,
• Swapping and doesn't change rotation direction, just current direction because there's two coils here, and because there's no F2, we can also tell
Shaft Rotation - Shaft rotation direction as observed by standing behind the machine that it's a LONG SHUNT, otherwise our Shunt would have connected
on the commutator end: These are the NEMA directions: between these two devices. We can also determine that S1 is NEGITIVE here,
• Generator = Clockwise (CW) while F1 is POSITIVE, so this is wired DIFFERENTIAL!
• Motor = Counter clockwise (CCW) (The coils are opposite polarity, so they'll be working against each other)
Rules of thumb - There are a few things you can gather before you draw it out, just
by looking at the numbers:
• To use these numbers, always start with the L1 section and end with L2.
• Order of the Letters in each section doesn't matter. Only the numbers.
• Anything with two items in the middle section, is LONG SHUNT.
• Anything with three items in the middle section is a SHORT SHUNT
• Anything with EIGHT connections is a COMPOUND DVICE
• Anything with SIX connections is NOT a compound device
○ Then it will be either SERIES or LONG SHUNT
Our New Drawing! - It's coming together
Wiring Type Compound Direction
L1,F1,A2/A1,F2,S2/S1,L2 Short Cumulative CW Step 3 - We already know everything we need to know about the generator, but we
might as well finish the drawing: S2, F2, L2
L1,F1,A1/A2,F2,S2/S1,L2 Short Cumulative CCW • S2 - The Positive lead of our Series Coil
L1,F1,A1/A2,F2,S1/S2,L2 Short Differential CCW • F2 - The Negative lead of our Shunt Coil
L1,F1,A2/A1,S1/S2,F2,L2 Long Differential CW • L2 - The Negative lead of our Load

L1,F1,A1/A2,S2/S1,F2,L2 Long Cumulative CCW

L1,F1,A2/A1,S2/S1,F2,L2 Long Cumulative CW
L1,A2/A1,S2 /S1,L2 Series N/A CW
•
L1,A1/A2,S2/S1,L2 Series N/A CCW
L2,F2,A2/A1,F1,L1 Shunt N/A CCW
L2,F2,A1/A2,F1,L1 Shunt N/A CW
This is NOT a comprehensive list, but it's every example I could find in BCIT material. Tah-dah! - We're all done.
The darker the row, the more times I have seen it, and confirmed the information.

DC Machines Page 126

 A note on how a generator works - To really get the math, you need to understand
DC Gen - Shunt / Series Math what's going on here… The armature (circle at the top of the diagram) is spinning
through a magnetic field to create electricity.
The magnetic field it's spinning through? We'll, that's being created by the shunt
DC Machines - DC Generator Calculations coil. It might seem like some kind of perpetual motion machine, but it's not. It
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 71-75 doesn't take much energy to create a strong magnetic field.
DC Generator Calculations - Typically you'll be asked a standard set of 5 questions Shunt Generator Questions - In a shunt generator, the coil generating the magnetic
when it comes to DC Generators, it's all pretty straight forward Ohms/Kirchhoff law field is placed in PARALLEL with the armature, this means that it's going to drop the
1) The Shunt (or series) Current full voltage over it, and it'll just be stealing a little extra current from the armature to
2) The Internal Voltage Drop in the Armature make the field. This means the armature is going to have to generate MORE current
3) The Voltage Generated by the Armature than required for the rated voltage / amperage output.
4) The Efficiency of the generator
5) The Type of Generator it is Series Generator Questions - In a series generator, the coil generating the magnetic
field is placed in SERIES with the armature AND the load. This is just a simple circuit,
so it's going to have the same current flowing through it as everything else. What
you need to determine for these questions, is how much extra voltage does the
armature need to generate in order to supply the load with everything it needs, as
well as the coil that's producing it's magnetic field.

Example - Shunt Generator Question Example - Series Generator Question

Series Generators are even more straight forward to solve because they're a series
circuit, so we'll only be dealing with a single amperage.

" Solve the standard 5 questions for this 480 V 85kW Generator if it has
" Solve the above 5 questions for this 480 V 85kW Generator if it has
20 mΩ of Armature Resistance and 25 mΩ of series resistance"
15 mΩ of Armature Resistance and 100 Ω of shunt resistance"
1) The Series Current - it's a series circuit so it will be the load current!
1) The Shunt Current - It's in parallel, so it's 480 Volts dropping over 100
→ →
→ →
2) Armature E-Drop - Just the Series current multiplied by armature ohms
2) Armature E-Drop - Total current in system multiplied by armature ohms
○ Calculate the load current then add it to the shunt current → →
→ →
3) The Generated Voltage - Voltage Output + Armature & Coil Voltage Drop
○ Use the total current to calculate the Armature Voltage Drop ○ First, you need to calculate the Voltage dropped over the series coil
→ → → →
○ Now, we can simply add the voltage drops to our output voltage
3) The Generated Voltage - Voltage Output + Armature Voltage Drop
→ →
→ →
4) Generator Efficiency - Power Output over Power Input
4) Generator Efficiency - Power Output over Power Input
○ Calculate the Coil and Armature Power Losses
○ Calculate the Shunt and Armature Power Losses
→ →
→ →
→ →
→ →
○ Calculate the total Power In by adding these losses to Power Out
○ Calculate the total Power In by adding these losses to Power Out
→ W →
→ W →
○ Finally, we can calculate the Generator Efficiency
○ Finally, we can calculate the Generator Efficiency
→ W →
→ W →
5) Generator Type - One Field Coil in Series? It's a SERIES GENERATOR
5) Generator Type - One Field Coil in Parallel? It's a SHUNT GENERATOR
You can also use a P-E-I-R table to stay organized!
You can also use a P-E-I-R table to stay organized!
Just make a Column for the Load, the Shunt, the Armature as well as you input total.
Just make a Column for the Load, the Shunt, the Armature as well as you input total.
Load Coil Armature Generated
Load Shunt Armature Generated
P 85,000 W 784 W 627 W 86,411 W
P 85,000 W 2304 W 496 W 87,800 W
E 480 V 4.427 V 3.542 V 487.97 V
E 480 V 480 V 2.727 V 482.727 V
I 177.083 A 177.083 A 177.083 A 177.083 A
I 177.083 A 4.8 A 181.883 A 181.883 A
R 2.71 Ω 0.025 Ω 0.020 Ω 2.755 Ω
R 2.71 Ω 100 Ω 0.015 Ω 2.654 Ω
The green highlighted cells are our given values, everything else was calculated
The green highlighted cells are our given values, everything else was calculated

DC Machines Page 127

DC Gen - Compound Math A note on Compound Short Shunt Generators - This setup is nearly identical to the
compound long shunt. There are two minor differences:
DC Machines - DC Generator Calculations • except the voltage going through the shunt coil will be a tiny bit higher
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 76-81 because it's not dropping over the series coil
DC Generator Calculations - Typically you'll be asked a standard set of 6 questions • the current going through the series coil will be a tiny bit lower because
when it comes to DC Generators, it's all pretty straight forward Ohms/Kirchhoff law the Shunt current isn't going through it
1) The Shunt Current
2) The Series Current Example - Compound Short Shunt Generator Question
3) The Internal Voltage Drop in the Armature
4) The Voltage Generated by the Armature
5) The Efficiency of the generator
6) The Type of Generator it is

Example - Compound Long Shunt Generator Question

" Solve the above 6 questions for this 600 V 150 kW Generator if it has
75 mΩ of Armature, 70 mΩ of Series and 215 Ω of Shunt resistance"
1) The Series Current - This is a KEY piece of information for solving this whole
question, so we're actually going to solve it first.
" Solve the above 6 questions for this 600 V 150 kW Generator if it has → →
10 mΩ of Armature, 100 mΩ of Series and 150 Ω of Shunt resistance"
2) The Shunt Current - Now we can solve for the current through the shunt
1) The Shunt Current - It's in parallel, so it's 600 Volts dropping over 150
○ First, figure out how much voltage drops over the series coil
→ →
→ →
2) The Series Current - Will be the sum of the Shunt and Load branches ○ Add this E-drop to the total for what's dropping over our shunt.
○ First, we need to figure out the Load Current
→ →
→ →
○ Finally, we can calculate the current in our Shunt circuit
○ Now add this current to the shunt current to find our answer
→ →
→ →
3) Armature E-Drop - Total current in system multiplied by armature ohms
3) Armature E-Drop - Total current in system multiplied by armature ohms ○ Add all our currents to find the total current in the armature
→ → → →
○ Next, use ohms law to calculate the Voltage drop!
4) The Generated Voltage - Voltage Output + Armature and Series Coil drops
○ First, we need to figure how much voltage drops on the series coil → →
→ →
4) The Generated Voltage - This is simply a sum of our load voltage and all of
○ Now add all our voltage drops to our voltage output for the total our voltage drops (armature and series) we've already calculated.
→ → → →

5) Generator Efficiency - Power Output over Power Input 5) Generator Efficiency - Power Output over Power Input
○ Calculate the Shunt, Series and Armature Power Losses ○ Calculate the Shunt, Series and Armature Power Losses
→ → → →
→ → → →
→ → → →
○ Calculate the total Power In by adding these losses to Power Out ○ Calculate the total Power In by adding these losses to Power Out
→ W → → W→
○ Finally, we can calculate the Generator Efficiency ○ Finally, we can calculate the Generator Efficiency
→ W → → W →

6) Generator Type - Two Coils, and the Shunt is parallel with the whole thing, 6) Generator Type - Two Coils, and the Shunt is parallel with just the
and current is going through the same direction on both coils? armature, and current is going through the same direction on both coils?
○ Cumulative Compound Long Shunt Generator ○ Cumulative Compound Short Shunt Generator

Load Shunt Series Armature Generated Load Shunt Series Armature Generated
P 150,000 W 2400 W 6451.6 W 645.16 W 159,497 W P 150,000 W 1772 W 4375 W 4794.4 W 160,943 W
E 600 V 600 V 25.4 V 2.54 V 627.94 V E 600 V 617.5 V 17.5 V 18.96 V 636.465 V
I 250 A 4A 254 A 254 A 254 A I 250 A 2.87 A 250 A 252.87 A 252.87 A
R 2.71 Ω 150 Ω 100 mΩ 10 mΩ 2.472 Ω R 2.71 Ω 215 Ω 70 mΩ 75 mΩ 2.517 Ω
The green highlighted cells are our given values, everything else was calculated The green highlighted cells are our given values, everything else was calculated

DC Machines Page 128

 Mechanical Loading - When mechanical load is increased on the shaft of a motor a

DC Motor - Overview bunch of interesting stuff happens AUTOMATICALLY to compensate for it:
1) The motor speed decreases causing a decrease in generated CEMF
2) The decrease in CEMF causes an increase in effective voltage
3) The increase of effective voltage causes an increase in armature current
DC Machines - DC Motor Parts 4) The increase in current causes an increase in torque
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 106 - 123
As you can see, it's self-balancing. If the load is increase too much however, you'll
DC Motors - There's really not a big difference between a DC generator and a DC eventually stall the motor, cause excessive current buildup and pop the overload.
motor when it comes to construction and their interaction with magnetism.
Torque and Horsepower - The Torque developed by a motor is an equivalent force
DC Armature - The main difference between DC Motors and Generators is the acting through the radial distance of the armature
operation of the armature. For the generator, the armature was a SOURCE.
For DC motors however, the armature is a LOAD. Speed Regulation - The variation of speed in regards to load is called the speed
regulation of a motor. It's expressed as a percent of the rated (full-load) speed.
Commutator - In motors, it's reversing the internal armature current
Base Speed - The set speed a DC motor will run without a speed control device.
Motor Effect - This is a motors version of "armature reaction" in a DC generator. Varys based on mechanical load conditions, and power is proportional to the product
It's the magnetic field of the armature disrupting the magnetic field of the field of torque and speed, so operating a motor at anything other than it's base speed
poles as they try to spin it. This causes an UPWARD FORCE to be placed on the affects it's ability to deliver it's rated horsepower and torque.
armature as it tries to spin in the motor. This motor effect also causes DC
generators to slow down as load is increased. Above Base Speed - To operate above base speed we need to reduce the CEMF
generated by the shunt. Inserting a resistance in series with the field shunt will
Other Similarities to DC Generators - DC motors also share many of the same cause the motor to operate above the base speed.
problems and solutions to DC Generators such as:
The shunt field must never be fused! If the resistance on the shunt is too high or
• Armature Reaction - the distortion of the magnetic field by the armature open there will be little to no CEMF, causing the motor to "run-away" and draw
• Interpoles - Small poles in the mechanical plane to fix armature reaction large currents. Loss of field relays & overspeed sensors can be used to stop this.
• Compensating Windings - Extra windings on the faces of the main field
Below Base Speed - To operate below base speed (most common way of running a
poles to correct the effects of armature reaction
motor at different speeds), we need to reduce the current in the armature. Inserting
Right-Hand Motor Rule - Just as we have the left-hand rule for generators, there's a resistance in series with the armature would accomplish this, however it's typically
the right hand rule for motors, everything is the same, but you use your right hand. done with things like Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs).
• The forefinger (index finger) - points in the direction of the field flux (tip of • Apply full voltage to the field and reduce voltage to the armature by
the finger points to the south pole) inserting resistance in series with the armature.
• The thumb - points in the direction of thrust, or the direction of motion of
Efficiency - The efficiency of a DC motor at NO LOAD is LESS THAN at FULL LOAD
the armature.
• The center finger (middle finger) - points in the direction of the current
induced into the armature. DC Machines - DC Motor Troubleshooting / Maintenance
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 163 - 167

THumb THrust Operational Difficulties - There are two general categories of DC motor faults, these
are Electrical Faults and Mechanical Faults.
Forefinger Flux
Electrical Faults - Result from an open circuit, a short circuit, a ground, incorrect
Center finger Current connection or improper voltage. If a DC motor isn't doing what it should:
1) Check to make sure the supply voltage is correct and ensure the armature
Reversing Rotation - The right-hand rule for motors says that the direction of force and field coils are properly connected
acting on a conductor is a function of the magnetic flux and current directions. 2) Locate open circuits using continuity tests on the armature and field coils
Therefore, we can change the direction of rotation of a motor two ways: 3) Check the insulation quality of the windings with a megger
1) Reverse the direction of armature current ( Swap Leads and )
Short Circuits - More likely to occur in the armature itself because it's doing all the
2) Reverse the magnetic polarity of the field poles by reversing the connection work. Remove the armature and test as follows:
of both the series field ( and ) and the shunt field ( and ) • Grounded Coil - Connect a supply and a test lamp between any commutator
Torque - Defined as a twisting or turning force which is capable of producing bar and the shaft. If the light glows, it has a ground fault.
rotation on an axis. On a motor, torque is crated from forces acting on current- • Open Coil - (lap wound) - Apply a low voltage to two bars on opposite sides
carrying armature conductors. of the commutator. Measure adjacent bars with a voltmeter, you should
see equal voltages. If you see the full voltage, there's an open.
The Torque developed by a motor is determined by the mechanical load. So, at no
• Shorted Coil - A device (growler) that generates an AC magnetic field is used,
load, the motor will draw sufficient current to overcome the losses of the machine.
in the event of a short, current will flow through the armature. A thin metal
Generator Effect - This is the CEMF generated by the Armature, which limits the strip will vibrate excessively when passed near a shorted coil.
armature current to a reasonable level. When armature current increases to a
Mechanical Faults - Result in over-heating or excessive vibration, common ones:
series DC motor, the motor will slow down.
• Worn Bearings - Shaft will have up/down/left/right slop
Counter EMF - The armature cutting through magnetic fields generates a CEMF. • Armature Imbalance
This means that not all of the voltage you apply to a motor is going to produce • Improper alignment with load - A dial indicator is used to check alignment
work, some of it will be wasted fighting this CEMF. • Loose motor coupling
The value of generated CEMF can be determined using the generated voltage • Loose mounting bolts and unbalanced load
formula from my notes page: DC Gen. - Voltage Buildup (5 pages back) Brush / Commutator - Brush sparking may be a result of the following conditions:
Effective Voltage - Represents the difference between the voltage that is applied to Condition Action
the motor, and the voltage used to fight the produced CEMF.
Wrong interpole connection → Connect them properly
Across-The-Line Motor Starting - Because there's no CEMF being generated while
Poor brush contact → Re-seat brushes
the motor is at a stand-still, when you first turn it on it can have an extremely low
resistance and draw a ton of amperage (inrush current). This starting method of Worn or incorrect brushes → Replace brushes
motors is OK for smaller motors (< 2 hp), but not for larger motors.
Improper brush tension → Adjust to manufacturers spec.
Reduced Voltage Starters - To reduce the inrush current in larger motors, a
High mica on the commutator → Undercut the mica
resistance is placed in series with the armature to limit the current to a safe level.
This resistance is typically sized to limit the current to 1.5x the full load current. Dirty Commutator → Clean it
Locked rotor conditions - Sometimes the rotor can't rotate due to mechanical Electrical faults in the armature → Remove and test armature
issues such as excessive load and worn out bearings. This is bad because the inrush
current wont go down, and can cause damage / overheating.

DC Machines Page 129

DC Motor - Connections
Compound Motors - L1 to A1 = CCW Rotation
DC Machines - Motor Wiring Comparisons
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 142 - 162
DC Motor Wiring - Just as with generators there are a few different ways that DC
motors come wired. There are Shunt, Series and Compound Motors.
Motor Rotation - An important things to remember is rotation polarity:
A1 to Negative = CW Rotation A1 to Positive = CCW Rotation

Shunt Motors - L1 to A2 = CW Rotation

Compound Motor - Much like the Compound Long Shunt Generator, this motor has
two coils, one in series and a field coil that is parallel with the source. They typically
aren't short shunt configurations to avoid the series field IR Drop. (so says the slide,
but there are questions using short-shunt in the work sheets - be careful!)
Most applications will also be wired cumulative. A differential compound motor
would get weaker, but faster the more you loaded it. A strange combination.
Speed Regulation and Control - Just as with Shunt motors, a field rheostat would be
Shunt Motor - The field of a shunt motor is across the line, that is, it's parallel with inserted in series with the shunt to control the speed.
the armature. If there is no field rheostat, the field current and flux are constant. The flux provided by the series coil would help limit the "run-away" speed of an
Shunt motors are commonly referred to as "Constant Speed Motors" open shunt, however it is still a concern, and over-speed devices and loss of field
relays should still be employed.
Increasing Speed - To increase motor (Armature) speed you need to reduce the
field strength. That means increasing the resistance to the shunt so less current Unlike Series motors, you also get the benefit of a fixed no-load speed thanks to the
flows through it, and it puts out less flux. shunt field, so you can use them with belt drives.
An open in the Shunt/Field circuit will cause a run-away condition No load Voltage adjusted by Field Rheostat, Full Load adjusted by Diverter Rheostat.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Torque Characteristics - Like everything else with these motors, they sit somewhere
in the middle of Shunt and Series motors thanks to their dual coils.
↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Applications - Used in applications that require relatively constant speed under
EMF CEMF Torque Speed varying load conditions, or applications that must handle sudden increases in load.
↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ These applications include presses, shears, compressors and elevators.

If you desire to run BELOW base speed, reduce voltage across the armature with a
Rheostat, or solid state control with separate field excitation. DC Machines - DC Motor Speed Comparison
Torque Characteristics - If excitation is held constant, the torque varies directly
with the armature current. Starting torque is typically 2.5 - 3 x the full-load torque.
This is not sufficient for starting heavy loads.
Applications - Used in applications where speed variation with load is unwanted. Legend:
Paper machines, printing presses, drill presses, lathes, blowers etc. Not suitable for
motors that must start under heavy loads such as cranes or locomotives. ⚫ Series
⚫ Shunt
Series Motors - L1 to A1 = CCW Rotation ⚫ Compound

Series Motor - The series winding consists of a few turns of large gauge wire so it DC Machines - DC Motor Torque Comparison
can carry the full armature current. It is placed in series with the armature. As the
current to the coil and armature increases, the motor slows down quickly.
Therefore, magnetic strength of the coil varies with load current.
Speed Regulation and Control - Torque varies with the square of the armature
current. The CEMF developed by the motor is the only thing limiting current. Legend:
Therefore, speed control can only be achieved by limiting armature current. The ⚫ Series
more current, the MORE the generated CEMF. This is very impractical so devices
⚫ Shunt
are used to reduce the voltage applied to the motor.
⚫ Compound
Torque Characteristics - During start-up high current caused by no CEMF results in
extremely high starting torque. As much as 5x full-load value.
If loads are suddenly removed during operation, the motor will also rapidly
accelerate, meaning loads are typically mechanically coupled to series motors
instead of using belts or pullies.
Applications - The very high starting torque means these are great for heavy-duty
lifting applications where speed stability isn't important. Cranes, hoists, Overview - It's pretty easy to see that a compound motor, being a combination of a
locomotives and mine trucks (777) as well as automotive starters use them. Series and a shunt is a nice middle ground between the other two motor types.

DC Machines Page 130

 Power - Power is work per second. To find how much work per second is being
DC Motor - Calculations done on the load that a motor is connected to, we use the following formula:

Power - Calculation
DC Machines - Calculations
DC Machines → Power Point PDF → 2 DC Machines Lessons - Pages 124 - 141
DC Motors Under Load - The effects on a DC motor of a load increase are
highlighted RED, the effects of a load decrease are highlighted BLUE. • = Power in Watts (W)
• = Torque in newton-meters
↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ • N = Rotational Speed in RPM
LOAD Speed CEMF EMF Torque Example - Horsepower Calculation
↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ " A DC Motor operating at 1,800 RPM develops a torque of 40 newton-meters
Calculate the power in kilowatts delivered to the mechanical load "
Effective Voltage - Represents the difference between the voltage that is applied
to the motor, and the voltage used to fight the produced CEMF.
Summarized with the following Formula, we mostly use the transposed one:

Torque - Calculation

Example - Compound Long Shunt Motor Question

• = Armature Current in Amps (A)
• = Armature Resistance in Ohms ( )
• = Applied Voltage in Volts (V)
• = Counter EMF in Volts (V)
Example - Armature Current Calculation
" A 240 V motor operating at full load develops a counter EMF of 222 volts
if the resistance of the armature is 1.5 ohms, what is the armature current? "

" A Long-Shunt 480 V compound motor draws 51 A from the line under load.
Torque and Horsepower - The Torque developed by a motor is an equivalent The armature is 1.8 Ω, the series field is 1.2 Ω and shunt field is 160 Ω "
force acting through the radial distance of the armature (uh…what?)
Determine:
One horsepower is equivalent to 550 ft-lbs per second, so just use this formula:
1. Shunt Field Current
2. Armature Current
Horsepower - Calculation 3. Voltage drop across the armature
4. CEMF developed by the armature
→ 1) Shunt Field Current - It's in parallel, so it's 480 Volts dropping over 160
→ →
• = Horsepower
• = Torque in pounds-feet 2) Armature Current - Anything not flowing through the shunt field is going to
• N = Rotational Speed in RPM be flowing through the armature, so just do some basic subtraction!

Example - Horsepower Calculation → →

" Calculate the HP delivered by a motor that develops 75 lb-ft at 1,750 RPM " 3) Armature E-Drop - It's just armature current x armature resistance
→ →

4) The Generated CEMF - Voltage Output + Armature and Series Coil drops
○ First, we need to figure how much voltage drops on the series coil
Speed Regulation - The variation of speed in regards to load is called the speed
regulation of a motor. It's expressed as a percent of the rated (full-load) speed. → →
○ Now subtract all voltage drops from voltage input for the total
Speed Regulation - Calculation → →

Input Shunt Series Armature Output

P 24,480 W 1,440 W 2,764.8 W 4,147.2 W 16,128 W
• = No-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM)
• = Full-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM) E 480 V 480 V 57.6 V 86.4 V 336 V
Calculate reverse: I 51 A 3A 48 A 48 A 48 A

Example - Speed Regulation Question R 9.41 Ω 160 Ω 1.2 Ω 1.8 Ω 7Ω

" A DC motor rated at 1,800 RPM has a no-load speed of 1,850 RPM " The green highlighted cells are our given values, everything else was calculated

Remember - All of the Wattage under Shunt, Series and Armature are COPPER
LOSSES. If you're going to calculate Output Horsepower, make sure you subtract
both the COPPER LOSSES and MECHANICAL LOSSES (AKA: Windage or Rotational
Reverse: losses) before dividing the wattage by 746W. The question will typically include a
wattage number for mechanical losses.

DC Machines Page 131

Generator - Shunt Load Shunt Armature Generated
P Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Fill out cells with question information and look for Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
E
highlighted cell relationships with other cells.
• Copper ( ) Losses = I Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Add any Mechanical Losses before calculating
• AKA: Windage, Rotational Losses, etc. R Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Not all questions will have Mech. Losses
Double-Check -

Load Shunt Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Shunt Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Shunt Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Shunt Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 132

Generator - Series Load Series Armature Generated
P Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Fill out cells with question information and look for Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
E
highlighted cell relationships with other cells.
• Copper ( ) Losses = I Ohms/Power Law
• Add any Mechanical Losses before calculating
• AKA: Windage, Rotational Losses, etc. R Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Not all questions will have Mech. Losses
Double-Check -

Load Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 133

Generator - Short Shunt Load Shunt Series Armature Generated
P Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Fill out cells with question information and look for Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
E
highlighted cell relationships with other cells.
• Copper ( ) Losses = I Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Add any Mechanical Losses before calculating
• AKA: Windage, Rotational Losses, etc. R Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Not all questions will have Mech. Losses
Double-Check -

Load Shunt Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Shunt Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 134

Generator - Long Shunt Load Shunt Series Armature Generated
P Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Fill out cells with question information and look for Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
E
highlighted cell relationships with other cells.
• Copper ( ) Losses = I Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Add any Mechanical Losses before calculating
• AKA: Windage, Rotational Losses, etc. R Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Not all questions will have Mech. Losses
Double-Check -

Load Shunt Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Load Shunt Series Armature Generated

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 135

Motor - Shunt Input Shunt Armature Output
P Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Same as generator but SUBTRACT instead of ADD Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
E
• Copper ( ) Losses =
• Subtract any Mechanical Losses before calculating I Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Full Load CEMF is
• Field Resistance = R Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law

Double-Check -

Input Shunt Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Shunt Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Shunt Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Shunt Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 136

Motor - Series Input Series Armature Output
P Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
• Same as generator but SUBTRACT instead of ADD Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law
E
• Copper ( ) Losses =
• Subtract any Mechanical Losses before calculating I Ohms/Power Law
• Full Load CEMF is
• Field Resistance = R Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law Ohms/Power Law

Double-Check -

Input Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 137

Motor - Short Shunt Input Shunt Series Armature Output
P Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Same as generator but SUBTRACT instead of ADD Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
E
• Copper ( ) Losses =
• Subtract any Mechanical Losses before calculating I Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Full Load CEMF is
• Field Resistance = R Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms

Double-Check -

Input Shunt Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Shunt Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 138

Motor - Long Shunt Input Shunt Series Armature Output
P Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Same as generator but SUBTRACT instead of ADD Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
E
• Copper ( ) Losses =
• Subtract any Mechanical Losses before calculating I Power/Ohms Power/Ohms
• Full Load CEMF is
• Field Resistance = R Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms Power/Ohms

Double-Check -

Input Shunt Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

Input Shunt Series Armature Output

P
E
I
R
% Eff HP

DC Machines Page 139

AC Machines Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 AC Machine Construction
3 Nameplate Breakdown
4 Synchronous Speed and Rotor Slip
5 Rotor Torque
6 Motor Connections
7 Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIM)
8 Synchronous Motors
9 Single Phase Induction Motors (SPIM)
10 SPIM Connections
11 Universal and Shaded Pole Motors
12 AC Alternators (Generators)
13 Alternator Wiring
14 Formula Sheet

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

AC Machines Page 140

AC Machines - Construction
AC Machines - AC Motor Parts End Bells - Used to support the bearings and align the motor shaft. Often have
AC Machines → Getting Started → Beginning Lesson I ONLINE . PDF lubrication pathways for greasing your bearings. Construction will differ based on
NEMA enclosure type (DP, WP, TE)
AC Machines - Much like DC machines but they are designed to operate on
alternating current. There are alternators (generators) and Motors.
Why 3-Phase - They are 50% smaller for the same HP output as single phase
3-Phase Motors - There are three basic types of three-phase motor. Each has a
slightly different construction when it comes to the Rotor.

Open Drip Proof End Bells TEFC End Bells

Bearings - Held by end-bells and allow rotor to spin, when it comes to lubrication,
always refer to the manufacturers specifications! Do NOT over-lube!
• Bushings - Soft metal with no moving parts. Relies entirely on thin layer of
oil to separate the armature shaft from the bushing. Low load applications.
• Ball Bearings - Come in open or sealed. Sealed do not require lubrication.
• Roller Bearings - Similar to ball bearings but use cylindrical rollers. High
load applications.
Stator - The part that stays still (Stay-tor) - Similar to a DC motors field poles, but
consists of a slotted, circular laminated core to prevent eddy currents. Windings of
enameled wire are inserted into the slots and grouped to form separate
electromagnets. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source
and can be wired in either Wye or Delta.
Rotor - The rotating part - This is where the three motors differ
• SCIM - Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors - Induction-based Brushless Rotor
○ Simple , Rugged , Low Maintenance, Smaller, Good speed
regulation, Relatively low cost, easy speed control with VFDs
• WRIM - Wound-Rotor induction Motors - Electro Magnet Brushed Rotor Bushing Ball Bearing Roller Bearing
○ Needs slip rings, more complex, low Power Factor, great for heavy
Motor Housings - CEC 2-404 Marking of Motors - Three main categories
loads as it's harder to over-load, control speed with resistance
● DP - Drip-Proof ● WP - Weatherproof ● TE - Totally Enclosed
• Synchronous Motors (other two are considered asynchronous)
○ Not an induction motor, requires DC, can run leading Power Factor,
speed based on stator poles per phase and voltage frequency

A Drip Proof Motor Housing

NEMA Enclosure Types - Here are the 7 most popular NEMA enclosure types
• ODP - Open Drip Proof - Allows air circulation through windings, prevents
liquid drops from entering motor within 15 angle from vertical.
• TEFC - Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled - Prevents free exchange of air between
Fan and Cover / Shroud - Located on the back of the motor, the fan attaches inside and outside of frame, but not air-tight. Fan pushes air over the
directly to the rotor so it's self-cooling. The shroud stops fingers from getting in frame fins to help cool motor during operation.
there, and sits proud of the housing to direct air over the cooling fins on enclosed • TENV - Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated - Similar to TEFC but no fan
motors. • TEAO - Totally Enclosed Air Over - Dust-tight, no built-in fan but designed
to run shaft-mounted fans that will pull air over the enclosure.
• TEWD - Totally Enclosed Wash-down - can be pressure-washed, designed
for high-humidity or wet environments.
• EXPL - Explosion-Proof - Totally enclosed machine, designed to prevent the
ignition of fumes outside the motor
• HAZ - Hazardous Location - Three different classes based on their design,
each class has groups of different types of ignitable materials:
○ Class I - Group A through D
○ Class II - Group E, F and G
○ Class III - Easily ignitable fibers
C Flange - Allows you to mount the motor face to a machine, or mount a pump
directly to the front of the motor. Has threaded holes on the shaft face.

AC Machines Page 141

 Insulation Class / Duty - All of the motors numbers are based off a
AC Machines - Nameplates ambient temperature. How hot a motor is allowed to get depends on what
class of insulation is used on the windings. The combonation of ambient
temperature and temperature rise while the motor is running will tell you the
AC Machines - AC Motor Parts hottest you can run a motor before derating it.
AC Machines → Getting Started → AC Machines Reference Read This!! . PDF Each Class has an additional Hot-Spot margin above the total that allows for
Motor Nameplates - Perhaps one of the most important parts of an AC machine is temperature increases at the center of the windings.
the nameplate. This will tell you almost everything you need to know about a given • Check Canadian Electrical Code Table 27 and 37 for insulation ratings
machine, but you need to know when these values apply.
Class Ambient Rise Total Hotspot
Remember - Unless otherwise stated, all of the given values are at FULL LOAD
A
B
F
H
• This motor has an Insulation Class of F, it can handle

NEMA Motor Design - There are four speed-torque characteristics that are
specified by NEMA. A, B, C and D. A is rare, B is the most common, and what is
used by this example motor and C and D are for specialized applications.
• This motor is NEMA B
○
Voltage and Frequency - These numbers are what all of the other values are based Calculating Torque - We can calculate the Torque for this motor by transposing
off on the nameplate. If either your voltage or frequency is different, all of the the Horsepower Equation we learned in DC Machines.
other characteristics such as RPM, current and horsepower will change. This
number takes voltage drops into account, that's why you don't get the nice, even
numbers you're used to like 240/480/600V
Horsepower - Calculation
• This motor is designed for 460V 60Hz systems.
→ →
○
• = Horsepower
Amps - The FULL LOAD current of the motor. Sometimes you will be given two • = Torque in pounds-feet
different numbers such as 34.9/27.9. The two-number ratings are for dual-voltage • N = Rotational Speed in RPM
motors. So in the above case, if the motor was 460/575 V it would say 34.9/27.9
• This motor will draw 34.9A when fully loaded at 460V So we would do the following equation to calculate Torque
○ •
• That means In-Rush Current will be
Torque Curve Graph - Below is a Torque Curve graph for this NEMA B motor.
RPM - This is the base speed of the motor when fully loaded. This is how fast the
rotor will be turning when operating at rated voltage and frequency and putting out
rated horsepower.
• This motor will rotate at 1765 RPM when fully loaded at 460V 60Hz
○
• From the RPM, we can figure out a few things about this motor
○ Poles - Given that the base speed is 1765, we can assume that this
is a 4 pole motor, and the magnetic field is rotating at 1800RPM
▪ Explained on the next page under Synchronous Speed
○ %Slip - We can figure this out using those two numbers
▪
○ Rotor Frequency - Now that we have %Slip, we can calculate the
speed at which the rotor is cutting magnetic flux
▪
Service Factor - This is how far above its rated Horsepower the motor can be run. If
a motor has a service factor of 1, it is only designed to be run at rated HP.
Regardless of service factor, continuously running a motor above the rated HP will
shorten it's lifespan and change things like full load RPM and full load current.
• This motor is rated for 30HP and has a Service Factor of 1.15 A - Starting Torque - AKA: Locked Rotor Torque, approximately 150% of full-load
○ torque. This is caused by in-rush current before CEMF is developed. Our motor
in this example would develop
▪
B - Accelerating Torque - Once the rotor starts spinning, torque will decrease
Sizing Overload Relays (OLR) - Canadian Electrical Code 28-306 1 (a) (b)
slightly from starting torque, and then rapidly shoot up to Peak torque.
A) Service Factor 1.15 or greater = 125% of FLA
B) Service Factor less than 1.15 = 115% of FLA C - Peak Torque - AKA: Breakdown Torque, approximately 200% of full-load
torque. This is the most torque the machine can put out. Our motor in this
Efficiency - This is how efficient the motor is at converting the input power into
example would develop
output power. The more efficient the motor is, the less power it will waste. It also
results in lower operating temperatures, lower noise levels and longer motor life. D - Full-Load Torque - As the rotor catches up to the synchronous speed, the
• This motor is rated at 93.6% efficiency torque drops off rapidly until it reaches rated running torque. This will be at the
slip speed or rated speed of the motor.
○
The distance between D and C is effected by your speed regulation!

AC Machines Page 142

 Motor Action - Squirrel Cage Induction Motors don't have any active parts in the
AC Machines - Sync. & Slip rotor. They operate purely off induction just like a transformer, the rotating field
from the stator induces a current in the rotor bars, which are short circuited
current loops. This makes it generate it's own magnetic field, these two magnetic
AC Machines - Synchronous Speed and Slip Speed fields create a motor action and cause the rotor to spin and follow the rotating
AC Machines → Getting Started → Beginning Lesson II . PDF magnetic field in the stator.
Magnetic Fields in a Stator - Each phase will have at least two poles, at any given This all happens thanks to our good friend Faradays Law:
time, one will be north and one will be south. As they cross the center line, they
have no magnetism. Because there are 3 phases that are 120 apart, the magnetic Faraday's Law - Calculation
field will constantly be rotating around the stator as each phase grows and shrinks
in voltage. If you were to put a cylindar (or ROTOR) in the middle that ALSO had
magnetic polarity, it would chase this ever-changing magnetic field around in circles • = Voltage g qenerated
• = Flux density of the field in tesla (T)
• = Active length of conductor in the field in meters (m)
• = relative velocity of the conductor through the field - Rotor Slip!

Generator and Motor Effect on SCIM Rotor

Use left hand generator rule to figure out rotor currents
Changing Rotation Direction - As we learned before, change any TWO of the 3 leads Use right hand motor rule to figure out direction of rotation.
Synchronous Speed - AKA: Stator Magnetic RPM - The rate in which the rotating
field rotates. It's determined by the number of poles and the frequency applied. Speed Regulation - The variation of speed in regards to load is called the speed
Synchronous speed RPM and operating RPM are different due to rotor slip. regulation of a motor. It's expressed as a percent of the rated (full-load) speed.
• Frequency - Doing more cycles per second means more changes in the
magnetic fields, faster spinning field. Frequency is changed with VFDs. Speed Regulation - Calculation
• Poles - The more poles you have, the longer it takes for the magnetic field
to sweep around the stator, LOWERING the RPM.
This can be calculated with the usual RPM formula from year 1 magnetism:
• = No-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM)
Sync speeds at 50 and 60 Hz. You will • = Full-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM)
Frequency (Hz) have to calculate your own if given an Calculate reverse:
odd-ball frequency.
Rotor slip - the difference of the speed between the rotating magnetic field of
Poles 60Hz 50Hz the stator and the RPM of the rotor. They can't spin at the same speed, because
2 3600 RPM 3000 RPM the %Slip is the in our , meaning induction would stop, the rotor
would slow and cause the cutting of flux again, so rotor slip HAS to exist.
4 1800 RPM 1500 RPM
6 1200 RPM 1000 RPM Rotor Slip - Calculation
• = frequency (Hz) 8 900 RPM 750 RPM
• = Poles per phase (2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
• = Turns (in RPM) Sometimes S or 10 720 RPM 600 RPM

Sometimes you'll be given the Rotor RPM and need the Synchronous Speed, you can
typically just assume and round up to one of the numbers on this list. • = Synchronous Speed (RPM)
Determining direction of rotation - There are two ways of determining which • = RPM of Rotor (RPM)
direction a stator will spin. • = Speed difference from Slippage (RPM)
• Bump the motor - Before the load is connected, connect your electrical
leads and quickly "bump" the motor contactor on then off. The rotor will Example - 1800 RPM Motor Operating at 1740 RPM
spin in the direction of rotation for just a moment •
• Phase rotation Meter - A special meter that will compare the phase •
rotation of both the motor leads and the supply leads separately. If they •
move the needle in the same direction , that's the direction of rotation.
Rotor Frequency - Once you have the %Slip, you can calculate the frequency of
Inrush Current - At start-up, there is a no CEMF so there is a large current draw the rotor by multiplying the motors base frequency by the percent slip
while the magnetic field builds up. This is said to be 6x the FLA. • Example: 60Hz Motor @ 10% Slip -

AC Machines Page 143

 When asked about stator voltage Remember:
AC Machines - Rotor Torque
and
AC Machines - Rotor Torque Relationships AC Machines - Rotor Design
AC Machines → Getting Started → Beginning Lesson III . PDF AC Machines → Getting Started → AC Machines Lesson IV Rotor Design . PDF

Rotor Torque - Another very important equation in the world of AC machines if the NEMA Rotor Designs - There are four NEMA standard designs for squirrel cage rotors,
motor torque equation. Torque is the rotational (twisting) force of a motor, and it is A,B,C and D. Each changes these operating characteristics:
determined by three factors: Stator Magnetic Field Strength, Rotor field strength • Speed Regulation, Starting Torque and Starting Current
and the phase angle between them called the "Rotor Power Factor" The only real difference is the shape of the bars that run through the length of the
laminated steel plates. By changing the size and shape of these bars, they can change
Torque - Calculation the resistance, and therefore how much current and flux is built up.

NEMA A NEMA B NEMA C NEMA D

• = Torque Generated
• = Motor constants you cannot change (Poles, windings etc)
• = Stator Flux
• = Rotor Current - More current = more rotor flux!
• = Rotor Power Factor - Optimal torque @ or
Rotor Power Factor - This is the cornerstone of AC Machines - Not to be confused
with the power factor of the motor, there exists a power factor between the Rotor
and the Stator. When you're in a locked rotor situation, the power factor is terrible,
as power is applied to the motor and the rotor begins to accelerate, this power
factor improves until it hits 45 (70.7%).
This is when you get PEAK TORQUE out of a motor, 200% of full load torque.
From a stopped state, to peak torque, this is the order things happen:
• The machine is turned on and rotor RPM Increases
• Rotor Frequency (slip speed) beings to drop as it catches up to sync speed
Very low resistance, high inductance, Low starting torque, high
• Rotor Flux drops because it's not cutting as many lines of flux anymore
• The reactance lowers as power factor improves and magnetic flux shrinks
A starting current, excellent speed regulation and low slip
• Torque begins to rise until the power factor is at 70.7% (45 ) Most Common, jack of all trades. Less Resistance than D. Fair
• The torque will lower to 100% as the motor runs in normal conditions. B starting torque, low starting current, fair speed regulation
Rotor RPM PF Angle PF % Torque Both high and low resistive bars. Produce a greater starting
C torque, excellent speed regulation and good running torque, but
↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
very expensive to make.
Adding Load to a Rotor - What happens when we add load to a motor? Lowest starting current, highest starting torque because smallest
• The Load is increased and the rotor beings to slow D bars (higher resistance). Very Poor speed regulation. Best for
• The % slip increases, causing it to cut more lines of flux momentary, high torque applications like presses/cutters.
○ → V is increasing!
• The extra flux increases the induced voltage in the rotor
• The extra voltage increases the magnetic flux of the rotor Torque Response Curve Graph
• Extra torque is created from the two interacting magnetic fields
• Speed recovers just enough to maintain torque required to handle load
• If load is high enough and breakdown torque is reached, OLR will trip
○ Or rotor may stall, eliminate CEMF, current will spike and trip OLR
Load Torque
↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

Removing Load from a Rotor - What happens when remove load from a motor?
• The Load is decreased and the rotor beings to speed up
• The % slip decreases, causing it to cut fewer lines of flux
○ → V is Decreasing!
• The lack of flux causes the induced voltage in the rotor to lower
• The lower induced voltage means the flux field weakens
• The torque is lowered due to the lower interaction of magnetic fields
• The rotor is able to speed up
Load Torque
↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

Calculating Torque - We can calculate the Torque for this motor by transposing the
Horsepower Equation we learned in DC Machines.
Torque Response - Along the horizontal is the Synchronous speed of the rotor.
Remember, this is the speed of the physical rotor compared to the speed of the
Horsepower - Calculation rotating magnetic field. See how the different bar configurations produce different
torque at different sync speeds.
→ → You could consider start-up on the far left of the graph, while Full load operation is at
the pink/purple line (100% Torque). Speed regulation is all about the distance
between operating torque and peak torque for constant-duty motors
• = Horsepower
• = Torque in pounds-feet NEMA B has peak torque at 25% slip, or 70.7% Rotor Power Factor (when )
• N = Rotational Speed in RPM

AC Machines Page 144

 AC Machines - Wye-Delta Starting
AC Machines - Connections Industrial Motor Control Book - Chapter 39 - Wye-Delta Starting - Pages 300-310
Canadian Electrical Code - Section 28 is for motors and generators - If you read
AC Machines - Stator Connections section 28-010, you'll see that the CEC considers motor in-rush current to be 6x the
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines Lesson V connections . PDF FLA. That's a lot of amps, especially on bigger motors. To reduce this amperage,
we'll use Wye-Delta starting on larger, torquier motors.
Stator Connections - Every motor has terminals (Typically wires) for you to connect • 28-010 Locked rotor current - AKA: Inrush Current
your line power. Just like with transformers, some motors can be dual voltage. • Table 44 and Table 45 are for FLA currents when the question doesn't give
What kind of connections they can do will depend on the number of terminals them to you.
If it's delta, the #3 post will always be in the middle - Thanks Nick S#0299!
Table Page Description
Lead Identification - There is standard numbering for where each terminal connects
Table 44 517 - 518 Three-Phase AC Motors - Full Load Current
Table 45 519 Single-Phase AC Motors - Full Load Current
Page number may be different in your book - Mine is 2018 Errata September 2018
Wye Delta Starting - Using multiple contactors it's possible to connect a motor in
Wye, allow it to get up to speed, and then switch it over to delta.
The result will be two reductions of in the line current, pulling 1/3rd the current
were it just started in delta.

Dual-Voltage Wye Dual-Voltage Delta

Spiral around adding 1 each time I dunno, you figure it out.

High Voltage Connections - In order to handle the higher voltage of the two the
motor is rated for, you want to connect the leads in series

Delta Starting Current Wye Starting Current

Requirements - There are two main requirements for using Wye-Delta starting
High Voltage Wye and Block Diagram 1) The motor must be designed for the windings to use delta during normal
operation. You can't force a wye motor to run in Delta.
2) All stator winding leads must be accessible. In other words, it has to be a six
or twelve wire motor. You can't have any pre-terminated ends.
Example - A delta-connected motor With an FLA of 100A @ 600V - That means at 6x
in-rush, we would have 600 amps when starting under Delta.
• Step 1 - Make a PEIR table using inrush current, get your phase coil down the
inrush resistance, and build it back to a Wye connection.
Remember, Delta phase current is lower than line current, so it drops to
347A and Wye voltage is less than delta, so it'll only drop 347V
High Voltage Delta and Block Diagram
Delta Wye
Low Voltage Connections - In order to use the lower voltage of the two the motor is E 600 V 347 V
rated for, you want to connect the leads in parallel
I 347 A 200 A
R 1.73 Ω 1.73 Ω

Due to these TWO drops, our line current drops by a third!

Effect on Torque - Because starting voltage is reduced, the amount of flux in the
stator is reduced. Remember: this makes our torque
reduce to 1/3rd of original - Torque is reduced on the square voltage reduction
It's essentially like taking the torque equation and re-writing it like this:

Low Voltage Wye and Block Diagram

Those two reductions have the same effect on torque as they do on current.
Another way to put it - Starting Torque changes on the square to voltage.
If a motor normally starts with 200% Torque, and you reduce the
starting voltage to 80%, what's the new percent starting torque?

0.64 64 200 0.64

Or do it the dummy way I do like this:

Low Voltage Delta and Block Diagram

AC Machines Page 145

 Rotor Power Factor - All of the same rotor power factor equations and triangles
AC Machines - Wound Rotor that we use for SCIM's apply to WRIMs, the difference being that you can
control the power factor manually by adjusting the external resistance.
Remember - Rotor Power Factor is adjusted with 3 different things:
AC Machines - Wound Rotor Induction Motor • Stator Magnetic Field Strength, Rotor field strength and the phase
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines Lesson VI WRIM. PDF angle between them called the "Rotor Power Factor"
WRIM - Wound Rotor Induction Motors - Before the invention of VFD's or even DC
motors, if you wanted soft starting or speed control motors, you would use a Torque - Calculation
Wound Rotor Induction Motor.
Similarities to SCIM - There are a number of similarities to a Squirrel Cage Rotor
• Same Stator Design and enclosure as well as enclosure designations. • = Torque Generated
• = Motor constants you cannot change (Poles, windings etc)
Differences from SCIM - There are lots of differences when it comes to the rotor • = Stator Flux
• The Rotor has Windings, not bars • = Rotor Current - More current = more rotor flux
○ Three separate coils are spaced apart • This is what you can adjust with external resistance!
• The windings connect to slip rings • = Rotor Power Factor - Optimal torque @ or
• There are brushes that ride on the slip rings
Inductive Reactance - Not only does changing the resistance change the
• The brushes are brought out to 3 separate lines
induced current in the rotor, but it also slows and speeds up the rotor, which
○ Leads are identified as M1, M2 and M3
changes the rotor slip frequency. We know from our inductive reactance
• The leads are attached to an external resistance
equation that this will result in further change of the Rotor Power Triangle
○ Can be fixed (resistor bank) or Variable (rheostat)

Inductive Reactance - Calculation

• = Inductive Reactance in Ohms (Ω)

• = Slip Frequency In hertz (Hz)
• = Inductance in Henries (H)

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓
Ext. Res. PF Angle Torque

A wound Rotor - Check out all those pixels! ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑

Wiring - There will be 6 leads coming out of a Wound Rotor Motor, to reverse How it works in a practical sense - In the below example, there's a resistance
direction of rotation, you swap any two of the STATOR leads. Swapping the rotor grid being used to control how much resistance is applied to the rotor. There
leads will do nothing, as they're all just joined together in a star point anyway. are 3 sets of contactors labelled A, B and C. When a contactor fires, it
disconnects any resistors after it by providing a path of least resistance.
Stator - , , Rotor - , ,

Operation - It operates in a nearly identical way to an SCIM motor, with the stator
flux inducing a voltage onto the rotor coils. However, the resistance of these rotor
coils can be adjusted by modifying the external resistance that attaches to them
through the slip rings and brushes.
It's like adding an electronic transmission to the motor.

• When all the resistances are on, the load experiences full resistance,
and acts like a NEMA D squirrel cage rotor
• As each contactor closes, it disconnects a set of resistors from the rotor
• The lower the resistance, the more it operates like a NEMA B rotor.

Variable Resistance Controller Fixed Resistor Bank

WRIM Advantages - There are several advantages over SCIM designs. All of which
are due to the fact that you can control the resistance of the rotor windings
• Develop the highest starting torque per ampere of any three phase motor
• The Torque in a WRIM is variable
• The Starting current can be controlled
• The acceleration can be very smooth
• The Power Factor of the rotor can be controlled with external resistance
• Stator less likely to over-heat from inrush because you can control current
WRIM Disadvantages - There are also many disadvantages of a WRIM including
• Larger physical size Open in the Field - If there's an open in the starting field the motor wont start,
• Higher initial cost as the coils all have to be connected to each other in order for current to flow
• Higher maintenance costs and generate flux. To test for an open in the starting circuit (rheostat) short out
• More complex controls all 3 leads ( , , ) and try to start it again. If it starts (it will poorly, with
• Poor speed regulation if resistance is left in rotor circuit low torque Ala line 4 on the above graph), then there's an open in the field.

AC Machines Page 146

AC Machines - Synchronous Motors
AC Machines - Stator Connections
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines Sync . PDF
Synchronous Motors - Different than any other type of three-phase motor. They're
like a permanent magnet motor, because the rotor has fixed magnetic poles, but
you can adjust the magnetism because it uses an external DC source.
They're called Synchronous Motors because the rotor is designed to rotate at the
same speed as the stator's magnetic field, aka: the Synchronous Speed.
• They are NOT induction motors - except for when they are first starting up
• They operate at synchronous speed
• They maintain a constant speed from no load to full load
• They can have a leading power factor and correct for lagging machines A Brushless Exciter Rotor - The heatsinks on the back make up the rectifier
○ Called Synchronous condensers when used like this
• Contain two types of windings on the rotor.
• Has the same number of poles on the rotor and stator
Rotor Construction - The rotor of a synchronous motor has two main parts.
• Amortisseur windings - These are essentially a NEMA D squirrel cage built
into the outside core of the rotor. These are what are used to start the
motor and get it up to 95%, then the Salient Poles take over from there.
• Salient Poles - These are the wound poles, typically running out from the
core instead of along it like other motors. There will be the same number
of salient poles on the rotor as there are poles on the stator.
Once the motor is up to 95% speed, Direct Current is applied to the salient
pole windings, which then take it up to 100% of the Synchronous Speed.
A Brushless Exciter circuit - All of this is on the same Rotor

Startup Steps - Here's what startup looks like on a Synchronous Motor

• 1 - The Stator is turned on and a magnetic field is generated
• 2 - This field induces a voltage onto the Amortisseur windings
○ 2b - Any voltage induced onto the Salient Poles is dissipated
by the Field Discharge Resistor
• 3 - The Amortisseur windings produce a flux of their own
• 4 - The Rotor beings to rapidly pick up speed until it reaches around
95% of the Synchronous Field speed
• 5 - The DC voltage is then applied to the Salient Pole Windings
• 6 - The Rotor rapidly accelerates to Synchronous speed.
• 7 - The Amortisseur windings are no longer having any voltage
induced on them, because the is gone from our

Half of a Synchronous Motor Rotor - The salient Poles are the wire wrapped T's Torque Angle - As you add load to a synchronous motor, this puts stress on
sticking out, the circles in the end of each of them are the Amortisseur windings. the magnetic bond between the rotor and stator, and causes it to "stretch" a
little bit. The angle of this stretch is called your torque angle. It can only
Excitation Current - The current supplied to the Salient Poles while running. There "stretch" so far before it breaks immediately after the "pull-out torque"
are two main methods of providing Excitation Current to a Synchronous Motor. Pull-Out Torque - Because the two magnetic fields are "locked" together, even
1 - Brushes and Slip Rings - You can use an external DC source and connect when load is added, the stator field will "pull" the rotor along with it.
it to the rotor using Brushes and Slip rings, then you just have to adjust how This will continue to happen up to about 250% of full load torque. At this
much power it's putting out to change the magnetic field. point there is enough load to pull the rotor field out of synchronization with
2 - Brushless Exciters - Larger motors typically generate their own three- the stator field.
phase voltage using the magnetic field from the stator and a separate
Power Factor Correction - Synchronous motors can be set to lagging, unity or
brushless exciter winding. It then passes this three-phase voltage through a
leading based on how much excitation current is applied to the rotor.
rectifier circuit with a variable resistor and onto the Salient Poles.
If the rotor is under-excited, part of the AC current must be used to help
magnetize the iron in the rotor, causing the current to lag the voltage
If the rotor has enough DC current to magnetize it's entire iron core, then no
AC current will be used to create magnetizing force, and the Voltage and
current will remain in phase with each-other at unity.
If the rotor has MORE than enough DC current to magnetize it's entire core,
then some of the AC current will be used to de-magnetize the excessive
magnetic force caused by the DC. This will cause the AC current to lead the
voltage, giving it a leading power factor.
Synchronous Condenser - When a synchronous motor is operated at no load
and purely used to correct the power factor of other inductive loads on it's
circuit, they call it a Synchronous Condenser.
It's kind of like using a capacitor, but it can be finely tuned by adjusting the
excitation current, unlike capacitor banks that can just turn on and off set,
Field Discharge Resistor - Because the Salient Poles aren't used during start-up, typically large amounts of capacitance all at once.
there is a resistor that is temporarily connected between the DC leads while the
motor spins up. This allows any current induced into the windings to bleed off. Reverse Direction - To reverse direction of a Synchronous Motor, you would
simply reverse any of the two STATOR leads.
Kinda like how you close the secondary on a Current Transformer when not in use.

AC Machines Page 147

 Resistance-Start Induction-Run Motor
AC Machines - SPIM Run Windings - Many turns of Large Wire, Low Resistance, High Reactance.
Wound near the bottom of stator slots to further increase reactance

AC Machines - Single-Phase Induction Motors Start Windings - Fewer turns of smaller wire, High Resistance, Low Reactance.
Wound near top of stator to decrease reactance
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines SPIM Ia X Online . PDF
Operation - The start and run windings are placed at a angle from each-
SPIM - Single Phase Induction Motor / Split-Phase Induction Motor - Motors that other on the stator. They are connected in Parallel with one-another so they
operate on 120 or 240 volts. There are three basic types: both receive the same voltage from the source.
• Resistance-Start Induction-Run - AKA: R&L Motor The start winding will have far more resistance and less inductance than the
○ Used where Moderate Torque is required. Washing machines, run windings (see below). The different levels of inductance causes the
furnace blowers, small fans, small drill presses etc. currents to be - out of phase from each-other in each winding.
• Capacitor-Start Induction-Run This phase-shift creates a weak rotating magnetic field in the stator, which
○ Used in applications that require high starting-torque. induces onto the rotor and causes it to spin.
• Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run - AKA: Permanent Split Capacitor Motor
Centrifugal Switch - At 75% speed A Centrifugal switch then disconnects the
○ A true dual-phase motor - best operating characteristics
start windings, but due to the alternating polarity of the magnetic field and the
inertia already built up in the rotor, it will continue to spin.

R&L Cap-Start Induction-Run Cap-Start Cap-Run

Components - Nearly everything is the same as a 3-Phase SCIM, in fact, the Split-
Phase can be described as a SCIM.
• Same things - Bearings, end bells, cooling methods
• Stator - Similar to 3-Phase stator. It has laminated steel core and windings.
However it has two sets of windings, a run (main) winding and a start
(auxiliary) winding.
• Capacitors - Some Single-Phase motors have capacitors. RMS Voltage
rating must be equal to or greater than source voltage. Convert VDC or
WVDC ratings to RMS by multiplying by 0.707. Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Stator Windings
• Centrifugal Switch - A switch that opens using centrifugal forces at a Windings - Exact Same as Resistance-Start Induction-Run windings, but with a
specific speed that is used to disconnect the start windings. capacitor and centrifugal switch in series with the Start Winding.
Capacitor - Used to provide extra starting torque by shifting phase angle
between the start and run windings. The start winding current LEADS the
applied voltage, while the run winding is still lagging, widening the phase angle
to around . This provides maximum starting torque.
These are light-duty AC Electrolytic capacitors and will be damaged if they
aren't disconnected after start-up.
Centrifugal Switch - Disconnects the Start Windings and capacitor at ~75%
speed, kicking it down to a single-phase operation.

Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Stator Windings

Windings - Both the run and the start windings are made of the same size
wire, the run winding is still deeper in the stator slots to help increase
reactance, and there is a capacitor in series with the start winding.
Capacitor - Provides a phase-angle shift between currents in start winding
and run winding. Uses a heavy-duty AC paper or oil capacitor intended for
continuous use.
Unlike the capacitor-start motor, this capacitor remains in the circuit at all
times, meaning the motor operates like a true two-phase motor at all times.
There's a marking on the capacitor that signifies the outer plate.

Capacitor voltage ratings - It's time for a trip down memory lane. Back to
Circuit Concepts 3 where we learned about converting WVDC to RMS.
When you're given a WVDC or VDC rating, that's it's PEAK value and you'll have
to convert that into RMS/Effective using the following formula:

RMS / Effective (AC)

• = RMS Voltage
• = Max / Peak Voltage
• Can also use sin45 for 0.707
Operation - These motors start by producing a rotating magnetic field in the stator • To convert the other way, divide!
winding, but they can't do it with just a single phase, so they split the single phase Example - A cap. has a Rating of 300VDC, can it be used on a 240VAC Line?
to make a second phase. They do this in different ways depending on motor
design, but they all have two sets of windings. Run Windings, sometimes called
Main Windings and Start Windings, sometimes called Auxiliary Windings.

AC Machines Page 148

AC Machines - SPIM Connect
AC Machines - Split-Phase Connections
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines SPIM Ib X Online . PDF
Overview - SPIM's are often designed to run dual voltage (120/240). In this case
the motor will contain separate sets of windings. Low Voltage Single Start Winding Connection - It's pretty much the same as the
Some motors have one start winding, some motors have two start windings dual start windings, connect your evens together, and your odds together for
• Run Winding Labels - , , , CW. For CCW rotation, reverse the Start Winding leads ( and )
• Start Winding Labels - , and sometimes , as well
○ Sometimes Single Start Windings go , as well

Low Voltage Connection - Each winding has a voltage rating of 120 Volts, so if
you're connecting it to a 120 Volt circuit, that means you need to use Parallel.
It's easy to do, just connect your evens together, and your odds together for CW. Low Voltage Parallel Connection - It's a mess, but it's just even and odd!
For CCW rotation, Connect Even Run to Odd Start and vice versa.
→ → → →

High Voltage Connection - This one is a little bit different, you want to parallel
the single start winding with just one of the run windings. Once again, for CCW
rotation you would reverse the Start Winding leads ( and )

Low Voltage Parallel Connection - It's a mess, but it's just even and odd!
→ → → → → →

High Voltage Connection - Each winding has a voltage rating of 120 Volts, so if
you're connecting it to a 240 Volt circuit, that means you need to use Series.
This connection will give you CW rotation, for CCW rotation, reverse the starter
leads so connectso to and connects to .

High Voltage Series Connection - It's clean, but not as easy to remember
→ → →

High Voltage Series Connection - It's clean, but not as easy to remember
→ → → → → →

AC Machines Page 149

 Shaded Pole Synchronous Motors - One of the most common single phase
AC Machines - Other Motors motors due to is small size and cost of construction. Almost zero torque, it's
pretty weak, but it runs at nearly synchronous speed at full load. It has a
special stator design with slots cut in the pole face. Common for use in:
AC Machines - Other Single Phase Motors • Bathroom Fans
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines SPIM II Extra motors . PDF • Kitchen Fans
• Residential Furnace fans
Universal Motors - Called this because they can run on AC or DC power. Super
torque-y, very reliable. Uses Slip Rings and brushes to convert whatever voltage you
apply into DC for the rotor. Will run the same speed on both AC and DC.
Used in things like Rigid brand Pipe Threaders

Stator Construction - Laminated steel plates make up the stator, just like any
other motor, but there is an off center slot cut into each pole that has a tiny
exciter winding wrapped around it.
Each pole also has standard windings wrapped around them.

The stator is in series with the rotor and it's wired in such a way that whatever
direction of flux the rotor gets, the stator gets the opposite. Simple and smart.
Speed Control - Reduce armature voltage to control the speed.
Rotation Control - Swap the armature leads to change direction of rotation. Make
sure brushes are in neutral plane when doing this or you'll have high heat generated
by hysteresis and eddy currents.

The portion of the face with the exciter winding wrapped around it will have
higher hysteresis during some points of the waveform, causing a shifted
magnetic field across the face.
This shift in the magnetic field is enough to give a rotor spin.

Loss of Load - As you can see, it's just a Series DC motor, so loss of load would cause
the rotor to speed up, so make sure you don't lose all load.

Reversing Direction - Rotates from the unshaded pole side to the shaded pole
side. Therefore, to reverse the direction of rotation, you actually have to
change what side the shaded pole is on. As such, most can be disassembled
so the stator can be flipped 180 in relation to the rotor.
Speed vs. Load in a series motor

AC Machines Page 150

 Delta / Wye - Just like everything else Three-Phase, alternators can be
AC Machines - Alternators connected in either Delta or Wye. If you want higher current output, use Delta,
if you want higher Voltage Output, use Wye.
Field Excitation - The DC power used to generate the magnetic flux that our
AC Machines - AC Alternators phases can cut to generate voltage can be provided in a number of ways.
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines ONLIINE VII SYNCH ALT . PDF
Sometimes it's an external DC power supply, sometimes it's built right onto the
Alternator - Any machine designed to generate AC current - i.e. Convert the mechanical armature just like we learned in synchronous motors (brushless excitation).
energy of a prime mover into electrical energy. Common prime movers include Diesel
Field Discharge Resistor - When an excitation field circuit is opened, there's a lot
Engines, Wind, Steam turbines (Natural gas, Nuclear, Coal) and Water Turbines (Hydro)
of DC flyback from the collapsing magnetic field that needs to be delt with. A
Types - There are two types of AC Alternators, Revolving-Armature type which spin the Discharge resistor is introduced to the circuit automatically any time it's opened
power generating coils around a DC supplied stator, and Revolving-Field type which
FREQUENCY ADJUSTMENT - To change the frequency coming out of an
spins the DC supplied stator inside the power generating coils.
alternator, you change the speed of the turning, so you increase the speed of
Revolving Armature - The Stator carries an adjustable DC excitation current, and the the prime mover.
prime mover rotates three coils, 120 apart through this field. The voltage and current
VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT - To change the voltage coming out of an alternator,
you can produce is limited because the power you're generating has to be transferred
you have to change the excitation current, that means you let more DC flow
through slip rings and brushes. It's not a very good design.
through the Rotor, so it has more magnetic flux.
Feedback Loops - Frequency and Voltage are seldom manually adjusted. There
are generally control loops for each of them. These controllers will
automatically watch the voltage or frequency and adjust the Prime Mover input
or the Excitation field to keep it in spec.
Voltage Regulation - The resistance and inductive reactance of the windings
means there will be voltage drop when load is added. Use this equation to
calculate percent voltage Regulation:

Voltage Regulation - Calculation

Revolving Armature - Bullshit Generator
Revolving Field - Essentially a synchronous motor. The three power generating phases
are put on the stator instead of the rotor, and the DC excitation current is supplied to
• = Voltage Regulation (As a Percentage)
the rotor that the prime mover spins around.
• = Voltage at No Load (Volts)
○ Higher voltages (13,800 V) and currents, coils aren't subject to motion and
• = Voltage at Full Load (Volts)
vibration like on the other bullshit, awful generator.
Paralleling Alternators - There are four conditions that must be met in order to
connect alternators in parallel
1. Frequency must be the same
• Use Frequency meter while adjusting prime mover speed
• A Synchroscope indicates difference in speed

Revolving Field - Awesome Generator

2. Phase Order must be the same - ABCABCABC or BACBACBAC
Salient pole Rotors - Same as synchronous motor - limited operating RPM so you have • Use synchronizing lamps, with one side connected to each alternator.
to use a lot of poles. The amortisseur windings help reduce oscillations. Flywheels can They all have to flash at the same time to know they're synchronized. If
also be used to help reduce oscillations in alternators. they flash at different orders they're out of sequence, switch two lines!
3. Voltage must be the same
• If not, it can cause a short between the unlike phases
4. Voltages must be in step with each-other
• The A B and C phases must peak at the same time on both alternators.
If they're in phase, they'd measure 0 V across. Therefor, we can use
lamps between Gen 1 A and Gen 2 A, B and B, C and C, and if they're all
off that means they're dropping 0 volts, so you know it's in step.

Cylindrical Rotors - A Longer, more narrow rotor design for high speed 1200-3600 RPM
no problem, more common for diesel generators.

The lamp test on the left is the same you'd use for
both Phase Order and checking for in-step.

AC Machines Page 151

AC Machines - Alt. Wiring

AC Machines - AC Alternators
AC Machines → Getting Started → BCIT AC Machines ONLIINE VII SYNCH ALT . PDF
Connections - Here are four common dual winding connections for AC Alternators. I'm getting lazy so here's a copy/paste of the BCIT Slides, Sorry!

Series Wye, High-Voltage Connection - 240/416 V Parallel Wye, Low-Voltage Connection - 120/208 V

Series Delta, High-Voltage Connection - 240 V Parallel Delta, Low-Voltage Connection - 120 V

AC Machines Page 152

AC Machines - Formula Sheet Frequency (Hz)
Sync speeds at 50 and 60 Hz. You will
have to calculate your own if given an
odd-ball frequency.
THEORY EQUATIONS - Not used for much math, but must be understood
for theory questions.
Poles 60Hz 50Hz
2 3600 RPM 3000 RPM
Inductive Reactance - Calculation 4 1800 RPM 1500 RPM
6 1200 RPM 1000 RPM
• = Inductive Reactance in Ohms (Ω) • = frequency (Hz) 8 900 RPM 750 RPM
• = Slip Frequency In hertz (Hz) • = Poles per phase (2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
• = Turns (in RPM) can be S or 10 720 RPM 600 RPM
• = Inductance in Henries (H)

Faraday's Law - Calculation RMS / Effective (AC) Speed Regulation - Calculation

• = Voltage g qenerated
• = RMS Voltage
• = Flux density of the field in tesla (T) - adjusted by voltage in stator
• = Max / Peak Voltage • = No-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM)
• = Active length of conductor in the field
• or use sin45 for 0.707 • = Full-Load Speed in Rotations Per Minute (RPM)
• = relative velocity of the conductor through the field - Rotor Slip!
Calculate reverse:
Delta - Calculations*
Voltage Regulation - Calculation

• = Voltage Regulation (As a Percentage)

• = Voltage at No Load (Volts)
• = Voltage at Full Load (Volts)
• =
• = Line Current Rotor Slip - Calculation
Low Voltage Wye and Block Diagram • = Phase Current
• = Sqrt3 or 1.732

Wye - Calculations*

• = Synchronous Speed (RPM)

• = RPM of Rotor (RPM)
• = Speed difference from Slippage (RPM)

Low Voltage Delta and Block Diagram Horsepower - Calculation

• =
• = Line Voltage
• = Phase Voltage
• = Sqrt3 or 1.732 →

• = Horsepower
• = Torque in pounds-feet
• N = Rotational Speed in RPM

High Voltage Wye and Block Diagram

Canadian Electrical Code - Section 28 is for motors and generators - If you
read section 28-010, you'll see that the CEC considers motor in-rush current
to be 6x the FLA.
• 28-010 Locked rotor current - AKA: Inrush Current
• Table 44 and Table 45 are for FLA currents

Table Page Description

Table 44 517 - 518 Three-Phase AC Motors - Full Load Current
Table 45 519 Single-Phase AC Motors - Full Load Current

High Voltage Delta and Block Diagram Solving Motors with HP, PF and Efficiency.
1-
2-
When asked about stator voltage Remember: 3-
Example - 3HP / 70% Power Factor / 87% Efficiency
and 1-
2- 87η
NEMA B has peak torque at 25% slip, or 70.7% Rotor Power Factor ( when ) 3- (Apparent Power)

AC Machines Page 153

Motor Control Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Manual Starters and Overload Protection
3 Magnetic Starters (Contactors)
4 Basic Control Circuit
5 2 and 3 wire Circuits and Multiple Pushbuttons
6 Pilot Devices
7 Jog Circuits
8 Basic Forward / Reverser setup
9 Timers and Zero Speed Switch
10 Conduit Fill
11 Electrical Symbols
12 Definitions
13 Lv 3 - Reduced Voltage Starting
14 Lv 3 - Resistance / Reactance Starters
15 Lv 3 - Autotransformer Starters
16 Lv 3 - Wye-Delta Starters
17 Lv 3 - Soft Starters
18 Lv 3 - Wound Rotor and Regenerative Braking
19 Lv 3 - Synchronous Motor Control
20 Lv 3 - Friction Braking and Plugging
21 Lv 3 - Dynamic Braking (DC Injection)
22 Lv 3 - Regeneration / Eddy Current Brakes
23 Lv 3 - VFD Overview
24 Lv 3 - VFD Control / Troubleshooting

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Motor Control Page 154

 Common Ratings - There are three significant electrical ratings for manual starters.
MC - Manual Starters & OL The motor ratings referenced below can be taken from the motor nameplate.
• Voltage - Starter voltage rating must meet or exceed motor rating
• Ampacity - The ampacity capacity of the thermal overload component
Motor Controls - Manual Starters must be in-line with the motor nameplate amps (Full load amps / FLA)
Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 1-8
• Horsepower - Starter HP rating must meet or exceed motor rating at
In-Rush Current - AC motors draw large momentary in-rush currents when they operating voltage.
first start up. Once the motor reaches speed it will fall to its rated value. All
starting equipment and line protection must be rated to handle this current. Motor Controls - Overload Protection
Manual Starters - It's important the manual starter be able to safely conduct the Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 9-14
in-rush current and break (stop the motor during) the inrush current.
Thermal Overload Protection - To guard against overload currents motor starters
Current under load - As mechanical load (output) increases, so does motor use protective devices called overload relays. Manual motor starters use thermal
current (input). The harder a motor is working, the more current it draws. (heat sensitive) types of overload protection
If a motor draws this increase in current for too long, the motor windings may Melting-alloy relays - aka: solder-pot relay - A ratchet wheel attached to one of the
overheat and the enamel insulation on the windings will fail. (let the smoke out) contacts is stuck motionless in a pot of solder. If the solder gets hot enough from
Overload Protection - To prevent the motor from burning itself out under over-current, it will melt and the ratchet wheel will be able to turn free, which then
increased loads we install overload protection. pulls the contacts up. (sounds janky A-F - still used in lots of NEMA systems)
Fuses - Time-delay (to allow for in-rush current) fuses may be used in line
to protect the motor - Dual element - typically light-duty applications.
Overload Relay - Installed on the output side of a contactor, you set how
many amps this device will shut the motor off at. Typically uses an
adjustable bi-metallic strip to accomplish this.

Time Delay Fuse Overload Relay

Toggle Switches - Max 1HP @ 230V - a snap-action toggle switch can be used.
Available in single or double pole versions, they have horsepower-rated contacts
so they can interrupt motor current and typically have over-load protection built A Melting-alloy Relay - AKA: Solder-Pot Relay
into them. Ideal For - Light duty like table saws and drill presses
Bimetallic strip relays - Two thin pieces of dissimilar metals are attached together.
Push-Button Starter - Max 5HP @ 230V - similar to snap-action but have Because they have different coefficients of thermal expansion, they grow and shrink
separate on-off pushbuttons. Ideal For - Medium duty applications at different rates, causing the strip to bend as it heats up. This bent piece of metal
can then be used to either close a normally open contact (which then shuts off the
motor) or press a button that will trip the motor.

1→
Toggle Switch Push-button Starter

Drum Switch - Max 3HP @ 240V or 1.5HP @ 120V -

Rotary-action selector switch that can control speed
and change direction of a single-phase motor.
Installed between the power switch and motor,
2→
rotating the knob can speed up the motor, slow it
down or even change it's direction.

A Bi-Metallic Strip Relay

Automatic Restart - Because hand-operated contacts remain closed even after a
power failure, the motor will automatically restart when the power returns. This Resetting contacts after a thermal event - Once the overload relay has tripped,
is called Low-Voltage Release (LVR) or Undervoltage Release (UVR) and is ideal you'll have to reset the contacts before you can start the motor again. This is
in certain applications, such as pumps, fans, blowers etc. performed in pretty much the exact same way as a regular circuit breaker
Dangerous equipment such as saws and machinery do not want unexpected • Toggle switch - When tripped, the handle moves to the middle position.
start-up. These applications require Low-voltage protection (LVP) or Under Simply flick it to the off position, and you can turn it back on.
Voltage Protection (UVP). This stops the equipment from automatically • Push Button Starter - Press the OFF/RESET button first to reset the
restarting after loss of voltage. Manual starters DO NOT provide this. contacts, then you can turn it back on again.

Motor Control Page 155

 Contactor Parts Breakdown
MC - Magnetic Starters
Motor Controls - Magnetic Starters
Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 15-22
Purpose - The fundamental purpose of any motor starter is to safely start and
stop the motor and to provide running (overload) protection for the motor
Across-the-line magnetic starters - (contactor) - They're called this because they
use an electromagnet to make and break the full line voltage to a motor. This is
in contrast to something like a soft start or VFD that slowly ramps the voltage up.
Contactor - The main component of the magnetic start system. This makes and
breaks the electrical connection using an electromagnet. They come in two
flavours, Clapper (horizontal movement) and vertical lift (old-school).
The coil and magnet create a magnetic field and pull the armature toward the
coil, closing the gap between the stationary contacts and moveable contacts.
Spring tension pushes the armature back when the magnetic field is gone. ❶ - Power Input - This is where you run L1, L2 and L3 lines into the contactor.
❷ - Power Output - This is where T1 T2 and T3 exit the contactor.
❸ - Auxiliary Contacts - These contacts will actuate with the contactor. This model
has both normally open (NO) and a normally closed (NC) aux outputs.
❹ - Magnetic Coil Input - These two smaller lugs up top are where you run the
control voltage to actuate the contactor. It's what supplies the voltage to the
magnetic coil to generate the magnetic field. (Typically labelled A1 and A2)
❺ - Armature - These two little posts sticking out are attached directly to the
armature of the contactor. If you poke them (preferably with an insulated
screwdriver) you can manually activate the contactor - be careful!

A Clapper (left) and a Vertical Lift (right) Overload Relay Parts Breakdown
Auxiliary contacts - In addition to the Horsepower rated contacts that can make
and break full rush-current for a motor, a contactor will also have Auxiliary
contacts that open and close with the armature. These can be used for seal-in
(self-holding) or many other purposes (signaling other equipment like PLCs etc.)
Overload Relay - OLR, O/L relay, O.L. relay or OL - a device that attaches to the
three output leads of a relay and provides thermal overload protection.
It has a Normally Closed (NC) contact that opens during a thermal event.
Typically one side of the coil power will be run through this contact. In the event
of a thermal overload, it will break the control power and disable the magnet.
A Contactor and schematic Symbols (top)

❶ - Contactor Attachment Points - How this particular relay is attached to the

contactor (above). The prongs line up with the T1, T2 and T3 slots on the contactor
allowing them to easily be attached. Remember - magnetic relay contacts are NOT
HP rated! They DO NOT BREAK RUNING CURRENT, only control power!
❷ - T1, T2 and T3 pass through - This is where the wires come out of the overload
relay and go to the motor. It's hard to see them in this picture, they're the screw
lugs at the very bottom back of the unit.
An Overload Relay and schematic Symbols (bottom) ❸ - NO Contact - This contact CLOSES during a thermal event. Great for setting off
Shaded Pole - Because they're an AC electromagnet, contactors can suffer from lights or alerting other machines/PLCs that a motor is overloaded.
something called "chatter" caused by the constant rising and falling of the AC ❹ - NC Contact - This contact OPENS during a thermal event. This is what you
sinewave and electromagnetic field holding it closed. This means the magnetic would use to break the control power to the electromagnet on the contactor during
field isn't constant, but the spring tension trying to push the contactor apart is. a thermal event, disabling the contactor.
To fix this, a notch is cut into the laminated core of the ❺ - Reset Button - After a thermal event, use this button to reset the unit so it may
contactor and a copper ring called a "shading coil" is be used again. (The white switch to the left of the blue button enables AUTO RESET.
installed. This drastically weakens the magnetic field, but A neat feature, but probably not a good idea…)
it also slows down the fluctuations so the contactor
doesn't chatter. ❻ - Current Dial - this is how you can set the approximate current the thermal
overload will trip at. It's just a screw that applies pressure to the bimetallic strip,
← A shaded Pole with a shading coil installed.
making it take less heat to bend away from the contact. This particular one goes
from 1.3A - 2.1A… It's light duty.

Motor Control Page 156

MC - Basic Control Circuit A Self-Holding Start/Stop contactor

Motor Controls - Control Circuit

Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 15-22
Control Circuit - So you've got yourself a fancy contactor and motor assembly,
but you need a way to turn it on and off. This is where the control circuit comes
into play. We need to get 120V to our contactors Coil so we use a three wire
control system (3-wire means it's auto-holding, 2 wire means it's manual)
Control Circuit Power - Typically we steal control power off two of the motor
lines and use a controls transformer to step it down to 120VAC. That way the
buttons we're pressing aren't making and breaking 600V worth of power.
Although most industrial buttons are rated to do this, it's just not as safe as 120V.
Buttons - For a basic control circuit we need two buttons
⚫ Stop Button - the most important button. It's going to be Normally
Closed (NC) and it must be in series with everything else, so when you
press it, it cuts the power to the contactor coil.
⚫ Start button - this is a Normally Open (NO) momentary push button.
Once the motor starts, it's going to be Self-Holding.
Seal-In Contactor - Our contactors magnetic coil (Moil) will have a common wire
fed directly to it from the control transformer after looping through the OLR so
that an overload can cut the power (let's call it L2). The other side (L1) first goes
into the Stop button. Next, one wire leaves the stop button and goes into a
start button and then into the magnetic coil on the contactor. But we don't
want to hold the start button down all the time, so we make it self sealing! (or
self-holding) So we run another wire from the stop button, into the NO
auxiliary contact on the contactor, and then into the magnetic coil.
Thermal overload - We need a way for the motor to automatically shut itself off
in the event of a thermal overload. So before we run L2 into the coil of the
contactor, it should be run into the NC contact of a thermal overload. In the
event of a thermal overload, the NC contact will open, stopping the motor.

A Basic Controls Circuit - Controls is at the bottom of the image, the power circuit is above it

NOTE : The dashed lines represent how you would install indicator lights to show if the motor was running (red light) or stopped (green light)

Motor Control Page 157

 Temperature Switch - Detects changes in temperature. Used to control heating and
MC - Pilot Devices cooling systems. Often made from bimetallic strips or variable resistors.
• Remote Bulb Switch - A type of temperature switch used in industrial
applications. Fluid filled end (bulb) connects to a bellows unit via a capillary
Motor Controls - Pilot Devices tube. Fluid expands and contracts with temperature activating the switch
Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 76-90

Pilot Devices - A Pilot Device is anything that acts like a start or stop push-button
would on a 2 or 3 wire circuit, however it is turned on and off automatically by
some external factor instead of a human.
• i.e. Pressure, Liquid Level, Flow, Temperature, Motion etc.
Pressure Switches - A switch that detects pressure. Typically screwed into a pipe
or vessel containing something you need to monitor the pressure on such as
water, steam, air, oil, gas. Operates at a predetermined value of pressure. Temperature Schematic Symbols Remote Bulb Switch

• Types of Pressure Sensors - Bourdon Tube, Bellows, Diaphragm Mechanical Limit Switch - Detects travel typically used to locate items or prevent
over-travel. Often just a lever that operates a switch when something actuates it.
When trying to remember Held vs normally open/closed just think of what gravity
would want the symbol to do, i.e. in the NOHC, you can see it's pressed against the
bottom of the 2nd circle, when it would want to hang like in the NO.

Normally Open NO - Held Closed Normally Closed NC - Held Open

Proximity Switch - Limit switches that do not require contact to function. They
detect the proximity (nearness) of particular materials
Bourdon Tube Bellows Diaphragm • Reed Switches - Sense magnetic fields. Consist of thin metal plates that
• Cut In - The pressure when the switch CLOSES - typically turning on a bend together when exposed to magnetic fields. i.e. door/window alarms.
pump to increase pressure again, usually applies to decreasing pressure • Inductive Proximity Switches - Detect both ferrous and non-ferrous metals
by emitting their own magnetic field and sensing changes in it.
• Cut Out - The pressure when the switch OPENS - cuts the power to pump
• Capacitive Proximity Switches - Detect the presence of almost any material
to stop increasing pressure. Usually applies to increasing pressure.
by emitting an electrical field and sensing changes in it.
• Differential - The difference in pressure between cut-in and cut-out.
Usually an adjustable range.
• Range - the overall pressure range which the switch can safely operate

Schematic Symbols for a Pressure Switch - Think: A Plunger

Reed Switch Inductive Capacitive
Float Switch - AKA: Liquid-Level switch - respond to changes in liquid level and
Photoelectric Switch - AKA: Photo-eyes - Emit a beam of light and detect objects
typically used to turn on and off pump motors.
when they bounce that light back toward a sensor. Come in multiple configurations.
• Through Beam - LED Emitter and Sensor are in separate housings. when
something breaks the light path between the two devices it activates.
• Retro Reflective - Similar to Through Beam, but both the emitter and sensor
are contained in the same body. Uses reflector to create light path.
• Diffuse (Proximity) - Similar to Retro Reflective in that both the emitter and
Schematic Symbols for a Float Switch - Think: Buoy / Floating ball sensor are contained in the same body, but don’t require a reflector.
Instead they detect when light is bouncing off objects and back towards it.
Flow Switch - Activated by the movement of a fluid through a pipe or a duct.
Commonly have an arm with a paddle that gets shifted to the side by flow.

Schematic Symbols for a Flow Switch - Think: Flag blowing in the wind A Diffuse or Retro-Reflective Photoelectric Switch

Pilot Devices - Sump Pump Hand-Off-Auto Circuit

Hand-Off-Auto - (HOA) - The circuit can still be operated manually by a
human using the Hand Off Auto switch to the far left.
Note - In most circuits, FS2, the low switch would also interrupt the
Hand (manual) rung as well, to prevent the pump from being run dry.
Automatic Operation - When this circuit is run in automatic operation,
as the tank fills up, the float switches will close. Once both switches are
closed the pump will activate, and stay locked on (thanks to the hold-in)
until FS2 is opened again.
• Float Switch 1 - Used to start the pump in automatic operation
• Float Switch 2 - Used to stop the pump in automatic operation

Motor Control Page 158

MC - 2/3-Wire & Multiple Pushbuttons
Motor Controls - 2-Wire vs 3 Wire
2-Wire - Low Voltage Release - Utilizes some form of latching switch that will re-energize automatically once power is restored after a power outage. Although I show
momentary start buttons in all of the below diagrams, they could be any kind of switch. Float, Flow, Proximity, temperature etc.

3-Wire - Low Voltage PROTECTION - Similar to a 2-Wire but has an extra path called a "seal-in" or self-holding path. The contactor is responsible for holding itself on using its
own magnetism, so if power is ever cut to the contactor, it automatically shuts the motor off until an operator hits the "start" button again.

It's essentially how many wires there are leading to the Magnetic Coil. You will have one common, and up to two hot wire paths.

Motor Controls - Multiple Start and Stop buttons

Multiple Control Locations - Sometimes we want to have more than one location where we can turn a motor on and off from. This is actually easier than you may think.
• Additional Stop Buttons - All stop buttons must be in series with the circuit, so no matter which one you press it will cut the power to the circuit.
• Additional Start Buttons - All start buttons must be in parallel with each other, allowing multiple possible paths for start signal to be sent to the magnetic coil.

Note - This is STILL only a 3-wire system. There's still only 3 wires running to the Magnetic Coil, we just added more buttons onto one of them.

Motor Control Page 159

MC - Jog Circuits
Motor Controls - Jog Circuits
Motor Control → Online MC Textbook → Online Textbook called Basic Motor Control - Pages 107-110
Motor Jogging - Sometimes you just want to move a motor a small amount or for a short period of time, this is called jogging. Obviously, self-sealing (self-holding)
contactors would prohibit you from doing this effectively, so we need a way to bypass the self-holding mechanism of the control circuit. There are multiple ways to do this:
Note - You should never jog a motor more than 5 times in 1 minute. The heat generated by all the back-to-back inrush currents can damage the motor windings.

Jog Circuit with Selector Switch

A selector switch is used to enable and disable the self sealing (self-holding) function of the relay. By opening and closing the conductor that runs through the NO relay on
the contactor, we can use the "start/jog" button to run the motor only as long as the button is pressed. This is the most basic way to do jog functions, but it requires the
operator to open and close a switch to use the jog function. Many facilities want simpler operation with separate Start / Jog buttons.

Dangerous Jog Circuit

The simplest way to get a separate jog button is to use a dangerous jog circuit by replacing the start/jog selector switch with a momentary button that has both NO and NC
contacts. When the jog button is not pressed, it's completing the circuit between the contactors NO relay and the power source by using it's NC contacts, allowing the
contactor to self hold as normal. When the jog button is pressed, you break the continuity between the contactors NO relay, and make a new path directly to the contactor.
The problem with this circuit is you're "racing contacts". You're relying on the motor contactor completely releasing BEFORE the button gets back to the NC contacts. If the
button is faster than the contactor, the machine will self-hold. This can surprise the operator, and being surprised by machines is bad :( (See: Terminator 1 and 2 films)

Jog Circuit with Control Relay

This is the most advanced, but safest and easiest for the operator way to jog a motor. This method utilizes a separate control relay (CR in the diagram) to start the motor.
The jog button acts directly on the magnetic coil and ignores this relay due to the open CR contacts in the diagram(path highlighted yellow)
When the Start button is pressed, the control relay is energized, closing the two Normally Open (NO) Control Relay (CR) contacts in the diagram. This gives a path directly to
the contactor coil (M in the diagram) energizing the motor. The control relay is self-holding just like the contactor so it will stay closed along with the magnetic coil NO
contact until the stop button is pressed or a thermal event occurs. (path highlighted green and pink) The green path is the electricity flow that the button is allowing, the
pink path is what the CR contacts open up once it's activated.

Motor Control Page 160

MC - Basic FWD/REV
Motor Controls - Basic Forward and Reverse
Motor Control → Online MC Textbook → Online Textbook - Pages 111-115

Motor Direction - Here's the cool thing about 3 phase motors - If you swap any of
the two phases (two of the power wires) the motor will run in the opposite direction
that it was before.
You can accomplish this with two contactors - in the diagram to the right you can see
how we accomplish this by just reversing two of the wires in one of the contactors
Dead-Short - The biggest danger when connecting forward/reverse functions on a
motor is the potential for a phase to phase dead-short. If both contactors fired at
the same time you would have an ultra-low resistant path between the two phases
you swapped. We fix this with Interlocks!
A Dual-contactor Forward/Reverse
Notice how the reverse contactor is swapping the blue and yellow lines

Interlocks - To stop from having a dead short we need to use what are called interlocks. An interlock is any time something is dependant on another condition. Ie. Thing
one wont run unless thing 2 is in a specific state, in this case, not running. We use BOTH electrical and mechanical interlocks on forward/reverse controls
• Note that the two contactors must be electrically and mechanically interlocked so that they cannot be energized simultaneously. If both starter coils became
energized simultaneously, a short circuit will occur with potentially hazardous results.
• Forward / reverse starters will come with two sets of normally open auxiliary contacts to act as holding contacts in each direction. They will also come with two sets
of normally closed auxiliary contacts to act as electrical interlocks. Forward/Reverse contactors are special ordered from the manufacturer, it's not just two
contactors stuck together in the field. They add a physical barrier between the armatures making sure only one can enable ata time.
Pushbutton interlocking doesn’t require the motor coils to be disengaged before reversing direction because the normally closed forward contacts are in series with the
normally open reverse contacts, and vice-versa. Pushing one button simultaneously disengages one coil while starting the other. This sudden reversal (plugging) can be hard
on the motor, but if quick reversal of the motor is required, this circuit can be a solution.

Forward / Reverse circuit using contactor-only interlocks

The Forward push-button requires the reverse contactor's NC contact to be in closed state in order for electrical continuity to take place. Once the motor is rolling forward,
the forward contactors NC contact becomes open, breaking electrical continuity between the reverse button and the reverse contactor. The same is true with reverse.
There is also a physical interlock represented by the two intersecting lines to the right of the F and R contactor coils. This is a physical barrier that moves into place blocking
the armature of the other contactor when one contactor is running.

Forward / Reverse circuit using both contactor interlocks and a button interlock

This is the exact same circuit as above, but we've added another layer of protection in the Forward/reverse switches. When the forward button is pressed, it breaks the
electrical continuity required for the reverse button to even try to send signal to the reverse contactor. Double safe!
This can easily be accomplished with a 3 way switch! In the middle resting position, the all switch contacts are open. If you rotate one direction, it closes ONLY the contacts
in that direction, blocking the other direction. You can't rotate a 3 way switch in both directions at once! (I've tried) the diagram above is just using two push buttons.

Motor Control Page 161

 Motor Controls - Zero Speed Switches
MC - Timers & Zero Speed Switch Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 31-32
Zero Speed Switch - AKA: Plugging Switch - A switch that can detect the centrifugal
Motor Controls - Timer ON and OFF delay force created by a spinning object. It changes states based on if it's rotating or not.
Motor Control → Power Point PDF → Motor Control Full PDF - Pages 53-55 These switches are used in both Plugging and Anti-Plugging circuits, neat!

Timing Relays - Special relays that have a set of untimed NO and NC contacts, as It's called a Zero Speed switch because it's in it's Normal (NO or NC) state when it's at
well as a set of adjustable timed relays that can be On-Delay or Off-Delay rest, or "rotating" at a speed of zero.
Lock-Out Relay - Since the slightest rotation of the shaft can lock a contactor on, we
use a lockout relay coil on plugging switches. It freezes the zero speed switch
contacts. Typically hooked parallel to T1 and T2 of the motor

Time Delay Relay

Schematic Symbol

On-Delay Timers - AKA: Time Delay upon Energization (TDE) - These timers delay
their initial (on) action once energized.
i.e. They will take time to change their state once energized, but when
de-energized they will instantly change back to their original state.
The delay happens when the timer is switched ON
NO Contacts NC Contacts
• NOTC - Normally Open, Time to Close - This timer is in an open state when Use for Plugging Used for Anti-Plugging
not being used. When power is applied to the relay a set countdown starts,
once the countdown is finished this contact will close. The arrow represents the direction of rotation it detects
Once de-energized, this contact will instantly open back up.
• NCTO - Normally Closed, Time to Open - This timer is in a closed state when
not being used. When power is applied to the relay the countdown starts,
once the countdown is finished this contact will open.
Once de-energized, this contact will instantly re-close

A Zero Speed switch diagram and image

NOTC NCTO
Example Diagrams - Plugging and Anti-Plugging
Notice how the arrow points in the direction the contact
will move once the timer is finished counting Plugging with a Normally Open Zero Speed Switch

Off-Delay Timers - AKA: Time Delay upon De-Energization (TDDE) - These timers
delay their secondary (off) action once energized.
i.e. They will instantly change their state when energized, and once de-
energized they will take time to change back to their original state.
The delay happens when the timer is switched OFF
• NOTO - Normally Open, Time to Open - This timer is in an open state when
not being used. When power is applied to the relay it will instantly close.
Once de-energized the countdown will begin and it will re-open when done
• NCTC - Normally Closed, Time to Close - This timer is in a closed state when
not being used. When power is applied to the relay it will instantly open. Plugging - Putting a NO Zero Speed switch in series with the reverse side of a
FWD/REV motor circuit energizes the Reverse side of the circuit as soon as stop
Once de-energized the countdown will begin and it will re-close when done
button is pressed. (The Zero Speed Switch will be resting on the "F" contact). This
setup will bring a motor to a standstill as soon as the stop button is pressed, but not
allow it to go in reverse, as the zero speed switch will return to center (NO) as soon
as the motor is no longer rotating. The purpose of plugging in this application, and
in most others, is to quickly stop a motor for safety or precision.
Anti-Plugging with a Normally Closed Zero Speed Switch
NOTO NCTC

Notice how the arrow points in the direction the contact

will move once the timer is finished counting
Types of Timers - Here are two "common" types of old-school timers:

Anti-Plugging - When you use a NC Zero Speed switch in series with forward and
Dashpot Timer Pneumatic Timer reverse buttons, they open the opposite side that they are currently running, and
Essentially a solenoid relay with fluid in A bellows or diaphragm system, timing won't return to close until the motor comes to a complete stop. This effectively
it. The fluid slows the action down. is controlled with a needle valve disables the opposite direction of travel until the motor is standing still.

Motor Control Page 162

MC - Conduit Fill
Motor Controls - Conduit Fill
Motor Control → Online MC Textbook → Online Textbook called Basic Motor Control - Pages 65-67
• Step 1 - Number the control circuit ladder diagram - Start by putting numbers on all of your conductors on the control circuit. The same number goes at every end
of the conductor, the "end" of a conductor will be something like a button, coil or a contactor. The fuse and the ground don't count in this example.
I've even gone ahead and coloured all the conductors too, just to make it stand out more.

• Step 2 - Take your conduit drawing and draw each device around the box it's located in, make sure you include the wire numbers on each device!
• Step 3 - Cross off any duplicate numbers, you only need one wire for each number in the box
• Step 4 - Draw a tick mark and number through each conduit that a cable would have to run to reach the destinations between all of the boxes that it's located in.
• Step 5 - If your question includes the power circuit wires you'll have to make sure you include L1, L2 and L3 from the Knife Switch to the Motor

Wire Counts:
Conduit A - 3 Wires

Conduit B - 4 Wires

Conduit C - 5 Wires
.N
Conduit D - 7 Wires

and
,N
Conduit E - 3 Wires

Did you notice? - Wire 6 doesn't go through any conduits. That's because it starts at the overload and ends at the coil - both are both located in the Motor Starter box!

Motor Control Page 163

 MC - Electrical Symbols

Delmar's Industrial Motor Control - 7th Edition - Page 23

Motor Control Page 164

 Motor Starter - A device that controls the flow of electrical power to a motor. It is
MC - Definitions designed to safely start and stop a motor, and provide overload protection. Consists of a
contactor and overload relay.

2-3 Holding Contact - AKA: "maintaining" contact - These are the normally open Normally-Closed (NC) Contact - A contact that under normal conditions has continuity
contacts of a magnetic starter that are connected in parallel with the start button in a through it. When the contact changes its state it interrupts the flow of current by
three-wire control circuit. When using the conventional NEMA numbering system, they opening its contacts.
get wire numbers "2" and "3." Normally-Open (NO) Contact - A contact that under normal conditions does not have
Anti-Plugging circuit - A circuit that is not designed to suddenly stop or reverse a continuity through it. When the contact changes its state it permits the flow of current
motor until the shaft has come to a rest. by closing its contacts.

Armature - With respect to magnetic contactors, the armature or plunger is the Numbering System - Used to convert between wiring and schematic diagrams, the
movable part of the magnetic circuit. When a coil is energized the armature is pulled numbering system is a method of identifying and labelling each electrically common
in, opening and/or closing a set or sets of contacts. point in a circuit. Two wires are considered electrically common if they share an
electrical connection with no switches or loads between them, and so would be assigned
Auxiliary Contacts - Contacts on a magnetic starter that are not Horsepower rated. Can the same number in the diagram.
come as either normally-open or normally-closed and can be used as maintaining
contacts, electrical interlocks or control for pilot lights. Overcurrent - A sharp and fast rise in current (fractions of a second) where the value of
current is far greater than the nominal line current.
Circuit Breaker - An automatic device that is designed to safely disconnect circuits
under fault conditions. Most circuit breakers provide Overload and Overcurrent Overload - A moderate and gradual rise in the value of current over a relatively long
protection, and are rated in Volts, Amps and Horsepower. period of time that is caused by excessive amounts of current drawn by a motor due to
too much load being put on the motor.
Circuit Diagram - A diagram that uses lines and symbols to show the electrical
continuity and connections of a circuit. Can be used either for troubleshooting Overload Relay - A heater element paired with normally-closed contacts that open once
(schematic diagrams) or connection purposes (wiring diagrams). the heater gets too hot. Two types are the bimetallic strip and the melting solder pot.

Contact - The conducting part of a switch that makes or breaks a circuit. Phase Rotation - The direction that a three-phase motor spins is determined by the
phase sequence of the voltage impressed upon it. To reverse the direction of the motor
Continuous-Duty Rating - The maximum rated value of RMS current that the we simple reverse the phase sequence by switching any to line leads.
overcurrent device is designed to handle on a continuous basis without tripping.
Pilot Device - An auxiliary device that provides indication or control of a process to an
Control Circuit - In contrast to the Power Circuit, the Control Circuit consists of inputs, operator. Pilot devices include automatic switches such as float and pressure switches,
in the form of switches, pushbuttons or pilot devices, which when activated, can either as well as indicating lights. Can be used to control motors automatically
directly, or through a magnetic motor starter, energize a load. The Control Circuit often
operates at a lower voltage than the Power Circuit for safety and ease of installation. Pilot Light - A small lamp connected in the control circuit to indicate the status of a
motor or other situation
Control Relay - Used when additional auxiliary contacts are needed in a control circuit,
a control relay is a magnetic contactor which is not designed for the energization of Plugging - When a motor is spinning in one direction and is stopped and suddenly re-
motors, and does not have built in overload protection - AKA: Running Protection energized in the opposite direction before the shaft of the motor has time to come to a
complete stop. (Not to be confused with pegging…)
Crisscross Voltmeter Method - The crisscross voltmeter method is used to
troubleshoot fuses on a live circuit. It involves checking the potential difference Power - The rate at which work is done. Measured in watts, or joules per second (J/s).
between the line and load sides of fuses connected to different phases in a three- Power Circuit - In contrast to the control circuit, the power circuit provides the large
phase fusible disconnect. values of voltage and current used by the motor itself. Must be equipped with
Electrical Interlock - Normally-closed contacts used in forward/reverse control circuits overcurrent and overload protection, and horsepower-rated contacts in the control gear
that prevent both direction coils from being energized at the same time. equal to the voltage and current ratings of the motor

Electrically Common - Two or more points in a circuit which have no loads or switches Process Variable - A measured value of a part of a process that is being monitored or
between them and have no potential difference between them. controlled, such as temperature, pressure, liquid level, flow, position or proximity

Horsepower-Rated Contact - A set of contacts that has been designed to make or Schematic Diagram - A diagram that shows how a circuit works logically and electrically.
break the flow of current to a motor and can handle loads up to a specified amount of It uses symbols to identify components and interconnecting lines to display the electrical
horsepower at a specific voltage. The size of contacts are determined by the size of the continuity of a circuit. It is often used for troubleshooting purposes. Also known as a
motor they are controlling. ladder diagram.

Inching - The term given to the momentary energization, at reduced voltage, of a Single-Phase System - The simplest electrical circuit. It requires only two lines: one for
motor only so long as an operator is pressing a button. power to go in and the other is a return path for current. These are often called Line 1
and Line 2, or Line 1 and Neutral. Current only has one path to travel in a single-phase
Inrush Current - The initial high value of current produced when an inductive load is circuit, such as a control circuit.
first energized.
Three-Phase System - An electrical circuit that uses three current carrying conductors,
Interrupting Capacity (IC) rating - The maximum fault current an overcurrent device called Line 1, Line 2, and Line 3, which have a 120° phase shift in the voltage and current
can interrupt without damage to itself. Most circuit breakers and fuses have an IC waveforms between them. The Power Circuit of three-phase motors is an example of a
rating of 10,000 amps three-phase circuit
Isolating Switch - A switch that is used to lockout an electrical circuit once a motor has Three-Wire Circuit - In motor control terminology, a three-wire circuit utilizes a magnetic
been turned off to ensure it is completely de-energized. Not designed to interrupt the motor starter with a holding contact, along with momentary contact pushbuttons. A
flow of current (NOT HP Rated) three-wire circuit provides low-voltage-protection.
Jogging - The term given to the momentary energization, at full voltage, of a motor Time-Delay Relay - A control relay equipped with a delay mechanism that can be used to
only so long as an operator is pressing a button. alter the timing effects of a set of contacts. There are two varieties of timer relays: On-
delays which have their delay action when they are energized and revert to their original
Ladder Diagram - See Schematic Diagram
condition instantly upon de-energization, and off-delays, which change the state of their
Locked-Rotor Current - The current drawn by a motor when it's not spinning. contacts instantly upon energization, but have a delay before reverting to their normal
condition upon de-energization.
Lockout Relay - A special solenoid coil included in a plugging switch assembly that
disables the contacts until the motor itself has been energized. Two-Wire Circuit - In motor control terminology, a two-wire circuit utilizes a manual
motor starter with a maintained contact. A two-wire circuit provides low-voltage release.
Low Voltage Protection - LVP - Circuits with low-voltage protection will not
automatically turn back on when voltage is restored following a power outage. Voltage Rating - The maximum amount of voltage that a fuse, circuit breaker, switch-
Examples include the microwave or power tools. gear or motor starter can handle. The voltage rating of a fuse or circuit breaker must be
equal to or greater than the system voltage.
Low Voltage Release - LVR - Circuits with low-voltage release are designed to re-
energize automatically when voltage is restored after a power outage. Examples Wiring Diagram - A diagram shows how equipment is laid out and the connections
include lights or the kitchen fridge. between them. This type of diagram shows the physical relation of all devices in the
system, the conductor terminations between these devices, and are commonly used in
Mechanical Interlock - A physical block that blocks the path of one coil's armature by
motor control installations. Also known as a connection diagram.
the movement of the adjacent coil in a forward/reversing motor starter

Motor Control Page 165

MC3 - Starting Overview
L3 Motor Controls - Reduced Voltage Starters
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-??
Starting a Motor - Like we touched on in AC Machines, there are two
ways to start a three-phase SCIMs. Full-Voltage Starting and Reduced- Motor Current / Torque - Remember this important equation from AC
Voltage Starting. Machines, where you learn that Torque is a product of both the stator flux
and the rotor current, so if you reduce the stator voltage, it actually
Full-Voltage Starting - AKA: Across-the-Line starting - Starting a motor reduces BOTH, because there will be less voltage in the stator to induce
with nothing but a contactor and full line voltage. Some pros and cons… flux into the rotor
• ✔ Simple Controls
• ✔ Low controls costs Torque - Calculation
• ✔ Maximum starting torque
• ✔ Minimum acceleration time to full speed
• ❌ Large inrush current • = Torque Generated
• = Motor constants you cannot change (Poles, windings etc)
• ❌ Creates most disturbance on feeder lines • = Stator Flux
• ❌ High starting torque is hard on attached equipment • = Rotor Current - More current = more rotor flux
• ❌ Attached equipment must be over-built, so more expensive • = Rotor Power Factor - Optimal torque @ or

Reduced-Voltage Starting - Used in scenarios where full-voltage starting If you take nothing else from this equation, just remember this:
isn't cool, best for bigger motors or applications where you need more
control, but not the full control of a VFD. and
• The pros and cons list is just an inverse of the above one!
This is means that rotor current is proportional to the line voltage, so it
Starter Types - There are five types of reduced-voltage starters will change at the same rate, A 50% reduction in voltage = 50% reduction
commonly used: in current
• Primary Resistance Starters - Old-school and simple, just But rotor torque changes on the SQUARE of voltage! That means if you
inserting a resistance in the starting line that you bypass once half the voltage, you'll only get a QUARTER of the torque
you hit full speed.
•
• Primary Impedance Starters - Same as above, but instead of
using a resistance, you use and inductor that creates a CEMF. Example - A 600V motor with an FLA of 10A and develops 200% of full
• Autotransformer Starters - Like we learned in transformers, load torque when starting across-the-line. Find the current and torque for
putting a tap on a secondary lets you select how much line a 300V start
voltage you start with. Provides most torque per line-amp! • First - Find the reduction Percentage -
• Wye-Delta Starters - For Delta motors, because Wye reduces • Current -
phase voltage by , it's a simple way to drop the voltage on a • Torque -
motor. Provides lowest starting torque.
If the motor will only generate 50% of its full load torque, with a 300V
• Solid-State Starters - Modern solution. It's a digital device that start, the motor will NOT be able to start fully loaded, so this configuration
uses SCRs to control how much of the waveform it's letting would only work for something that can be unloaded like a conveyor belt
through. or blower fan.
Stages - Reduced-Voltage starting is typically split into distinct stages: Driven Load Requirements - The required starting voltage will vary
• Starting Stage(s) - A low current stage that may have multiple depending on starting conditions, acceleration requirements, etc. You
steps that helps slowly get the motor up to speed. This stage can need to know how much load will be on the motor on start up, and how
also be split into multiple speed ramps, so you could have a 2, 3, fast it needs to get to speed.
4, etc. stage starter.
If a motor takes too long to get up to speed, it could trip the OLR!
• Running Stage - Full voltage and FLA operation of the motor
Duty Cycles - AKA: Frequency Operation - Duty of a motor is determined
Transitions - There are two types of transitions between Start and Run: by use case normal, jogging, plugging, reversing, frequency of start/stop
• Open Transition - The motor is briefly disconnected from the line etc. Failure to size motors and starting equipment based on use case will
as the control transfers from the Starting Stage to the Running result in premature equipment failure.
Stage. Causes a current/torque surge that can create mechanical
Sometimes you'll need a larger than normal contactor if it's being jogged,
shocks in the system.
plugged, reversed etc a lot.
• Closed Transition - Voltage is kept across the stator during
transfer, there's no harsh surge. Power Source - One of the biggest determinations if a motor needs a soft-
start is if the power source can even handle across-the-line start up inrush
currents.
Power Authorities (B.C. Hydro) may impose regulations on the following:
• Max starting amps per HP or Motor for across-the-line starting
• Max HP motor allowed to be started across-the-line
• Max current load for a feeder size
• Max rate of change of line current over a given time

Open Transition Closed Transition

Current dip and SPIKE No Current Spike

Motor Control Page 166

MC3 - Resistance / Reactance
L3 Motor Controls - Resistance and Reactance Starters
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-??
Resistance/Reactance Starters - Both of these types of starters are wired in the exact same way, the only difference is one uses added resistance to lower the line voltage,
and the other uses added Reactance to create a CEMF. Although the below example only shows one resistor in line, you can usemultiple contactors and resistors to do a
'multi-stage' starter, where you can drop the resistance slightly more gradually.

A single power line for a Primary Resistance Starter A single power line for a Primary Reactance Starter

Primary Resistance Starter - A resistance is connected to each primary line with a Primary Reactance Starter - Just like the resistor circuit, but uses a reactor instead,
bypass contactor around it so when it gets up to speed the resistance can be removed which generates a large CEMF to push-back on the incoming current.
by using a speed sensor of some sort to close the Run contactor. • Generates less I2R losses than resistance starters
• Resistors typically sized to limit voltage between 65-80% of full line value • Reactor starters are NOT commonly used
○ Wire-Would, Ribbon-type or Graphite Compression resistors used • Makes power factor even worse during starting
• Larger motors may cycle through multiple sizes of resistors • Closed-Transition - Motor always stays connected to the line
• Results in large I2R losses from voltage drop across resistor - they get hot! The biggest difference vs. a resistance starter, is that with reactance, the current
• Limited to a maximum of 600V lines due to high losses starts very low and slowly rises in a reactance circuit, whereas with pure resistance
• Closed-Transition - Motor always stays connected to the line the current would be steady the whole time.

Primary Resistance Circuit - Power and Control Circuit

Step by Step Starting Process - Here's a breakdown of the above picture - Although we're using a primary Resistance starter in this example, it would be much
the same for a Primary Reactance starter.
• Step 1 - Press the button, this will energize the
• Step 2 - When energizes both it's HP rated and N/O Contacts close
• Step 3a - Current will begin to flow through the resistors to the motor, the resistors will drop some of the voltage, limiting how much the motor sees
• Step 3b - The will receive power and begin counting down.
• Step 4 - When the hits the end of it's count, the switch will close.
• Step 5 - The will now be energized, and close the HP rated Run Contacts on the main power line, bypassing the resistors.
• Step 6 - The Start Resistors will no longer drop any voltage, and the motor will see full voltage, allowing it to get up to running speed and torque.
Note - You could also use a speed sensor or current sensor instead of the timer relay to determine when to energize the Run Contactor.

Motor Control Page 167

 Closed Transition - AKA: Korndorfer Connection - Uses WYE-DELTA Setup -
MC3 - Autotransformer Generally used on size 6 and larger motors, Requires TWO starter contactors,
when switching from start to run, only one contactor opens at a time. When the
first start contactor opens the transformer windings are placed in series with the
L3 Motor Controls - Autotransformer Starters motor just like an inductor starter, then the run contactors close, once they are
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-?? closed, the second starter contactor opens.
The autotransformer windings are only kept in series with the motor for a short
period of time while the run contactor closes, so it doesn't damage them.

A single power line for an Auto Transformer Starter

Autotransformer Starter - AKA: Compensator Starter - Configured similar to

Resistance and reactance starters, but Autotransformers are used in line. We learned
about this back in the three-phase transformers unit.
• Provides most starting torque per line amp of any other starter
• Use taps to select 50%, 65% or 80% of primary line voltage - allows you to
select a tap based on the starting torque the application requires.
• so current is further reduced on primary line
• Can be either Open-Transition (delta) or Closed-Transition (wye)
Delta vs Wye - You can use three transformers connected in Wye or two
transformers connected in Open-Delta. However, the delta configuration can result
in unbalanced phase voltages in larger motors, so if that's an issue you can't use it.

Wye Connection Open-Delta Connection

Transformer Ratings - Intermittent-duty transformers are used so they can't stay in

the line for long or they'll burn out. For this reason, you'll often use a temperature
switch in the circuit to cut the transformer windings out if they get too hot.
Open Transition - Uses OPEN-DELTA setup. - Generally used on size 5 and smaller
motors, it's the simplest and most economical way to do autotransformer starting.
Step by Step Starting Process - This is a bit more complicated, so we'll do a step-
But it gives you a big dip and surge when you quickly disconnect and reconnect the
by-step breakdown of what's going on in the above two pictures:
circuit. You'd have to determine if this mattered for your particular circuit.
• Step 1 - Press the Start button, this will energize the Timer Relay (TR)
• Step 2 - The TR starts a NCTO switch and a NOTC switch
• Step 3 - The NCTO switch is energized right away, turns on the 1S coil
• Step 4 - The 1S coil also turns on the 2S coil which is self-sealing/holding
• Step 5 - Current now flows through the autotransformer, to the motor
• Step 6 - The TR finishes counting and the NOTC and NCTO operate
• Step 7 - The NCTO switch opens killing the 1S coil and contactor
• Step 8 - The NOTC switch closes, energizing the Run coil and contactor
• Step 9 - As soon as the Run coil energizes, it's NC Auxiliary contact opens
up, killing the L1 power to the 2S coil and opening it's contactor
○ With the 2S coil open, the Motor is now operating at full voltage

Autotransformer Math - There's a tiny bit of extra math in addition to our torque
and current equations that we use with autotransformers:

Percent Tap & Current - Calculation

• = Primary Line Current in Amps (A)

• = Secondary Line Current in Amps (A)
• = Percentage of the coil used in decimal form
Open-Transition Autotransformer Starter - Control and Power Circuit
Examples - Autotransformer with 300A Primary, 700A Secondary, 65.5% Tap
The Start button makes the "S" coil close the S contactor and starts a Timer Relay
with a NCTO contact for the "S" coil, and a NOTC contact for the run "R" coil. •
This way, as soon as the start coil de-energizes, the run coil energizes. •
There is only a brief moment in time when the motor has no power to it. •

Motor Control Page 168

 Open-Transition - Requires three contactors and a timing relay, acting like this:
MC3 - Wye-Delta Starters ⚫ S - Starting contactor, that closes Terminals , and into a star point for
for the Wye-connection during startup
⚫ 1M - Works with the starting Contactor to connect Terminals , and
L3 Motor Controls - Wye-Delta Starters to the lines for the other half of your Wye-Connection during startup, and
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-?? also works with the running contactor (2M) for the Delta connection.
Wye-Delta Starter - AKA: Star-Delta Starter - Requires a delta-run motor with ⚫ 2M - Running Contactor that connects Terminals , and to their
access to all ends of the phase coils, so it has to be a 6 or 12 lead motor. appropriate lines during running to give the motor a Delta connection.
• Starts the Motor in Wye for reduced voltage, then runs it in Delta ⚫ TR - Timing Relay that disconnects the "S" contactor and connects the "2M"
• Develops very low starting Torque - 33% of full voltage value contactor after a set time, opening the circuit for just a few milliseconds.
○ Due to two reductions caused by single voltage reduction
• Can be either Open-Transition or Closed-Transition
Torque and Current reduction - Not only does Torque drop by two reductions,
so does the current. Resulting in a reduction to 1/3 of the original value for both:

Delta Starting Current Wye Starting Current

Example - A delta-connected motor With an FLA of 100A @ 600V - That means at 6x

in-rush, we would have 600 amps when starting under Delta.
• Step 1 - Make a PEIR table using inrush current, get your phase coil down
the inrush resistance, and build it back to a Wye connection.
Remember, Delta phase current is lower than line current, so it drops to
347A and Wye voltage is less than delta, so it'll drop 347V, that's why
we've got those two weird values in the PEIR table.

Delta Wye
Closed-Transition - Same as above, but with an additional contactor and Resistors, by
E 600 V 347 V adding these resistors to the circuit, we can keep 1M and 2M active for a very brief
moment while we switch over to delta without causing a dead-short.
I 347 A 200 A
⚫ 2S / R - Resistor Contactor, closes the instant before 1S opens up and 2M is
R 1.73 Ω 1.73 Ω closed, allowing current to keep flowing in the system while the Wye is
swapped over to Delta, 2S is then killed a moment later by 2M.
Due to these TWO drops, our line current drops by a third!
Effect on Torque - Because starting voltage is reduced, the amount of flux in the
stator is reduced. Remember: this makes our torque
reduce to 1/3rd of original - Torque is reduced on the square voltage reduction
It's essentially like taking the torque equation and re-writing it like this:

Those two reductions have the same effect on torque as they do on current.
Another way to put it - Starting Torque changes on the square to voltage.
If a motor normally starts with 200% Torque, and you reduce the
starting voltage to 80%, what's the new percent starting torque?

0.64 64 200 0.64

Or do it the dummy way I do like this:

Overload Sizing - Since we switch between Wye and Delta, the overload relay
protection must be based on the PHASE value because they're only connected to
, and . Even when we switch back to Delta, the , and terminals
connect directly to the lines, so the OLRs are still only in line with a single phase.

Wye - OLR Location Delta - OLR Location

Motor Control Page 169

 Safety Warning - In larger units the motherboard and other components will be
MC3 - Soft Starters connected to large heat-sinks. These heat-sink frames can be energized and carry
lethal voltages, so always be careful. They may also be very hot.
Troubleshooting Soft Starters - Troubleshooting is pretty limited on Soft-Starters,
L3 Motor Controls - Electronic Soft Starters as they're pretty much self-contained units. Some units will allow you to replace
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-?? the SCR's separately, or the main board. Generally there will be LED indicators on
Electronic Soft Starters - AKA: Solid-State Starters - Uses six of the SCR's we just the Soft-Starter that can tell you what's wrong, and if you reference the manual, it
learned about in electronics along with some smart controlling to adjust how much will tell you what needs to be replaced.
of the AC waveform is being let through at any given time to control the voltage.
• This thing is "wikid smaht", can be programmed / controlled
• Phase unbalance and Phase Reversal protection
• Fully adjustable starting current / voltage
• Can be used on any voltage up to 575V
• Transient Voltage Suppression
• "Indefinite life", no moving parts - only heat damages it
• Controls motor stopping too via reducing voltage, or DC injection braking
• Has auxiliary contacts for connecting to PLCs, motors, alarms, etc.

An example LED trouble chart from a Soft Start Manual

Checking SCRs with an Ohm Meter - You can check the health of an SCR by using
an ohm meter in three different positions:
• POS to Anode / NEG to Cathode - Infinite(ish) OK - Low Resistance BAD
• POS to Cathode / NEG to Anode - Infinite(ish) OK - Low Resistance BAD
• POS to Gate / NEG to Cathode - 5-200Ω OK - Zero or Infinite, BAD.
A Soft Starter Circuit - It uses SCR's to adjust the output waveform

Bypass Contactor - Sometimes a soft-start circuit will contain a Bypass Contactor,

like the one in the picture above. This lets the soft-starter decide when it's no
longer needed and can pull the mains voltage out of the circuit.
It's generally better to have the bypass contactor, because then your SCRs aren't
constantly dropping a tiny bit of voltage and getting hot / wearing out when they
don't need to be.
The Soft Start is smart, so if you want to ramp the speed down using it while turning
the motor off, it can just disconnect the contactor, and take back over with the SCRs
when the operator hits the "stop" button.

Testing Across Anode and Cathode

In this picture, you'd want to have almost infinite resistance

Allen Bradley SMC-3 Dip Switches - (top right)

Soft Starter Used to change settings Yellow things are SCRs Black Doughnuts are CTs

Motor Control Page 170

 Speed Regulators - In Yellow below is a Speed Regulator. You can control what
MC3 - Wound Rotor / Braking percentage of full load speed the motor operates at with a selector switch.
• 50% - Only "M" Contactor is active, and all resistors are in use
• 75% - "T1" Times out, activating "S1" Contactor, killing resistor bank 1
L3 Motor Controls - Wound Rotor Induction Motors
• 100% - "CR" Activates "T2", activating "S2" Contactor, killing resistor bank 2
Motor Control → 1 Reduced Voltage Starters1 DAY 2 PPT . PDF - Pages 1-?
WRIM - An AC motor with a wound rotor that lets you add/remove rotor resistance
by using a resistor bank and contactors. Here's how to control that resistance:
Step by Step Reduced Voltage Start - Here's an example starting / stopping circuit
by utilizing the rotor resistors to change the speed of the motor
• Step 1 - The start button is Pressed and the "M" Main contactor closes, the
full resistance is in series with the rotor. "T1" Timer begins counting down
• Step 2 - The motor speeds up slowly until "T1" Timer finishes counting and
closes it's auxiliary contact, which activates "T1A" Timer.
• Step 3 - "T1A" Timer finishes counting, closing off "Resistor Bank 1" as well
as it's aux contact, which activates "T2A" Timer, which is self-holding.
• Step 4 - "T2A" Timer finishes counting, closing off "Resistor Bank 2" which
removes all added resistance from the rotor.
With no extra rotor resistance the motor is now up to full operating speed.

Forward / Reverse Circuit - You can even add a Forward/Reverse function to a

WIRM, pretty much the same way you'd add it to any motor, but both the FWD and
REV contactor auxiliaries can activate the Timers that turn on and off the resistors.

Automatic Speed Sensing - The problem with the above circuit, is it can't tell how
much load a motor is under when it starts, it's just using timers.
In the below image, the green highlighted portion are Frequency Sensitive relays,
these are used to turn the resistances on and off based on how fast the rotor is
spinning. They are normally closed, bypassing all resistance, but use the current
generated by rotor slip to power themselves on. This slip frequency lowers the
faster the rotor moves, which makes the current in these relays drop, until they turn
off and disconnect the resistors. The capacitor makes 1A drop out before 2A

Regenerative Braking with a Wound Rotor Induction Motor →

The problem with using resistors as your method of speed change is the energy is all lost as
heat, which is hard on equipment, employees, and drastically lowers the motor efficiency.
But you CAN use a regenerative system to speed up and slow down a WRIM.
Regenerative System Components - Let's explain what each part does:
⚫ Rectifier - The Induced current on the rotor is AC, so we need to use six diodes to
rectify this current into an DC waveform so we can change it with the SCRs.
○ The coil in between the rectifier and inverter just filters the DC it a little bit
⚫ Inverter - This rectified waveform isn't going to match up with our line AC waveform,
so we have to use six SCRs and a computer that cuts the DC signal back into AC
⚫ Transformer - The waveform is cleaned up and induced onto the primary with this
⚫ Electronics - Monitors the generated and line voltages, controls the SCRs and
changes the current flow in the Armature. Increasing the current allowed to flow is
like lowering the resistance, decreasing the current flow is like raising resistance.

Motor Control Page 171

 Polarized Field Frequency Relay - Yellow - A special relay with both an AC and DC
MC3 - Synchronous Ctrl. coil, as well as an actuating arm on a pivot point. The DC comes from the DC supply
while the AC comes from the current being induced onto the field from the stator.

L3 Motor Controls - Synchronous Motor Starters

Motor Control → 3 Synchronous Motor Starters1 . PDF - Pages 1-23
Synchronous Motors - These have slightly more complex control circuits, because
we don't only control the AC stator, but also the DC Rotor.
We're going to assume we already know how to read ladder logic from all the
previous pages, and just focus on the what and how of new ladder components:
⚫ Out of Step Relay
⚫ Field Discharge Resistor
⚫ Field Contactor
⚫ Field Rheostat
When the motor is in start mode, the slight DC current creates just enough
⚫ Polarized Field Frequency Relay (PFR) magnetism to hold the pivoting arm from opening and help magnetize the core.
The AC coil is alternating between aiding and opposing the DC field, but it's so
strong that it doesn't matter anyway, the pivot arm stays closed.

Once the stator hits 92-97% Slip speed, the induced AC field's amplitude and
frequency has dropped so much, it's about the same strength as the DC field. This
means that when it opposes the DC field, they cancel each other out entirely, and
since the frequency is so low there's an opportunity for the pivot arm to pop open.
Once the pivot arm pops open, it triggers the field contactor.

The induced AC waveform gets weaker and slower as the rotor picks up speed
It has to pop open when the AC is in the negative cycle, because then the rotor
south pole will be lined up with the Stator North pole, and the rotor will have its
best chance of "locking in" and being pulled along at synchronous speed.
Step by Step Starting Process - This is a bit more complicated, so we'll do a step-by-
step breakdown of what's going on in the above two pictures:
• Step 1 - Press the Start button, this will energize the Main Contactor "M"
AUTOMATIC Synchronous motor switching circuit and Control Relay 1 "CR1", which hold the M contactor on
Out of Step Relay - Red - The 'Z' looking symbol could also just be a relay symbol, • Step 2 - As soon as the first tiny bit of voltage is induced onto the rotor, the
the circle with writing in it. It's an NCTO timing relay, if it times out, the contact will PFR's AC field is strong enough to close its contact, which turns off the field
open, killing the circuit. Like an OLR, but it's based on time, not over-current. It contactor, enabling the discharge resistor circuit.
protects the Amortisseur winding from burning out by stopping the motor if it's • Step 3 - The Rotor begins to cut flux using the Amortisseur windings like a
taking too long to get up to speed. The Amortisseur windings will be rated with a squirrel cage to pick up speed. Any voltage induced onto the currently
starting duty cycle, and may require a cooling period before trying again if it trips. unused DC windings is dissipated by the Discharge Resistor.
• Step 4 - As the rotor picks up speed, the voltage and frequency induced
Field Discharge Resistor - Blue - The DC windings aren't used during initial startup,
onto it lowers as well, until it hits 92-97% speed and the AC field opposes
so this prevents high-voltage buildup on the DC windings during the initial startup,
and wipes out the DC field in the PFR, activating the Field contactor
when we're using only the Amortisseur windings.
• Step 5 - FIRST, the Field Contactor Closes it's NO contacts, allowing DC to
Field Contactor - Green - A special relay, it can open and close its contacts in begin to flow on the rotor windings
specific sequence. The NO contacts close first, then the NC contacts open after. • Step 6 - NEXT, the Field Contactor Opens its NC contacts, disconnecting the
As soon as DC is applied to the field circuit, it closes the NO contacts to put DC onto discharge resistor and out of step relay.
the circuit. THEN it opens the NC contact to disconnect the field discharge resistor, • Step 7 - With DC flowing in the rotor windings, the rotor is able to lock itself
the field can never be OPEN, otherwise it will generate a high voltage that will into sync with the rotating magnetic field
destroy the windings. It ensures there's an overlap during the Start to Run phase.
• Step 8 - The Field Rheostat may be adjusted to change the strength of the
Field Rheostat - Pink - Adjusts the strength of the DC magnetic field on the rotor. rotors magnetic field, which in turn can make the motor run in a lagging
This can help you change the motor between Leading and Lagging. power factor (lower voltage), 0 or a leading power factor (higher voltage)

Motor Control Page 172

 Plugging with a Timer - You can also plug with just a timer by using a NOTO contact to
MC3 - Friction / Plugging actuate the reverse contactor for a set time once the forward interlock is broken.
Cheap, safer solution, but because it uses a timer It would be hard to find a balance to
where it stopped the motor completely , but didn't run in reverse.
L3 Motor Controls - Braking and Deceleration Controllers
Motor Control → 4 Braking and Deceleration Controllers1 . PDF - Pages 1-23
Methods Used to Brake Motors - There are 5 primary categories of motor brakes:
• Friction / Electromechanical Braking
• Plugging
• Dynamic Braking
• Regenerative Braking
• Eddy-Current Braking
Friction Braking - Exactly what it sounds like, applying friction of some form to some
part of the rotor mechanism to slow it down. Typically Drum, Band or Disc Brakes.
• Drum Brake - Typically a large drum is attached to the output shaft of a A Safer, but non-adaptive plugging circuit using a timer
motor, when actuated, pads with friction material will push out against the
inside of the drum and slow it down, just like on an older car. Plugging with a Control Relay - The safest way to do a plugging circuit that can adapt
• Band Brake - Also use a drum, but instead of using pads to push out against to load changes is with a Zero Speed Switch and a Control Relay.
the inside, a band is wrapped around the outside, when the band is The CONTROL RELAY is what fires the reverse contactor, and it can only become active
tightened it grips the outside of the drum and slows it down. when the shaft is turning forward AND the forward contactor is activated, at which
• Disc Brakes - Mounted to the bell of a motor, it'll be a steel disc that point it will lock itself on until the system is stopped.
mounts in between two friction discs all sandwiched together by spring If someone accidentally turns the shaft of the motor when it's off, nothing will happen.
tension. When the motor is turned on, a solenoid is activated that pulls the
friction disks away from the steel disc. When the motor is turned off, the
coil releases the friction discs, which bite into the steel plate.
Remember - Friction brakes are usually installed to "fail safe" they take voltage to
DISENGAGE, so if power is lost they automatically lock on.

Drum Brake Band Brake Disc Brake

Friction Brake Pros and Cons - There are a few pros and cons to friction brakes
A Safer plugging circuit that can adapt to changes in load… but it costs more!
• ✔ Hold the motor shaft relatively still when not in use
• ✔ Few circuit components, usually just a solenoid to release the brake. Two-way plugging - Using the Control Relay method, you can actually have a motor
• ✔ Spring applied brakes automatically actuate during power failure plug in both directions, you just use two control relays, one for each direction.
To prevent turning of the shaft from starting the motor up, you have to use a lockout
• ✔ Friction brakes cannot reverse the motor
solenoid on the Zero Speed Switch, so it's only enabled when the motor has current
• ❌ Friction parts wear out, need to be replaced flowing to it from one of the contactors.
• ❌ Brakes tend to add bulk to the motor
• ❌ Initial cost of brake system can be high
Plugging to Stop - Plugging a motor is essentially throwing it in reverse to stop it.
It's a really fast way to stop a motor, but can be hard on it.
Plugging Basic Circuit - The most basic way to plug a motor is by putting a Normally
Open Zero Speed switch in series with the reverse side of a FWD/REV motor circuit.
When the motor rotates forward, the zero speed switch will enable the reverse
rung, but as long as the Forward contact is on, it can't activate the reverse contactor
because they're interlocked.
As soon as the forward contactor is released, the reverse contactor will have a path
to be activated as long as the zero speed switch is being forced close by rotation.
Once the shaft stops rotating, the zero speed switch opens, and the motor stops.

Double the plugging, double the fun

Plugging Pros and Cons - There are a few pros and cons to plugging your motor
• ✔ Fastest deceleration method
• ✔ No friction parts, so no real maintenance
• ✔ Suitable for large motors and severe duty motors
• ❌ Requires reversing controls
A potentially dangerous plugging circuit • ❌ Requires a Zero-speed Switch, and time delay relay (to make it safe)
• ❌ Will not operate in a power failure
This is the simplest and most dangerous version, really, you'd want the Zero Speed • ❌ Draws large peak currents
switch to activate a relay, so that accidentally twisting the shaft when the motor • ❌ Motor windings may require special bracing to handle high stress
was off wouldn't engage the reverse circuit. • ❌ The motor shaft is free to rotate after stopping

Motor Control Page 173

 Dynamic Braking a SCIM - Uses a rectifier to create DC voltage, and a contactor to
MC3 - Dynamic Braking connect it to the stator that's only activated when the stop button is pressed.
Once the Stop button is pressed, it energizes the Dynamic Brake contactor, which
activates the rectifier, it also activates a Timer relay that holds the braking circuit on
L3 Motor Controls - Braking and Deceleration Controllers but will only stay active for as long as the timer relays NCTO contact stays closed.
Motor Control → 4 Braking and Deceleration Controllers1 . PDF - Pages 1-23
The amount of DC braking can be adjusted with the rectifiers series potentiometer
Dynamic Breaking - AKA: DC Injection Braking - Stopping the motor by making it act
like a generator. Instead of supplying AC to the stator we hit it with DC so the field
stops rotating, the rotor will slow down and we just have to get rid of the energy it
creates from cutting the DC flux by using braking resistors or similar.
These circuits look complex, but just pay attention to the green and yellow bits!
Dynamic Braking a Synchronous Motor- Good news! It's already got a DC field on
the rotor, so all we have to do is cut the power to the stator and punch in some
resistors connected in a Wye to the stator lines to dissipate the generated current.
When the stop button is pressed, the stator leads are disconnected, the Time Delay
starts counting down and the Dynamic Braking Contactor turns on and locks
resistances into the line and bypasses the PFR on the control circuit to allow DC to
continue to flow through the rotor even as the rotor slows down.
Once the timer is done, its NOTO contact opens, and the dynamic break is shut off

Dynamic Braking a WRIM - Very similar to the SCIM, only the Dynamic Brake
contactor will also lock out the rotor resistors to prevent them from generating
excess power they'll need to dissipate.
The DC will be applied to the stator until the timer TD3 runs out and it's NOTO
contact opens, breaking the line to the Dynamic Break contactor.
Adjusting the field Rheostat in series with the rectifier will adjust the braking.

Motor Control Page 174

 Eddy Current Braking - Achieved by connecting an eddy-current brake to
MC3 - Regen / Eddy Current the shaft of a motor. Just like you'd attach a drum for a drum brake to the
shaft of a motor. Can be used to both slow or stop a motor.

L3 Motor Controls - Braking and Deceleration Controllers

Motor Control → 4 Braking and Deceleration Controllers1 . PDF - Pages 1-23
Regenerative Braking - So far, all of the braking methods we've covered are
wasteful, all of the energy created by stopping the motor is wasted as heat
• With Friction braking, it's wasted as heat build-up in the mechanical
brake system. (Pads get hotted up!)
• With Dynamic Braking, it's wasted as I2R losses on the resistors
This is fine when you want to bring a motor to a complete stop, but if you
just need to slow it down, it's pretty inefficient.
With regenerative braking, we can re-capture most of this lost energy and
dump it back into the system, turning our motor into a generator for the
rest of the facility momentarily while it's slowing down.
Limitations - Generally Regenerative braking can only slow down the motor
to a limit, it won't bring it to a complete stop, for that you'll need to engage
another type of brake we previously discussed, so it's not usually used to
stop motors, but to limit the speed in certain use cases.
Use cases - Usually this is employed in applications where the load is forcing How it Works - Here's the basics of Eddy Current Braking:
the motor to operate at higher than synchronous speeds. In these cases we
• There are field poles set up on a cylindrical core by using DC
can use regenerative braking to keep the rotor speed in check. currents. You can adjust this field by raising/lower the current.
• Think - Crane lowering a load or train traveling down a hill
• This core is anchored and cannot turn.
• A drum surrounds the magnets and is able to turn around them.
• As the drum rotates around the magnetic poles, eddy currents are
induced into the steel drum.
• You can use the left-hand generator rule to determine the direction
of these currents.
• The eddy currents in the drum react with the magnetic poles to
produce a counter-torque
• You can use the right-hand motor rule to see that the counter-
torque is in the opposite direction of the motor rotation.
• This counter-torque slows the motor down
• You can adjust the braking force by weaking or strengthening the
magnetic field in the poles.

Rubble from Paw Patrol - (See: Filler)

I googled "Crane" and this is what came up. I'm just trying to fill up space
because there's sweet fuck all for information on these two topics.
Also - Rubble is the best paw-patrol dog, fight me. Rocky sucks, he's a
fuckin hoarder and his "fixes" are bullshit. A broken baseball bat isn't a
chair leg Rocky, get a real job.

How it works - At higher than synchronous speed, the motor still draws
reactive power from the source but delivers active/true power back to the
source. When it delivers true power back to the source, the current that
flows creates counter-torque in the motor that tries to slow the motor.
The motor reaches rated power at about 3% slip above synchronous speed.
Regenerative Braking and Cars - Modern electric and Hybrid vehicles also Pros and Cons of Eddy Current Braking - Here's a few pros and cons:
use regenerative braking to almost completely stop the vehicle, and • ✔ Can't reverse the motor if applied for too long
replenish the battery instead of completely wasting the energy. • ✔ Braking strength easy to adjust by changing DC current
Pros and Cons of Regenerative Braking - Here's a few pros and cons: • ✔ Low Maintenance - No friction parts
• ✔ Already a characteristic of motors - no extra equipment needed • ❌ More expensive than Plugging, Dynamic or Regen braking
• ✔ There are no friction parts, so maintenance is minimal • ❌ Braking is not available when the source voltage fails
• ❌ Only effective at speeds above synchronous speed • ❌ Doesn't lock the rotor after stopping, can be rotated
• ❌ Braking action reduces as rotor speed decreases

Motor Control Page 175

 VFD Classifications - There are a few different main types of VFDs:
VFDs - Overview • General Purpose - Lower cost, fewer parameters and less functionality
• Flux Vector - Receives feedback information from the motor to the VFD, typically
uses a current loop, aka: an encoder attached to or built into the motor
Variable Frequency Drives - Overview • Sensorless Flux Vector - Uses complex mathematical motor model and internal
Motor Control → VFDs → Alex's VFD Lesson 1 . PDF - Pages 1-55 computer algorithms to control the motor
• Servo - For precise control, used with a servo motor. Knows exactly where it in
Variable Frequency Drives - AKA: VFDs - A fancy "new" way of controlling SCIMs
rotation at all times. Used for things like CNC, robotics, etc.
that makes most of what we learned obsolete. Neat! As the name suggests,
you can change the speed of motors by varying the input frequency. Other Components - In addition to the power parts, you have a CPU, an HMI and all of
the various Inputs and Outputs on the VFD
• ✔ Smaller Motors can often be used
• ✔ Can Maintain Higher Torque, while using less amperage • CPU - The brains of the operation, Controls the inverter portion of the VFD and
decides how everything works based on the input parameters
• ✔ Reduced Maintenance Costs due to fewer components
• ✔ Cheaper than DC motors if you don't need their torque • HMI - Human Machine Interface - Typically buttons and a screen used to check
the VFD status or change parameters manually without a computer.
• ✔ Run motors at reduced (or slightly accelerated) speed
• ✔ Provides 150% Starting torque with only 150% FLA current • I/O - Every VFD will have pretty similar inputs and outputs:
⚫ Power Terminals (L1,L2,L3 and T1,T2,T3)
• ✔ Reduces mechanical stress on equipment
⚫ Digital Inputs and Outputs (Typically 24V)
• ✔ Built in braking ▪ Configured via parameters to do multiple things
• ✔ Can automatically correct for Power Factor ⚫ Analog Inputs and Outputs (Typically 0-10V or 4-20mA)
• ✔ Control smaller 3-Phase motors from single-phase source! ▪ Same as above, but 0-100% control instead of on/off.
• ❌ Higher initial costs than basic starting methods ⚫ Networking - Typically Serial or Ethernet
• ❌ Lower Starting Torque than starting across-the-line
Main Parts to a VFD - The actual solid-state electrical part of a VFD consists of
three sections, A Converter, a DC Link and an Inverter:
• Converter - This is the input portion of the VFD, the AC input is rectified
into DC by the use of six diodes.
• DC Link Choke - Aka: Inductor Choke - An inductor / capacitor filtering
circuit to smooth out an spikes or ripples in the rectified DC.
• Inverter - The business end of the VFD! This is where all the magic
happens. Different VFDs use different devices, but typically up to 500HP
will use transistors such as IGBTs. The inverter stage decides how to
chop this DC signal up into whatever frequency of AC the motor needs.

Input /Output Filters - There are input and output filters available for VFDs, and you may
want to use them for various reasons:
• Reactors - 1:1 Transformers - Recommended for the input to protect the VFD
from voltage spikes, and the output to smooth the PWM signal for the motor
• EMI/RFI - Noise Filter - Used on the input to stop Electromagnetic Interference
or Radio Frequency Interference fed back onto the line from noisy VFDs

Speed Control Methods - There are a few ways VFDs can work:
• Variable Voltage Inverter (VVI) - Old-school way of doing it just changes
the voltage to control the speed, almost like a soft-start.
• Current Source Inverter (CSI) - Another old-school way of doing it, uses
SCRs to modify the voltage wave, causes current spikes.
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) - The modern way of doing it:
PWM - Pulse Width Modulation - The IGBTs control the output voltage using
something called PWM. It's essentially just flashing the IGBT gate on and off A Reactor - It's just a 1:1 Transformer An EMI/RFI (noise) Filter
several times throughout the period of an AC waveform to simulate how much
voltage should be coming out at a given angle. Parameters - A variable you can change on the VFD to tell it how to act, or to tell it what
PWM tries to emulate an AC wave form that varies in voltage with DC which is a kind of load is connected to it. Perhaps one of the most important parts of the VFD.
constant voltage. So what it does is turn it on and off in a distinct pattern, for These are what you can adjust to tell the VFD how to behave.
the low parts of the AC waveform it will flash the DC on really quickly, and as the Inverter-Duty Motors - Although you technically can hook up a VFD to almost any motor
waveform peaks it keeps the DC on for longer to add more voltage. you want, it doesn't know any better, you usually want to use an Inverter Duty motor.
Length of pulse determines voltage, timing of pulse determines frequency They'll have reenforced windings and often an separate cooling fan.
So the output waveform is more of a sliced up square than a smooth AC wave. Braking Methods - VFD's are capable of multiple ways to brake motors:
• Coast to Stop - Cuts power to the motor and lets it coast to a stop.
• Dynamic Braking - Run the motor as a generator
• DC Injection Braking - The VFD can create it's own DC to inject into the stator,
must have a braking resistor connected to the VFD to absorb the extra DC
voltage or the PIV of the diodes may be exceeded on the DC bus. This braking
resistor is controlled by an additional IGBT to adjust how much current it takes.
• Mechanical Braking - Use a Digital or Analog output to fire a mechanical brake
• Regenerative Braking - Dump the excess current from DC injection back into the
system using an inverter instead of a braking resistor
PWM Emulating a Sine Wave • Plugging - The VFD can digitally change the phase order to plug the motor
Any time an IGBT turns "on" it creates one of the green squares. DC Bus Voltage - Because of the Inductor and Capacitor on the DC bus, you get peak
The red sine wave is what it's trying to emulate. voltage instead of average voltage across the DC bus. ( )

Motor Control Page 176

 Variable Frequency Drives - Troubleshooting
VFDs - Control / Troubleshooting Motor Control → VFDs → Alex's VFD Lesson 4 . PDF - Pages 1-40
Troubleshooting VFDs - Most VFDs have a screen, or at least LED indicators where
Variable Frequency Drives - Speed Control / Parameters they can display Fault Codes. When a VFD has to shut down for an unexpected
Motor Control → VFDs → Alex's VFD Lesson 2 & 3 . PDF - Pages 1-23 / 1-20 reason, it will typically display one of these fault codes on the screen.
Regardless of what VFD you're working on, pull up the PDF manual on your phone and
Constant Torque - In order to maintain a constant torque, a VFD will maintain a
cross reference this fault code with the manual. Google is your friend!
constant voltage to Frequency ratio. This starts to break down once you get past
60Hz, speed will increase but the torque starts to quickly drop out. VFD Maintenance - Your #1 tool in preventing issues is maintaining your equipment!
VFDs can be maintained by cleaning any air filters, tightening connections and making
sure it's in a dry, cool(ish) box.
Torque - Calculation
Power In/Out Terminals - They have a torque spec! Often errors can be brought up
by a connector that isn't torqued enough, but don't torque it too much you animal!
• = Torque Generated If a VFD is having issues with one of the input lines it'll shut off to prevent single
• = Motor constants phasing and damaging the motor.
• = Stator Flux Thermal Protection - Most VFDs have built-in thermal protection. It constantly
• = Rotor Current watches the motor speed and I2R losses, and will trip if too much current is drawn.
If voltage and freq. rise at same rate the There's a limit to how much current the VFD can trip, so the motor power rating must
flux will stay constant and so will torque! be between 20% (50% for 575V) and 115% of the VFD rating

Constant Horsepower - Once you hit beyond 60Hz, the torque will drop off, but Ground Fault Protection - Each output leg is monitored by a current transformer, if it
the horsepower will always stay constant. That's because as Torque Decreases notices excess current on one or more leg, it'll trip a ground fault error.
the RPM increases. Incompatible Functions - Not every VFD parameter is compatible with other
parameters on that same VFD. So if you can't change something, that's probably why.
The manual should have a "Function Compatibility Table" to tell you what's what.
Clearing Faults - Some faults have to be cleared with a keypress, others by cycling the
power. Some faults will clear automatically, but they can only be cleared so many
times automatically before locking out.
Common Drive Malfunctions - Fuse Failure, Open Circuits, Short Circuits. Check for
blown fuses or broken and loose wiring / damaged insulation.
Troubleshooting steps - Here are a few basic steps to troubleshooting a VFD:
• Step 1 - Check the Error Code on the VFD! Cross reference it with the manual
• Step 2 - Observe! Smell, Touch, Listen, See!
• Step 3 - Check terminal tightness and for broken/damaged wires or insulation
Speed Control at low speeds - At very low speeds you may need a voltage boost • Step 4 - Use your tools! Voltmeter, Ammeter, Oscilloscopes are good for
vs frequency to maintain constant flux. You may also need an external fan to measuring the ins and outs. Infrared cameras can measure heat, tachometers
cool the motor, because the fan on the rotor isn't spinning fast enough. can measure the shaft speed of the motor.
Slip Compensation - If you want an exact rotor speed out of a motor, such as Problems VFDs can cause - Here are a couple problems associated with VFDs:
1800 RPM, you can adjust the Slip Compensation parameter on most VFDs to
allow it to compensate for the missing RPMs by increasing the frequency. • ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE and HARMONICS - VFDs are very noisy.
They spit high frequencies and harmonics back onto the mains due to the
Skipping Frequencies - In some applications you want to avoid things called high frequency switching done by the IGBTs. You can reduce this by
"resonant frequencies" which is when the object will cause out of control ○ Using Shielded Power and Communications Cables
vibrations if its exposed long enough (see: Tacoma narrows bridge) ○ Using EMI/RFI filters and reactors on the inputs and outputs.
VFDs can be set to avoid continuous operation at set frequency ranges • Common Mode Current - The PWM gives ugly square-waves that don't
Carrier Frequency - Aka: Switching Frequency - The frequency of the switching always line up and equal zero like nice sinewaves do. These voltage and
done inside the inverter. This can be adjusted to reduce noise from the motor, current spikes can be damaging to motors and other equipment
and can typically be set between 2-16 kHz. Too high of a frequency could cause ○ Use Reactors to smooth out spikes before they hit the equipment
overheating in the motor. • Reflected Wave Voltage - If the wire from the VFD to the motor is too long
This is NOT the frequency the motor will run at! That is the output frequency. you can get voltage reflection, use reactors and proper VFD power cables!
• Motor Overheating at low speeds - The fan isn't turning fast enough to cool
Ramping - Used to describe acceleration (ramp up) deceleration (ramp down) the motor because it's driven by the rotor - USE AN EXTERNAL FAN!
Law of Inertia - An object will tend to remain in its current state of rest/motion VFD Power Wire - VFD Power Wire is specially designed to reduce noise. It's Shielded,
unless acted upon by an external force. Mechanical systems are subject to this. has multiple bonds to help deal with induced voltages from reflected waves and has
Quadrant Operation - There are four quadrants of speed-torque according to full-sized bonds. It's not that much more expensive either!
direction of rotation and direction of torque, when they work together, they're Inverter Rated Motors - Using an Inverter Rated Motor can help alleviate issues that
acting as a motor, when they work opposite, they act as a generator! can be caused by VFDs, they have a few advantages over traditional motors:
• Some have separate blowers so the fan is independent from the rotor speed
Quadrant I - Forward • Phase paper on stator windings to prevent wear from micro vibrations
The motor is running forward • Stator windings will have higher rated insulation
Quadrant II - Fwd. Braking • Oversized bearings and Dielectric grease
The motor is braking from • The Case Size will be larger to accommodate extra cooling and insulation.
running forward
Quadrant III - Reverse
The motor is running Reverse
Quadrant IV - Rev. Braking
The motor is braking from
running in reverse

If you drove an electric car up a mountain it would be running in quadrant 1, but

on the way back down the mountain it would be in quadrant 2.

Motor Control Page 177

Prints & Drawings Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Year 1 Symbols
3 Year 2 Symbols
4 Line Definitions
5 Schematics and Wiring
6 Single Line Drawings
7 Pictorial and Orthographic Drawings
8 LV3 - Development Cycle and Divisions
9 LV3 - Electrical Plans and Divisions
10 Definitions and Specifications

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Prints and Drawings Page 178

Prints - Yr.1 Symbols

REMEMBER -
If a symbol is different between this page and drawings, go with drawings!

Switches Receptacles Other More Other CC2 Switches

Single Pole Switch Single Receptacle

Clock Outlet
5-15R

Paddle Fan
3-way Switch
Duplex Receptacle Exit Light Flow Switch
5-15R Triggered by flow of a
material
4-way Switch
Fan Outlet
Floor Mounted Duplex
5-15R Paddle Fan
Door Switch (or Dimmer)
with lamp
Smoke Alarm
Ionization Type
Duplex Receptacle
Dimmer Switch 5-20R Float Switch
Triggered by Liquid Level
Smoke Alarm Electrical Panel
Remote Control Master Split Wired Duplex Photoelectric Type Flush Mounted
5-15R

Remote Control Switch Thermostat

Split-Switched Duplex Pressure Switch
5-15R Electrical Panel
Surface Mounted Triggered by fluid pressure
Motor Starter Switch
Transformer • DP = Distribution Panel
Size and Type as Noted • LP = Lighting Panel
3-Conductor Split
• PP = Power Panel
Switching Arrangement 5-15R

Pushbutton
Dryer Receptacle Temperature Switch
Fixtures Lighting Panel Triggered by set
Buzzer Surface Mounted temperature
Range Receptacle
Track Lighting
Length / No. of fixtures noted
Special-Purpose Outlet Bell Limit Switch
Branch-Circuit Wiring Triggered by physical touch
Ceiling Outlet • Short Lines - Ungrounded Conductors
Multioutlet Assembly • Long Line - Neutral Conductor
Door Opener
• Slash - Bonding Conductor
• Arrow - Home Run
Wall Outlet
Notice the long dash on right Telco
Door Chime

Fluorescent Luminaire Data

Uppercase letter = Style TV Outlet
Lowercase letter = Switching

Telephone
Recessed Fluorescent Water Heater

Fluorescent Strip
Data & Telephone

Prints and Drawings Page 179

Prints - Yr. 2 Symbols
Prints and Drawings - Symbols
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Points → Prints & Drawings PDF - Pages 1-7
Common Symbols - Here are common items and the symbols the use on Architectural, Wiring and Schematic diagrams:

Device Architect. Wiring Schematic Device Architect. Wiring Schematic

Single-Pole
Switch
Receptacle

3-Way
Switch 3
Switched Split
4-Way Receptacle
Switch 4

2-Pole
Split
Switch 2 Receptacle

Light Ground Fault

receptacle

Prints and Drawings Page 180

Prints - Line Definitions

Drawing Line Types

Centre Line - (Bay Line) - Lines that
show the center of an arc, circle or
between objects consist of alternating
long and short dashes. Typically
intersects a beam or structural member
to be used as a reference point.
Hidden Line - Shows the edges of an
object that is being hidden from your
view by another closer object
Cutting Plane Line - Shows you where
another cross sectional drawing will be
viewing from.
Dimension Lines - Lines used to show
you a measurement of an object or
spacing
Extension Lines - Lines used with
Dimension Lines to show you where on
the drawing the dimension lines start
and stop.
Ticks -AKA: Cut Lines - Small slashes at
the end of dimension lines where they
intersect with Extension Lines.
Leader Lines - Arrows used to point at
objects from notes.
Grid - Battleship Numbers and letters
used to find coordinates

Visible Line Hidden Line Center Line Section Line Leader Lines Short Break Line Long Break Line Dimensions, Extension and Terminators
Terminators: [ / Slash ] [ ←Arrowhead ] [ ● Dot ]

Prints and Drawings Page 181

 Wiring Diagrams - AKA: Connection Diagram - Shows exactly how and where the wires
Prints - Schematic & Wiring are connected and how they run between devices
• Great for initial wiring of the circuit
• Great for tracing wires while troubleshooting
Prints and Drawings - Schematic and Wiring Diagrams • Often included in construction prints to show electrical panel wiring
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Points → Prints & Drawings PDF - Pages 6-17 • Often found on rear panel covers of major appliances
Schematic Diagrams - Shows how a circuit operates using standard symbols. • More information so more difficult to read than single-line diagrams
Shows the electrical relationship between the various components of a circuit. • Attempts to show how components are physically laid out and how wires are
Does NOT show how components are wired or their physical arrangement connected to the component terminals
• In professional drawings, components are often shown pictorially
• Typically used to design or explain the circuit
• Common practice to label components by name
• Read left to right, top to bottom (ladder diagram)
• Connecting wires often numbered or color-coded to simplify connections
• Used for solving problems / Troubleshooting
• Thicker lines used for emphasis or differentiate control/power wires
• Dashed Lines indicate mechanical linkage or physical connection
• Lines should be straight (use a ruler!)
• Standard symbols must be used so everyone can read it!

↑ Wiring Diagram vs. Schematic Diagram ↓

Pictoral Drawing and Schematic Diagram of a simple circuit

Wiring Connection Points - When multiple conductors are connected, the

connection must be shown with a small dot; otherwise it may be mistaken as a
crossover. If there is a single junction, the dot may be omitted.

Single Junction Single Junction Crossover Multiple Junction

No Dot Dot No Connection Dot Point to Point Wiring Diagram - A simpler diagram with a separate line drawn for each
conductor in the diagram
Ground Symbol - used to signify a common chassis point or connection.
Reference Designation - When there are more of one item, you often use a
subscript number to identify multiple devices.
• Eg - If you had four resistors you would name them:
Component Value - Often the component value (e.g. the Resistors resistance) will
be on the opposite side of the symbol or below the reference designation.

Highway-type Wiring Diagram - When there are many conductors in a harness or

raceway, often a single line will be used to represent a group of conductors, each
breaking off at their respective connections.

A Schematic Diagram of a Transistor circuit

Schematic Design - Schematic diagrams are not drawn to any particular scale, the
number of lines, components and notes will typically determine the final size.
• should be easy to read, not cluttered and be as symmetrical as possible
• Keep number of long lines to a minimum
• Avoid crossovers whenever possible Wiring Diagram Design - Basic Rules for laying out a Wiring Diagram:
• Maintain a uniform size for component symbols • Individual components should be shown as viewed from the wiring direction
• Align similar components wherever possible • Reference designations should match corresponding schematic diagram
• Show switches & relay contacts in the de-energized (non-operated) state • Interconnecting wires should be identified by colour or wire number
• Connection lines should be drawn as horizontal or vertical lines with uniform
• Leave space for component identification and reference designation
spacing, sometimes small arcs are used for clarity or to indicate direction
• Space the lines and symbols so the diagram appears "balanced"
• Connection terminals should be shown as the actually appear on the
• Simplify the connections by repositioning the component symbols component, any polarity markings should be Identified

Prints and Drawings Page 182

 Riser Diagrams - Looks similar to a block diagram, but shows the circuit as an elevation
Prints - Single Line • Shows relationships in a circuit and connection points between components
• Think of it as a front or side view (elevation), not a plan view.
• Symbols or simple pictorials sometimes used in place of blocks
Prints and Drawings - Single Line - Block & Riser Diagrams • Used most frequently in construction drawings than other electrical diagrams
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Points → Prints & Drawings PDF - Pages 18-22
• Commonly used to show power distribution throughout a building
Electrical Diagrams - The three primary types of Electrical Diagrams are Wiring, • Good for estimating materials required for a job
Schematic and Single-Line. Single Line Diagrams can be broken down further into • Show related electrical equipment to be installed on several different floors
two sub-categories. Block Diagrams and Riser Diagrams. • Fire alarms and Telecommunication hookups commonly shown with risers

Single Line Diagrams - Shows the distribution of electrical energy with a single
line, even if each line in the diagram may represent several conductors.
• Only Show supply side - Not return path
• Sometimes contain multiple elements of different diagrams
○ E.g. Block diagrams, risers and schematics
• Example diagram (below) is frequently used in electrical construction
prints to show the power distribution for an entire project.
• Can be used for easily tallying what materials you need to purchase

A Power Riser Diagram - Showing power distribution throughout a 3 floor building

Single-Line diagram of power distribution system

Includes Blocks, Risers and Schematic Symbols

Block Diagram - A type of flow chart that shows the major components or
devices in an electrical circuit. Components are drawn as blocks, and their
relationship to each-other is indicated by connecting lines
• Rarely ever drawn to scale
• Show relationship of components and how they tie in electrically
• Some components and connecting cables omitted for simplicity
• Components show name, type and sometimes catalogue number
• Do NOT show actual position of components in real circuit
• Do NOT show the return path for the circuit

A Block Diagram showing what Units a Meter Center feeds in an apartment

Fire Alarm Riser Diagram - Lots of little components!

Prints and Drawings Page 183

 Orthographic Projections - While pictorial drawings give you a mental image of what
Prints - Pictorial/Orthographic an object looks like, they do not convey precise information about size and shape
due to the distortion caused by the 3d effect.
To get around this problem we use orthographic projection. This is where multiple
Prints and Drawings - Pictorial & Orthographic Drawings two-dimensional views of an object are shown on a single piece of paper to supply
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Points → Prints & Drawings PDF - Pages 18-22 all the information required to build the object. 3 Views are most common.
Pictorial Drawings - Easy to understand drawings, because they're realistic! The
show length, width and height in a single view. Easy to get a mental image of the
actual object, and great for those inexperienced with reading drawings.
Oblique Drawings - The base line of the object is drawn on the horizontal and
projection lines extend at . Details on the front face are true to shape while
details on the top and side views are somewhat distorted. Circular features
appear as exact circles on the front fase, but elipses on the side and top views.

Imagine an object floating in a glass box, you can look from all sides
An Oblique Drawing

Isometric Drawings - The base line of the object is angled so that it cuts the
horizontal at . Each of the three surfaces is distorted slightly. A circular detail
drawn on any sufrace of an isometric appears as an ellipse.

An Isometric Drawing

Perspective Drawings - Made by establishing one or two vanishing points at eye These are the six Orthographic Projections we could get from the above image
level and drawing projection lines so that they intersect at a vanishing point.
• Drawings with a single vanishing point are called one-one point.
○ Look similar to Oblique drawings
• Drawings with two vanishing points are called two-point.
○ Look similar to isometric drawings

Two-Point Perspective Drawing

One-Point Perspective drawing The Object to the Left as an Orthographic Drawing

Prints and Drawings Page 184

Prints - Development Cycle / Divisions
Prints and Drawings - Development Cycle Contract Agreement - The Owner, Architect and General Contractor sign a legal
Prints & Drawings → Getting Started → P&D L1 Reading Guide - Pages 1-18 contract which agrees to three main things:
1. Written and Signed - The legal agreement - outside of our scope.
Development of Prints and Drawings - There's quite a process to developing prints 2. Working Drawings - The set of drawings developed through the process
and drawings for a job. The basic steps of a drawing are:
3. Specifications - Just as important as the drawings, the details of how
1. Concept or Preliminary Drawings everything will be built, what will be used, etc. Will be used to settle any
2. Issued for Approval Drawings disagreements that may develop after. Spec. is believed over drawings.
3. Issued for Tender Drawings
8 Major Divisions - Each major division has a letter identifier on drawing pages,
4. Working Drawings
there can be more or fewer depending on the size of the job. Because we supply
5. As-Built Drawings
power, often electricians have to work with ALL of the major divisions:
• Sheets Labeled 'A' - Architectural
• Sheets Labeled 'S' - Structural
• Sheets Labeled 'E' - Electrical (that's you!) The 5 main sections!
• Sheets Labeled 'M' - Mechanical (HVAC)
• Sheets Labeled 'P' - Plumbing (Poo-Poo, Pee-Pee)
• Sheets Labeled 'F' - Fire Protection
• Sheets Labeled 'C' - Civil
• Sheets Labeled 'L' - Landscaping
Minor Divisions - Each of major divisions contains the following minor divisions
• Site/plot Plan - A top view of an entire property including all buildings,
sidewalks, streets, alleys, trees, shrubs and services (water, power etc.
Architectural site plan would even show grade and slope / elevations.
○ Benchmark - Often shown on the site plan, it's an elevation mark
○ Typically Each Major Division will have their own Site plans
• Key Plan - Smaller scale than site plan, shows larger area of where building
is located in relation to area of city, 2D, Birds-eye View
• Floor Plan - Two dimensional, Birds-eye view of interior. The floor is cut in
half horizontally at the half-way point, and the top is lifted off, showing
everything from a downward view.
○ Typically Each Major Division will have their own floor plans
• Plan Drawing - Top-view drawing, stereotypical "blueprint" for horizontal
dimensions and layouts. Each floor requires its own Plan.
• Elevation - Side-view drawing for vertical dimensions / layouts. Used for
both inside and outside the structure.
• Section Plan - A Cross Section, usually identified on the Plan Drawing with
Concept / Preliminary Drawings - STEPS 1,2,3 & 4 double-arrows with circles in them (kind of like eyeballs). Allows you to see
fine details such as what's inside a wall. Example Eyeball/Arrow:
● 1,2,3 Initial Conversations - Owner & Architect - The owner and an architect (or SECTION REFERENCE SYMBOL
group) have a back and forth to realize the goal of the project and develop a plan
• Arrow - Indicates Direction of View
Issued For Approval Drawings - STEP 5,6,7
• Top - (10) - Indicates Section Number (or letters)
● 4,5 Engineering - Architect & Engineers - Where detail beings to happen, all
plans are made according to electrical/mechanical/structural engineers, • Bottom (A5 / A11) - Indicates Sheet number where
SPECIFICATIONS PACKAGE drawn up and added to layout brand/minimum section is shown. This arrow contains multiple sectional
requirements. When the engineering is finished the drawings are officially "Issued drawings of the same object
for approval" • Detail Drawings - Shows a small part of the entire project in great detail, for
example it might be an isometric drawing of a window or staircase that has
● 6,7 Regulatory - Architect & Regulatory Bodies / City - The city needs to approve
all the details outlined and exploded, so you know exactly how to build it.
the plans, ensure there's enough water/sewer/power capacity in that area etc.
If they are rejected, the Architect must work with engineering and the owner to • Plan Scales - from Least Detail to Most Detail
figure out if they can change the project to something that will be approved. ○ Key Plan - Almost no detail, used to get your bearings
○ Cover / Site Plan - Low detail, just shows the whole site
Issued For Tender Drawings - STEP 8,9,10,11
○ Floor Plan - Decent detail, for each room or floor
● 8,9,10,11 Out for Tender - Architect / Contractors / Vendors - Bidding the job ○ Section Plan - Lots of detail for specific vertical sections
with PRE-QUALIFIED contractors using the specifications package from the ○ Detail Plan - Can be 1:1 (actual) or even an enlargement
engineering phase. Required to reach out to vendors to find best pricing and
timing, etc. Prints are sent to vendors so they can bid and add SHOP DRAWINGS, Title Block - Located on every page and contains a lot of information, perhaps two of
contractor bids are drawn up and sent back to Architect firm as "sealed bids". the most important pieces of information are the Revision number and Contact info:
• Revisions - The title block will have a list of revisions, starting at the bottom
Working Drawings - STEP 12, 13 and working your way up, the highest item on the list is the latest revision.
● 12,15 Contract Awarded - Architect & Contractor - Winning contractor contacts Everyone must be working on the SAME REVISION:
sub-trades and supplies drawings to them to begin to build the project XYZ Change Rev 3
● 13,14 Trades Communication - Contractor & Trades - Any deviation to the plans Issued for Construction Rev 2
due to real-life circumstances must be documented in an AS-BUILT drawing.
Issued for Tender Rev 1
As-Built Drawings - STEP 14, 15, 16
Issued for Approval Rev 0
Once the building is completed, these as-built drawings are handed to the
• Contact - Contains every possible way to contact the architect. Located on
Architect, who provides them to the building owner. These drawings will be used
every single page. The Architect is the key player who makes all of the
for as long as the building is standing. They will be updated with any future work.
major decisions and makes the final call.
They are extremely valuable for any work to be done on an existing site.

Prints and Drawings Page 185

 James Doyle's Lecture Videos:
Prints - Electrical Plans Lecture 1 - LECT 1 P&D Lecture 2 - LECT 2 P&D

Prints and Drawings - Electrical Plans

Prints & Drawings → Getting Started → P&D L1 Reading Guide - Pages 19-44

● Electrical Sheets - There are different sub-categories of electrical plans and how Master Format - A compiled list of all specifications, divided into 50 sections not
they all fit together, for level 3 we get into a bit more detail than previous years: all of which are used by electricians. Each Division is subdivided into 3 sections:
1. General Information
● Electrical Plans - Electrical sheets can be split into four main Plan categories, 2. Products - Exactly what products they want used
these are the same plan categories you may find in any section, however these 3. Execution - Exactly how they want the work done
ones are specific to the electrical work to be done:
► Site Plans - 'E' section site plans would show where things like the supply Division 26 - The Electrical Subcontract Division - our most important division.
authority transformers and power entries are, parking lot lighting, etc. Contains the following specifications for work to be done:
► Floor Plans - 'E' section floor plans show power and lighting layout • Scope of work to be performed
► Section Plans - Electrical Section drawings of large electrical components • Standard of Workmanship
such as MCC's or electrical room walls. • Building codes and regulations that must be followed
► Detail Plans - Fine detailed layouts of certain important areas/objects. • Guarantee and warranties that must be provided
• Model and make or electrical equipment specifications to be used
● Electrical Diagrams - Electrical Plans are further broken into different diagrams
• Specific mounting heights for switches, receptacles, telco outlets etc.
that are very electrical specific:
• Circuit and switch tagging instructions
► Wiring Diagram - Often shows location of equipment and routing of
• Instructions on when to obtain approvals for certain work (e.g., approval
conduit. Things like motor control circuits use wiring diagrams.
must be obtained if you have to cut through a structural member)
► Schematic Diagram - Similar to wiring diagram, but doesn't show routing
• Instructions for testing the electrical system
or location. Schematics are all about electrical flow.
• Procedures for inspecting the electrical system
► Single Line Diagram - Used to clearly lay out power system, show any
changes in voltages etc, but gives no indication of where anything is. • Material specifications (e.g. conduit, wire/cable, connectors & terminals)
► Riser Diagram - Similar to a Single Line Diagram, but shows where • Descriptions and specifications for various types of lighting
everything is by elevation in the building. • Specifications for fire alarm equipment
► Block Diagram - Similar to an elevation plan, will show a wall or item and List of Divisions - Highlighted lines often relate to the electrical trade
how everything is laid out in relation to each-other. • 00 - Procurement and Contracting Requirements
► Reflected Ceiling Diagram - Like a floor plan, but if the floor was a mirror. • 01 - General Requirements
Instead of showing the details for the floor, it shows you the details of the • 02 - Existing Conditions
ceiling, so you know where to lay out lighting and ceiling fixtures. • 03 - Concrete
Sometimes they'll include other ceiling equipment such as HVAC. • 04 - Masonry
• 05 - Metals
Schedules - Can appear in the DRAWINGS or in the SPECIFICATIONS. Schedules are
• 06 - Wood and Plastics and Composites
tables of very valuable information.
• 07 - Thermal and Moisture Protection
• Fixture/Lighting Schedule - Lighting Type, Mounting Style, Lamp Size &
• 08 - Openings
Quantity, Dimensions, Weight, Voltage, Power Demand, Location • 09 - Finishes
• Panel Schedule - Electrical panel Name, Ampacity, number of phases, • 10 - Specialties
number of spaces, Dimensions, Mounting Style (flush, surface), Size of • 11 - Equipment
breakers (in amps / poles) and number of each breaker. • 12 - Furnishings
• Receptacle Schedule - Electrical Power Outlet, Ampacity, Voltage, Model • 13 - Special Construction
number, grade (hospital, commercial etc) Location, feeding panel/circuit. • 14 - Conveying Systems
• Transformer Schedule - ID number, kVA, Primary/Secondary Voltages, • 15 - 20 - RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE
number of phases, dry weight and full weight (for filled transformers), • 21 - Fire Suppression
mounting clearances (if not, use code) • 22 - Plumbing
• Motor Schedule - Horsepower or KW, Voltage and FLA, number of phases, • 23 - HVAC
Overcurrent protection type and ampacity, Overload type and setting, • 24 - RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE
location and type of motor control. • 25 - Integrated Automation
• General Notes - Apply throughout all of the sheets. The notes you find • 26 - Electrical
sprinkled throughout the drawings can also be found neatly laid out all in • 27 - Communications
one schedule. Remember - Always read the notes! • 28 - Electronic Safety and Security
○ Local notes - These are notes that only apply to one object, notes • 29 - 47 - RESERVED FOR FUTURE USE
that will have a leader line pointing at something, these are NOT • 48 - Electrical Power Generation
included in the general notes schedule!! Reference Symbols - The reference symbols information was explained
• Finishes Schedule - Located in the architectural section, sometimes we differently in year 3, here's what they're saying this year:
cross reference some information, such as finished floor height etc.
• Doors and Windows Schedule - Located in the architectural section.
Mechanics of Prints - A few minor notes on the physical aspects of prints:
• Paper - Durable paper, printed landscape (wide ways) with different sizes A - Section Number
that essentially keep doubling: B - Sheet Number where section reference is found
Size A - 8.5x11" / Size B - 11x17" / Size C - 17x22" / Size D - 22x34" etc… C - Sheet Number where Section drawing is found
• Architectural Scale - Small (buildings) - Feet, inches, Fractions - Imperial
• Engineering Scale - Big! (highways) - KM, M, CM, Decimals - Metric
○ 1:500 is a very small scale - Something big is made very small
○ 1:10 is a very LARGE scale - Something Small is pretty big

Prints and Drawings Page 186

 Working Drawings - A complete set of drawings that provides all the information to
Prints - Definitions / Specs. manufacturer or construct a part, machine or structure. On a construction site these
would be considered your Major Divisions.
Working Detail Drawing - Provides all the information required to construct an
Prints and Drawings - Key Words and Definitions object, typically as orthographic projections.
AFF - Above Finished Floor - The height of an object above the floor once the
Working Assembly Drawing - Shows how all the parts of individual working detail
finishing material (tile, stone, carpet etc.) has been installed.
drawings fit together, and identifies each part with a list (Think: exploded view!)
As-built Drawings - Typically hand-made drawings that show any changes made
to the original drawings due to unforeseen circumstances in design. Working Detail-Assembly Drawing - A combination of both above drawings
Construction Drawings - convey information on how something is to be built or
installed. Split into Major Divisions for large construction sites.
Detail Drawings - Shows details of a small part of the entire project
Elevations - Vertical views of an object. North, East, South or West directions
indicate what side of the object you're viewing. I.e.: South elevation = south side.
Index Page - A page that lists all drawings and their respective pages
Inside Elevations - Same as exterior elevations but for interior rooms.
Keys / Legends - A list of symbols used on a drawing and what they stand for Oblique Isometric
Major Divisions - Construction prints are typically organized into several divisions
• Architectural - Structural - Mechanical - Electrical - Landscaping - Fire
Minor Divisions - Each of major divisions contains the following minor divisions
• Site/plot Plan - A top view of an entire property including all buildings,
sidewalks, streets, alleys, trees, shrubs and services (water, power etc.
Architectural site plan would even show grade and slope / elevations.
• Plan Drawing - Top-view drawing, stereotypical "blueprint" for One Point Perspective Two Point Perspective
horizontal dimensions and layouts. Each floor requires its own Plan.
• Elevation - Side-view drawing for vertical dimensions / layouts. Used for Prints and Drawings - Specifications
both inside and outside the structure. Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Points → Prints & Drawings PDF - Pages 70-75
• Sectional - A Cross Section, usually identified on the Plan Drawing with
double-arrows with circles in them (kind of like eyeballs). Allows you to Specifications - A written description of work to be performed. Typically
see details such as what's inside a wall. Example Eyeball/Arrow: accompanies construction prints and can vary in length depending on size of project.
It is an integral part of the contract documents and is considered to be the most
• Arrow - Indicates Direction of View important document after the actual written agreement.
Year 2 Definition!
• Top - (10) - Indicates Section Number If there is a disagreement between the specification and the drawing, the
information in the specification is usually taken to be correct.
• Bottom (A5 / A11) - Indicates Sheet number where
section is shown. This arrow contains multiple Construction Specification Institute - (CSI) - The organization that maintains the
sectional drawings of the same object standards of construction building specifications.
• Detail Drawings - Shows a small part of the entire project in great detail Master Format - A compiled list of all specifications, divided into 50 sections not all
of which are used by electricians.
Notes - There are two types of notes, general notes and special notes
• General Notes - Apply to entire drawing, may include instructions about Division 26 - The Electrical Subcontract Division - our most important division.
how to make certain measurements or materials / finishes Contains the following specifications for work to be done:
• Special Notes - Apply to one specific feature or are of a drawing, a leader • Scope of work to be performed
line is used to connect the special note to the object or area • Standard of Workmanship
Scale - Just as with transformers XX:YY. For every XX measurement on the page, • Building codes and regulations that must be followed
it's YY measurement in real life. E.g. 1:1 means the object is the same scale as • Guarantee and warranties that must be provided
the drawing. 1:4 means the object is 4x the size, and 4:1 means the object is 1/4 • Model and make or electrical equipment specifications to be used
of the size of the drawing. NTS = Not To Scale • Specific mounting heights for switches, receptacles, telco outlets etc.
• Feet and Inches are defined as Architectural Scale • Circuit and switch tagging instructions
• mm and M are defined as Engineering Scale - Civil: Roads, Bridges etc. • Instructions on when to obtain approvals for certain work (e.g., approval
Proving the Scale - Measuring the scale line to ensure it hasn't been distorted must be obtained if you have to cut through a structural member)
Scaling the Print - Using a ruler to measure a distance and then the scale to • Instructions for testing the electrical system
figure out how bit it is in real life, PROVE THE SCALE FIRST! • Procedures for inspecting the electrical system
Schedules - A reference spreadsheet of all the different objects, materials and • Material specifications (e.g. conduit, wire & cable, connectors & terminals)
finishes used in the drawing. There are many important electrical schedules: • Descriptions and specifications for various types of lighting
• Lighting Schedule - Descriptions of each fixture, lamps to use, locations • Specifications for fire alarm equipment
of fixtures and any installation notes.
• Panelboard Schedule - IMPORTANT! Lists all panels, every circuit in a Other Divisions - In addition to Division 26 electricians may also need to refer to:
given panel, breaker, wire, conduit size and loads. • Division 1 - General Requirements
• Transformer Schedule - Lists transformers and info about voltages, • Division 9 - Finishes
wiring and mounting method as well as what panels they supply • Division 11 - Equipment
• Finishing Schedules - Also important are wall and floor finishes, so check • Division 14 - Conveying Systems
those thicknesses out when calculating box height, depth, etc. • Division 21 - Fire Suppression
Shop Drawings - Used to manufacture equipment to be installed in a building. • Division 22 - Plumbing
Title Block - Pertinent Information about the drawings containing: • Division 23 - HVAC
• List of revisions • Division 27 - Communications
• Seal of authenticity • Division 28 - Electronic Safety and Security
• Name and address of engineer, architect and project
• Title of the drawing or sheet and page number Schedules - The schedules with additional details in tabular form, such as door types
• Person who made the drawing and the person who checked it or window types are also included in the specifications.
• Date the drawing was made Schedules are often used to list exact dimensions, types or other pertinent details
• Scale of drawing on page about a number of related items such as lighting fixtures and fire alarms.

Prints and Drawings Page 187

Communications Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Day 1
3 Day 2
4 Day 3

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Communications Page 188

 Definitions - Sounds like the test will be a lot of definitions
Communications - Day 1 POTS - Telephone - Uses two conductors (Tip - Positive and Ring - Negative) that get
their name from the 1/4" cables used in old switch boards. Active telephone wires
have 'battery' (48-52VDC) on the ring side. When the telephone rings the current
doubles to 90VAC causing the phone to ring. When the phone is picked up the circuit is
ANSI / TIA / EIA Standards books completed and 24VDC is carried by both the tip and ring.
568 The main standards document for structured cabling. Demarcation - The boundary between telecommunication companies Outside Plant
(OSP) and a customers Inside Wire (ISW). Where the telco companies obligation
568C Commercial building wiring standards (includes 568 A & B)
typically ends.
569A Telco Wiring for Pathways and Spaces
Termination Blocks - Large blocks for punching down (terminating) multiple cables.
570 Light commercial and residential telco cabling 110, 66, Bix and Krone are the most popular. Each requires a special "punch down
tool".'
CSA T529 Canadian Equivalent to TIA/EIA 568C
Plenum - An area of a building not inhabited but used for running cabling and
equipment. For example, the space above a drop ceiling.
Acronyms Plenum Rated Cable - Cabling running in a plenum must be rated for such! Some
ACR Attenuation to Cross-talk Ratio cables do not have the correct fire rating and will release toxic smoke if they catch fire.
Plenum rated cables are properly fire rated and approved for running in plenum spaces.
ANSI American national standards institute
BNC BayoNet mount Connectors Customer Premise Equipment - Building owned
CATV Community Antenna Television
wiring/equipment
• Main Cross-Connect - Main telephone room in a large building, where the
CBC Coupled Bonding Conductor demarcation is located and the signal begins to branch throughout the building.
CCTV Community Cable Television • Intermediate Cross-Connect - Smaller telco cross-connects for signal around an
area such as an apartment floor (or two) etc.
CEC Canadian electrical code
• Horizontal Cross-Connect - The individual telco closet or server rack located
CPE Customer Premise Equiment near the final destination (ie: your customers telco room).
CSA Canadian standards association
Cabling Runs - The cable you will run as an electrician
dB Decibel TIA/EIA 568 Standards allow for a total of 100 meters of network cabling between
demark demarcation point equipment, broken down like this:
• Cross-Connect Jumper / Patch Cord - Max length: 5 meters or 16 feet - Jumper
EIA electronic industries association
used between the Horizontal cross connect equipment and the Horizontal
EL-FEXT equal level far end crosstalk Cabling
EMI Electro Magnetic Interference • Horizontal Cabling - Max length: 90 meters or 295 feet - Cable runs you as an
electrician would run from the Horizontal Cross Connect to the wall outlet
FEXT Far End Cross Talk where they can be used by the customer.
FT-cable Flame test Cable • Work Area Equipment cord - Max length: 5 meters or 16 feet - Jumper used
between the Horizontal Cabling and the customers equipment.
IDC Insulation Displacement Connection
ISW Inside Wire (customer-owned wiring) UTP Cable - Unshielded Twisted Pair (Cat5/5e, Cat6/6A, Cat7)
• The heart of the "568" standard
LAN Local Area Network
• Eight 24AWG solid copper wires (Cat5 / Cat5e)
WAN Wide Area Network • 100Ω impedance
MC Main cross-connect • Twisted into 4 pairs, each with a different twist rate
NEXT Near End Cross Talk • Colour coded (Blue, Orange, Green, Brown)

OSP Outside Plant (TELUS/Shaw owned wire) Mounting Cable - Loose tie wraps and hook and loop are ok! DON’T CRUSH THE CABLE.
J-hooks, specialty ethernet cable clips and other mounting devices work too.
POTS Plain old telephone system
Terminating Cable - Must keep loss of twist of each pair to under 1/2" (13mm) Do not
RG-6 Coaxial Cable remove excess jacket, only what you need for the termination type. T568A and T568B
Sctp screened twisted pair are the most common. In Canada we use T568A, however it's always advised to check
the equipment you're using and the existing equipment. Try to keep the entire building
SP Service provider the same. As long as you use the same standard on both ends of the cable it will work.
STP shielded twisted pair
TBB Telecommunications Bonding Backbone
TC Telecommunications closet
TGB Telecommunications Grounding Busbar
TIA telecommunications industry association
TMGB Telecommunications Main Grounding Busbar
TSB Technical System Bulletin
UTP Unshielded twisted pair

Do not exceed 110N / 25lbs of pull force

The green and orange pairs are reversed between the A and B standards.

Communications Page 189

 NEXT - Near-End Crosstalk - Currents in one wire tend to induce onto nearby
Communications - Day 2 wires. When this induction is between a local transmitter and local receiver they
call it NEXT. Increases the noise floor and lowers the Signal to Noise Ratio.
FEXT - Far-End Crosstalk - Similar to NEXT but the signal is sent from the local end,
and crosstalk is measured at the far end. The ratio of voltage output by the
More Terms - Communications SCS Lesson 2 & 4 remote transmitter to the voltage present at the local receiver.

Code Rule - When different E potentials share the same box (ie: 120v and ACR - Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio - The difference between the NEXT and the
Ethernet in the same double gang box) a metal divider is required. attenuation for the pair being tested.

RJ-45 - The commonly used name of the 8 pin connector used with UTP cable • Due to attenuation, signals are weakest at the receiver end of a link, but
this is where NEXT is the strongest.
Jack - Female - The receptacle for an RJ-45 Plug. Typically terminated with a 110
punch down. • Signals that survive attenuation must not get lost due to NEXT

Plug - Male - The connector put on the end of a UTP cable. (Patch cord) • ACR is a measure of how much "Headroom" is available. How much
stronger the signal is than the background noise. The higher the ACR, the
DMM - Digital Multi-Meter better the signal.
VOM - Voltage, Ohm, Milliamp Meter Headroom - The difference between the maximum attainable data transfer speed
TDR - Time Domain Reflectometer - Shoots a signal down a communications cable and how much data you are transmitting. Just like how we typically only install
12A worth of power on a 15A breaker, because we want 3A of HEADROOM!
(Twisted pair or fiber optic) and waits to see how long it takes to reflect back.
Based on how much signal reflects back, how long it takes and how much "echo"
there is, it can determine the approximate length and "health" of the cable.
Impedance - Total opposition to flow of current in an "infinite" length of cable at Typical Inside Wire Map
the frequency of signals transmitted. Use these terms with the map below
• UTP impedance is 100Ω 15Ω
• Horizontal Cabling - The connection from the telecom closet to the work
• Resistance is 9.4Ω per 100 meters.
area outlet. This is mostly what you'd be installing.
Return Loss - Reflections that occur at changes in impedance. (it's signal that is • Backbone Cabling - The cabling that connects all of the telecom closets /
LOST because it reflects and RETURNS to the source) hubs together.
Structural Return Loss - Reflections caused by variations in impedance of the • Work area outlet - The jack on the wall which is connected to the
cable itself along it's length. Terminations will cause reflections if pairs are desktop computer or other device by a patch cord.
untwisted more than 1/2" or 13mm • Patch Cord - A (typically) factory-made ethernet cable that uses stranded
wire for greater flexibility, unlike horizontal cabling that is solid wire.
Attenuation - Loss of signal strength expressed in dB (decibels). The lower the
Limited to 5 meters / 16 feet in TIA568 applications
number, the better. Attenuation increases with frequency. The higher the
frequency, the more attenuation! That's why higher frequency cables (faster) • Patch Panel - A rack or box where cables are terminated. Typically with
need to be handled with more care! 110 punch downs and then interconnected with patch cords.
• Link - The installed cable plant from the work area outlet jack to the
Cat 3 16 MHz Cat 6 250 MHz patch panel in the telecom closet.
Cat 4 20 MHz Cat 6a 500 MHz • Channel - The cable plant including the link plus patch cords on either
end to connect the communications hardware.
Cat 5 100 MHz Cat 7 600 MHz

Communications Page 190

Communications - Day 3

Network Topology - Industrial Book, Unit 20

The blue lines in the examples would be your horizontal cable runs!

Bus Network - AKA: Line Network - One main highway or artery has small
branches leaving to each device. Coaxial and Passive Fibre networks (PON)
are Bus Networks. The main artery must be capped with terminators on
Notes from Class
each end so that unused signal is absorbed, and not just reflected back into
the system to cause noise.
Code - CEC Section 60 - Electrical Communication Systems
• 60-108 - inspection by an inspector
○ Data - Not subject to inspection unless it's being
used to control power
• 60-302 - Raceways (conduits)
○ Subject to inspection
• 60-308 - Separation from other conductors
○ Must have separation of at LEAST 50mm from any
A bus network
insulated conductor of a Class 1 circuit or electric
Star Network - The most common topology for most home and office light / power system operating 300V or less.
networks. All horizontal runs are connected to a central server, switch or ○ Must have a "suitable partition" if sharing the same
hub. Easy to wire and troubleshoot. When one system goes down it box as 120v system.
doesn't typically take any other systems with it.
BCIT Slideshow - Notes
• Data cable conduit must be installed to code (CEC)
• Telecommunications should be kept >3m, 10ft from bus
duct (Electrical conductor duct).
Anatomy of Shielded Twisted Pair

A Star network
Ring Network - AKA: Token Ring Network - Computers are connected one
after another in a "loop" or "Ring". Each computer is connected to only two
other computers. Uses "tokens" to send data. Data will typically pass
through multiple computers until it reaches it's destination. This also means
if one computer goes down it is very detrimental to the network.
Computers can't "talk" unless they have an empty "token" so there aren't as
many collisions on the network, but this also makes it slower.

1 - Jacket
2 - Screen
3 - Shielding
A Ring network 4 - Pairs - 1-Blue, 2-Orange, 3-Green, 4-Brown
Mesh Network - A modern network topology that uses multiple "nodes", Unlabelled Wire @ top - Drain
typically wireless, so there are multiple data paths available for any given
data. Much more robust and reliable. Bonding / Grounding Data - When bonding data cable, you only
bond the Screen and The drain at ONE end. Bonding at both creates
a loop.

A Mesh Network
(Will typically have multiple access points too, not just devices)

Communications Page 191

Lighting Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Sight, Quantity and Quality
3 Luminaires
4 Fluorescents
5 HID lighting
6 Conduit Fill
7 Definitions
8 Practice Questions

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Lighting Page 192

 Light Measurements - the two most fundamental measurements deal with
Lighting - Sight, Quantity, Quality (Light is measured with a Photometer / Lux-meter)
• Quantity - Measured in Lumen (Lm) - The total light output from a
source called Luminous Flux.
Lighting Powerpoint - Lighting.pptx up to page 80 • Quality - Measured in Lux (Lx) - The density of light flux measured on a
Canadian Electrical Code - Lighting is Section 30 surface. Aka - Luminous Flux Density
Visibility Factors - there are four fundamental factors governing the visibility of a task Lighting Equations - There are two fundamental lighting equations:
• Size - The larger / closer an object is, the easier it is to see
• Brightness - Dark objects require more light to be seen. Object brightness Inverse Square Law
(luminance) depends on both intensity of light striking it and the amount of Lux (lighting level) decreases with the square of the distance
light reflected toward the eye.
• Contrast - The difference in brightness between the object (task) and it's
immediate background. Important when viewing moving objects.
• Time - More detail is seen when the image is present for a longer time.
Good Lighting - provides both QUANTITY and QUALITY of light!
Light - a special form of electromagnetic radiation • = Illumination in Lux (Lx)
• = Light intensity in Candela
Visible Light - a very narrow range of the electromagnetic spectrum • = Distance in Meters Squared
• Approximately 380nm to 760nm wavelengths
• Light sources emit both shorter and longer than visible wavelengths Result is in Lux (Lx)

Colours - Although light may appear white, it is a combination of all visible colours
• The human eye is most sensitive to 555nm - a yellow-green colour range. Cosine Law of Incidence
Colour Temperature - AKA: Chromaticity - the term used to describe the colour of a Surface illumination varies as the cosine of the angle of incidence
light source. Expressed in degrees Kelvin ( ).
• NOT a measurement of TEMPERATURE
• A measurement of LIGHT QUALITY

Light Source Colour Temp Description

Sky - Extremely Blue 25,000 Cool • = Illumination in Lux (Lx)
• = Light intensity in Candela
Sky - Overcast 6,500 Cool • = Distance in Meters Squared
Sunlight at Noon 5,000 Cool • = Angle of incidence
• cos = HORIZONTAL Plane Illumination
Fluorescent - Cool White 4,300 Cool • sin = VERTICAL Plane Illumination
Metal Halide (400W, Clear) 4,300 Cool Result is in Lux (Lx)
Fluorescent - Warm White 3,000 Warm
Incandescent (100W) 2,900 Warm Luminous Efficacy - Ratio of Light Output (Lumens) to Power Input (watts)
• Measured in Lumens per watt (Lm/W)
High Pressure Sodium (400W, Clear) 2,100 Warm • At 100% efficiency, 1 watt would produce around 683 lumens.
Candle Flame 1,800 Warm
Lamp Group Lamp Type Avg. Efficiency
Low Pressure Sodium 1,740 Warm
INCANDESCENT LAMPS Carbon Filament 4 Lm/W
Tungsten Filament 22 Lm/W
CRI - Colour Rendering Index - The ability of a light source to portray the colour
appearance of objects accurately when compared to a standard (reference) light
DISCHARGE LAMPS Mercury Vapor 56 Lm/W
source of the same colour temperature.
• Valued from 0 - 100 (100 being as accurate as the source) Fluorescent 80 Lm/W
• A high CRI causes the least emphasis or distortion of colour
Metal Halide 100 Lm/W
Light Source CRI Color Rendering H.P. Sodium 140 Lm/W
Incandescent Lamps 97 Excellent
Fluorescent, Full Spectrum 94 Excellent Factors in Lighting Design - One of the most significant considerations in any
lighting installation is to provide the proper level of illumination. Two man
High Pressure Sodium (250W Deluxe) 65 Good factors choosing the right light for an application are:
Fluorescent, Cool White 62 Good • The area / Environment - Indoor or Outdoor
• The type of task - critical seeing or decoration?
Fluorescent, Warm White 52 Fair ○ General Lighting - Also called ambient lighting for overall
High Pressure Sodium (400W Diffuse-coated) 32 Poor illumination
○ Task Lighting - For specific tasks, should be bright enough to
Mercury Vapor (clear) 22 Poor prevent eye strain.
○ Accent Lighting - Aka decorate lighting, to highlight objects
CRI Colour Rendering Quality of Light - An adequate quantity of light doesn't always provide good
75 - 100 Excellent illumination. Quality matters too, factors to consider are:
Glare - A level of brightness that causes interference with vision. Deal
60 - 75 Good with glare by decreasing the level of illumination, decreasing the
50 - 60 Fair contrast between the source and it's surroundings or by repositioning
the light source.
0 - 50 Poor Diffusion - The effect of scattering the light into many directions.
(not suitable for colour critical applications) Diffuse light sources by using indirect light, using large area, low-
brightness luminaires or using a variety of different light sources.
Colour - Is a cooler, or warmer colour more task appropriate?

Lighting Page 193

 Bulb Shapes and Sizes - The size and shape of a bulb is designated by a code
Lighting - Luminaires consisting of a letter (or letters) followed by a number.
• Letters - Indicate shape of the bulb
• Numbers - Indicate largest diameter in eighths of an inch. (1/8")
Lighting Powerpoint - Lighting.pptx up to page 80 ○ T-10 = Tubular bulb with 1 1/4" diameter
Luminaires - A complete lighting unit consisting of lamp, wiring channel, ○ G-57 = Globular bulb with diameter of 7 1/8"
reflectors, lens, diffusers and control gear such as ballasts where necessary.
The purpose of a luminaire is to provide the appropriate distribution of light Bulb Shape Code Bulb Shape Code

Vertical Light Direction - Luminaires are usually classified by how they distribute Straight Side S Tubular T
light vertically Flame Shaped F Pear Shaped PS
Luminaire Type Upward Light Downward Light Globular G Parabolic (spot) PAR
Indirect 90 - 100 % 0 - 10 % Standard Line A Reflector (flood) R
Semi-Indirect 60 - 90 % 10 - 40 %
Diffused / Direct-Indirect 40 - 60 % 40 - 60 %
Semi-Direct 10 - 40 % 60 - 90 %
Direct 0 - 10 % 90 - 100 %

Bulb Glass - May be clear, diffuse or coloured.

• Clear Glass - Requires optical control to eliminate glare. Good for overhead
projectors and spotlights or decorative applications
• Diffuse Glass - Best for normal sight conditions. Reduces the brightness by
effectively increasing the surface area of the bulb. Created by acid etching
or a coating of fine silica powder on the inside of the glass.
• Coloured Glass - mostly for decoration - Think: Halloween, Christmas.
Luminaire Selection - Typically based on the following factors: Lamp Bases - Normally made of aluminum or brass and are typically cemented onto
• Efficiency - Percentage of lumens emitted by the luminaire vs. lumens the bulb. There are four primary lamp bases each with various sizes:
generated by the lamp alone. • Edson - Typical screw-in lamp base. Comes in Candelabra, Intermediate,
• Coefficient of Utilization - Percentage of initial lamp lumens that reach Medium (7.5-300W), and Mogul (>300 W) sizes, from smallest to largest.
the task area to produce illumination. ○ Tip is Hot - Thread is Neutral Aka: Identified
• Spacing to Mounting Height ratio - For acceptable uniformity of • Bayonet - "screws in" like an Edson but only a 1/4 turn with two pins that
illumination. align it in the housing. This is typically for applications that require specific
Distribution Curves - Luminaires are usually provided with distribution curves to filament positions such as projectors.
illustrate the variation of light intensity throughout the vertical axis. Used to • Prefocus - Similar to a bayonet, helps with accurate filament position.
determine the maximum "spacing to mounting height" ratio. • Bi-post - Pushes in with two posts on the bottom of the bulb. Used for
Think: Microphone Polar Pattern floodlighting where better heat radiation is possible. Typically >500 W.
Location - For general-purpose lighting location is based on room side, the Three-Contact Screw base - used with tri-light lamps. These lamps have two
desired level of illumination and appearance. When the ceiling area is divided filaments and produce 3 different wattages. (A, B, and A+B)
into "bays" by beams or trusses, It is usually advisable to install the luminaires
symmetrically in each bay. Operating Characteristics - Notes about incandescent lamps
• Hi-Wattage lamps have Higher efficacy (lumen per watt) than low wattage.
Light Source - Luminaires will typically use one of the following light sources:
○ One 150 W lamp produces more light than three 50 W lamps.
• Incandescent, Fluorescent, High-Intensity Discharge (HID), Low-
• Low voltage lamps have longer service life than 120 V
pressure Sodium or LED
○ Traffic lamps rated @ 6,000 hrs - 120 V lamps rated @ 750-1000 hrs
• Each light source has pros and cons. Appearance, economics and
• High filament temperatures = greater efficacy, but reduced service life.
operating characteristics must also be considered.
• Over-Voltage causes increased wattage, more light output and reduced life
Light Level Depreciation - Two of the main causes of light loss are ○ Under voltage has the exact opposite effect.
• Lamp Lumen Depreciation - although wattage stays the same through • Base up / Base down - designations used to explain burn position
the life of a lamp, it's light output decreases.
• General service lamps can be burned in any position but base up is best
• Luminaire Dirt Depreciation - The accumulation of dirt on lamps and ○ Base down causes tungsten to build up on glass and block light.
fixtures can cause light losses of 30% or more. The periodic cleaning
• Projection / spotlight / floodlight lamps designed only to work up or down
and re-painting of walls can also make a difference.
Tungsten Halogen Lamps - A special type of incandescent lamp
Incandescent Lamps - Invented and patented in 1878 by Sir Joseph Swan.
Perfected by Thomas Edison in 1879. • Compact, high intensity light source, providing white light output (great CRI!)
• Produce light by passing electric current through a filament, and • Used for projection, automotive, reprographic (photocopying) and floodlight
heating it to incandescence (glowing). • Also called Quartz-halogen or Quartz-iodine lamp
• Compact, Low cost and produce a pleasant warm colour tone • In addition to nitrogen and argon, also contains small quantity of halogen
• Very inefficient light source - 90-95% of the input is wasted in heat ○ The Halogen combines with evaporated tungsten from the filament
• We say that the incandescent light bulb is 5% efficient. glass wall. This Tungsten-halogen combination then drifts back to
the lamp filament by convection, where it deposits the tungsten
• Tungsten filament due to it's high melting point (3,419 )
back on the filament, prolonging it's life. This process is called the
• Filled with a mix of Nitrogen and argon to reduce filament evaporation regenerative cycle.
○ AKA: An Inert Gas.
○ Requires glass of lamp to have very high temperature, which is why
• Filament steadily evaporates, causing a slow reduction in light output the filament is kept so close to the glass, to heat it up.
• As filament evaporates, tungsten is deposited on the inside surface of ○ Requires Quartz glass with melting temperature of 1,650
the lightbulb, further blocking the transmission of light
○ Oil residue from your skin will cause hot spots on the surface, and
• Service life ends when filament becomes fragile and finally breaks. greatly reduce the service life. Must be cleaned if touched.

Lighting Page 194

 Stroboscopic Effect - Due to the use of AC, the arc is completely extinguished twice

Lighting - Fluorescents during each cycle. These rapid fluctuations of light can cause a stroboscopic effect, in
which moving objects are seen in repetitive flashes at successive positions.
• To avoid this problem, you can use lead-lag ballasts operating in a twin-lamp
Lighting PowerPoint - Lighting.pptx up to page 80 fixture, the two lamps operate out of phase so only one lamp is off at a time.
• Connecting lamps on sperate phases of a three-phase system will also
Fluorescent Lamps - Mainly used in offices, commercial or industrial buildings. eliminate the stroboscopic effect.
Developed in 1389, available in a variety of shapes and sizes.
LPS Lamps - Low-Pressure Sodium - One of the most efficient lamp sources
Fluorescent Light Production - Contains starting gas such as argon or krypton (outperformed by LED). Close to 200 lumens per watt. Although associated with HID
and a small amount of mercury. A high striking voltage between the tube ends lamps, much more like a Fluorescent lamp. Distinguished by it's long Spiky inner tube
ionizes this gas to initiate current flow. The resulting heat causes the mercury
Similarities to Fluorescent Lamps:
to vaporize (become gas) and collisions between the moving electrons and the
○ Use an Arc Tube that must be kept warm
mercury vapor occur. These collisions produce UV light. The UV is converted
○ Contain a Neon starting gas and metallic sodium
to visible light by a phosphor powder coating. - Note: This means special
○ Cathodes located at each end of the arc tube
lamps can be made to emit UV light, by removing the phosphor coating!
○ Require a ballast to provide high striking voltage at start-up
Here's a short-hand version:
LPS Lamp Downsides
• First, electric current passes through a gas inside a glass tube and ○ Horrible CRI - produces a pure yellow light
produces invisible ultraviolet (UV) radiation ○ Takes 7-10 minutes to reach full intensity
• Next, the UV radiation is converted to visible light at the glass by a LPS Lamp Upsides
layer of phosphor powder coated on the inside of the glass ○ Restart quickly after short power outages because of low pressure
Ballasts - Fluorescents require a ballast, they perform two main functions: ○ Average lifespan of 18,000 hours
• Provide the high starting voltage necessary to ignite the tube ○ Output remains constant (or increases) over life of lamp
○ Note: Short tubes may not require a high striking voltage ○ Output is maintained with wide variation of ambient temps
• Limit the current in the tube once it lights.
Fluorescent Starting Methods - There are three classifications of starting:
Efficacy - Fluorescents are around 4x more efficient than incandescent lamps.
• Preheat start - Oldest, but still used in CFLs - Require a ballast and a thermal
Producing around 80 lumens per watt.
starter. The thermal starter is used to induce extra voltage in the ballast
Fluorescent Tube parts - Here are the main components: which adds to the supply voltage and produces an arc.
• Base - Used to connect the lamp to the lamp holder ○ Slow to start up (1 - 2 seconds)
• Bulb - Glass tube, typically straight, circular or 'U' shaped
• Instant-start - The ballast houses an autotransformer which on start
• Cathode - Coiled tungsten wire at each end of the tube that emit the
momentarily steps up the supply voltage enough to strike an arc.
electrons.
○ Makes for a large / heavy ballast
Fluorescent Lamp Bases - There are three common lamp bases: ○ Reduces Lamp Life caused by high striking voltage
Bi-Pin, Single Pin and Recessed double-contact
• Rapid-start - The most widely used - Does not require a starter and has a
Fluorescent sizing - Typically range from T5 (5/8") to T17 (2 1/8") much lower striking voltage than instant-start. It preheats the cathodes to
Operating Characteristics - Here are a bunch of facts about Fluorescents help lower the striking voltage.
• Rated life - Typically around 7,500 - 20,000 hour range ○ Takes 1 second to start, while it pre-heats the cathodes
• Instant-start lamps - tend to be at lower end of life range
• Rapid-start lamps - tend to be at higher end of life range Pre-Heat Diagram Instant-Start Diagram Rapid-Start Diagram
• Harmful things - Lamp life is reduced by..
○ Switching too frequently
○ Using the wrong type of ballast
○ Excessive supply voltage
○ Losing cathode pre-heat during start-up
• Light Output - lowers rapidly over first 100 hours, gradually after
○ Caused by phosphor deterioration and tube wall blackening
from cathode tungsten emission
○ After 100 hours, light is smoother does not flicker
○ Process is called SEASONING
• Temperature - Standard lamps designed for 20 ambient
Electronic Ballasts - Newer designs replace standard core and coil ballasts with solid-
○ Light output drops rapidly with decrease in temperature
state electronics. They convert low frequency AC input to DC. The DC voltage is then
○ Light output drops slightly with increase in temperature
converted to very high frequency AC (>25kHz)
○ Cold weather ballasts required to start in low temp
• Ballast life - Designed to last 12 - 15 years with normal operation Electronic Ballast Pros
○ High Ambient temperature common cause of failure • High frequency increases efficiency of lamp's phosphor coating
○ Faulty lamps reduce ballast life ○ Fewer watts needed to produce same amount of light
▪ Always replace flashing lights, they kill ballasts • Better power-conversion efficiency, less energy wasted as heat
• Ballast hum - common problem with fluorescent luminaires • Can be over 25% more efficient depending on lamp/ballast combo
○ Rated for noise with letter codes (grades) (A - F ) • Much quieter, no transformer hum!
▪ A is quietest, F is loudest. • Some ballasts also support dimming

Fluorescent Codes - Lamps use codes to designate ballast requirements Electronic Ballast Cons
Most Common / Not Specified - 430mA Rapid-start • More expensive
HO - 800mA High Output • Higher failure rate (MOSFETs don't like heat!)
VHO / SHO - 1,500 mA Very High Output / Super High Output • Cause electrical noise - powerline harmonics - (MOSFETs are noisy!)
Lamps are either preheat start, instant-start or rapid-start and must • Some have dangerously high starting voltages - unsafe!
match the fixture classification!
Deciphering a typical Lamp Model - The abbreviation "F" for fluorescent will
typically be followed by the lamp watts, shape, diameter and colour .
• Example - F40T12/CW - Note: Bogdan says it's not watts but length.
F 40 T 12 CW No code
Fluorescent 40 watts Tubular 1/
1 2" Cool 430mA
or length Diameter White Rapid Start

Lighting Page 195

 HID Ballasts - To provide the high striking voltage (OCV) needed to ignite the arc tube and
Lighting - HID Lights regulate the current flow once the arc is established HID bulbs require a ballast. Typically
these are integrated into the luminaire, however they can be purchased and installed
separately. Helpful if you want to place the noisy ballast away from the lit area to provide
Lighting - High Intensity Discharge (HID) lights quiet operation.
Lighting → Power Point PDF → Lighting2.pdf - Pages 31-56
High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps - A small gas discharge bulb but at a
high pressure and temperature. Just as with fluorescents they use a ballast
to strike an arc. Relatively compact, great for industrial, commercial, sports
and street lighting. Come in 3 main flavours: Mercury, Metal-halide and HPS.
Mercury Vapor - Introduced in 1934, it was the first HID bulb, though it has
mostly been replaced by the other two HID bulbs.
• Has a longer arc tube than metal-halide for same light output.
Reactor Ballast - AKA: Lag Reactor - Simplest design and least expensive. Only to be used
• Starting electrode vaporizes mercury gas which then strikes main arc
with mercury vapor lamps. It only acts like a choke, so it's only suitable where supply voltage
• Puts out blueish-white light
is high enough to provide the required striking voltage without the aid of a step-up
• Phosphor coting converts UV radiation to red light, improving colour
transformer (240V or higher).
• Takes 3-7 minutes to reach full light output
• Re-Strike time is 4-6 minutes Typically used with mercury lamps, supply voltage must be within 5% of nominal voltage, and
• Efficacy of 30-65 lumens / watt, gets better with higher wattages dips may not exceed 15-20%
• >24,000 hour life span • Only has PF of 50%, but can be improved to 90% with a capacitor!
• Burned in any position, but more efficient operated vertically
Autotransformer Ballast - AKA: Lag Autotransformer - Essentially an auto-transformer with or
Metal-halide - Similar to Mercury Vapor but has shorter arc tube and higher without a series reactor. Similar to reactor ballast, but can be used to supply voltages above
starting voltage. Also includes halogen which improves efficacy and CRI. or below the lamp starting voltage.
• Wattage varies from 175 W to 1,500 W Typically used with mercury lamps, supply voltage must be within 5% of nominal voltage, and
• Takes 5-7 minutes to reach full light output dips may not exceed 15-20%
• Re-Strike time can be as long as 15 minutes due to cool-down time
• ~15,000 hour lifespan
Newer "pulse start" metal halide lamps use a high voltage pulse igniter to
eliminate the starting electrode. Shape of bulb allows for better operation
and heat distribution. Provides better colour uniformity, lower warm-up
times and efficacy claimed to be 50% higher than other metal-halide bulbs
High Pressure Sodium (HPS) - The most widely used HID today - Highest
efficacy of all HID but contain no starting electrode, need a starting voltage of
2,500V or more and use xenon gas and sodium mercury.
• Wattage varies from 35W to 1,000W
• Takes 3-4 minutes to reach "full brilliance"
• Re-Strike time is usually less than 1 minute
Reactor Ballast Autotransformer Ballast
• Efficacy of 140 lumens / watt
HID Safety - Take special care when working with HID light sources. HID Auto-Regulator Ballast - AKA: Constant Wattage Autotransformer (CWA) - Made up of a high
lamps are frequently supplied by 347 or 600 V. reactance autotransformer with a series capacitor. Regulates wattage by maintaining a fixed
Remember: High OCV is produced by the ballast, even on 120 V luminaires value of current. Primary winding taps allow for two or more supply voltages. Has PF of ~95%
and can handle voltage dips of 40-50%!
Do not work on wiring while the circuit is energized, regardless of voltage!
• Most common ballast for metal-halide lamps
HID Bulb shape and sizes - Just as with other bulbs, an alpha-numeric code is
used to designate the bulb shape and maximum diameter. The numbers Regulator Ballast - AKA: Lag Autotransformer - Larger and more expensive than other
work the same (1/8" per 1) but there are a few different bulb shapes. ballasts, but can handle greater supply voltage variations (within 13%) and can handle voltage
dips of 50-60%. The secondary is electrically isolated from the supply voltage.
Letter Code Description
B Bullet
BT Bulged-tubular
E Elliptical
PAR Parabolic Aluminized Reflector
T Tubular
Base Orientation - There are also burning position codes that tell you what
base orientation the bulbs are designed to be operated in:

Code Definition Code Definition

Auto-Regulator Ballast Regulator Ballast
U Universal H Horizontal Only
BU Base Up BD Base Down Two-Lamp Ballasts - Used to reduce ballast costs and cut size/weight of twin-lamp fixtures.
They also minimize stroboscopic effect. Available in two flavours:
HBU Horizontal To Base Up HBD Horizontal To Base Down • Lead-lag - Two independent circuits so if one fails, the other stay son
VBU Vertical to Base Up VBD Vertical to Base Down • Series - Cheaper, but if one lamp fails, so does the other.
High-Pressure Sodium Ballasts - HPS lamps require a high-voltage spike to augment the
Deciphering a typical Lamp Model - It goes Lamp Type, Ballast Type, Lamp starting voltage because they don't have a starting electrode. This provides a voltage pulse
Shape, Wattage and Colour. (H=Mercury M=Metal-Halide S or LU=HPS) with a 2,500 - 4,000 V peak for 1-4 microseconds. The ballast must be fairly close to the lamp
• Example - H36BT-1000/DX (WDX=Warm White & No Code=Clear) so this voltage peak doesn't get too attenuated.

H 36 BT 1000 DX Grounding - 208, 240 and 600V don't have a grounded circuit conductor, so to meet code you
can use a two-winding transformer and ground the screw shell of the lamp.
Lamp Type Ballast Type Bulged Tubular Wattage Deluxe Colour
On two-ballast supplies there is an exception as only one must be grounded.

Lighting Page 196

Lighting - Conduit Fill
Conduit Fill and Lighting - You'll sometimes be asked to find the number of wires in a conduit for a lighting circuit. It's super important that you draw two versions of the
circuit, first you need to draw out a 3 way switch Schematic diagram and add anything like switched outlets to it, then you need to draw out the conduit diagram so you can
doodle all your symbols and lines onto it to do your total counts
• Step 1 - Draw out a Schematic of the circuit, in this case it's a light controlled by two 3-way switches and a 4-way switch as well as an outlet that is half controlled by
a switch. Then you need to number all of the individual conductors you'll need to complete the circuits.

• Step 2 - Take your conduit drawing and draw each device around the box it's located in, make sure you include the wire numbers on each device!
○ Remember: We want the fewest conductors in each conduit, so place the 3-way switch that leads to L1 in the box that makes the most sense. In this case,
it’s the box closest to the switched outlet, because we have to run L1 down to the switched outlet anyway.
• Step 4 - Draw a tick mark and number through each conduit that a cable would have to run to reach the destinations between all of the boxes that it's located in.
○ Remember: as of the 2018 Canadian Electrical Code an Identified Conductor (Grounded, Neutral, whatever you wanna call it) must be in every switch box!

Wire Counts:
Conduit A - 3 Wires

Conduit B - 2 Wires

Conduit C - 4 Wires

Conduit D - 4 Wires

Conduit E - 3 Wires
N, 4,5,6

One last note - I don't figure out one conduit at a time like we were shown in class, I prefer the method of tracing one WIRE at a time. I trace it from start to finish and put a
tick mark on every conduit that it travels through. With the new [ 4-022 (2) ] rule, chances are you're going to have a Neutral or whatever you wanna call it in every pipe!

Lighting Page 197

 Lumens - The unit of Luminous Flux
Lighting - Definitions • Luminous Flux - The quantity of light output from a source
• Luminous Flux Density - The density of light measured on a surface
• Luminance - Light reflected to eyes from surface
Ballast - Transformer used to run lights that require high voltages such as • Lux - The unit of illumination (Luminous Flux Density)
fluorescents and HIDs.
• Life reduction of 50% for each 10 above designed temperature Luminaire - A complete lighting unit consisting of lamps, wiring channel, reflectors lens,
• Fluorescent - Preheat start, Instant-start, rapid start, electronic diffusers and control gear such as ballasts where needed.
• HID - Reactor, Autotransformer, Auto-regulator, Regulator The purpose of a luminaire is to provide the appropriate distribution of light
• Magnetic ballasts hum because of the magnetic field and metal parts • Indirect - 90-100% Up 0-10% Down
• Lamps must match the Ballast configuration! • Semi-indirect - 60-90% Up 10-40% Down
• General Diffuse (direct-Indirect) - 40-60% Up 40-60% Down
Bulb Glass - May be clear, diffuse or coloured. Lime glass is used for low
• Semi-direct - 10-40% Up 60-90% Down
temperature bulbs, quartz glass is used for high temperature bulbs.
• Direct - 0-10% Up - 90-100% Down
• Clear Glass - Requires optical control to eliminate glare. Good for
overhead projectors and spotlights or decorative applications Luminous Efficacy - The ratio of light output to power input in Lumens/Watt
• Diffuse Glass - Best for normal sight conditions. Reduces the • Tungsten Incandescent = 22 l/w & HPO Sodium is 140 l/w
brightness by effectively increasing the surface area of the bulb.
Seasoning - Running a fluorescent tube for 100 hours to establish a smooth, non-
Either acid etched or a coating of fine silica powder on the inside
flickering operation.
• Coloured Glass - mostly for decoration - Think: Halloween, Christmas.
Striking Voltage - - When it comes to striking voltage you can think
Bulb Shapes and Sizes - The size and shape of a bulb is designated by a code
of the tube as a copper wire. The more narrow the tube, the higher the resistance, the
consisting of a letter (or letters) followed by a number.
greater the striking voltage. The shorter the tube, the lower the resistance, the lower
• Letters - Indicate shape of the bulb
the striking voltage. E.g. HPS are LONG THIN tubes, crazy high striking voltage.
• Numbers - Indicate largest diameter in eighths of an inch. (1/8")
Visibility Factors - Size, Brightness, Contrast, Time
Colour Spectrum - Visible colour is Violet @ 400nm to Red @ 700nm. The
eye is most sensitive to 555nm yellow-green. Ultraviolet is shorter than
Code Bulb Shape Code Bulb Shape Code Bulb Shape
visible wavelength while Infrared is longer than visible wavelength.
S Straight Side T Tubular B Bullet
Colour Temperature - The colour of the light emitted from a lamp. The lower
the number, the warmer (yellow) it is. Higher numbers are cooler (blue). F Flame PS Pear Shaped BT Bulged-Tube
• 1,1740K → 3,000K = Warm & 4,300K → 25,000K = Cool
G Globular PAR Parabolic (spot) E Elliptical
• Midday sun is 5,500K
A Standard Line R Reflector (flood)
CRI - Colour Rendering Index - How accurately a lamp can recreate colours
• Incandescent has the best CRI, Low Pressure Sodium have the worst
Diffusion - The effect of scattering the light into many different directions. It Code Definition Code Definition
can be achieved by using indirect light sources, using large-area and low- U Universal H Horizontal Only
brightness lights and by using a variety of different light sources
BU Base Up BD Base Down
Glare - Level of brightness that causes interference with vision & eye fatigue.
Can be reduced by decreasing the level of illumination, decreasing the HBU Horizontal To Base Up HBD Horizontal To Base Down
contrast between the source and it's surroundings or repositioning the light. VBU Vertical to Base Up VBD Vertical to Base Down
High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps - A small gas discharge bulb but at a
high pressure and temperature. All HIDs Require Ballasts, regardless of type Light Lm / Watt Light Lm / Watt
• Mercury Vapor - Longer Arc tube than metal-halide, takes 3-7
minutes to reach full light output and 4-6 minutes before restrike. Incandescent 4-22 HPS 140
Rated for 24,000 hours plus. Most efficient when run vertically. Mercury Vapor 56 LPS 200
• Metal-halide - Similar to Mercury Vapor but has higher starting
voltage. Takes 5-7 min. for full brightness 15 min. before restrike. Fluorescent 80 LED 4.5-150
Rated for 15,000 hours, operating position spec'd by manufacturer Metal Halide 100 Induction 65-70
• High Pressure Sodium (HPS) - Highest efficacy of all HID - No starting
electrode, needs starting voltage of 2,500+, uses xenon gas and ↓ REMEMBER THESE LAMP TYPES! ↓
sodium mercury. 3-4 min to full brightness, restrike in less than 1.
Rated for 24,000 hours and can operate in any burning position
Inverse Square Law - - Lux decreases with the square of distance
Lamp Bases - The four most popular bases:
• Edson - Typical screw-in lamp base. Comes in Candelabra,
Intermediate, Medium (most common), and Mogul (>300 W) sizes
○ Tip is Hot - Thread is Neutral Aka: Identified
• Bayonet - "screws in" like an Edson but only a 1/4 turn with two pins
that align it in the housing. This is typically for applications that
require specific filament positions such as projectors.
• Prefocus - Similar to a bayonet, provides accurate filament position. Mercury Vapor Metal Halide High Pressure Sodium
Old - Largest Arc-tube Mid - Shorter Arc-Tube Newest - Thin arc-tube
• Bi-post - Push-in with two posts on the bottom. Used for flood
lighting where better heat radiation is possible. Typically >500 W.
Lamp Bases (fluorescent) - Bipin, Single Pin and Recessed double-contact
Life Expectancy - The number of hours 50% of the lamps are expected to
survive to. (if you turned on 100 lamps, 50 of them would last that long)
Light - Electromagnetic radiation which produces the sensation of sight Bi-Pin Single Pin Recessed Double Contact
LPS
Long & Spikey
Lighting Design Factors - Cost + Quality of light and Quantity of light
Fluorescent Pins - When it comes to the pins remember - the beefier the pin, the more
• Quantity - Determined by type of visual task and location
power it handles, and if they're hiding the pins on you (eg: recessed double contact)
• Quality - Considerations such as Glare, Diffusion, Colour
that lamp type is probably designed to carry some serious voltage.

Lighting Page 198

Lighting - Example Questions
Q - What are the four fundamental factors governing the visibility of a task? Q - Ballasts for Metal Halide require HIGHER or LOWER OCV than mercury lamps?
A - Size, Brightness, Contract, Time A - Higher OCV required (Open Circuit Voltage or STRIKING VOLTAGE).
Q - What wavelength is the average eye most responsive to? Q - What section of the code covers climbing steps for outdoor mounted lights?
A - 555nm - Yellow/green. A - [ CEC 30-1030 ] - Lowest permanent step not less than 3.7m above ground.
Q - What colour temp is warmest - 3600K, 2900K, 4100K or 4800K? Q - How does the electrode configuration differ between HPS and its
A - The lower the number, the warmer - 2900K in this case. counterparts?
A - High Pressure Sodium has no starting electrode.
Q - What is meant by the term "Luminous Flux Density"?
A - The density of light measured on a surface. Q - Can 240V light fixtures be installed and used in residential housing units?
A - No. Can't exceed 150V to ground - [ CEC 30-102 ]
Q - What does the inverse square law state?
A - Illumination is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between Q - What is the min insulation temp rating for conductors to ceiling outlets?
the source and the work surface. A - 90 - [ CEC 30-408 (1) ].
Q - What is meant by the term "Luminous Efficacy"? Q - Branch circuits within __mm of ballasts must have a temp rating of __ ?
A - Efficiency. The ratio of light output (lumens) to power input (watts) A - 75mm and 90 - [ CEC 30-308 (3) ]
Q - Which lamp is most efficient Mercury Vapor, Metal Halide, HPS or LPS? Q - The CEC rule states that lighting branch OC devices can only be loaded to 80%?
A - LPS - low pressure sodium is very efficient - Yellow with a long spiky arc-tube A - [ CEC 30-712 (2) ] - Branch Circuit Capacity.
Q - Define the average rated life of a lamp within a group of lamps. Q - Where must a luminaire be installed in a clothes closet?
A - Operation to 50% lamp failure - Plug in 10 of the same lamps, when the 5th A - On the ceiling or front wall above the doorway - [ CEC 30-204 (1) (2) ].
one dies the amount of elapsed time is average life.
Q - What is the min distance between insulation and non-IC rated luminaires?
Q - What is done to retard filament evaporation in an incandescent bulb? A - 76mm - [ CEC 30-902 ] - Spacings for non-IC type luminaires
A - The bulb is filled with an inert gas (typically nitrogen and argon)
Q - How long does it take for an HPS bulb to reach full brightness?
A - Approx. 3 to 4 minutes3
Q - Define "Coefficient of Utilization" in regards to a luminaire.
A - The percentage of initial lamp lumens that reach the work area.
Q - Best CRI out of CFL, Metal-Halide, Cool white fluorescent and LPS?
A - CFL - compact fluorescent. However, Incandescent bulbs are even better.
Q - What type of lamp has the longest re-strike time?
A - Metal Halide - they require up to 15 minutes of cool-down time.
Q - Why is a ballast required for a fluorescent bulb?
A - To provide striking voltage and then limit the current when running
Q - Ballast life is reduced by _% for every _ above operating temperature
A - 50% for every 10 .
Q - What HID ballast can tolerate the largest voltage dips?
A - Regulator Ballasts.
Q - Define the bulb: H36BT-1000
A - H=Mercury Vapour, 36=Ballast, BT=Bulged Tubular, 1000=Wattage.
Q - Define the bulb: LU100S54
A - LU=High Pressure Sodium, S54=Ballast, 100=Wattage.
Q - What is the rated life of an HPS bulb?
A - 24,000 Hours.
Q - What scale is used for Ballast Noise Rating?
A - A through F - A being the quietest and F being the noisiest.
Q - What scale is used for Ballast Noise Rating?
A - A through F - A being the quietest and F being the noisiest.
Q - What causes ballast noise / hum?
A - Vibrations caused by the strong magnetic fields and metallic parts.
Q - For spring-loaded fluorescent lamp holders, which side is low voltage?
A - The non-spring loaded side, which must be pulled out first.
Q - Which HID bulb cycles on and off at the end of bulb life, MV, MH or HPS?
A - HPS - High Pressure Sodium, because it doesn't have a starting electrode.
Q - Which CEC section covers the install requirements of lighting equipment?
A - Section 30 - Installation of lighting equipment.
Q - Why are fluorescent tubes phosphor coated?
A - To convert ultraviolet (UV) energy into visible energy.
Q - What do the letters "IC" mean when marked on a lighting fixture?
A - Permitted for insulation contact [ CEC 30-906 ].
Q - What is the max overcurrent rating for HID lights with mogul bases?
A - 40 Amps [ CEC 30-104 (d) (i) ]

Lighting Page 199

HVAC Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Thermostats / Baseboard and Unit Heaters
3 Electric and Gas Furnaces
4 Safety and Ancillary devices
5 Heating Cables / Hot Water Tanks / Geothermal
6 System Components
7 Refrigeration Cycle
8 Control and Maintenance
9 Definitions

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

HVAC Page 200

HVAC - Thermostats / BBHs / Unit Heaters
HVAC - Thermostats Sizing of electric heating circuits - Permanently-connected electric heating circuits
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 1-15 should never see more than rated current, as load never changes. If we know heating
amps, it's easy to size breakers and wires without overloading.
Thermostats - Temperature-Actuated switches. Open and close electrical
contacts in response to temperature change. Most common three flavors are Line Sizing Electric Heating Circuits Example:
Voltage, Low Voltage and Electronic Thermostats. " Two rooms - one with 2000 W baseboard, the other with a PAIR
Installation - Should be mounted ~1.5m (5 feet) above the floor in a central of 1500W baseboards, all at 240 V, all devices rated at ."
location on an inside wall away from drafts, direct sunlight and sources of heat.
SAFETY - Never use a thermostat as a disconnecting means for working on BBHs.
Line Voltage Thermostats - Relatively inexpensive, come in both SPST and DPST,
not allowed to be marked with "OFF" unless they open all ungrounded conductors
when in the "OFF" position. Therefore, SPST versions are typically marked with
"LOW" or "MINIMUM" instead of "OFF".

NO OFF SPST Thermostat DPST Thermostat OFF

• Step 1 - Calculate total current draw using total wattage and voltage
(extra) Low Voltage Thermostats - Primarily for high-amperage systems. Operate → →
on 24V Control Relay supplied by a Control Transformer. Safer and more accurate
than line voltage thermostats. • Step 2 - Find our minimum breaker size, circuits can only be loaded to 80% as
per CEC 62-114 (6)(b) so divide your total current by 80% (0.8)
→ →
○ Select a 30 amp breaker as per CEC Table 13
• Step 3 - Determine which conductors are branch conductors, and which are
tap conductors as per CEC 62-114 (4)(a)(b) - already labelled above.
○ Tap Conductor - feeds single device & not longer than 7.5m (25')
○ Branch Conductor - any wire that isn't a Tap Conductor
• Step 4 - Determine Branch Conductor Size per CEC 62-114 (7)(a)(b) - Branch
circuit wires must be able to carry at least 80% of circuit breaker ampacity
rating. So multiply Circuit breaker by 80% (0.8)
Low Voltage Thermostat - SPST
→ →
Electronic Thermostats - Modern Low Voltage Thermostats. Use semiconductors ○ Wires may be loaded to 100% of ampacity listed on CEC Table 1-4
for temperature sensing and control-circuit switching. Probably what you have. ○ CEC Table 2 → Column → #12 is good for 25 A
▪ All Branch Conductors will be #12 AWG
HVAC - Baseboard Heaters • Step 5 - Determine Tap Conductor Size per CEC 62-114 (4)(a)(b) - Tap
Baseboard Heaters - Popular for heating small spaces. Must be controlled on a conductors must be able to carry at least 1/3 of breaker ampacity or the
per-room basis per CEC 62-202 via wall mounted or built-in thermostat. heater current, whichever is greater. Calculate the currents to find out!

Baseboard Heater Ratings - Available in 250 W increments starting from 500 W. → →

Usually rated at 820 Watts per meter or 250 Watts per foot of length. → →
Residential has 120 V,208 V, 240 V, and 277 V or 347 V and 600 V for industrial.
→ →
Construction - Commonly use resistance wires such as nichrome (alloy of nickel,
○ Looks like 10 A is the biggest of all the current numbers, so our
chromium and often iron). This wire generates heat when conducting currents
Tap Conductor size must be rated at least 10 A.
and can be bare or enclosed in thermally conductive material like ceramic.
○ CEC Table 2 → Column → #14 is good for 20 A
Installation - Should be installed at floor level, centered along walls, preferably ▪ All Tap Conductors will be #14 AWG
under windows or other areas of high heat loss. Hot air rises so it creates
convection currents when mixing with the falling cold air from the window. HVAC - Unit Heaters
Should fit tightly against the wall or air/dust circulation will cause streaks on wall.
Unit Heaters - Compact with high-heating capacity. Use a blower fan and louvers /
CEC Section 62 - The following must be taken into account when properly sizing diffusers to direct airflow. Can also run just the fan to circulate air.
electric circuits for electric heating systems (baseboards, hot water, furnace etc.)
• Terminal connections must be made in terminal fittings or boxes Unit Heater Ratings - Available from 2 kW to 60 kW. Typically single phase low-
• Connections must be accessible after installation is completed voltage thermostat / relay controlled up to 5 kW and three-phase, thermostat /
• If temp @ connection > , conductor insulation must have proper rating magnetic contactor controlled beyond 5 kW.
• Branch circuit conductors must have proper insulation and ampacity Unit Heater Installation - Typically suspended from ceilings or walls, or recessed.
• Heating circuits must not be used to supply any other types of loads • Single unit installations - should point heater toward area of greatest heat
• Max size overcurrent device for any circuit with more than one heater in a loss such as near doors or windows.
residential occupancy is 30A • Multi-unit installations - Should be installed so the air convects in a circular
○ Larger heating circuits may be used, but only if feeding a large, motion around the room (each pointing in such a way to create a vortex)
single heating unit (e.g. electric furnace, patio heater etc.)
• Unless specifically marked for continuous operation @ 100%, the total NOTE - Canadian Electrical code states hot air flow should not be directed onto any
connected heating load can't exceed 80% of overcurrent devices rating. surface such that it will reach temperatures in excess of

HVAC Page 201

 Gas Furnace Wiring - Gas Furnaces typically require a 120 V supply to run the
HVAC - Electric / Gas Furnaces motor. Inside the furnace there will be a 120 - 24 V control transformer that
supplies control circuit. A low-voltage conductor is then run from a terminal strip
inside the furnace to the thermostat.
HVAC - Electric forced-air furnaces Thermocouples - Systems with standing pilots (pilot lights) use a thermocouple to
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 16-25
hold open the gas valve pilot solenoid magnet. A thermocouple is two dissimilar
Electric Furnaces - Essentially just a blower that forces air through heater metals connected in a circuit, a small electrical voltage is generated when one side
elements and then distributes the heated air throughout a home with duct work. of the thermocouple is heated. (Primarily thought of as a VOLTAGE device)
Uses contactors to turn on and off the blower motor and heating elements. • The types of alloys used depend on the temperatures involved.
Heating elements typically turned on in 5 kW groups, to reduce flickering lights. • Cold junction is connected to pilot safety shut-off gas valve circuit
• Develops about 25 to 30 DC Millivolts
Electric Furnace Ratings - Available in sizes from 5 kW to 40 kW with voltage
ratings of 240 V or 208 V in either single-phase or three-phase.
Electric Furnace Installation - Very compact units, can be installed horizontally or
vertically. Floor or ceiling mounted, and can be upgraded with cooling coils,
humidifiers, electronic air cleaners etc.

A thermocouple gas valve A Thermocouple Diagram

Thermopiles - If more than 25-30 DCmV is required, you use a thermopile, which is
more than one thermocouple connected in series (a pile of thermocouples!). 250
or 750 DCmV output is typical for thermopiles. 250 DCmV = 10x thermocouples!
Self-Generating (milivolt) System - Some gas-burning appliances do not require a
power source, they use thermopiles to supply all of the electricity they need.
The powered-components are all connected in series to the thermopile which
generates current from a small pilot light. Most of this wiring is done at the
factory, although an electrician or HVAC technician may be required to run the
A basic Electric Furnace diagram extra-low-voltage cable to the thermostat.
Main-Burner Ignition systems - Gas furnaces can use different ways to ignite their
HVAC - Gas-fired forced-air furnaces main burners. Some use Direct Spark Injection (DSI), others use electrically heated
surfaces similar to a glow plug you'd find in a diesel engine, older style furnaces
Gas Furnaces - Operate on the same principal of their Electric counterparts, but use a pilot-light type which we'll talk about now
use a combustible gas instead of electric resistance heaters. • Room thermostat contacts are closed in their default state
The furnace will be located in a central location of the home such as a basement if • 24V is applied to the NC thermostat contact to open the main gas valve
available. A fan draws return air from cold-air returns, forces it through a heat • The gas begins to flow and is ignited by the pilot flame
exchanger and distributes the warm air throughout the home. • When heat exchanger reaches temp. set-point, it's NO contacts close
Hot air registers typically placed similarly to baseboard heaters, the perimeter of • These NO contacts energize the blower motor to being forcing air through
the room in areas of high heat loss such as outside walls and below windows. • When thermostat reaches set temperature, it's contacts open
In modern homes (1980+ but especially in newer, well-sealed homes), fresh air will • The main gas valve is de-energized, stopping the flow of gas
be mixed with return air to help increase oxygen levels in the air. • The blower motor will continue to run until the heat exchanger cools

Heat Exchanger - Instead of electric heating elements, gas furnaces use heat- Anticipator Resistor - A small resistor in series with the room thermostat's
exchangers. A heat-exchanger is exactly what it sounds like, it takes cold and temperature switch. I t generates heat, causing the thermostat to think it's
exchanges it for heat. The radiator in your car is a heat exchanger! warmer than it is. This way the thermostat cuts power to the furnace before
It's typically composed of pipes of one extreme temperature, surrounded by the
desired temperature is reached, limiting over-shooting the temperature while the
heat exchanger is cooling after shut-off.
liquid (or air) of another temperature, these temperatures will exchange energy.
In the case of a furnace, gas is burned inside pipes, making them extremely hot.
Cold air is then passed over these pipes, which exchange some of their heat with
the air, warming it up. This warm is then blown throughout the home.
Some heat escapes in this process making the design 70-80% efficient.

The Control side of a gas furnace - Two solenoids can shut off the gas!

HVAC Page 202

 HVAC - Furnace Ancillary Devices
HVAC - Safety / Ancillary Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 26-27
Ancillary Devices - A device that provides additional support or features for the
HVAC - Gas forced-air furnace Safety main unit. In this case, an electric or gas forced-air furnace.
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 26-27 Electronic Air Cleaners - Most furnaces use filters that passively clean the air as the
Pilot Safety - Orange in the example below - Gas may never flow without the pilot blower motor sucks air through them. An electronic Air Cleaner is a device that can
flame present. This is why there is a thermocouple being heated by the pilot light. be used in tandem with a traditional filter. It ionizes particulate in the incoming air,
The thermocouple is attached to a NC gas valve, the pilot light causes it to open. which are then attracted to a collection plate with the opposite charge.
When the pilot light is extinguished, current stops flowing and the gas valve • They can have a dangerously high electrical charge - do not work on live!
reverts to it's NC state. • High voltages can generate ozone. Should be interlocked to only run when
the blower is running to prevent dangerous ozone buildup.
Heat Exchanger Safety - Red Temp. Switch in the example below - The heat
exchanger has a high-temp. safety switch, when a set temperature is exceeded, it
opens, cutting power to the control transformer which shuts off the gas supply.
The blower motor will stay on until the heat exchanger is cooled to a safe point.
Over-heating may be caused by:
• Room Temperature contacts not opening
• Blow motor not running (burnt out, or belt has come off)
• Insufficient airflow caused by clogged filter or blocked air-return.
Most furnaces have a single device for blower control and overheat safety. The
typical temperatures for these units are:
• Blower off at
• Blower on at A Variety of Electronic Air Filters
• High Limit at
When the blower is operating improperly (on too long, not enough of not at all), Humidifiers - Another device that can connect to the main plenum of a furnace.
it's usually a problem with the blower control unit. (malfunction or not set right) Increases humidity by evaporating or misting water into the plenum.
• Some are passive, using a small water valve to wet a filter that the air
would pass through and become more humid
• Some are active and use a moist drum or a pump for misting water

A Plenum Humidifier

Electric Duct Heaters - Auxiliary heater coils can be installed in branch ducts that
allow a room to have it's own temperature setpoint. A thermostat in the room
would turn the coils on and off, further heating up the air destined for the room as
it passes through the coil. Usually reserved for large commercial applications.
• Typically in the 3 kW to 15 kW range
• Can burn out if there is no air-flow through the duct when turned on
○ Will have an air-flow switch in order to operate to prevent burnout
Plenum Heaters - A secondary, electric heater added to the out-flow duct (plenum)
of an oil-fired furnace. It's just adding electric resistive heating elements to a gas
furnace so it consumes less gas to heat the house. This makes most sense if the
cost of electricity is lower than the gas or oil used in the furnace.
• Commonly available in 12 kW and 15 kW sizes.

A full Control and Power Circuit for a typical gas furnace A Plenum Air Heater

HVAC Page 203

HVAC - Heating Cables / Hot Water / Geothermal

HVAC - Heating Cables

Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 32-39
Heating Cables - Resistive cables installed in ceilings or floors to form radiant heat
sources. Commonly installed under tile floors for comfort, not intended to be the
sole heat source of a room.
• Typically spaced 150-300mm if using loose cable
• Also available in pre-run matts for quick installation
• Designed for 40-160 Watts / Square Meter or 4-15 Watts / Square Foot
• Cable cannot be cut, affects resistance, leads to dangerous temperatures
• Also embedded in driveways / walkways to melt snow and ice
• Cables for concrete install must be able to withstand chemical reaction
• Cables are permanently installed - do not damage during install!
• Also available as pipe wrap to prevent pipes from freezing
• Controlled by a thermostat with sensor embedded in floor
• Typically Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or Mineral-insulated (MI) cables
• Ceiling Panels operate between 30-150 W/M2 or 3-14 W/Sq.ft.

A Simple Boiler/Radiator heating system

HVAC - Geothermal Heating

Geothermal Systems - Can be used to regulate interior temperatures by either
A pre-made heating mat for below tile heating or cooling, come in two flavours, open loop and closed loop:
• Open Loop - Draws untreated water from a well or hot spring, circulates it
HVAC - Hot Water Heating through the heating system and injects it back into he ground
• Closed Loop - Circulates filtered water and antifreeze through a buried loop
Hot Water Heating - The most common water heaters in homes are Storage Tank,
indirect water heaters (boilers) and instantaneous water heaters.
Hot Water Tanks - Most common water heater. Self contained unit with heating
element, control thermostat, pressure-relief valves and cathodic protection.
Available in 3 kW 183 L (40 imperial gallons) or 4.5 kW 273 L (60 Imperial Gallons)
Instantaneous Water Heaters - Only operate when water is flowing through them.
Tend to not be very cost-effective so they aren't very common. Gas is far more
advantageous for this application. But they are nice and small!

How it works - Because underground temperatures stay relatively constant at

10-16 year-round once you get 7 meters underground, any water piped or drawn
Hot Water Tank Instantaneous Heater from that depth will be regulated to that temperature.
This cooled or heated water can then be sent through radiators or into forced air
Indirect Water Heaters - More expensive because they combine both space and systems where it can be used to heat or cool rooms.
water heating into a single boiler unit. Use large capacity tanks with fast hot water.
Downsides - During the winter geothermal systems cant always keep up and need
Boilers as heating Systems - The boiler on an indirect water heater can also be used additional heat to make up for their relatively low temperature.
to pump hot water through radiators placed throughout a home as a method of
Because the air is already warmed compared to the surrounding air, you need to
heating. Each radiator would have it's own thermostat that is connected back to a
inject less energy in order to reach desired temperature, making it still worth while.
valve on the boiler unit. Individual rooms could then use these thermostats to call
for more hot water when temperatures drop.

HVAC Page 204

HVAC - System Components
HVAC - Fans / Dampers / Pumps and Valves HVAC - Pumps
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 40-62
Pumps in HVAC - A device used to move hot and chilled waters (from boilers and
Fans - There are two classifications of fans: Centrifugal (radial) and Axial chillers) around buildings to the various heating and cooling coils.
• Centrifugal Fans - Push air radial to the shaft of the fan
• Typically located in Boiler/Chiller mechanical room
• Axial Fans - Push air parallel to the axis of the shaft
• Pumps may be paralleled for increased efficiency/flexibility in larger buildings
• Some systems use primary and secondary circulating pumps on chillers
• Chillers constantly have water flowing through them at all times
• Secondary circulating pumps are VFD controlled to change based on demand
○ Reduces energy consumption and allows for greater control
• Pumps act together with motorized Valves to control flow in the system

Axial Fans - There are 3 types of axial Fans, Propeller, Tubeaxial and Vaneaxial
Propeller - Your run-of-the-mill propeller fan
Tubeaxial - A propeller fan shoved in a duct
Vaneaxial - A tubeaxial on steroids, longer, faster fins

A Pump for use in an HVAC system

HVAC - Valves
Propeller Fan Tubeaxial Fan Vaneaxial Fan
Valves in HVAC - Valves regulate the flow of water through heating and cooling coils.
This determines the amount of temperature change in the mixed air as it passes over
Fan Considerations - There are three important principals of fan speed changes
the coils. There are two types of control valves, two-way and three-way:
• Airflow varies directly with fan speed.
○ 2x fan speed = 2x airflow. Two-Way Control Valves - One inlet and one outlet port. It is connected to an
• Static pressure varies with the square of fan speed actuator for either NO or NC operation.
○ 2x fan speed = 4x Static Pressure
Three-Way Control Valves - Available in either Mixing or diverting valves
• Power varies with the cube of the fan speed
○ 2x fan speed = 2x the airflow, requires 8x fan horsepower • Mixing Valve - Has two inlet ports (one NO, one NC) and a common outlet
port. The valve can vary how much of each inlet is allowed into the outlet.
HVAC - Dampers • Diverting Valves - Have a common inlet port, and two outlet ports (one NO,
Dampers - A device used to regulate the flow of air. They mix a percentage of one NC). It can send liquid to a device, or dump it "back to tank".
return air with incoming outside air and blow the remainder out as exhaust.
Damper Control - Dampers will can be NO or NC, just like a contact, using spring
returns. This is the position they will revert to if the power fails. Dampers are
controlled by small motors that can rotate them open or closed based on what the
system requires.

Two-Way Valve Mixing Valve Diverting Valve

1 in + 1 out 2 in + 1 out 1 in + 2 out

Remember - Valves don't have to just be on/off devices, they can be opened and
closed to various percentages depending on demand.

A simple pump circuit with a Mixing Valve

A Small circular damper for an 8" round pipe Notice how the valve has a Normally Open and a Normally closed input!

HVAC Page 205

HVAC - Refrigeration Cycle
HVAC - Refrigeration Cycle
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 50-57
Refrigeration Cycle - Direct Expansion (DX) cooling uses refrigeration equipment to provide mechanical cooling. It's what's used in AC units, freezers, cars, you name it.
The cooling cycle involves the evaporation and condensation of a refrigerant, which takes heat out of the air at one location, and releases it somewhere else.
Like everything in life it's governed by the first two laws of thermodynamics:
• Energy may neither be created nor destroyed
• Energy always flows from high temp, to low temp
Direct Expansion (DX) Components - there are 5 main components in this system:

⚫ Evaporator
⚫ Expansion Valve
⚫ Compressor
⚫ Condenser
⚫ Refrigerant

• Refrigerant - A fluid used to capture heat in one area and release it in another. Must have a boiling point low enough to turn to a gas at room temperature.
○ Refrigerants flow through evaporator coils and absorb heat from the surrounding air if it is warmer than the refrigerant. This cools the space.
○ It will then transfer this heat to another location and drop it in the condenser
• Evaporator - Placed in the area you want to cool - A coil that carries refrigerant and is responsible for capturing heat. The refrigerant will boil inside the evaporator
while it captures the heat from the surrounding air. The vapour from the boiling refrigerant is then captured by a compressor.
• Compressor - Circulates the refrigerant through the system and raises the pressure. Draws the cool, low-pressure vapour from the evaporator and raises the
pressure of it, increasing the temperature further. It then spits it out into the condenser.
• Condenser - Placed in the area you want to warm - A coil that carries refrigerant and is responsible for releasing captured heat. A cooling fan forces air through the
condenser, this air pulls the heat from the refrigerant, causing it to condense back into a liquid again.
• Expansion Valve - AKA: Metering Device - Once the liquid leaves the condenser, it is high pressure, high temperature. It goes through an expansion valve, allowing
it to expand and slow down, turning it to a low pressure, low temperature liquid all by reducing pressure.

The Basic Refrigeration Cycle - Devices that can reverse this process and run both ways are called Heat Pumps!

HVAC Page 206

 HVAC - System Maintenance
HVAC - Control / Maintenance Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 80-84
HVAC System Maintenance - There are a number of items that need regular
HVAC - Control Circuits maintenance on HVAC systems, these could include:
Prints & Trade Concepts → Power Point PDF → HVAC PDF - Pages 69-79 Filters - Air Filters must be cleaned or replaced regularly. A dirty filter will obstruct
HVAC Control Systems - So with all these Dampers, pumps, compressors, valves airflow, leading to inefficient airflow and heating, over temperatures in the heat
and other accessories, we need a way to easily control our HVAC systems. These exchanger and increased current draw and extra wear and tear on the blower fan
can be as simple as Thermostats and as complex as PLCs. Motors - Blower motors should be serviced regularly. Clean any built-up dust of
Class 1 vs Class 2 - HVAC controls are often low-voltage and low-current in their the motor and vacuum or blow out the windings if necessary. Bearings should be
demand, therefore many meet the requirements of "Class 1" or "Class 2" circuits, greased if they are serviceable and bets replaced when worn.
so many HVAC control circuits fall under the regulations of CEC Section 16. Flame-Proving Devices - All gas fired devices need some form of flame-proving
• Class 1 - [ CEC 16-100 ] - device to prevent unburnt gas from being released into the building. This is the
• Class 2 - [ CEC 16-200 ] - thermocouple that will shut off the flow of gas if it doesn't detect the flame.
Time-Based Management Devices - Can be programmed to turn the system down
on set schedules when people aren't in the building. Both Residential and
commercial applications can save energy by implementing Energy Management
Devices. Some high-end commercial devices can even monitor out-door
temperature so it can turn on at an appropriate time before people arrive to ensure
the temperature set-point is met.

A More "traditional" thermocouple setup

Flame-Proving in DSI systems - For DSI or Hot Surface ignited systems, a separate
Commercial Time-Based Management Devices designated flame-proving device is needed. These devices are placed directly in the
flame path, and are sometimes incorporated into the DSI igniter probe.
Programmable Thermostats - Combine a thermostat with an electronic time clock.
Suitable for light commercial and residential use. You can punch in a temperature After the ignition signal, the circuitry waits a specified delay (a few seconds) for the
for time windows throughout a day, and can even have an individual schedule for proving device to come up to temperature (aka: PROVE) that the flame is on. If the
each day of the week. device doesn't get hot, or cools down during normal use, it will give a signal to shut
the gas off. It's like a modern thermocouple.
• Have battery backups to save the program during power outages.
Some systems attempt to light burners several times, and if unsuccessful will lock
the system out and turn on a warning.

A Programmable Thermostat

A DSI / Hot Surface flame-proving circuit

HVAC - Computer-Based Systems Troubleshooting Flame-Proving Devices - If a Flame-proving device or
Computer-based HVAC Control - In large commercial and industrial situations thermocouple fail shuts down a system, the following should be checked:
you're more likely to find a computer-based HVAC control system. These can be The Pilot Light Goes Out:
smaller, individual controllers that run the entire building, or a large network of • Check that there is sufficient gas flow to the pilot light
multiple controllers liked together. • Ensure the orifice is unobstructed
These are far more complex than a basic time clock, they can: • Adjust physical position of the thermocouple, ensure it's bathed in flame
• Measure signals from remote sensors • Make sure there are no drafts extinguishing the pilot light
• Do control routines in software • Make sure all covers are in place
• Send control signals to the actuators, fans and pumps
If an appliance using an igniter fails to light or goes out:
These controllers use Direct Digital Control (DDC) to manage anywhere from a • Make sure the sparking electrode isn't shorted
single control loop (for small devices) or up to 30 or 40 individual control loops in • Make sure the sparking electrode is close enough to the gas burner
more complex systems. They have 3 distinct advantages over time-based systems: • Adjust the spark gap of the sparking electrode, it can warp over time
• Precise Control • Ensure the hot-surface igniter heats to glowing white-hot
• Reliability • Ensure the igniter isn't cracked
• Clean any scale off the flame-proving device & ensure it's bathed in flame
• Flexibility

HVAC Page 207

HVAC - Definitions
Ancillary Devices - Accessories to support Heating systems such as: Free Cooling - Cooling by direct ventilation
• Electronic Air Cleaners - Ionizes particulate in the air with high voltages
Furnace Blower Motor - Typical settings / Temperature setpoints
and attracts it to an oppositely charged plate, installed downstream from
○ Blower OFF @
traditional air filter (must be interlocked with the blower motor to prevent
○ Blower ON @
dangerous ozone buildup)
○ High Limit OFF @ (cuts control power, closes gas valve)
• Humidifiers - Installed on main plenum to add moisture to forced air
system. Available in both active and passive models. Geothermal Systems - Can be used to regulate interior temperatures by either
• Electric Duct Heaters - Small (5 kW+) electric heaters added to forced air heating or cooling, come in two flavours, open loop and closed loop:
branches to allow for individual room temperature control ○ Open Loop - Draws untreated water from a well or hot spring, circulates
• Plenum Heaters - Electric heaters installed in the main air plenum to help it through the heating system and injects it back into he ground
add extra heat to the air with expensive oil furnace systems ○ Closed Loop - Circulates filtered water and antifreeze through a buried
Anticipator Resistor - Slightly heats the room thermostat (it's in series with) to help loop
limit the set-point overshoot to an acceptable value Heater Conductors - CEC 62-114 (4)(a)(b) - Either Tap Or Branch:
○ Tap Conductor - feeds single device & not longer than 7.5m (25')
Baseboard Heater Ratings - 820 Watts per meter or 250 Watts per foot ○ Branch Conductor - any wire that isn't a Tap Conductor
Baseboard Heater Thermostats - SPST = NO OFF! DPST = Cuts all power, has OFF. Heating Cable - Resistive cable used for radiant heating on tile floors,
CANADIAN ELECTRICAL CODE SECTIONS AND TABLES - Important to HVAC driveway/walkway ice and snow melting or freeze protection on pipes.
[ 62-108 ] - Heating Device Connections Mechanical Cooling - Performed by Refrigeration or Chiller Cooling Towers
[ 62-114 ] - Overcurrent protection and grouping - TAP vs BRANCH (4)(a)(b)
[ 62-118 ] - Demand factors for service conductors and feeders Minimum Position Device - Prevents outside-air damper from closing beyond
[ 62-120 ] - Temperature Control Devices (thermostats!) what is specified in the building code for fresh air mixture.
[ 62-122 ] - Construction of series heating cable sets Mixed Air - A mixture of Return Air and outside air. Typical setpoint of
[ 62-124 ] - Installation of series heating cable sets
[ 62-202 ] - Temperature Control required for each room Programmable Thermostat - A thermostat and electric timeclock in a single unit
[ Table 2 ] - Fewer than 3 Conductor Cable ampacity (for sizing conductors) Room Thermostat - The temperature switch on control power that turns off the
[ Table 13 ] - Overcurrent Device Rating (for sizing breakers) furnace by cutting off the gas supply to the burner.
Class 1 - [ CEC 16-100 ] - Self-Generating - A system that supplies it's own power via a
Class 2 - [ CEC 16-200 ] - thermocouple/pile.
Control Voltage - Often 24 Volts Start/Stop Program - Saves electricity by delaying morning start-up or
advancing evening shutdown through "self-learning" program
Damper - Regulate the flow of air, use a spring-return to return to normal position during
power outages - come in 2 flavours: Opposed and Parallel blade: Thermostat (residential) - Available in Line Voltage, Low Voltage and Electronic
Opposed Blade - Adjacent blades turn in opposite directions
Parallel Blade - All blades turn in the same direction. Troubleshooting - Common issues with HVAC system components:
○ Pilot Light - Backdraft, Insufficient gas, thermocouple not bathed in
Damper Minimum Position - Building code will specify a minimum amount of outside air flame
that must be mixed into the return air to ensure safe oxygen levels. ○ DSI system - Shorted Electrode/Conductor, Spark path not close to
Demand Limiting - A feature that maintains the peak electrical demand of a building burner
below the pre-set limit by turning off non-essential loads as required ○ Dirty Filter - Poor heating, exchanger over temp, increased motor draw
○ Heat Exchanger overheating - Room thermostat contacts stuck closed,
Direct Digital Control (DDC) - Control routine of stand-alone controllers done in a digital
blower is not running, insufficient air flow
form. (Think: Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) for HVAC control).
Direct Expansion (DX) Cooling - Refrigeration method relying on EVAPORATION
Unit Heater - Compact blower/heater combo typically mounted at ceiling
• Evaporator - Absorbs heat from surrounding air height. Should be installed 450mm away from side walls.
• Expansion Valve - Cools refrigerant by slowing / expanding it before evaporator Valves - Available in two way and three way, three way come in two variations:
• Compressor - Circulates refrigerant and raises system pressure Mixing - Two Inputs, One Output
• Condenser - Releases captured heat from the evaporator Diverting - One Input, Two Outputs
• Refrigerant - Fluid that boils below room temperature
Duty-Cycle Program - Saves electrical energy by disabling equipment for short intervals
during the occupied period
Economizer Control - When outside air is warmer than inside air, dampers revert to their
minimum position to limit how much fresh air it has to cool down.
Electric Furnace Ratings - From 5 kW to 40 kW (5kW increments) in 208V or 240V
Electric Hot Water Tank Ratings - 3kW 183 L (40 gal) or 4.5kW 273 L (60 gal)
Fail-Safe Positions - Position a device will return to during power failure
Damper - Outside / Exhaust = Normally CLOSED (NC)
Damper - Return Air = Normally OPEN (NO)
Valve - Hot = Normally OPEN (NO)
Valve - Chilled = Normally CLOSED (NC)
Fan Considerations - There are three important principals of fan speed changes
• Airflow varies directly with fan speed.
○ 2x fan speed = 2x airflow.
• Static pressure varies with the square of fan speed
○ 2x fan speed = 4x Static Pressure
• Power varies with the cube of the fan speed
○ 2x fan speed = 2x the airflow, requires 8x fan horsepower

HVAC Page 208

Electrical Code Dantwan#6096
-------
Notice any mistakes? I'd appreciate any help I can get!
Reach out on discord with my username above!
BCIT - Harmonized Electrical Notes

Index
Page Content
1 Index
2 Voltage Drop Calculations
3 Ampacity Calculations
4 Housing Calculations
5 Housing Calculations Cheat Sheet
6 Conduit Fill
7 Box Fill / Receptacles
8 Pull Box Sizing
9 CEC - Pull Box Sizing Page 1
10 CEC - Pull Box Sizing Page 2
11 Caps / Transformers
12 Tap / Feeder Conductors
13 Motor Circuit Solving
14 Motor Circuit Full Diagram
15 Motor Circuits - B28-1 CEC version
16 Protective Devices
17 Important Sections, Rules and Tables

I do my best to keep this accurate but I'm just an apprentice like you, so if something seems off or wrong, it might be.
This is just a cliff-notes version. Always read the BCIT material and if there's a difference, I'd assume the BCIT material is correct.

Code Page 209

 NOTE - WATCH OUT FOR AMP DRAW ON QUESTIONS WITHOUT TEMP RATINGS
Code - Voltage Drop [ CEC 4-006 (2) ] 100A, = 60 rating 100A = 75 rating
Voltage Drop Calculation 1 - Here's an example Voltage Drop calculation question
CEC - 8-102 Voltage Drop " A No. 12AWG copper NMD90 will be operating a 14A load on a
Voltage Drop - You're allowed to have up to a 3% voltage drop on any feeder 120/208V circuit. If our feeder voltage drop is already 2%, what
conductors from the customers Service Box (first main breaker) to any breaker is the furthest distance you can place the load from the panel? "
panel or sub panel in the home. You're also allowed to have up to a 3% voltage
drop on the branch conductors from any breaker panel to the electrical outlet. • Step 1 - Use Table D3 on Page 770 to find 12AWG's maximum distance for
But when combined, the total cannot exceed 5% voltage drop! [ 8-102 (1)(a)(b) ] a 1% voltage drop when running a 14A load.
○ It doesn't have 14A, round up to the next which is 16A - 6.1M
Feeder Voltage Drop Branch Voltage Drop Combined Total Drop • Step 2 - In order to find our correction factor, we'll need to know the
3% Maximum 3% Maximum 5% Maximum ampacity of our conductor. Head to Table 2.
○ You'll see 12AWG NMD90 is rated for 30A
• Step 3 - Calculate what percentage of the allowable ampacity our load will
be using with this formula [ Used amps Conductor Ampacity ]
○
• Step 4 - Head to Table D3 Correction factor on Page 771.
○ NMD90 @ 60% utilization (round up!) - 1.04 Correction Factor
• Step 5 - Divide your other nominal voltage by 120V
○
• Step 6 - Knowing we're allowed a maximum combined voltage drop of 5%,
that leaves us with a 3% drop for our branch circuit, lets put it together.
Table D3 % Drop Correction Maximum
Voltage Drop / Correction Tables - Use these tables to find the Voltage drop / Distance (whole num) Factor Distance
maximum distance you can place a load from a service box or panel.
6.1 Meters 3 1.04 1.73 32.9 Meters
Table Page Description
Table D3 770 Distance for 1% Voltage Drop (2-wire copper) Voltage Drop Calculation 2 - Sometimes, instead of being asked to find the
Table Page Correction Factor Description distance, you'll be given a distance and asked what AWG of conductor you'll need
to use. This requires some reverse engineering as shown below:
Table D3 771 Distance Correction Factor % of ampacity
" A 20A load 40 is meters from the sub panel on a 120/240V service. The Feeder
Distance Correction Factor - Because all of the distances on table D3 (Page 770) has a 3% Voltage Drop, what size RW75 conductor is required to supply the load? "
are based on a conductor having a 60 insulation rating at a 100% load, you
need to apply a correction factor to your conductors using the correction factor • Step 1 - Fill out the answer table with the information given:
table on page 771. But first, you'll need to know your conductors ulitilzation
percentage which is: Conductor Utilized Ampacity Conductor Maximum Table D3 % Drop Correction Maximum
Ampacity. Remember: Get your maximum ampacity from Table 2! Distance (whole num) Factor Distance
Nominal Voltages - The final part you need for the voltage drop equation is fairly ??? 2 1 2 40 Meters
simple. You need to take your "other nominal voltage", and divide it by 120V.
Use the resulting number to multiply as your final factor. ○ Allowed Voltage Drop = 2%
○ Substitute Correction Factor = 1 (close enough if unknown!)
For Example:
○ 240V/120V Service = 2
Calculation Overview - For calculating the maximum distance allowed to stay ○ Maximum Distance = 40 Meters
within your 2% or 3% allowed voltage drop, you must use the following equation: • Step 2 -Work the supplied information backwards to find the required
approximate Table D3 distance:
○
• Step 3 - Using Table D3, go to the 20A row, and move right until you see a
number that ≥ 10 meters. If multiple are close, you may have to try a few
○ No. 8AWG = 12.3 Meters
• Step 4 - Now that we have our AWG, head to Table 2 for it's Ampacity.
○ No. 8AWG RW75 = 50A
• Step 5 - Figure out your conductors utilization percentage
○
• Step 6 - Use the Correction Factor table to find your real correction factor
Note: All of this information, along with an example equation can be found in the ○
Canadian Electrical Code book. Table D3 in the notes. • Step 6 - Put all of the real information into your answer!
TABLE 68 - Maximum conductor length in Dwelling units for the last receptacle Table D3 % Drop Correction Maximum
(furthest point of utilization) - Some questions get tricky, there's a limit in Distance (whole num) Factor Distance
distance from the panel to the furthest point of utilization in DWELLING UNITS
for conductor sizes 10, 12 and 14.
12.3 Meters 2 1.09 2 53.6 Meters ✔

CEC - 46-306 Remote Lamps and Voltage Drop Note: Although the distance we ended up with was far more than required, the
next size conductor down (#10AWG) would have fallen short:
Remote lamps - Sometimes you'll be asked questions about voltage drop on
remote lamps that operate on 6-12V DC ish. You'll need to use Table D4, there is Table D3 % Drop Correction Maximum
an example on how to use it right below the table in the book. Distance (whole num) Factor Distance

Table Page Description 7.8 Meters 2 1.06 2 33 Meters ❌

Table D4 770 Distance for 5% Voltage Drop (6-12V)

Code Page 210

 CEC - 4-012 & 4-014 Ampacity of Flexible Cords
Code - Ampacity Calculations Flexible Cords - Watch out! Sometimes you'll be given a question asking for ampacity
on a flexible cord cable type! These are not taken from Tables 1-4 but from Table 12.
CEC - 4-004 Ampacity of wire and cables Words to describe these cables are sometimes:
• Equipment Wire
Ampacity - Conductors of a given size and material (copper or aluminum) will
• Tinsel Cord
have a certain amount of current they can handle before the insulation breaks
• Christmas-tree cord
down. This current limit is referred to as ampacity.
• Elevator Cable
Temperature Rating - You'll need to know your cables temperature rating to …and more!
select the correct cable from the below tables. This is usually written in the
Ampacity / Correction Tables - Use these tables to find the ampacity and de-rating
name, but not always. There are a few tricks to watch out for below:
factors for flexible cords and equipment wire!
• No Temperature rating given? - Look up your cable in Table 19 (Pages
491 - 501) - watch out for location, cable temperature rating can vary Table Page Description
with things like moisture. Choose what's best for the question!
Table 12 477 - 481 Copper Conductor Cord and Equipment Wire
• Given an Equipment or Breaker Rating? - Use the LOWEST temperature
rating between the breaker, Equipment or Conductor. Table Page Correction Factor Description
• ≤ 100A Equipment Rating? - 60 Temperature Rating - 4-006 (2)(a) Table 12B 482 Ambient Temperature Correction Factor
• > 100A Equipment Rating? - 75 Temperature Rating - 4-006 (2)(b)
Table 12C 482 Insulation Temperature Rating Factor
• Conductors touching for > 600mm? - They're considered to be together
and must be de-rated as if they're sharing a raceway - 4-006 (11)(12)(13) Table 12D 482 Layering Correction Factor *
• Multiple Cable Types? - Use the LOWEST temperature rating for ALL * We didn't use Layering Correction Factor in class, but if you get a question where the cabling is spooled on a
conductors that share a raceway or cable (Table 2 / 4). However, if drum like in an elevator where the cable is coiled is it moves up, you'll need to include this correction factor.
you're de-rating with Table 5A, use each cables individual temp rating.
Ampacity Calculation - Here's an example ampacity calculation question
Ampacity Tables - Use one of the following tables to find the conductor you are
" A #10AWG DRT75 Equipment Wire is run in an ambient temperature of 41 "
given. Remember to check your temperature! - (Table 2 is the most common!)
• Step 1 - Go to Table 12 and find #10AWG wire in the DRT column.
Table Page Description
○ You'll see it's rated for 30A
Table 1 427 Single Copper Conductors in Free Air
• Step 2 - Go to Table 12B and find the 41 Ambient Temp correction factor
Table 2 429 >3 Copper Conductors in Raceway or Cable ○ It doesn't exist! So ALWAYS ROUND UP! 50 = 0.82
Table 3 431 Single Aluminum Conductors in Free Air • Step 3 - Go to Table 12C and find the insulation temp correction factor
○ We're using a cable with a 75 temp rating! = .885
Table 4 433 >3 Aluminum Conductors in Raceway or Cable
• Step 4 - Multiply your Starting Amps by the Correction Factors
Correction Factor - Use any of the following tables to lower the cable ampacity as
necessary for your given scenario Conductor Table 12 Table 12B Table 12C Total Ampacity
Remember: Only de-rate for current carrying conductors! Don't count #10AWG DRT75 30 A X .82 X .885 21.77 A
neutrals (in balanced systems) or grounds!

Table Page Description CEC - 4-004 (5) Neutral Supported Conductors

Table 5A 435 >30 Ambient temperature correction* Neutral Supported Conductors - If you're asked to spec out the required size of
Neutral Supported Conductor for a service, you'll have to use the following tables:
Table 5B 436 Table 1 & 3 Multiple conductor correction
Table 5C 436 Table 2 & 4 Multiple conductor correction Table Page Description

Table 5D 436 Correction Factor where Spacing is maintained Table 36A 511 Aluminum Neutral Supported Conductors

* Remember: Don't de-rate your cable's insulation temperature rating when using Table 5A!
Table 36B 512 Copper Neutral Supported Conductors

Ampacity Calculation - Here's an example ampacity calculation question Table 39 514 Quick and dirty version for NSC

" Four #3AWG RW90 conductors are run in a conduit with three #14 TWU De-rating NSC's - There is no table to de-rate neutral supported cables. Instead, you
conductors in a room with an ambient temperature of 35 " just reference note 2 at the bottom of each table. Here's the gist of it:
• Step 1 - No conductor material is given so we assume copper Temperature Aluminum CF Copper CF
• Step 2 - We're not given TWU's temperature rating, so go to Table 19
30 1 - None 1 - None
○ You'll see it's rated for 60
• Step 3 - The conductors are running in conduit, so we're using Table 2 35 0.94 0.92
• Step 4 - Use Table 2 to find the 60 rating for BOTH conductors 0.88 0.84
○ #3AWG RW90 = 85A #14AWG TWU = 15A
Ampacity Calculation - Here's an example ampacity calculation question
• Step 5 - Use Table 5A to find 35 Ambient Temp Correction Factor
" Determine the minimum size of an aluminum NSC for a 200A 120/240V, single-phase
○ #3AWG RW90 = .96 #14AWG TWU = .91 service, using NS90 conductors and a 40 correction factor "
• Step 6 - Use Table 5C to find the >3 conductor correction factor • Step 1 - Its Aluminum, so go to Table 36A and find a triplex NS90 cable, that
○ You'll see that 7-24 conductors have a correction factor of .70 you think could handle 200A after we apply a 40 correction factor
• Step 7 - Multiply your starting amps by the correction factors: ○ 1/0 NS90 = 220A 2/0 NS90 = 250A

Conductor Table 2 Table 5A Table 5C Total Ampacity • Step 2 - One of these cables should work for us, but we'll need to apply the
correction factor in "Note 2" to both to see which is the better choice
#3AWG RW90 85 A X .96 X .70 57.12 A
#14AWG TWU 15 A X .91 X .70 9.55 A Conductor Table 36A Temp CF Total Ampacity
1/0 NS90 220 A X .88 193 A ❌
Remember - if you're given a load and need to find a cable that will work, you can
always divide your load by the correction factors and then pick the right size wire! 2/0 NS90 250 A X .88 220 A ✔

Code Page 211

 Housing Calculation - Here's an example housing calculation question
Code - Housing Calculation " Calculate A home with 970 sqft 2nd floor, 120m2 ground floor and 100m2
basement with a 14kW range, a 3kW Hot Water Tank, 4kW A/C Unit, six
CEC - 8-200 Single Dwellings 1.5kW and four 2kW Baseboard Heaters with individual room thermostatic
control, a 3kW Intelligent Electric Vehicle charger, a 4kW Hot on Demand
Housing Calculations - All buildings require power calculations so you can water system, a 4kW clothes dryer and a 2kW air compressor "
properly size all of the required power equipment such as the service conductor
• Step 1 - Calculate the area of the home
and the breaker panel. To do this we do a house calculation using the following
factors in the Canadian Electrical Code 8-200 (1) (a) - Single Dwellings ○ The 2nd floor was given in square feet - Convert it to m2
○
CEC 8-200 Description Calculated Wattage
Floor Size Taken at Total
(1) (a) (i) Basic Load 5kW for the first 90m2 of living space
Upstairs 90m2 100% 90m2
(1) (a) (ii) Remainder 1kW for each remaining 90m2 and any left over
Ground 120m2 100% 120m2
(1) (a) (iii) Heat / AC Taken at 100% unless thermostatic controls are used
Basement 100m2 75% 75m2
(1) (a) (iv) Elec. Range 6kW plus 40% of anything over 12kW*
Total Area:
(1) (a) (v) Water 100% for tankless water heater, pool, spa/hot tub
• Step 2 - Calculate the wattage based on [ 8-200 (1) (a) ]
(1) (a) (vi) E.V. Taken at 100% unless intelligent charger used (0%)
(1) (a) (vii) Other Any loads 1500 Watts taken at 25% - (less at 0%) CEC 8-200 Description Math Calculated

* If there is a 2nd range, it's considered an "other" load, and taken at 25% - Use biggest range for (a) (iv)
(1) (a) (i) Basic Load First 90m2 taken at 5kW 5,000 W
If there's NO range, follow (1) (a) (vii) (B) - Also see 8-300 (1) for branch circuits supplying a range (1) (a) (ii) Remainder Remainder taken at 1kW each 3,000 W
Clarification on housing Area - Used to calculate (i) and (ii) in Meters2: (1) (a) (iii) Baseboards 17kW total - 12kW@100% 5kW@75% 15,750 W
• Above Ground Floor Area: Taken at 100%
• Basement Floor Area: Taken at 75% (1) (a) (iii) Air Con. 4kW Taken @ 100% (no E. furnace!) 4,000 W

Clarification on Heaters and AC units - Electric heat and A/C can come in (1) (a) (iv) Elec. Range 14kW - 12@6kW, remainder @ 40% 6,800 W
different forms with a few different rules for each (1) (a) (v) Water 4kW, taken at 100% 4,000 W
• Baseboard Heaters - Must be taken at 100% unless individual
(1) (a) (vi) E.V. None! It's intelligent! 0W
thermostats are used for each room. In that case the first 10kW is taken
at 100% and any remaining kW will be taken at 75% [ 62-118 (3) (a) (b) ] (1) (a) (vii) Other 4kW Clothes Dryer taken @ 25% 1,000 W
• Electric Furnace - Must be taken at 100%, however it can save you some (1) (a) (vii) Other 2kW Air Compressor taken @ 25% 500 W
panel slots when calculating those.
• Air Conditioning - If used with Baseboard Heaters, must be taken at Step 3 - Calculate your totals!
100%. If it's being used with an electric furnace and a thermostat, you ○ Total Wattage - 40,050 Watts
only count whichever load is greater [ 8-106 (3) ]
○ Total Amperage -
• Saunas - Not a spa! Include it with the heaters calculation. [ 62 - 118 ]
○ Service Size - Table 39 - 200A Breaker
Housing Calculation Results - When performing a housing calculation you'll be ○ Wire Size - Table 39 - 2/0 Copper or 4/0 Aluminum
looking for a number of results: ○ Ground - It's always No. 6AWG!
Total Wattage - All applicable loads from 8-200 (1) (a) added up ○ Slots - 40 (167 amps, no electric furnace!)
Total Amperage - Divide total wattage by 240V to get total amperage
Service Size - Table 39 - Must be greater than Total Amperage CEC - 8-210 Other Types of Occupancy
Conductor Size - Table 39
Other Occupancy Calculations - Bogdan said we may be asked to calculate
Ground Size - It's always No. 6AWG
other types of occupancy calculations. This could be Offices, Banks, Churches,
Panel Slots - [ 8-108 (1) ] - Based on total amperage and heat source Garages etc. These calculations can be done using Table 14 (Page 485)
Panel Slots - [ 8-108 (1) ] - There are only four different options for panel slots,
however depending on your heat source, you can down-grade the number of
slots required. This is because baseboard heaters use a lot of slots vs an electric CEC - 8-400 Heater Receptacles for Vehicles
furnace. Although in most modern installs 40 slot panels are used regardless of Vehicle Heater Receptacle Calculations - Bogdan also said we may have to do
amperage, for the purpose of testing, you must choose the correct size. some questions regarding outlets for vehicle heater plugs at stalls. There are
two key things to remember when doing these calculations:
Slots Heat Source Min Amps Max Amps
• Power outlet is NOT Restricted or Controlled - [ 8-400 (3) ] - If the
16 N/A 1A 60A question is using unrestricted outlets, you must use 8-400 sub-rule 3.
24 Baseboard 60A 100A
Spaces 15A Circuits 20A Circuits
24 E. Furnace 100A 125A
The First 30 1200W Each 1800W Each
30 Baseboard 100A 125A
The Next 30 1000W Each 1500W Each
30 E. Furnace 125A 200A
Any Over 60 800W Each 1200W Each
40 Baseboard 125A 200A
• Power outlet is Restricted or Controlled - [ 8-400 (4) ] - If the
Things to watch out for - Here are a few BCIT question tricks to look out for: question is using restricted outlets, you must use 8-400 sub-rule 4.
• Home Area in Square Feet - The home area calculations are done in
meters squared. If you're given square feet, convert it first. Spaces 15A Circuits 20A Circuits
• Gas appliances - If it's a gas appliance, it's obviously not going to use The First 30 650W Each 975W Each
electricity, so make sure you don't count it.
• Intelligent Electric Vehicle Chargers - If the E.V charger is listed as The Next 30 550W Each 825W Each
intelligent, it monitors your whole home current draw will only come on Any Over 60 450W Each 675W Each
when amperage is available, so you don't count it.

Code Page 212

Code - Housing Calculation Formula Sheet
Basic Load Calculation - Before you start anything, it's best to calculate the size of your dwelling in m 2 for the Basic Load Calculation, there are two very
important code rules when calculating this, they are 8-200 (1) (a) and (b) as well as 8-110. Here's a cut-down version of them:

8-200 - Single dwellings (see Appendix B) 8-110 - Determination of Areas

1) The calculated load shall be based on the greater of Item a) or b): The living area dimensions and include the sum of:
a) i) a basic load of 5000 W for the first 90 m2of living area (see Rule 8-110); plus a) 100% of the area on the ground floor;
ii) an additional 1000 W for each 90 m 2 or portion thereof in excess of 90 m24 b) 100% of any areas above the ground floor used for living purposes
b) i) 24 000 W where the floor area, not including the basement, is 80 m2 or more; or c) 75% of the area below the ground floor
ii) 14 400 W where the floor area, not including the basement, is less than 80 m2.

Remember - - As per 2018 CEC - Metric Units Symbols and Conversion Factors for SI units Table - Page 35 or 41 depending on errata version

Basement 0.75 Floor 1 1 Floor 2 1 Combined Total Portions

m2 m2 m2 m2

8-200 Item Description Watts

(1) (a) (i) Basic Load and First Portion taken @ 5kW + Remaining portions (round decimals up!) taken at 1 kW
(1) (a) (ii) Remainders Example - 2.2 Portions = 1 @ 5 kW + 2 @ 1 kW = 7kW (the decimal counts as a full portion)
Electric Heat and 62-118 (3) - Baseboard Heaters with Thermostats, first 10kW @ 100%, remaining @ 75%
(1) (a) (iii) Air Conditioning 62-118 (4) - Electric Furnace taken @ 100% - however, you save panel slots!
8-106 (3) - AC taken at 100% unless interlocked with heater, then you just use larger kW device
(1) (a) (iv) Electric Range (Stove) House Calculation: 6kW for single range + 40% of anything above 12kW.
8-300 (1) - Branch Conductor Calculation: 8kW for range + 40% of anything above 12kW
(1) (a) (v) Hot Water on Demand, Taken at 100% - Does NOT include Electric Hot Water Tanks, those are Loads >1,500 W
Hot Tubs, Spas
(1) (a) (vi) Electric Vehicle Charger Taken at 100% unless it's a smart charger, then you don't have to count anything per 8-106 (11)

Loads >1,500W Taken at 25% if electric range has been provided for. Otherwise they should be taken at 100%
Ie: 1,501W and up! up to 6kW and 25% for anything above 6 kW (space below for adding multiple items):
(1) (a) (vii)
( Including electric hot
water tanks )

Table 39 - Overcurrent and Service Conductor Size:

TOTAL WATTS W
Copper Drops Aluminum Drops
Overcurrent
Loads up To Conductor Size Loads up To Conductor Size Below 14.4kW and Below 24kW and
Device Rating
area 80m2 ? area 80m2 ?
60 A 60 A 6 AWG 53 A 6 AWG
Use 14,400 W Use 24,000 W
100 A 89 A 4 AWG 95 A 2 AWG
125 A 121 A 2 AWG 125 A 1/0 AWG
200 A 184 A 2/0 AWG 189 A 4/0 AWG TOTAL WATTS W
225 A 210 A 3/0 AWG 215 A 250 kcmil
WATTAGE
400 A 352 A 400 kcmil 357 A 600 kcmil
TOTAL AMPS A
8-108 - Panel Slots Table:
OVERCURRENT / SERVICE SIZE
(See Table 39) A
Slots Heat Source Min Amps Max Amps
16 N/A 1A 60A SERVICE CONDUCTOR SIZE
(See Table 39)
24 Baseboard 60A 100A
PANEL SLOTS
24 E. Furnace 100A 125A (See 8-108 or table)
30 Baseboard 100A 125A
SIZE OF GROUND #6 AWG
30 E. Furnace 125A 200A
40 Baseboard 125A 200A

Code Page 213

 CEC - 12-910 Conduit Fills for Multiple Conductor Sizes
Code - Conduit Fill Multiple Conductor Sizes - Conduit Fill gets more complicated when you have multiple
conductor sizes in the same conduit. We need to know three different things:
CEC - 12-910 Conduit Fills for Single Conductor Size Maximum Conduit Fill Percentage
Conduit Fill - You can't just pack conduits with as many cables as will fit, there
Table Page Description
needs to be some free space in there! [ 12-910 ]
Table 8 458 Max Allowable Conduit / Tubing Fill %
Remember - [ 12-910 (4) (c) ] - BARE BONDS COUNT! - See Table D5 for CMA !
Single Conductor Size - When dealing with a single conductor size, you simply Conduit Cross-Sectional Area (CSA)
need to use Table 6A through Table 6K depending on your conductor type.
Table Page Conduit Description
Simply find your conductor size row, and move through the columns until you see
a conduit size that can hold AT LEAST the number of conductors you're looking to Table 9A 459 Rigid Metal Conduit
accommodate:
Table 9B 459 Flexible Metal Conduit
Table Page Description Table 9C 460 Rigid PVC (RPVC) Conduit
Table 6A 437 - 438 600V - No Jacket - R90 / RW75 / RW90 / RPV90 Table 9D 460 Rigid Type EB1 / DB2 / ES2 PVC Conduit
Table 6B 439 - 440 1000V - No Jacket - R90 / RW75 / RW90 / RPV90 Table 9E 461 Rigid RTRC Conduit marked IPS
Table 6C 441 - 442 600V - Jacketed - RW75 / RW90 / R90 / RPV90 Table 9F 461 Rigid RTRC Conduit marked ID
Table 6D 443 - 444 1000V - RWU90 and 600V - TWU / TWU75 Table 9G 462 Liquid-Tight Flexible Metal Conduit
Table 6E 445 - 446 1000 & 2000V - No Jacket - RPVU90 Table 9H 462 Non-Metallic Liquid-Tight Flexible Conduit
Table 6F 447 - 448 1000 & 2000V - Jacketed - RPVU90 Table 9I 463 Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT)
Table 6G 449 - 450 2000V - No Jacket - RPV90 Table 9J 463 Electrical Non-Metallic Tubing (ENT)
Table 6H 451 - 452 1000V - Jacketed - RPV90 Table 9K 464 HDPE - Schedule 40
Table 6I 453 - 454 2000V - Jacketed - RPV90 Table 9L 464 HDPE - Schedule 80
Table 6J 455 - 456 600V - TW / TW75 Table 9M 465 HDPE - DR9
Table 6K 457 - 458 600V - TWN75 / T90 NYLON Table 9N 465 HDPE - DR11
Table D5 773 - 774 BARE BOND CMA Table 9O 466 HDPE - DR13.5

Trade Size Conversion - Table 6A-6K will give you a conduit size in millimeters Table 9P 466 HDPE - DR15.5
(metric) - You'll have to convert this to the trade size (inches) using the Conduit
Trade Sizes chart (Page 36 in the 2018 CEC 24th Edition) Alternatively you can just Conductor Cross-Sectional Area (CSA)
take the mm number and divide it by 25.4, but keep in mind the numbers won't be Table Page Conductor Description
exact, you'll have to round the answer to the nearest half-inch.
Table 10A 467 - 468 Stranded Insulated Conductors
Conduit Fill Calculation - a few example single conductor size questions
Table 10B 469 - 470 Photovoltaic Insulated Conductors (RPV/RVPU)
" What conduit would fit Six 1000V 2/0 RW75 Conductors without jackets? "
Table 10C 471 - 472 Solid Insulated Conductors
• Step 1 - Find the Table for 1000V RW75 Conductors without jackets
Table 10D 473 DLO Cable ( R90 DLO / RW90 DLO )
○ Table 6B (Page 439)
• Step 2 - Find the row for 2/0 conductors, and head right until you find a Calculation Overview - There are four steps to calculating big of a conduit you need
number that is greater than or equal to six. for multiple conductor sizes. Typically a question will give you multiple conductor
○ Size 63 can handle up to eight! sizes, and you'll have to figure out what size conduit you need.
• Step 3 - Convert the metric pipe size by using page 36, or math • First - Use Table 10A through 10D to find your conductors CSA. And add them
○ Page 36: Size 63 = 2 - 1/2" Conduit up so you know what the total CSA taken up by the conductors is.
○ Or do the equation and round - • Second - Check Table 8 for what percentage fill you're allowed based on how
many conductors you've been given (Spoiler: it's probably 40%)
" What conduit would fit 21x 600V #4AWG TWU conductors without jackets? " • Finally - Check Table 9A through 9P for your conduit type. Find one that has
• Step 1 - Find the Table for 600V TWU Conductors without jackets the minimum CSA you calculated in the previous step. (Use 40% column)
○ Table 6D (Page 443) Conduit Fill Calculation - Here's an example multi-conductor size question
• Step 2 - Find the row for #4AWG conductors, and head right until you " What size Rigid PVC Conduit would you need to fit Ten 600V #8 R90 conductors and
find a number that is greater than or equal to 21. Eight 1000V #6AWG R90 conductors "
○ Size 78 can handle up to 23!
• Step 1 - Get each of your conductors Cross-Sectional Areas
• Step 3 - Convert the metric pipe size by using page 36, or math
○ 600V #8 R90 - Table 10A = 28.17mm2
○ Page 36: Size 78 = 3" Conduit ○ 1000V #6 R90 - Table 10A = 46.73mm
○ Or do the equation and round -
• Step 2 - Multiply these CSA's by the number of each conductor to get totals
" What conduit would fit 44x 1000V #8 RPV90 Conductors with jackets? "
total!
• Step 1 - Find the Table for Jacketed 1000V RPV90 Conductors
○ Table 6H (Page 451) • Step 3 - Use Table 8 to find the allowable fill % for 18 conductors
• Step 2 - Find the row for #8AWG conductors, and head right until you ○ Table 8 - Over 4 Conductors, Not Lead Sheathed = 40% (…surprise)
find a number that is greater than or equal to 44. • Step 4 - Check the 40% fill column in Table 9C for RPVC Cross-Sectional Area
○ Size 91 can handle up to 55! that allows for at LEAST . Remember: always round up!
• Step 3 - Convert the metric pipe size by using page 36, or math ○ Table 9C (RPVC) - 40% Column - #53 allows for
○ You can convert 53mm Pipe to inches using Page 36 - #53 = 2"
○ Page 36: Size 91 = 3 - 1/2" Conduit
○ Or do the equation and round -

Code Page 214

Code - Box Fill / Receptacles
CEC - 12-3034 Max Number of Conductors in a Box Single Conductor Calculation: Example of calculating a single wire box fill

Box Fill - You can't just stuff as many conductors as will fit in a box. There are " Three 14-2 and four 14-3 wires will be connected in a junction box with 7 wire
limits. Often you will be asked what size box you will need for a certain number nuts. What is the minimum required square box size?"
of cables or conductors. Box capacity can be found here: • Step 1 - Determine how many conductor spaces will be taken up:

Table Page Description Component Counts as

Table 23 503 - 504 Number of insulated conductors allowed in boxes 3x 14-2 Wires 2 Conductors each for 6 Conductors total
4x 14-3 Wires 3 Conductors each for 12 Conductors total
Box Fill Deductions - It's not just conductors that take up space in a box, here's a
brief list of things we need to count: 7x Wire Nuts 1 Conductor per pair for 3 Conductors Total
• Number of Conductors - When dealing with only one wire size in a box, • Step 2 - Add up all the "Conductors" to find your space requirement
you can measure the box size in "conductors". Table 23 will tell you ○ 21 Conductors
how many #14/12/10/8/6 conductors you can fit in any given box.
• Step 3 - Head to Table 23 ( Page 503 - 504 ) to find a big enough box
• Number of Wire Nuts - You also have to subtract space for your wire ○ The Square box holds up to 28 Condcutors
nuts (Marrettes). Every 2 wire nuts is worth one "conductor" of space.
• Number of Devices - Standard devices such as dimmers and switches
(mounted on what are called "Straps") count as 2 "conductors". Multi-Conductor Calculation: Example of calculating a mixed wire box fill
• Insulated Conductors Only - Just like with Conduits, we're only counting " Four #14 AWG wires, Two #12 AWG wires, Five Wire Nuts and two switches are to
Insulated Conductors here. Don't count any non-insulated grounds! be installed, what size square box is required? "
CEC - [ 12-3034 - Page 163 - 164] - Lays out how many conductors you deduct for • Step 1 - We've got two separate conductor sizes, so we know we need to
the various things you'll typically find in a box: be working in mL instead of conductors Table 22 states:
○ #14 AWG = 24.6mL #12 AWG = 28.7mL
12-3034 Description Value
• Step 2 - Break down all the components to their mL size:
(1) (a) Insulated conductors (IC's) passing through the box 1
Component Counts as mL each mL Total
(1) (b) IC's entering and being used in the box 1
4x #14 Wires 4 Conductors 24.6mL 98.4mL
(1) (c) IC's originating in the box (Pig tails or Transformer leads) 0
2x #12 Wires 2 Conductors 28.7mL 57.4mL
(1) (d) #18/16 fixture wires supplying a box-mounted luminaire 0
5x Wire Nuts 2 Conductors 28.7mL 57.4mL
(2) (a) One or more "Fixture Studs" or "Hickeys" 1
2x Switches 4 Conductors 28.7mL 114.8mL
(2) (b) Single Insulated Wire Nut 0
(2) (b) Two* "2 or 3 connector" Wire nuts 1 • Step 2 - Add up all the mL Totals to get your minimum space
○ 328mL
(2) (b) Two* "4 or 5 connector" Wire nuts 2
• Step 3 - Head to Table 23 ( Page 503 - 504 ) to find a big enough box
(2) (c) One or more flush devices on a single strap 2 ○ The Square box holds up to 344mL
(3) Device thicker than 2.54 cm must be calculated! See Below
* We don't count single wire nuts because if there's only one and not a pair, it's probably for the ground!

Multiple Sized conductors - If your calculation has more than a single wire size, CEC - 26-724 Receptacles for dwelling units
you're going to have to convert the conductors to the space they take up in Receptacle Spacing - Bogdan said it's important to remember receptacle spacing
Milliliters, and then subtract that from the boxes capacity. You can convert when it comes to residential (and one commercial application).
conductors to mL using Table 22 (Page 502) which is…
Useable Wall Space - [ CEC 26-724 (C) ] - …shall not include doorways, areas
AWG mL each occupied by a door when fully opened, windows that extend to the floor, fireplaces
or other permanent installations that limit the use of the wall space.
14 24.6
Note - the floor distance is the maximum distance any point along a wall is allowed
12 28.7 to be away from the outlet. That means you double that number to get the
10 36.9 maximum distance between receptacles.

8 45.1 Application / Room Floor Distance Receptacle Distance

6 73.3 Rooms / Areas 1.8m 3.6m

You can then use the numbers you calculate with this list against the mL capacity Hallways 4.5m 9m
of boxes listed in Table 23 (Page 503). Kitchens 900mm 1.8m
Other devices with Multi-Sized Conductors - If you also have to subtract Devices
and Wire Nuts in a multi-sized conductor scenario, they would take up the same [ CEC 26-724 (C) ] Any useable wall 900mm or more needs a plug!
room as the largest conductor.
12-3034 (3) Thicc Devices - If you're trying to shove a thick device like a dimmer Kitchen Islands - [ 26-724 (d) (iii) ] - Any fixed kitchen island that is longer than
or GFCI that is thicker than 2.54 cm between the strap and the back of the 600mm or wider than 300mm requires ≥1 receptacle (5-15R split or 5-20R)
device, you need to convert it into cubic cm by multiplying the depth by 32cm3 Commercial Roofs - [ 26-710 ] - All rooftop equipment must have a receptacle
and then subtract it from the box size. located within 7.5 meters.
• For example: a 4 cm thick GFCI's math would be:

NOTE - There's no difference between and - they convert 1:1

Code Page 215

Code - Pull Box Sizing
Pull box Sizing - [ 12-3036 (2) ] - Straight Pulls Pull box Sizing - [ 12-3036 (2) (c) (i) ] - Angle Pulls
Enter one wall and exit on the opposite wall Enter one wall and exits an adjacent wall

Formula

= the largest trade size raceway or cable being used Formula

Example
Two 78 runs of conduit enter a pull box and exit form the opposite wall. What
is the minimum width of the pull box?
= the largest trade size raceway or cable being used
= any other trade size raceway terminating on the same wall

Example
A run of 63 conduit enters a pull box and a run of 41 conduit leaves on an adjacent
wall. What is the minimum width and height of the pull box?

Pull box Sizing - [ 12-3036 (2) (c) (ii) (B) ] - U-Pulls Pull box Sizing - [ 12-3036 (2) (c) (ii) (A) ] - Angle Spacing
Enter one wall and exit on the same wall Enter one wall and exit on an adjacent wall

Formula Formula

= the straight line distance between the raceways in a u-pull = The required distance between the edges of both raceways
= the largest trade size raceway or cable being used = the largest trade size raceway or cable being used

Example Example
What is the minimum distance between two 53 trade size conduits that enter a Two 78 runs of conduit enter a pull box and exit form the opposite wall. What is the
pull box, terminate on the same wall, and are part of a u-pull? minimum distance between the raceways?

Code Page 216

Code - CEC Instructions Page 1

Code Page 217

Code - CEC Instructions Page 2

Code Page 218

 CEC - [ 26-240 ] through [ 26-266 ] - Transformers
Code - Caps / Xformers Transformers - Sometimes you'll also be asked to size transformers and their
accessories based on the rules in the transformers section of the Canadian Electrical
CEC - [ 26-200 ] through [ 26-222 ] - Capacitors Code, here's a quick and dirty rundown of where you can find the rules for that:
Remember: The key to Transformers is 125%!
Capacitors - Sometimes you'll be asked to size capacitors and their accessories
based on the rules in the capacitor section of the Canadian Electrical Code,
● Tap Conductors - [ 14-100 ] - See Tap Conductor Notes Page
here's a quick and dirty rundown of where you can find the rules for that:
• Remember: The key to Capacitors is 135%! ● Disconnect Switch - [ 26-248 ] - A disconnecting means shall be
installed in the primary circuit of each power and distribution
● Tap Conductors - [ 14-100 ] - See Tap Conductor Notes Page
transformer. No sizing math to do here.
● Disconnect Switch - [ 26-214 ] - The disconnect switch must be
rated to at least 135% of the rated capacitor current. If the fuses ● Primary Conductors - [ 26-256 (1) (a) (b) ] - Conductors must be
and switch are combined into a fused switch box, size the switch rated to at least 125% of the rated primary current.
based on the FUSE size (rounding up if you have to!) If you're in between numbers, round up!
( Standard Sizes: 30,60,100,200,400,600,800,1200 A ) ● Fuse - [ 26-254 (1) (3) ] - Fuse may be rated to a maximum* of 125%
If you're in-between numbers, round up! of the rated primary current. Can be considered secondary protection
as well or can be placed on secondary if rated for 125% of secondary
● Conductors - [ 26-208 ] - Conductors must be rated to at least
current but not more than 300% of primary current [ 26-256 (2) ]
135% of the rated capacitor current.
( Standard Fuse Sizes available on Table 13 )
If you're in between numbers, round up!
In between numbers, round down or up! [ *See: Sub-rule (3) ]
● Fuse - [ 26-210 ] - The Fuse may be rated to a maximum of If the question is MAX fuse value, you'll have to round up! 26-254 (4)
250% of the rated capacitor current.
( Standard Fuse Sizes available on Table 13 ) ● Transformer - You'll probably be given a kVA rating and a voltage
rating for each side of the transformer. Just divide the VA by your
If you're in between numbers, round down!
primary and secondary voltages for their respective currents!
● Contactor - [ 26-216 ] - Contactors will be rated based on type:
● Secondary Conductors - [ 26-256 (2) (a) (b) ] - Conductors must be
• Open Type - 135% of rated capacitor current
rated to at least 125% of the rated secondary current.
• Enclosed Type - 150% of rated capacitor current
[ 14-100 (f) (ii) ] - If the primary is fuse at MAX value (rounding up)
If you're in between numbers, round up!
you'll have to size the secondary conductors using by multiplying the
● Capacitors - Often you'll be given a VAR or kVAR rating for primary conductor ampacity by the transformer ratio!
capacitors. Just divide your VAR by the circuit voltage to get how If you're in between numbers, round up!
many amps the capacitor is rated for, and do the rest of the math
Single Phase vs. 3-Phase - How you solve Capacitor current is different if you're
above based on that amperage!
dealing with Single Phase or Three Phase, so keep this in mind:
Single Phase vs. 3-Phase - How you solve Capacitor current is different if you're • Single Phase Current -
dealing with Single Phase or Three Phase, so keep this in mind:
• Three Phase Current -
• Single Phase Current -
• Three Phase Current - Transformer Calculation - Here's an example Transformer calculation question

Capacitor Calculation - Here's an example Single-Phase Capacitor calculation " A Dry type transformer is rated at 60 kVA 600V-120/240V 1-Phase
All equipment is marked with a 75 temp rating, determine:"
" Power Factor correction is to be made using a 7.5 kVAR 240 V
single phase capacitor. Find the following for this installation: " a. Minimum size of Teck 90 primary conductors required
b. Maximum size Code fuse that is permitted
a. Minimum size of R90 CU conductors in conduit required c. Minimum size Disconnect Switch Required
b. Minimum size Disconnect Switch Required d. Minimum size of Teck 90 primary conductors required
c. Maximum size Code fuse that is permitted
d. Minimum Enclosed Type Contactor rating • Step 1 - First things first, figure out the two Transformer currents!
e. If one is run - the minimum Size bonding conductor
→ →
• Step 1 - First things first, figure out the Capacitor current! → →
→ →
• Solve a. - Primary Conductors must be rated for 125% of primary current!
• Solve a. - Conductors must be rated for 135% of capacitor current! First Once, we have that number, check Table 2 for a suitable Teck 90 AWG.
we have to figure out what that number is, then check Table 2 for a ( Remember - Use the 75 column as that's our equipment rating! )
conductor that is a suitable size!
1.
1. 2. Table 2 - #1 is good for 130A @ 75 !
2. Table 2 - #8 R90 is good for 55A!
• Solve b. - The Disconnect switch must be rated to at least 135% of the • Solve b. - Fuses may be rated to a maximum of 125% of the capacitor
capacitor rating, we've already solved that! current rating, and should be rounded down.
( Standard Fuse Sizes available on Table 13 )
( Standard Disconnect Sizes: 30,60,100,200,400,600,800,1200 A )
○ (Conveniently a standard size!)
○
○ Closest standard size is 60A • Solve c. - The Disconnect switch must be able to handle our 125A fuse
( Standard Disconnect Sizes: 30,60,100,200,400,600,800,1200 A )
• Solve c. - Fuses may be rated to a maximum of 250% of the capacitor
○ Closest standard size is 200A
current rating, and should be rounded down (Table 13)
○ (rounded down) • Solve d. - Secondary Conductors must be rated for 125% of secondary
current, do the math then check Table 2 again…
• Solve d. - Enclosed Caps get hotter! Must be rated at 150% of cap rating ( Remember - Use the 75 column as that's our equipment rating! )
1. 1.
• Solve e. - We weren't taught this in class, but it's in the worksheets, so 2. Table 2 - 400 kcmil is good for 335A @ 75 !
here it goes. You use Table 16 to solve it! It's based on the ampere
rating of your overcurrent device, in this case, it's the 70A fuse. Remember - With 3 phase capacitors, regardless if they're connected Wye or Delta,
1. Table 16 - <100A = #8 AWG CU there is only ever going to be 3 wires going into the capacitor box.
When in Wye, 1 lead on each cap is tied together but NOT tied into the neutral.

Code Page 219

 CEC - [ 28-110 ] - Motor Feeder Conductors
Code - Tap / Feeder Conductors Motor Feeders - Motors are kind of a beast of their own, so they get their own set
of rules in the code book under Section 28. This includes the Feeder / Tap
CEC - [ 14-100 (b) and (c) ] - Cap/Xformer Tap Conductors conductors as well. You'll notice the rules are pretty similar to the Cap/Xformer
ones, but different enough that you'll have to watch out.
Tap Conductors - These are introduced in Level 3 (at least in 2021 they were),
They are the wire that go from the disconnect switch of a load (MCC / Cap /
Transformer ) back to the bus bar / splitter / distribution that powers it.
If you think about it, the tap conductor sits between the small disconnect and
protection that your load uses and the large disconnect and protection of your
bus bar or larger service wires. That means, if there was a short on these tap
conductors, the protection that would trip is the BIG one at the bus bar.
That means there's some rules you have to follow when sizing them, they don't
HAVE to be the same size as your bus / service conductors, but they typically
have to be slightly bigger.
Remember - 14-100 does NOT apply to MOTORS. See 28-110 for motors!

Determining the Minimum motor feeder conductor size

Step 1 - Determine the motors contribution to the feeder lines based on what kind
of load it is - use rules 28-106 and 28-108 to see how to add their FLAs
• [ 28-106 (1) ] - Individual Continuous duty motor
○ 125% of the motors FLA
• [ 28-106 (2) ] - Individual non-continuous duty motor
● 14-100 (b) Plain English Explanation - If your tap conductor is only supplying
○ Motor FLA Table 27 Correction factor
one device (usually a disconnect switch in BCIT questions), isn't any longer than
3 meters and is protected from mechanical damage (i.e. in a conduit, raceway or • [ 28-108 ] - Two or more continuous duty motors
uses armored cable) then you can size the conductor to the device it's supplying. ○ 125% of largest motors FLA + all other motors basic FLA
For example - If the tap conductor went from an 800A bus, to a 200A shutoff • [ 28-108 ] - Two or more non-continuous duty motors
switch, you would be allowed to size the conductor for just 200A. ○ Motor FLA Table 27 Correction factor for all motors
• [ 28-108 ] - A combination of continuous / non-continuous duty motors
● 14-100 (c) Plain English Explanation - If your tap conductor is between 3.01 ○ 25% of largest motors FLA + Motor FLA Table 27 Correction
and 7.5 meters, is protected at its termination by a single set of overcurrent
devices and is protected from mechanical damage (i.e. in a conduit, raceway or Step 2 - Determine any other non-motor loads (if applicable) also connected to the
uses armored cable) then you can size the conductor to 1/3rd that of the main feeder and add that to the amperage you calculated in step 1
power bus it's drawing it's power from, as long as it's ampacity is at LEAST the Step 3 - Use this amperage and Table 1-4 to get the feeder conductor size.
same as the switch box that it's terminating to!
For example - Connecting a 200A shutoff for a motor to an 800A bus: Determining the minimum motor tap conductor size
• - Then use Tables 1-4 to find your conductor size
Tap Conductors over 7.5m - [ 28-110 (2) ] - The same ampacity as the feeder
● No Reduction - Plain English Explanation - Finally, if your tap conductor is conductor that we just solved for above.
OVER 7.5 meters in length, you don't get a reduction. It has to be rated to the
same ampacity as the feeder it's plugged into. Tap Conductors 3m or less protected with metal - Single or multiple?
In the example we've been using, you'd have to use a conductor rated for 800A! ● [ 28-106 (1) & 28-110 (2) ] - Single continuous duty motor just use FLA 1.25
● [28-108 (1) & 28-110 (2) ] - Multiple continuous duty motors use the largest
motors FLA 1.25 and then add all other motors basic FLA.
Tap Conductors 7.5M or less but not encased in metal - The tap conductors have
to be rated to 1/3rd the feeder conductor amps. Divide feeder conductor
amperage by 3.

Determining the feeder overcurrent device size

Step 1 - Calculate the maximum overcurrent device’s rating for each motor that will
be on the feeder using methods contained on the next page of notes.
Remember: Use Rule 28-708 for refrigerant motors (HVAC):
• Max HVAC Motor Fuse size = (FLA × 6 × 0.5 ) or (Inrush Current × 0.5)
Step 2 - Multiply your largest motors FLA by it's Table 29 fuse rating (don't round it
down yet!), then add the other motor's basic FLAs to that number.
Step 3 - Find a fuse on Table 13 no larger than the number calculated in step 2
If neither of these situations apply, you just rate it for the big disconnect!

Code Page 220

 Single Motor Calculation 1 - Here's an example Motor calculation question
Code - Motor Circuit Solving
" 40 HP - 460 V 3Φ - SF = 1.15 Continuous Duty Class B Ventilated - use copper "
CEC - [ 28-100 ] through [ 28-604 ] - Motor Circuits
Motor Branch Circuits - Motors are slightly different than Capacitor / Xformer loads, ● Solve Motor FLA - 3Φ Class B Ventilated use Tables 37 & 44 for motor ratings:
they have their own Section in the code book (28). Before we get into the • Table 37 → 75 conductors → Table 44 → 40 HP @ 460 V → 52 FLA
calculations we need to talk about Motor Classes and Insulation Ratings ● Solve Conductors - Its Continuous, so they need to be 125% of FLA:
Motor Type / Insulation Class -[ 28-104 ] - When it comes to picking the conductor • → Table 2 → #6 AWG @ 75
that will be connecting into your motor, you'll need to size it based on the insulation
rating of the motor (See: Table 37) and if it's a Totally Enclosed, non-ventilated ● Solve OLRs - Service Factor is 1.15! That means it's 125% of FLA:
motor or not. (TENV motors generate a lot more heat!) This will also determine • 28-306 (1) (a) → - with 40 HP rated contacts!
what temperature you're allowed to use for the ampacity column on Table 1-4. ● Solve Max Fuses - Multiply your Table 44 FLA with Table 29 Fuse size!
Note - the distance and conductor length listed here might be back to the OLR as • Table 29 → 175% (SCIM time-delay) →
shown, but it could also be to a splice box if the MCC is further away.
● Solve Switch - It has to be able to fit our fuses, so we need to size it up:
• 90A fuse - (they don't make a 90A switch) → 100A Switch

Single Motor Calculation 2 - Here's an example Motor calculation question

Motor Type Insulation Rating / Ampacity to use Min Distance? " 25 HP - 460 V 3Φ - SF = 1.10 Continuous Duty Class B Ventilated - use copper "
Non-TENV - Class A 75 Insulation min. - 90 Ampacity OK* No Rule
● Solve Motor FLA - 3Φ Class B Ventilated use Tables 37 & 44 for motor ratings:
Non-TENV - Class B 75 Insulation min. - 75 Ampacity No Rule
• Table 37 → 75 conductors → Table 44 → 25 HP @ 460 V → 34 FLA
Non-TENV - Class F 90 Insulation min. - 75 Ampacity 1.2M / 600mm
● Solve Conductors - Its Continuous, so they need to be 125% of FLA:
Non-TENV - Class H 110 Insulation min.- 75 Ampacity 1.2M / 600mm • → Table 2 → #8 AWG @ 75
TENV - Class A 75 Insulation min. - 90 Ampacity OK* No Rule ● Solve OLRs - Service Factor is 1.10! That means it's 115% of FLA:
TENV - Class B 90 Insulation min. - 75 Ampacity 1.2M / 600mm • 28-306 (1) (b) → - with 25 HP rated contacts!

TENV - Class F 110 Insulation min. - 75 Ampacity 1.2M / 600mm ● Solve Max Fuses - Multiply your Table 44 FLA with Table 29 Fuse size!
• Table 29 → 175% (SCIM time-dly.) →
TENV - Class H 110 Insulation min. - 75 Ampacity 1.2M / 600mm
● Solve Switch - It has to be able to fit our fuses, so we need to size it up:
* Note - 90 ampacity can only be used IF you're using 90 conductor! • 50A fuse - (they don't make a 50A switch) → 60A Switch
Single Motor Circuits - Motors are slightly different than Capacitor / Xformer loads, Combined Feeder Calculation - OK, now let's pretend both of these motors we just
they have their own Section in the code book (28). Before we get into the solved are connected to the same feeder line, which is just another big power line
calculations we need to talk about Motor Classes and Insulation Ratings that comes in and splits off to each motor starter.
● Feeder Conductors - [ 28-106 ] - If it's a single motor, you can If these motors were powered by buckets (motor starter units) in an MCC, the
just use the same ampacity as the conductors below, but if you Feeder line would be the big power line that is fed into the MCC to power it. That
have more than one motor tapping into the same line you use the big power line also needs a switch and fuses!
method described on my Feeder Conductors Page (back one!)
● Disconnect Switch - [ 28-200 ] - Must be horsepower rated to
115% of the motors FLA, and large enough to fit the fuses!
Also, must be located within 9 meters of the motor, or 3 meters if
it's a refrigerant (HVAC) motor.
( Standard Sizes: 30,60,100,200,400,600,800,1200 A )
● Conductors - [ 28-106 ] - Continuous motor loads conductor ● Solve Feeder Fuses - First thing we're going to do is solve for the fuse size we
ampacity needs to be at least 125% of the motor FLA. need to protect the primary lines from both these motors - 28-204 (1) says we take
the peak calculated overcurrent level (the number we used to size the motor
Non-Continuous motor loads conductor ampacity is calculated branch fuse, but BEFORE we rounded it down) and add the other motors FLA to it:
with motor FLA multiplied by the demand factor from Table 27. • Motor 1 had the largest overcurrent device calculated to a peak of - A
Use Table 37 for what Insulation Temp / Ampacity to use! • Add Motor 2's FLA for max fuse Size:
● Fuse - [ 28-200 (3) (a) ] - Multiply the motor FLA from Table 27 ● Solve Feeder Conductors - Similar to the fuses, but we take 125% of our largest
and the max fuse rating from Table 29 together to find the motors FLA and add our other motors regular FLA to it:
maximum fuse size. If you're in between numbers, round down! • Motor 1 had the largest FLA -
( Standard Fuse Sizes available on Table 13 ) • Add Motor 2's FLA to get the Conductor Amperage
• Find our Conductor Size: Table 2 → #3AWG @ 75 can handle 99A!
● Overload Relays - [ 28-306 (1) (a) (b) ] - Based on service factor
• 125% of FLA - Service factor of 1.15 or greater ● Solve Switch - It has to be able to fit our fuses, so we need to size it up:
• 115% of FLA - No Service factor or less than 1.15 • 125A fuse - (they don't make a 125A switch) → 200A Switch
● Motor - Use Table 44 (3-phase) or Table 45 (1-phase) to find ● Solve Tap Conductors - Finally we can solve our Tap Conductors, these are the
the FLA based on your motors Horsepower and voltage rating. conductors that tap off the feeder conductors and enter our motor switches.
• 3M Long - Use motor conductor values
• 7.5M Long & ampacity 1/3 of Feeder Fuse - Use motor cond. values
○ #6 for M1, #8 for M2
• Otherwise - Use the same values as the feeder conductors.

Code Page 221

Code - Motor Circuits Full Diagram
CEC - Section 28 - Motors and Generators - This Diagram is located on Appendix B - Rule 28-100
Motors and Generators - There are tons of rules when calculating all of the wiring and devices in a motor circuit, most of them are contained in section 28. Below I'll give a
really broad overview of what the rules say, but don't use this to solve equations, make sure you go to the actual sections in the code book when doing worksheets.
This page is mostly just so you know where in the circuit each component is, so you can look at the right rules in the code book!

❶ Motor Feeder Disconnect - [ 14-010 (b) ] - Just says that manually operatable control devices
must be installed to safely disconnect all three ungrounded conductors simultaneously.
❷ Motor Feeder Over Current Protection - [ 28-204 & 208 ] - The feeder line needs to be fused to
the size of the highest rated over-current device fed by the feeder, plus the sum of the full load
current ratings for all of the other motors fed by the feeder.
On multi-motor loads, the fuse rating cannot exceed 300% of the ampacity of the feeder conductors
❸ Feeder Conductors - [ 28-108 & 110 ] - Insulated conductors must be rated to 125% of the largest
motors FLA plus 100% FLA of all the other motors supplied by the feeder for continuous. For non-
continuous use 28-106, which is 125% of the largest motor only. For a mix see 28-108 (c).
28-210 - For combined motor / other loads use the above rules, but add amperage of other loads.
❹ MCC Bus / Feeder Tap Conductors - [ 28-110 (2) ] - If you don't work much industrial, just know
that an MCC is a power distribution cabinet where a big feeder line can branch off to tap conductors.
28-110 (2) essentially says the taps coming off the main feeder that go to your motor contactors and
overloads need to be at least the same ampacity as the feeder unless they're 3m in length and
enclosed in metal (MCC) or 7.5 M, can handle at least 1/3rd the current of the feeder and are
protected from mechanical damage.

❺ Motor Branch Disconnect - [ 28-600 (1), 602 (1) & 604 (1) ] - This is the knife switch for the
individual branch circuit, on an MCC its usually located on the door of each motor starter unit.
28-600 says you need to have it, 28-602 says it needs to be horsepower rated and the rules for each
type of disconnect switch while 28-604 says where it needs to be located and it needs a lockout.
❻ Motor Branch Over Current Protection - [ 28-200, 202, 206, 208 & 210 ] - These rules tell you
what kind of fuses and circuit breakers are acceptable for branch circuits, fuses should be sized to
400% of FLA up to 600A, 300% of FLA from 601-6000A and only 225% if using time-delay fuses.
The rest of the rules tell you how to size fuses for multiple motors on a single branch, how to pick
fuse holders and how to size circuit breakers.
❼ Motor Branch Circuit Conductors - [ 28-106 ] - Branch circuit conductors for continuous duty
shouldn't be rated for less than 125% of the motors FLA. Multiple motor information also included.
❽ Motor Controller Disconnect - [ 28-600 (3), 602 (2) & 604 (2) ] - If you're supplying more than one
motor from the branch circuit, you can use one switch for all of them, but it needs to be horse
power rated to 115% of the largest motor FLA, plus all the other motors FLAs combined.
❾ Motor Branch Circuit Conductors - [ 14-100 (d) & 28-506 ] - 14-100 States that this conductor
needs an over-current device rated at no more than the conductor rating. 28-506 Says that if you're
pulling control power from these conductors, an accidental ground in the wiring can't cause the
motor to start automatically, OR not be able to shut off if it's running.

❿ Motor Controller - [ 28-500, 502 & 504 ] - Needs a horsepower rated motor starter, must be
placed so the motor can be safely started. Start/run modes must be interlocked if they have them.
⓫ Motor Circuit Overload Protection - [ 28-302, 304, 306 & 308 ] - Must be capable of stopping a
motor during overload or short circuit conditions, must have as many OLRs as specified in Table 25.
There are a few cases where overload protection isn't required, those are listed in 28-308.
⓬ Motor Under Voltage Protection - [ 28-400 ] - If automatic restarting after a power failure is
likely to create a hazard, you need Under Voltage Protection (think: three wire / self-holding circuit)

⓭ Motor Disconnect - [ 28-600 (3), 602 (2) & 604 (2) ] - If motors are far away from the MCC, you
might need another disconnecting means within 9M of the motor, all the same rules from ❽ apply.
Note - if it's a refrigerant motor (HVAC) it has to be within 3M of the motor!!
⓮ Motor Supply Conductors - [ 28-104 ] - Use Table 37 to find required insulation rating or select
based on 75 ampacity rating unless it's a class A motor, then you can use 90 . Where Table 37
needs more than 75 insulation ratings, the conductors need to be 1.2 M, and terminate at least
600 mm away from a 99.9 hp motor, or 1.2 M away from a 100 hp motor.
⓯ Motor Overheating Protection - [ 28-312, 314, 316 & 318 ] - Motors need overheating
protection to cut power to the motor if it gets too hot, unless it meets the requirements of 28-318.

⓰ Secondary Conductors - [ 28-112 ] - Continuous duty motors need conductors rated at 125% of
their FLA. Non-continuous duty motors use Table 27 to determine this number.
⓱ Secondary Controller / Resistor Leads / Resistors - [ 28-112 (2) & 26-642 ] - Use Table 28 to to
determine the ampacity of the secondary conductors required on a WRIM. The diagram says to also
use 26-642, but I can't find that in my book, I think it might have been deleted??

Code Page 222

Code - CEC - Figure B28-1

Code Page 223

 Fuses - Key words to remember - CEC [ 14-200 ]
Code - Protective Devices Fuse Ratings - Fuses are rated on four primary factors
• Voltage Rating: The higher the voltage rating, the larger of an arc it can
Overview - A few key words on protection supress. You can use an OVER-RATED fuse on a circuit, but never one with
a lower rating. Standard ratings - 600V, 300V, 250V and 150V
Why do we need circuit protection? Too many amps result in unwanted /
dangerous heat which can melt insulation. Therefore, we are protecting the • Current Rating: The current the fuse can carry continuously without
dielectric of our conductors. opening, deteriorating or exceeding temperature limits.
• Interrupting Rating: The maximum short-circuit current a fuse can safely
Overcurrent Protection - Protects the wire - Typically accomplished with a
interrupt without damaging itself. Typically 10,000A HRC is more.
magnetic tripping function (an inductor!) - For short circuits and other high-
current events. • Clearing Time: The time it takes to melt the element and "clear" the circuit
from an over-current. AKA - Time-Current characteristics
AKA - THERMAL PROTECTION IN BREAKERS
○ Inverse Time Current Characteristic - the higher the amperage, the
AKA - FUSE LINKS IN FUSES
faster the fuse opens
Overload Protection - Protects the load (motor / device) - Typically
Plug Fuses - Old-school screw-based fuses that look like tiny lightbulbs
accomplished with a bi-metallic strip (Thermal action!). Takes quite a while to • Use rejection rings to stop installation of wrong fuse size [ 14-204 ]
happen, not a fast-acting protection.
• Come in Type C(T) and S fuses. Non interchangeable. - REJECTION RINGS
AKA - MAGNETIC PROTECTION IN BREAKERS • Maximum current rating of 30A!! [ 14-208 (1) ]
AKA - THERMAL CUTOUT IN DUAL ELEMENT FUSES • No more than 125V circuits, unless there's a neutral, then 150V [ 14-202 ]
(Accomplished with Spring tension and low temp solder) • When blown by overload the glass will be clear, when blown by over-
current the glass will be blackened from soot (bigger boom!)
Bus Bars - Must be securely mounted due to magnetic force.
Cartridge Fuse - The modern-style fuse that comes in a few different shapes
I2R losses - Remember, heat increases on the square with current! So if the
• Come in Ferrule-contact up to 60 A capacity
current doubles, the heat quadruples!
• Knife and Bolt-on styles up to 600 A capacity
Poor connections - can result in high resistance shorts, higher temperatures and • Come in Standard (Aka: Code) and High-rupturing-capacity (HRC) fuses
circuit overloads. • Some have "arc quenching powder" inside that turns to glass to stop arcs
Short circuit - A fault that draws the maximum allowable current from a source. Dual Element Fuse - A time-delay fuse that allows a brief overload before blowing.
Time Delay Fuse - AKA a dual element fuse.
Circuit breakers - Key words to remember - CEC [ 14-300 ]
Trip free breaker - Think: a breaker that is Free to trip - Trips into a middle
position, must be reset (turned off) before it can be turned back on after a trip.
Attempting to just hold it in the on position will not close the circuit.
Moulded Case circuit breakers - an electro-mechanical device designed to open
a current-carrying circuit under both overload and short circuit conditions.
Without injury to the device. Available in four flavours:
• Thermal
• Thermal-Magnetic
• Magnetic
• Solid State A Dual-Element Fuse
GFCI - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter - Monitors the hot and the neutral wire
Non-interchangeable fuse - Cartridge Fuses have features to prevent the wrong
on a circuit and makes sure the same amount of current is flowing on both.
type of fuse from being installed. Things such as different overall lengths and
When it detects an imbalance of 4mA or more, it trips the breaker. This means
shapes of ferrules / knives or cut-outs / bumps.
the missing current has found an alternate path to ground - uh oh!
"P" Fuse - Low Melting Point (fast acting)
AFCI - Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter - Uses a microcomputer to watch for "bad"
arcs and trips the breaker when it detects them. Examples of "arcs" it would "D" Fuse - Time Delay Fuse - has two fuse links joined by a thermal cut-out unit.
ignore would be the small arcs created when turning off a light switch. The thermal unit is spring loaded and connected by solder with a low melting point.
The solder will melt during extended periods of over-load.
Arc Chute - SOME (not all!) breakers have an arc chute, a small, finned chamber
it can force an arc into that quickly extinguishes it. "W" Fuse - Old-school Edison screw base plug fuse. Non-time delay.
Interrupting capacity - The maximum current a device can take without Code Fuse - A standard cartridge fuse (non HRC). Available with maximum 600V,
damaging itself. Typically 10,000 A on most standard breakers. 600A Current rating and 10,000A interrupting ratings
High-Interrupting-capacity breaker - HIC - Used when available short-circuit HRC - High Rupturing Capacity - Max 12,000 A current rating and 200,000 A
current exceeds the interrupting capacity of standard breakers (over 10,000A). interrupting rating! Use high-quality silica sand for arc quenching. The sand turns
Interrupting capacity can be 75,000 A or greater! into glass during an arc event quickly extinguishing the arc. They are not
interchangeable with standard cartridge fuses (code fuses).
Solid State Breaker - A device that uses a current transformer and
semiconductor circuitry (a computer) to replace thermal-magnetic trip units. • HRC I - Provides both overload and short circuit protection
• HRC II - Provides only short-circuit protection [ 14-212 (c) ]
• Class R - Standard HRC fuse for 0 - 600 A
• Class J - Low resistance HRC fuse for 0 - 600 A
• HRCI-T - Very fast acting HRC fuse for 0 - 600 A
• HRC-T - Very fast acting HRC fuse for 601 - 1,200A
• Class L - Provides both overload and over current protection
• Class CA - Maximum peak let-through of 8,000 A
• Class CB - Maximum peak let-through of 10,000 A or 15,000 A
• Class CC - Maximum peak let-through of 12,000 A
• Class C - (HRCII-C) - Rated from 0-1,200 A with 200,000 A interrupting cap.

Code Page 224

Code - Important Sections, Rules and Tables

Subject Rule Lighting Installation Section 30 Subject Table(s)

Amusement Parks / Carnivals Section 66 Marine (docks/piers/boathouses) Section 78 Bonding Conductor Size 16
Bare Neutrals 6-308 Metric / SI Conversion Pg 35 / 41 Bonding Jumper (Svc. Raceway) 41
Box Fill 12-3034 Mobile Home / RV Parks Section 72 Box Fill 23
Cable Tray 12-2200 Mobile Homes / Trailers Section 70 Concrete encased electrode 43
Capacitor Protection 26-200 Motors and Generators Section 28 Conductor Ampacity 2,3,4 & 5
Circuit Breakers 14-300 Motor Service Factor 28-306 Conductor Ratings 11,12,19 & D1
Circuit Loading / Demand Section 8 Multi-Outlet Assembly 8-304 (4) Conductor Voltage Rating D1
Concrete Encased Electrode 10-102 Neutral Supported Cable 4-004 (5) Conduit Fill 6,D5,8,9,10
Continuous / Non-Cont. Loads 8-104 (3) Neutral Supported Cable (use of) 12-318 Conduit Threads (Rigid Metal) 40
Class 1 / Class 2 Circuits Section 16 Panel Slots 8-108 (1) Electric Vehicle Demand 38
Cathodic Protection Section 80 Parallel Conductors 12-108 Enclosure Types 65
Conductors Section 4 Passenger Ropeways (Gondolas) Section 58 Flexible Cords 11,12A-D
Conductor Ampacity 4-004 Patient Care Areas Section 24 Haz. Loc. Equipment Temp B18-3
Conduit Fill 12-910 Pools, Tubs and Spas Section 68 Ingress Protection (IP) B18-5
Conduit Metric Conversion Pg 36 / 42 Protection and Control Section 14 Insulated Conductor Ratings D1
Definitions Section 0 Pull box sizing 12-3036 Motor Current (3-Phase) 44
Diagnostic Imaging Section 52 Radio and Television Systems Section 54 Motor Current (1-Phase) 45
Direct Buried Cable (underground) 12-012 Receptacles (Appliances / stoves) 26-744-46 Motor Insulation Rating 37
Electric cranes and hoists Section 40 Receptacles (dwellings) 26-700-24 Motor Non-Continuous Corr. Fact. 27
Electric Welders Section 42 Renewable Energy Systems Section 64 Motor # of OLR Requirements 25
Electrical Communications Section 60 Service Mast Apx. B 6-112 Motor Protection - CB/Fuse D16
Elevators and similar stuff Section 38 Service / Service Equipment Section 6 Motor Secondary Conductors 28
Emergency/Safety Equipment Section 46 Service Conductor Sizing 4-004 (22) Motor Supply Conductors 37
EV Charging Stations Section 86 Signs and Neon Lighting Section 34 Neutral Supported Cable (AL) 36A
Fiber Optic Cables Section 56 Temperature Rating (conductors) 4-004 Neutral Supported Cable (CU) 36B
Fire / Smoke / CO2 Alarms Section 32 Temperature Rating (equipment) 4-006 Other Calculations 14
Flexible Cords 4-002 to 012 Temporary Wiring Section 76 Service Conductors (NSC) 39
Flexible Cords Ampacity Correction 4-012 Theatre Installations Section 44 Voltage Drop (1% - 120V) D3
Fuses 14-200 Transformer Protection 26-240 Voltage Drop (5% - 6V) D4
Gas Stations / Garages etc. Section 20 Vehicle Heater Receptacles 8-400 WRIM Secondary Conductors 28
General Rules (Permits!) Section 2 Voltage Drop 8-102
General Sections 0-16 & 26 Wiring Methods Section 12
Generator Connection to grid Section 84 Zone 1 Hazardous Locations 18-100
Grounding Section 10
Grounding Electrodes 10-102
Hazardous Locations Section 18
Heating (fixed electrical) Section 62
Heating Cables 62-304
High-Voltage Installations Section 36
Housing Calculations 8-200
Installation of Equipment Section 26

Code Page 225