CARBON BRUSH PERFORMANCE ON SLIP RINGS

Richard D. Hall, P.E. Roland P. Roberge

Morgan AM&T Member, IEEE
251 Forrester Drive Morgan AM&T
Greenville, SC 29607 251 Forrester Drive
Greenville, SC 29607

Abstract - Carbon brushes are commonly used on or on intermittent duty applications. Wound rotor machines
DC or AC applications such as commutators and slip and their controls are generally less expensive to purchase
rings. The commutator application has been studied and install than DC machines or Variable Frequency AC
extensively and there are many trouble shooting tools Drive (VFD) applications for providing variable speed. New
to assist the technician at resolving motor or generator technology has improved the efficiency of wound rotor
problems. Slip ring applications have been widely motor installations and increased their potential
used on high speed turbine generators, slower speed applications.
synchronous motor/generators and wound rotor The stator of a wound rotor motor has a three phase
motors. In recent years, with the aid of modern winding and its rotor also has a three phase winding.
electronics, the doubly fed asynchronous generator Currents are induced in the rotor windings and brought out
and wound rotor motor have increased in popularity. to three collector rings. The variable speed of the wound
Troubleshooting tools for the slip ring application used rotor motor results in a wide range of rotor current. This
on this type of equipment are limited. This paper will motor produces high torque at low speed resulting in high
address the modes of failure for carbon brushes and rotor current. When the motor speed increases with less
slip rings and the root cause analysis for these available torque, the result is lower rotor current and the
failures. The information for this paper was generated motor runs much like a squirrel cage induction motor. The
from motor/generator inspections over a large range of rotor current is controlled through the three collector rings
applications. The intent of this paper is to assist the which are most often bronze, although some motors use
technician with the evaluation of slip rings and carbon stainless steel. Brush current densities vary widely
brushes in order to reduce maintenance cost and depending on the motor design and loading, and brushes
increase uptime. may be graphite, electrographite or metal graphite grades.
The current in the brushes on this application is AC
Index Terms: Collector Rings, Film, Threading, (Alternating Current at slip frequency).
Grooving, Foot Printing, Photo Imaging, Selectivity. Turbine generators are large high speed synchronous
machines that convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The prime mover is a turbine. As with the other
I. INTRODUCTION AC machines, the stator contains a three phase winding.
The rotor has DC fields for excitation with the DC power
The primary machines used in the paper industry are supplied through two collector rings. The collector rings
synchronous motors, wound rotor induction motors and are almost exclusively steel, and the carbon brushes are
steam turbine generators. Though all these machines use soft, low density graphite materials run at high surface
slip rings (collector rings) and brushes, the applications are speeds. These units may use a larger quantity of brushes
varied enough to require different brush materials, and to accommodate the excitation current.
sometimes different collector ring materials.
B. Brush Selection and Collector Ring Filming
A. Machines Using Carbon Brushes
The carbon brushes and collector rings form a sliding
Synchronous motors are AC machines that are very electrical contact. The selection of brush materials used on
efficient and run at constant speed on constant frequency the machinery must be suitable for the machine and the
AC power. On 60 Hz power a two pole synchronous motor application. For synchronous motors, the current densities
2 2
runs at 3600 RPM, a four pole motor at 1800 RPM, and a are moderate (generally 75 Amps/in [11.6 Amps/cm ] or
six pole motor at 1200 RPM, etc. These motors have three less) and the main parameters that affect selection of the
phase windings in the stator and DC fields for excitation in brush grades are the collector ring material being used and
the rotor. The DC excitation current is supplied through current density. For wound rotor motors, the current
two collector rings that are most often carbon steel, densities may vary over a larger range, but the brush
bronze, or occasionally, stainless steel. Current densities current density and ring material are the main factors in
2
in the brushes are moderate (generally 75 Amps/in [11.6 selecting brush grades. For turbine generators, there is a
Amps/cm2] or less) and the brushes are generally graphite limited selection of materials used on the high speed steel
or electrographitic materials. collector rings. The machinery OEM will have chosen
Wound rotor induction motors are variable speed AC brush materials for the machines, but if the actual operating
machines that may be used on conveyor belts, cranes or currents are considerably different than the rated current,
other applications that must start heavy loads at low speed different brush grades may offer improved performance.
but run most of the time at higher speed with lighter loads,

978-1-4244-5674-1/10/$26.00 ©2010 IEEE

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The OEM or carbon brush manufacturing companies can alloys develop very non-conductive oxides which can result
help with brush selection. in selective brushes, arcing and high friction. [1]

Brush Material Rated Current Metal Content D. Brush Holders

Class Density %
Amps/in2 It is not possible to have successful ring performance if
(Amps/cm2) the brush is not held properly on the collector surface. The
mechanics of the brush holder are very critical. The
Graphite 65 (10.0) 0 holders must be supported so they do not vibrate from self
Electrographite 80 (12.5) 0 excitation. A brush holder design which involves a clock
Copper Graphite 100 (15.5) 50 spring and pressure finger is a poor selection when
Copper Graphite 125 (19.4) 75 vibration is encountered. The response time of the
pressure finger is too slow, thus the brush has periods of
time when it is not in contact with the ring. Many of these
type holders have adjustable springs to change the brush
pressure. Adjustable springs are a maintenance issue not
always addressed as the brush becomes shorter. Only a
few hours of operation with poor brush pressure is enough
to start etching a low area in the ring surface. Use of the
constant pressure spring design has helped to reduce the
recovery time during vibration and also eliminated the
[1]
human variable of failure to maintain the brush pressure.
The brush holder clearance to the ring should be set at
the motor manufacturer’s recommendation. Typically this
distance is about 0.125” (3.2 mm). If the holder is too high,
brush friction with the ring forces the brush against the side
of the holder in a way that restricts free brush movement in
the holder and slows response time. Holders that support
Brush wear is caused by electrical, mechanical, brushes over their entire length are preferred to short
environmental/chemical and thermal factors. Mechanically, stubby holders as they improve free movement of the
brushes wear from friction as two surfaces slide against brush. Figs. 2 and 3 are examples of such holders.
each other. With the operation of brushes on the collector
ring, a film forms that consists of metal oxide, carbon
graphite, some contamination and a small, but critical,
amount of moisture. The film consists of metal oxide from
the collector ring, carbon or graphite from the brushes,
contaminants and a small but critical amount of water vapor
from the air. (Fig. 1) The film provides a low friction
surface. Electrically, material is removed from the brush by
the flow of current. With increasing brush temperatures at
the brush faces, some carbon also oxidizes into carbon
dioxide gas. Brush wear rates increase considerably if the
brush temperatures are over 150 degrees Celsius for many
grades.

C. Collector Ring Materials

Ring material is a highly debatable item; however,

certain mechanical features have to be considered before a
ring material can be used. Frequently used materials have
been copper, brass, bronze, steel, cast iron, stainless steel, Fig. 2 Short style collector holder
and Monel. Bronze, steel and stainless steel are most
common in the machine sizes used in the paper industry.
Bronze and brass have limited strength for high speed
applications, and are used where it is necessary to restrict
chemical reaction in some atmospheres. Steel has been
the most popular ring material when mechanical strength is
of the utmost importance. The oxidation of the ring,
especially under the brush during down periods, generally
is the major criticism of this material. Stainless steel and
Monel have been applied where there are contamination
issues or oxidation problems. Carbon brush applications
on these materials are sensitive. Nickel and chromium

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 Slip Ring Speed Allowable TIR
fpm (m/sec) Inches (micron)

Under 5,000 (25.4) 0.003 (76)

5,000 (25.4) - 0.002 (51)

10,000 (50.8)

Over 10,000 (50.8) 0.001 (25)

B. Foot Printing

“Foot Printing”, also known as “Photo Imaging” or

“Ghosting” begins with the appearance of images on the
collector ring that accurately reflects the size, shape and
spacing of the carbon brushes on the collector rings. (Fig.
4)
Fig. 3 Full length brush holder
Some people believe these images were caused by
Most collector ring brush holders are designed so the excitation current being energized when the unit was
brush is radial (perpendicular to the ring). The brush holder standing still, but that is not the case. In a paper, “Collector
alignment is critical. Radial or slightly trailing is preferred. Ring Marking
[2]
the theory is proposed that the images
Slightly leading or “stubbing” alignment (rings approaching were caused by simultaneous loss of electrical contact of
a slightly acute brush angle) can result in “friction chatter” all the brushes on the ring. The trigger for the loss of
where the brushes vibrate like chalk squealing on a contact is mechanical, but adverse ring conditions such as
blackboard. This can cause mechanical damage to the oil contamination greatly accelerate the appearance of the
brushes or loss of brush contact resulting in arcing. images. A strobe light is an excellent tool for detecting
imaging in the early stages. If the brush loses contact, the
II. COLLECTOR RING AND BRUSH CONDITIONS ring may travel some distance before the brush spring
forces the brush back onto the contact surface, resulting in
A. Normal Performance arcing during this time. During the later stages of foot
printing, an arc of the collector ring begins to electrically
The collector ring should have a uniform film appearance erode the ring. This arc begins as the distance between
with no burn marks, no signs of excessive ring wear or brush holders and increases to half the ring and finally
other signs of distress. If the machine is running, the around the whole ring. An inspector may believe the brush
collector rings can be inspected with a strobe light tuned
slightly higher or lower than the RPM of the motor. The
rings will appear to rotate slowly so the total circumference
can be inspected. When the rings are at standstill it may
not be possible to see the total circumference; something
of interest may be out of sight or under the brushes and
brush holders. Areas of concern can be “stopped” with the
strobe light by tuning the strobe light to the exact motor
running RPM. Though the rings appear to be stopped,
care must be exercised as the rings are still rotating,
energized parts. Unlike commutating DC machines, there
should be no sparking at the interface between the brushes
and the collector rings. Brush faces should be uniform
without signs of arcing. There should not be polished
areas on the sides of the brushes caused by excessive
movement of the brushes within the holders. The shunt
cables should not be frayed. The contact area of the spring
Fig. 4 Foot printing
to the brush should not have signs of excessive wear. An
insulated “feeler stick” can be used to touch the top of the
is abrasive and mechanically grooving the collector ring,
brush to detect brush vibration. Check with your safety
when the real answer is that it is the final stage of foot
department as not all facilities allow personnel close to
printing.
rotating, energized machinery.
Moisture in the air can cause some corrosion on rings
Another critical parameter to ensure normal performance
that remain at standstill for extended periods. This can be
of the brush is the roundness of the collector ring or TIR
the mechanical trigger to begin brush bouncing and photo
(total indicator run out). The following guidelines can be
imaging. Other triggers that can keep the brush from
used to evaluate an acceptable TIR:

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maintaining intimate contact with the collector ring while
rotating are:
Out of balance rotor
High friction area on the slip ring
Brush instability from brush boxes being too high above
the collector ring
Stubbing (leading) style brush holders
Weak springs
Loose slip rings
Contamination
Higher friction within the brush holders (possibly from
sandblasting the holders)
face
Among the corrective measures to minimize foot printing
are increasing the brush pressure to shorten the period Fig. 6 Threaded brush face
brushes bounce from a disturbance, increasing the number
of brushes to maintain contact of at least one brush on the Low spring force can create arcing which can cause
ring at any one time, and repositioning the brushes to metal to be transferred to the brush face. The proper brush
spread them around the ring in a larger arc to reduce the pressure needed to maintain good contact with the
[2]
chance of brush bounce overlap. collector ring and not mechanically wear the ring is 2 to 4
2
Pounds per Square Inch (PSI) (0.14 to 0.28 Kg/cm ).
C. Threading Higher surface speed applications apply brush pressure in
the 2 to 2.75 PSI (0.14 to 0.19 Kg/cm2) range. Where
Under normal conditions, metal transferred from the slower speed or higher vibration applications are involved,
rings to the brush is vaporized, forming the lubricating film. applied brush pressure should be in the 3.5 to 5 PSI (0.25
2
Threading is a condition where the metal from the rings to 0.35 Kg/cm ) range. (Fig. 7)
does not totally vaporize. The metal particles imbed into
the porosity of the brush faces. The small metal particles
work harden in the brush face, from sliding against the
collector ring surface, eventually becoming harder than the
parent metal and cutting into the ring surface, leaving
circumferential scratch marks that appear like fine pitch
“threads”. (Figs. 5 and 6) Copper or copper bearing
metals are more prone to threading than steel or stainless
steel. Some chemical contaminants, such as sulfur
containing gases that can react with copper, are present in
many paper mills and can increase the likelihood or rate of
threading. Threading may or may not affect brush wear,
but it does increase collector ring wear, necessitating
increased ring maintenance and shortening collector ring
life. Low brush current density aggravates the rate of
threading, so brushes should be chosen that have current
density ratings appropriate for the actual current density in Fig. 7 Brush Wear vs. Brush Pressure (PSI)
the application. Caution should be used if brushes need to
be removed to increase brush current density (a technique D. Grooving
used on DC motors). Brushes should be removed in a
manner to retain the total arc of brush contact to minimize Grooving is uniform wear around the circumference of
the chances of developing “foot printing” as discussed in the rings. There will always be some wear of the rings as
the previous section of this paper. the brushes and rings slide against each other for great
distances and, with the flow of current (electrical erosion),
some metal is removed from the rings.[3] (Fig. 8) However,
the rate should not be great enough to require frequent
collector ring maintenance. The rate of grooving can be
increased by electrical and mechanical wear. Abrasive
brush grades can wear the collector surfaces, especially on
bronze collector rings. In contaminated atmospheres,
sometimes grades are needed with a low level of
abrasiveness, called “polishing action”, to keep the
surfaces clean and allow the flow of current without arcing.
However, if the brush abrasive level is too high, grooving
can result. Steel collectors need brushes with some
Fig. 5 Threaded on collector ring polishing action, noting steel rings are more resistant to

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mechanical wear than bronze rings. Sometimes on Brush arm to cable bolt on connection 1 millivolt
synchronous machines where the polarities are on Brush box to brush arm connection 1 millivolt
separate rings, one ring may wear more than the other Brush terminal to brush box connection 1 millivolt
(and the brushes on one polarity may wear more than the Terminal to shunt wire connection 1 millvolt
others). This varying electrical wear is called “polarity Shunt to carbon connection (two shunts) 150 millvolt
effect” and is affected by the direction of current flow. Carbon material voltage drop 120 millivolt
Reversing the polarity of the brushes periodically can make Contact drop (brush face to collector O.D.) 1000 millivolts
the wear on the two rings more uniform. This is analogous
to rotating the tires on a car. Brush pressures that are too The contact drop from the stationary to rotating
low can also increase electrical wear. Brush spring force component (the brush to collector ring) is the dominant
can be measured with a spring force gauge and divided by voltage drop. Contact drop is affected by the following
brush cross sectional area to determine the brush elements listed in order of importance:
pressure. Brush pressure that is too high can increase
brush wear, but low brush pressure is more of a concern as Brush pressure
it increases wear of the brushes and the rings. Carbon brush material
Contamination
Vibration (consistent brush contact)
Collector ring material (steel, bronze, stainless steel)
Current density of the brush

Collector ring material is consistent within an application

and contamination and vibration should not be present.
The two most common variables encountered are brush
pressure and brush materials.
Having uniform brush pressure is critical. Adjustable
springs need to be adjusted for uniform forces. Constant
pressure springs are manufactured with a tolerance on the
force. With exposure to heat and vibration the springs can
fatigue and lose force over time, resulting in a larger than
desired variation in force. Replacing the springs every five
years is recommended to ensure adequate and more
uniform forces.
Some brush grades are better than others at minimizing
selectivity. Different methods have been used in an attempt
Fig. 8 Ring grooving to reduce selectivity. One method is to cut a diagonal slot
[3]
cut in the brush face through the wear length. Another
The optimum brush pressure for industrial motors like method is to machine a helical groove in the collector ring.
synchronous motors or wound rotor motors is 2 to 4 PSI Brushes conduct current at a few contact points at a time
2
(0.14 to 0.28 Kg/cm ). For high speed turbine generators it and those points move around the brush face. The current
is 2 to 2.75 PSI (0.14 to 0.19 Kg/cm2). density at the local conduction points may be quite high.
This causes localized heating in the brush carbon. Since
E. Selectivity carbon has a negative coefficient of resistivity with
temperature (the resistivity decreases with increasing
The brushes used on collector rings are in electrical temperature), the hotter the carbon becomes the more
parallel with each other. The brushes never share current easily it conducts. These local hot spots tend to
or wear at the same rate. Uneven currents will affect the concentrate the current rather than allow the conduction to
wear of individual brushes, with the brushes with higher move around in the brush face. This can result in localized
current wearing faster. This difference should not be so hot spots in the carbon causing the carbon to glow red.
large that it causes unnecessary shut downs to change Hot spots contribute to uneven current sharing between
individual short brushes. The unequal current sharing and brushes. Under these conditions, the helical grooves force
brush wear is called selectivity. The brush manufacturer the current to move around in the brush face. As the
needs to make carbon grades with consistent resistance groove sweeps across the brush face there is an
properties and low resistance shunt connections to the interruption in contact between the collector ring and brush
carbon to minimize resistance variations in the parallel face forcing current to conduct in an alternate area of the
paths between individual brushes. The largest and most brush face.[4]
variable resistance in the parallel paths is the contact drop
between the brush and the collector ring. The following F. Loss of Brush Contact
table expresses the magnitude of the contact drop in the
electrical circuit versus other resistance areas. The The loss of brush contact results in arcing between the
following example uses 100 amps as the test current. brushes and the ring which can severely damage the ring
surface and brushes. (Figs. 9 and 10) The brushes can
lose contact if the brushes are hung up or if the brushes

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are allowed to wear too short. (Fig 11) Loss of brush
contact can also occur when the springs run out of travel G. Ring Corrosion
and do not provide adequate brush pressure. Severe
arcing can progress, to a phase to phase or phase to Collector rings that are made of steel and stored for long
ground short circuit, resulting in a flashover. Flashovers periods of time without corrosion protection can rust from
are high energy short circuits that can melt brush boxes moisture in the air. In Fig. 12, the equipment was used
and severely damage the slip rings. infrequently and was near the ocean (salt air). The ring
surface rusted while standing still and when the unit was
started, conduction was poor due to the rust. The
roughness of the rust “sanded” the brushes causing rapid
brush wear. Corrosion resistant rings such as bronze or
stainless steel would be a better choice for this application.
Collector ring corrosion can also result from exposure to
acids or caustics.

Fig. 9 Badly pitted stainless steel ring

Fig. 12 Rusty collector rings

III. CONCLUSIONS

There are a variety of issues that can adversely affect

collector ring and carbon brush performance.
Understanding the root causes of these issues will help the
operator apply carbon brushes to collector ring materials.
Auxiliary components such as brush springs and brush
holders must be of good design and well maintained to
Fig. 10 Metal transfer to brush from arcing
ensure proper brush contact. Good maintenance practices
and troubleshooting will result in good brush life and reduce
downtime and collector ring expenses.

IV. REFERENCES

[1] George H. Gunnoe, “Collector Rings”, July 1984.

[2] Harry O. Ohmstedt, Senior Member IEEE, “Collector
Ring Marking”, 1990.
[3] Carbon Brushes & Electrical Machines, “Carbon
Brushes and Electrical Machines”, Morganite
Electrical Carbon Limited, 1978, reprinted 1983.
[4] Rich Hall, “Spiral Grooves and Commutation”, GE
“Benchmark”, Number 5, Issue 2, May 1995.

Fig. 11 Brush allowed to wear too short

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