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Geological Society of America Bulletin

How volcanoes work: A 25 year perspective

Katharine V. Cashman and R. Stephen J. Sparks

Geological Society of America Bulletin 2013;125, no. 5-6;664-690

doi: 10.1130/B30720.1

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How volcanoes work: A 25 year perspective 18 8 8 2 013

CELEBRATING ADVANCES IN GEOSCIENCE

†
Katharine V. Cashman and R. Stephen J. Sparks
School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS81RJ, UK Invited Review

ABSTRACT eruption triggers. Finally, we look at eruptions Hawaiian volcanism is associated with the
themselves, from the ascent of magma through eponymous Hawaiian eruptive style, which is
Over the past 25 years, our understanding the crust to the physical controls on eruption dominated by fluid lava flows. Lava flows often
of the physical processes that drive volcanic styles and generation of eruptive products. We emerge directly from dike-fed fissure systems;
eruptions has increased enormously thanks recognize that it is impossible to do justice to all for this reason, shield volcanoes tend to be
to major advances in computational and of these topics—or all of the scientists who have elongated along the fissure direction. Hawai-
analytical facilities, instrumentation, and col- contributed to the contemporary understanding ian shield volcanoes are built of stacks of these
lection of comprehensive observational, geo- of volcanism—in a single article. In this regard, flows; their low slopes reflect both the fluidity
physical, geochemical, and petrological data we note that a thorough review of the field was of the initial lava and the tendency for lava flows
sets associated with recent volcanic activity. completed in 2000 with the publication of the En- to thicken (because of cooling, crystallization,
Much of this work has been motivated by the cyclopedia of Volcanoes (Sigurdsson et al., 2000). and associated increases in viscosity) with trans-
recognition that human exposure to volcanic port distance from rift zone vents (e.g., Katz and
hazard is increasing with both expanding VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS— Cashman, 2003). An unprecedented look at
populations and increasing reliance on infra- AN OVERVIEW the structure of Hawaiian volcanoes has been
structure (as illustrated by the disruption provided by a 15-yr-long drilling project that
to air traffic caused by the 2010 eruption of Volcanoes vary greatly in morphology, evolu- recovered core from Hawaii’s Mauna Loa vol-
Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland). Reducing tion, eruptive styles, and behaviors as a conse- cano to a depth of ~3500 m, which represents
vulnerability to volcanic eruptions requires a quence of the wide variety of tectonic settings, an ~700 k.y. history of the Hawaiian plume
thorough understanding of the processes that melt production rates, magma compositions, and (Stolper et al., 2009). Not surprisingly, given
govern eruptive activity. Here, we provide eruption conditions that they represent. Here, the proximity of the drilling site to the current
an overview of our current understanding we introduce common volcanic landforms, to- shoreline, subaerial lavas represent only a small
of how volcanoes work. We focus particu- gether with the eruption styles responsible for fraction of the core samples, with most of the
larly on the physical processes that modulate their formation. Because magma composition volcanic sequence represented by subaqueous
magma accumulation in the upper crust, is an important control on eruptive style, we hyaloclastites and pillow basalts.
transport magma to the surface, and control separate discussions of mafic and intermediate/ From a hazards perspective, an important
eruptive activity. silicic volcanism. discovery about Hawaiian volcanism has been
the recognition that Kilauea volcano has expe-
INTRODUCTION Mafic Volcanoes rienced periods of highly explosive activity in
addition to the effusive eruptions of the past
Volcanic eruptions are a spectacular manifesta- Mafic volcanoes vary greatly in scale and few centuries (Fiske et al., 2009). Episodes
tion of a dynamic Earth. They not only link deep construction style. The iconic basaltic landform of explosive activity are particularly frequent
Earth (the geosphere) to the hydrosphere, atmo- is a shield volcano, such as those that comprise during times immediately following summit
sphere, and biosphere but also affect human popu- the Hawaiian Islands, United States (Fig. 1A). caldera formation (Swanson, 2008; Swanson
lations: ~600 million people live close enough to Shield volcanoes are constructed primarily by et al., 2012). Summit calderas in mafic shield
an active volcano to be affected by eruptions, and successive lava flows and are commonly char- volcanoes form by rapid drainage of magma
civilization itself could be threatened by the larg- acterized by relatively low slopes. Other mafic from summit storage regions to flank vents (e.g.,
est explosive eruptions that have occurred in Earth volcano morphologies include the “inverted Gudmundsson, 1987). In Hawaii, this drainage
history. The core questions of volcanology focus soup bowl” shape of Galapagos volcanoes; allows access of groundwater to the magmatic
on how volcanoes work, that is, how magma steep-sided cones, like Pico volcano in the system, which may fuel the high explosivity ob-
forms and moves to the surface, and how the spe- Azores and Kluchevskoi in Kamchatka; fis- served in postcaldera periods.
cific properties of the magma, and the lithosphere sure volcanoes in tectonic rifts such as Iceland, Stromboli volcano, Italy (Fig. 1B), is the
through which it moves, control eruptive activity. where they may be associated with a central sub- type location for the Strombolian eruption style,
Here, we review progress that has been made on sidence caldera; tuja volcanoes erupted under ice which is characterized by frequent (often sev-
this core topic over the past quarter century. To or in shallow-marine environments; mid-ocean eral per hour) small explosions that have been
provide a context, we start by reviewing volcanic ridges with morphologies that reflect spreading attributed to the rise and bursting of large indi-
landforms and associated styles of eruptive activ- rate; and fields of monogenetic volcanoes, each vidual gas bubbles (e.g., Vergniolle and Jaupart,
ity. We then describe our current understanding of related to a single eruptive episode. These land- 1986). Stromboli thus represents an “open-sys-
magma storage regions (magma chambers) and forms reflect a range in eruptive styles, the most tem” volcano, that is, a volcano where gases can
common of which are reviewed next (see also move freely through the system. In fact, Strom-
†
E-mail: cashman@uoregon.edu Francis et al., 1990). boli typically produces ~105 times more gas

GSA Bulletin; May/June 2013; v. 125; no. 5/6; p. 664–690; doi: 10.1130/B30720.1; 18 figures.

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How volcanoes work

A B

C D

Figure 1. Photographs of mafic volcanic landforms. (A) Mauna Loa shield volcano, United States; (B) Stromboli strato-
volcano, Italy; (C) Paricutin cinder cone, Mexico; (D) Colli Albani mafic caldera complex, Italy, viewed from Rome.

than can be accounted for by the magma ejected face; whether this characteristic requires inter- generation of large mafic ignimbrite deposits is
beyond the vent (e.g., Harris and Ripepe, 2007). action with external water sources remains a curious from several perspectives, including the
However, Stromboli can also produce lava flows matter of debate (e.g., White and Ross, 2011). mechanisms by which large volumes of mafic
and “paroxysmal” eruptions, as demonstrated in Improving our understanding of small mafic (and very low viscosity) magma accumulate in
2002–2003 and 2007 (e.g., Ripepe et al., 2005; eruptions is important because cities such as the upper crust (rather than rise to the surface
Calvari et al., 2008; Scandone et al., 2009). This Auckland, New Zealand, Bend, Oregon, and in small batches) and maintain sustained ex-
variability in eruption style derives from the Mexico City, Mexico, are constructed within plosive activity (rather than losing volatiles and
complex structure of the magma storage and active cinder cone fields. changing to effusive eruption styles).
transport system, and the resulting alternation More important for hazards, and more puz- Another exciting advance in mafic volcanism
between near-surface and deep controls on erup- zling from the perspective of physical vol- over the past few decades has come from the
tive activity. canology, is the recent documentation of highly oceans. Studies of submarine volcanism in-
Cinder cone fields characterize regions of ac- explosive eruptions from mafic volcanic cen- creased with the advent of the RIDGE program
tive extension and transtension (Fig. 1C). Here, ters. Widespread tephra deposits from mafic of the 1980s and 1990s, which greatly enhanced
ascent and eruption of small mafic magma volcanoes were first recognized from eruptions our understanding of processes occurring in mid-
batches produce a spectrum of eruptive styles of Masaya, Nicaragua (Williams, 1983; Bice, ocean-ridge environments. Mid-ocean ridges are
from fissure-fed Hawaiian lava flows to Strom- 1985). Interest in mafic Plinian eruptions re- sites of frequent volcanic activity that is typically
bolian bubble bursts to explosive gas-charged vived with documentation of a mafic Plinian manifested as fissure-generated lava flow erup-
violent Strombolian eruptions to passive lava eruption from Etna volcano in 122 B.C. (Coltelli tions of varying intensities (e.g., Rubin et al.,
effusion. Hawaiian-style eruptions are domi- et al., 1998) and has led to numerous detailed 2012). These eruptions can be monitored where
nated by lava flows, Strombolian-style eruptions fields studies of mafic explosive volcanism (for ocean-based hydrophone networks are suffi-
produce small scoria cones and/or lava flows, example, Cas and Giordano, 2006; Pérez and ciently dense to record T-phase seismicity asso-
and violent Strombolian eruptions produce sub- Freundt, 2006; Costantini et al., 2010). Most ciated with magma migration to the surface (e.g.,
stantial tephra sheets. Other features that are im- surprising, however, has been the recognition Slack et al., 1999). Axial volcano on the Juan de
portant in the spectrum of small mafic volcanoes of very large (tens of cubic kilometers) mafic Fuca Ridge (NE Pacific) also hosts a sub-
are maars and diatremes, which have craters that ignimbrites from Colli Albani volcano, Italy marine monitoring network of seismic, pressure,
have excavated well below the pre-eruptive sur- (Fig. 1D; Funiciello and Giordano, 2010). The and deformation sensors that has now recorded

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multiple eruptions (e.g., Fox et al., 2001; Nooner tral cones are often surrounded by gently dip- seconds) but intense explosions characterize
and Chadwick, 2009; Caress et al., 2012; Chad- ping flanks composed of lavas and pyroclastic Vulcanian eruptions, which are most common in
wick et al., 2012; Dziak et al., 2012; Mitchell, and volcaniclastic (particularly volcanic mud- volcanoes of intermediate (andesitic to dacitic)
2012). Additionally, recent remotely operated flow) material. Although not always interme- compositions. The type locality—Vulcano—
vehicle (ROV) cruises to the western Pacific diate in composition (Etna, Italy, Fuji, Japan, is rhyolitic, but also erupts latite and trachyte
have identified several mafic submarine arc vol- and Villarica, Chile, are basaltic examples), magmas. The continuum from sustained Plin-
canoes that are either commonly or persistently this geomorphic form typifies volcanoes con- ian through pulsatory subplinian to Vulcanian
active (e.g., Embley et al., 2006). One of these, structed from viscous (often intermediate/ activity derives from variations in magma kinet-
NW Rota-1, lies ~100 km north of Guam in the silicic) magmas that erupt explosively as well ics and dynamics during ascent (e.g., Cashman,
Marianas, has been erupting since at least 2004, as effusively. 2004; Mason et al., 2006).
and has produced eruptions that range from ef- Explosive eruptions of stratovolcanoes are Stratovolcanoes are prone to failure either
fusive to mildly explosive (e.g., Chadwick et al., classified as Plinian if they are large (with erup- by sector collapse, as illustrated by the 1980
2008; Fig. 2). Studies of these systems provide tion column heights in excess of 20–25 km and eruption of Mount St. Helens (Lipman and
important insight into processes that form both dense rock volumes >1 km3), sustained, and pro- Mullineaux, 1981), or by caldera formation, as
oceanic crust and the island-arc component of duce widespread tephra deposits (Newhall and occurred at Mount Pinatubo in 1991 (Newhall
continents. Self, 1982). This term derives from the 79 A.D. and Punongbayan, 1996). Sector collapse is
(Pompeii) eruption of Vesuvius, Italy, and can commonly accompanied by explosive activ-
Intermediate/Silicic Volcanoes be applied to sustained eruptions of Mount St. ity; particularly lethal are resulting laterally di-
Helens, United States, in 1980 and Pinatubo, rected blasts, which occur when the edifice (or
Stratovolcanoes are perhaps the best-known Philippines, in 1991. Eruptions with smaller dome) fails because of intruding magma (e.g.,
(and most iconic) volcano type (Fig. 3A). They volumes (0.1–1 km3), lower eruption columns Druitt, 1992; Hoblitt, 2000; Voight et al., 2002).
are steep-sided cones constructed from stacked (<20–25 km), and more local tephra deposits are Caldera collapse follows withdrawal of large
lavas and pyroclastic deposits (Fig. 3B). Cen- termed subplinian. Short-lived (typically tens of volumes of magma. Famous caldera-forming

A B

14°40′

14°38′

14°36′

C
14°34′

14°32′N

144°42′E 144°44′ 144°46′ 144°48′ 144°50′

Figure 2. NW Rota-1 submarine volcano. (A) Bathymetry and location map; (B) explosion showing quench fragmentation within the
plume; (C) red lava explosion (modified from Chadwick et al., 2008; Deardorff et al., 2011).

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How volcanoes work

A B

C D

Figure 3. (A) Villarica stratovolcano, Chile. (B) Crater walls of Santorini volcano, Greece, showing interlayered lava flows and pyroclastic
deposits. (C) Temple of Serapis, Pozzuoli, Italy. This site lies within the Campi Flegrei caldera and has experienced repeated uplift and
subsidence, with the most recent uplift in the mid-1980s. (D) Lava spine from the 2004–2008 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington
(U.S. Geological Survey photograph).

eruptions include the ca. 7700 yr B.P. eruption commonly termed “supervolcanoes,” as they with these events derives in part from the recog-
of Crater Lake, Oregon (Bacon, 1983; Bacon represent an extreme end member of volcanic nition that large caldera-forming eruptions may
et al., 2002), the ca. 3600 yr B.P. eruption of San- activity. Caldera formation in these systems is have played a role in the development of human
torini, Greece (Druitt et al., 1989), and the more attributed to subsidence related to rapid with- history, such as the 39,000 yr B.P. eruption of
recent eruptions of the Indonesian volcanoes drawal of very large volumes of magma (tens Campi Flegrei, Italy (e.g., Fedele et al., 2008)
Tambora (A.D. 1815; Oppenheimer, 2003) and to a few thousand km3) in single events; sub- and the 75,000 yr B.P. eruption of Toba, Indo-
Krakatau (A.D. 1883; Simkin and Fiske, 1983; sidence causes large pressure changes, failure of nesia (e.g., Ambrose, 1998, 2003). These large
Self, 1992). Exploration of the western Pacific the roof rocks, and collapse (e.g., Gudmunds- systems are commonly restless (e.g., Fig. 3C)
has shown that caldera formation is not confined son, 1988; Lipman, 1997). The central depres- and thus pose a major monitoring challenge.
to subaerial environments, but that silicic sub- sions often host thick sequences of caldera Another end member is represented by effu-
marine calderas are also common in submarine fill. After caldera formation, these intracaldera sive eruptions of very viscous intermediate to
arc volcanoes (e.g., Wright and Gamble, 1999; ignimbrites can be lifted up to form resurgent silicic magmas that create high-aspect-ratio lava
Fiske et al., 2001; Tani et al., 2008). Moreover, domes at the center of the original depression flows, domes, and spines (Fig. 3D). Although
silicic submarine calderas are often associated (e.g., Acocella et al., 2000). Eruptions of these effusive, these eruptions pose unique hazards re-
with extensive Kuroko-type mineralization types are rare (Mason et al., 2004); thus recent lated to pressurization and collapse of dense lava
(e.g., Iizasa et al., 1999). advances derive from new field studies, analyti- plugs. Recent well-observed dome eruptions of
Very large caldera-forming eruptions create cal techniques, analogue experiments, and nu- Mount St. Helens (1980–1986 and 2004–2008;
inverse volcanoes, or central collapse depres- merical models rather than direct observation Swanson and Holcomb, 1990; Sherrod et al.,
sions surrounded by widespread pyroclastic of eruptive activity (e.g., Wilson and Hildreth, 2008); Unzen, Japan (1991–1995; Nakada et al.,
fans, such as the Taupo volcano, New Zealand 1997; Jellinek and de Paolo, 2003; Acocella, 1999), and Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat
(Wilson, 1985). Large caldera systems are 2007; Cashman and Cas, 2011). Fascination (1995–present; e.g., Sparks and Young, 2002)

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Cashman and Sparks

have provided a wealth of observational data and coherent picture of well-studied volcanic decompression-induced crystallization (Annen
about this eruption style, and show that growing systems (e.g., Blundy et al., 2008). Finally, in- et al., 2006). Sills form where magma moves
domes (or cryptodomes) can generate (1) lateral tegration of geophysical information with nu- laterally; this can occur when rising magma
volcanic blasts and sector collapse with debris merical models is providing new views into the encounters a rigidity or density barrier (Kava-
avalanches, (2) subplinian and Vulcanian ex- evolution of magma storage regions (Pearse and nagh et al., 2006; Taisne and Jaupart, 2009), or
plosive eruptions, and (3) (sometimes lethal) Fialko, 2010; Paulatto et al., 2012). Taken as a where the minimum principal stress is vertical.
pyroclastic flows from collapse of active flow whole, the growing convergence of geophysical Sheeted sills probably constitute much of the
fronts. A key factor for hazard assessment has and petrological evidence for the location and crust formed at mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Fialko,
been the recognition of not only the longevity geometry of magma storage regions is encour- 2001). Dike-sill complexes may also amalga-
of some dome-forming activity but also the aging, particularly with regard to understanding mate to form magma reservoirs (e.g., Hildreth,
rapid transitions from effusive to explosive ac- links between magma storage conditions and 2006; Menand, 2011; Fig. 4). Magma accumu-
tivity that characterize eruptions of this type (e.g., volcanic eruptions. lation sufficient for amalgamation requires heat
Sparks, 1997). to be advected into the upper crust faster than
Magma Chamber Formation heat can be conducted away or lost by hydro-
DEVELOPMENT OF SHALLOW thermal circulation. Modeling by Annen (2009)
MAGMA STORAGE SYSTEMS It is important to note that most magma never suggests that magma intrusion rates must ex-
makes it to the surface. Estimates of the propor- ceed 10–3 km3/yr to allow magma chambers
A critical control on eruption style is the pre- tion of intruded to extruded magma range from to form.
eruptive history of shallow magma storage in 3 to 10 (e.g., Newhall and Dzurisin, 1989; White
magma chambers. Magmatic systems are com- et al., 2006). From this perspective, intrusions Geophysical Evidence for Magma
monly envisaged as interconnected crystal-melt can be viewed as failed eruptions (or, from an- Chambers
mush zones and melt-dominated regions, or other perspective, eruptions may be viewed as
magma chambers (Hildreth, 2006; Annen et al., failed intrusions). In either case, understand- Locations of active magma intrusion can be
2006), where the distinction between mush and ing the causes of, and interpreting the signs of, identified from geophysical data and constrained
magma is that of noneruptible and eruptible magma arrest has become an important focus of by surface phenomena such as invigorated fuma-
material. The threshold itself depends on fac- volcanological studies (e.g., Moran et al., 2011; roles or phreatic explosions. A particularly excit-
tors like crystal size, shape, and strain rate (e.g., Bell and Kilburn, 2012). ing development in the past decade has been the
Kerr and Lister, 1991; Cimarelli et al., 2011). Rising magma can stall for a variety of me- increasing use of interferometric synthetic aper-
Below a critical melt fraction, the system can chanical reasons (Taisne and Tait, 2009). Dikes ture radar (InSAR) to identify and monitor in-
be viewed rheologically as partially molten may not reach the surface if the driving pressure trusion sites (e.g., Pritchard and Simons, 2004;
rock, while above the threshold, the system is is insufficient (e.g., Lister and Kerr, 1991), if the Biggs et al., 2009; Fournier et al., 2010; Riddick
magma. The focus by the volcanological com- magma density is too high (Ryan, 1987), or be- and Schmidt, 2011). Regions of melt accumu-
munity on (instantaneously) eruptible magma cause the volcanic edifice itself creates regions lation can also be imaged geophysically using
has produced a different view of magmatic sys- of high stress below (Pinel and Jaupart, 2004). both active and passive seismic techniques. Pas-
tems than that derived from those who study Dikes can suffer thermal death because of cool- sive source techniques, such as location of earth-
(noneruptible) plutons, where the entire history ing (Taisne and Tait, 2011) or viscous death by quakes adjacent to magma bodies (Ryan, 1987),
of the magmatic system is preserved.
Our knowledge of magma storage systems
has improved enormously over the past 25 yr
thanks to developments in observational, ana-
A B
lytical, experimental, and numerical techniques.
Geophysical techniques for imaging magma res-
ervoirs have evolved from earthquake location
(e.g., Scandone and Malone, 1985; Ryan, 1987) Intrusive
to sophisticated tomographic and deforma- Complex
tion inversion techniques (e.g., Koulakov et al., Mature magma
2011; Ofeigsson et al., 2011; Paulatto et al., chamber
2012). New analytical techniques for measuring
the volatile contents of phenocryst-hosted melt
inclusions (reviewed in Métrich and Wallace,
2008; Blundy and Cashman, 2008) and crystal
zoning profiles (reviewed in Costa and Morgan,
2010) provide detailed constraints on magma Deep magma
source
storage conditions that lead to volcanic erup-
tions. Additionally, experimental constraints on
magma storage (reviewed in Pichavant et al., Figure 4. Proposed development of a magma chamber at Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat
2007) and the kinetics of phase transforma- (after Zellmer et al., 2003). (A) Repeated intrusion of magma from the deeper crust creates
tions (reviewed in Hammer, 2008; Hamada a network of partially solidified dikes and sills. (B) Continued intrusions reheat, remobi-
et al., 2010) can be linked to geophysical and lize, and amalgamate melt pockets into a magma chamber; additional influx of deep mafic
geochemical observations to provide a detailed magma triggers an eruption.

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How volcanoes work

are the most common. Passive source seismol- Taken together, these studies show that mag- accumulation retards the ascent of new magma,
ogy has improved dramatically through use of matic systems beneath many volcanoes and and thus extends the time of magma residence
broadband and three-component seismometers; volcanic regions consist of localized magma in the upper crust prior to eruption. For this rea-
new data have also raised new questions about chambers (zones of melt accumulation) concen- son, identical magmas rising beneath, or outside
the source of volcano-related seismicity (e.g., trated at the top of much thicker regions of crystal- of, central magma storage regions may have the
Neuberg et al., 2006; Harrington and Brodsky, melt mush. Importantly, large bodies of melt are same composition but different temperatures,
2007; Waite et al., 2008; Moran et al., 2008). At rarely detected, which suggests that most persis- crystallinities, and eruption styles (e.g., Frey and
the same time, improvements to data inversion tent magma chambers are small and that the accu- Lange, 2011). Processes active within central
techniques are providing increasingly detailed mulation of very large bodies of magma required (and open) magma chambers can be complex,
three-dimensional views of active magmatic sys- to feed large ignimbrite eruptions is rare. This in including magma mingling/mixing, composi-
tems (e.g., Chaput et al., 2012). turn suggests that melt is generated and stored as tional stratification, disruption of cumulates,
During the 1990s, geophysical experiments partial melt within the deeper crust for long peri- and assimilation of wall rock. Additionally,
in mid-ocean-ridge environments showed that ods of time prior to being transferred rapidly to several recent studies document the presence of
melt storage along fast-spreading ridges is typi- shallow levels (Annen et al., 2006). Support for diverse and intimately mixed individual crys-
cally shallow (2–3 km) and confined primarily rapid magma transfer can be found in a recent tals with very different origins. These processes
to thin along-axis sills (e.g., Singh et al., 2006). petrological study of magma accumulation prior are illustrated schematically in Figure 6, which
A similar picture is emerging from recent activ- to the Bronze Age eruption of Santorini (Druitt shows both the magma storage and transport
ity in Iceland, where deformation and seismic et al., 2012) and in a zircon chronology study of system of Shiveluch volcano, Kamchatka, and
signals related to the 2010 eruption of Eyjaf- the Taupo volcanic system, New Zealand (Wilson the consequent diverse histories of individual
jallajökull volcano, Iceland, suggest that this and Charlier, 2009). phenocrysts reconstructed from petrological
eruption was fed by a complex network of sill- studies. Importantly, these observations require
like magma bodies that may have extended to Petrologic Constraints on Magma Storage physical mechanisms of incorporating, and
the base of the crust (e.g., Sigmundsson et al., and Eruption Triggers homogenizing, crystal cargo from very different
2010; Tarasewicz et al., 2012). In contrast, parts of the magma storage systems. How this
magma beneath stratovolcanoes is apparently Petrology has long been used to study the occurs remains an important question.
stored in narrow and vertically elongated re- evolution of magmatic systems. Over the past Constraints on the temperature, pressure,
gions that may segregate into small melt pockets few decades, petrologic techniques have been volatile partial pressures, and oxidation state in
(e.g., Lees, 1992; Waite and Moran, 2009; Pau- increasingly applied to questions of pre-erup- magma chambers can be obtained using geo-
latto et al., 2012; Fig. 5). Upper-crustal magma tion magma storage, particularly those that thermometers, geobarometers, melt inclusion
chambers beneath stratovolcanoes are probably may lead to eruptions. Here, we briefly review studies, and comparison of natural mineral as-
fed from larger magma accumulations at depth. insight about magma storage conditions that semblages with those produced in experiments
An example is provided by Vesuvius, Italy. has been acquired from petrologic studies. We (reviewed in Pichavant et al., 2007; Blundy
Here, a small shallow magma body (4–5 km then look at petrologic constraints on triggers of and Cashman, 2008; Putirka, 2008; Métrich
depth) is underlain by a main magmatic system eruptive activity. and Wallace, 2008). Experimental studies of
at 10–15 km depth, while the melt-bearing re- subduction-zone volcanoes suggest that magma
gion extends to ≤30 km depth (Di Stefano and Petrologic Constraints on Magma Storage is commonly stored at 100–200 MPa under
Chiarabba, 2002). More generally, zones of volatile-saturated conditions. These experi-
plate convergence often show midcrustal anom- Once a magma chamber has formed, it de- ments also show that exsolution of H2O accom-
alies that may be associated with melt accumu- termines both the nature of magmas that can panying magma ascent changes the stability of
lation (Brown et al., 1996; Zandt et al., 2003). erupt and the fate of new melt inputs. Magma some crystal phases, most notably plagioclase.
Thus, the preserved phase assemblage (phases,
phase proportions, and phase compositions)
W E often provides tight constraints on storage con-
0 ditions just prior to eruption (Fig. 7A). Informa-
Low velocity tion on pre-eruptive magma storage can also
magma be derived from analysis of phenocryst-hosted
Figure 5. Schematic illustration melt inclusions. The preserved volatile content
of the magma storage system 5 of melt inclusions, in particular, can be used to
Depth (km)

beneath Mount St. Helens show- infer the pressure (depth) of crystal formation
High velocity
ing earthquake locations (open and thus the nature of magma storage systems
plug
circles) in country rock (high ve- characteristic of different volcano types (Fig.
locity) surrounding earthquake- 10 7B). Early-erupted samples from large (ignim-
free zones of magma storage Low velocity brite-producing) rhyolitic eruptions typically
(low velocity). Modified from magma preserve melt inclusions that are H2O-rich but
Lees (1992). have lost much of their CO2, suggesting pro-
15 ? tracted storage at (often) 150–200 MPa (open
Feeder circles, Fig. 7B). Later-erupted samples from
the same eruptions have melt inclusions that
5 km ?
are more enriched in CO2, and often encompass
20 a wider range in pressure than early-erupted

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Cashman and Sparks

time scales of months to decades (e.g., Hawkes-

worth et al., 2004; Costa and Morgan, 2010).
ASCENT AND VOLATILE
EXSOLUTION DRIVES Similar time scales are recorded by U-series
CRYSTALLIZATION studies of magma degassing (e.g., Condomines
et al., 2003; Berlo et al., 2004).

Triggering Eruptions

Two end-member models have emerged for

eruption triggering. First, there is clear evidence
CRYSTALS RECORD
CHANGES IN fO2 that melt recharge events may trigger eruptions
PLAGIOCLASE RECORD
PRESSURE OSCILLATIONS
by mobilizing stored and partially crystalline
AT TOP OF CHAMBER magma (e.g., Murphy et al., 2000; Ruprecht and
Cooper, 2012). Second, evolved melt may be rap-
idly and efficiently extracted from mush zones
and transported to shallow storage regions. These
two mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, and
they may act in tandem to fuel some eruptions.
Other triggering mechanisms include buildup of
SMALL
LATE-STAGE pressure in crystallizing, water-supersaturated
OL & OPX HBL & PLAG
INPUTS OF
CRYSTALLIZE RESORB magma (Tait et al., 1989) and tectonic triggering
HOT MAGMA
QUENCH & DISPERSE DURING (e.g., Gravley et al., 2007).
ASCENT
Mafic recharge can trigger eruptions when
LARGE LATE- hot, low-viscosity, crystal-poor melt batches
STAGE BASALT interact with cooler stored magma that is typi-
INTRUSION EARLY-FORMED CUMULATES cally more evolved and more crystalline. The
(semirigid) mush zone serves to both stabilize
the magma and to act as a trap, or rheological
INPUTS OF UNDERSATURATED barrier, to eruption of either the evolved crystal-
HYDROUS MAGMA line melt or the low-viscosity recharge magma
(e.g., Kent et al., 2010). The recharge magma
Figure 6. Schematic diagram showing reconstruction of the processes may disrupt the crystal network by fluxing gases
taking place in the open-system magma chamber of Shiveluch vol- (Bachmann and Bergantz, 2006), by heating to
cano, Kamchatka, before and during eruption, based on petrologi- cause convective self-mixing (e.g., Couch et al.,
cal studies. Phenocryst zoning patterns provide evidence of multiple 2001), or by fracturing (Wright et al., 2011). Al-
episodes of magma intrusion, crystallization, and resorption at though the recharge magma is commonly mafic,
varying pressures and oxygen fugacities, as well as late-stage crys- cryptic recharge of (hotter and less viscous)
tallization driven by magma ascent and volatile exsolution. Figure is silicic magma may also serve as an eruptive
after Humphreys et al. (2006). trigger (e.g., Smith et al., 2009).
There is also growing evidence of efficient seg-
regation and upward migration of rhyolitic melt
samples (filled circles in Fig. 7B), suggesting 2003), and arrival of recharge magma into the from midcrustal “mush” zones. First suggested
complex patterns of magma withdrawal dur- shallow system (Murphy et al., 2000). by Eichelberger et al. (2000), rhyolite melt seg-
ing later stages of caldera-forming eruptions. In The past decade has also seen rapid improve- regation has been particularly well documented
contrast, open-system andesitic volcanoes, such ments in microanalytical techniques that are by zircon dating of the products of Taupo vol-
as Popocatepetl, Mexico, preserve phenocryst- providing new insight into the details of magma cano, New Zealand. Here, melt segregation ap-
hosted melt inclusions that suggest that magma storage conditions. Time scales of magmatic pears to have been both efficient and rapid, such
was supplied from a large pressure range despite activity are constrained by isotopic (particu- that large (~500 km3) volumes of melt may have
small eruptive volumes (filled diamonds in Fig. larly U-series isotopes) and diffusion studies. accumulated in hundreds to a few thousands of
7B). These data can be correlated with seismic U-series studies place constraints on phenocryst years (e.g., Charlier et al., 2005). Rapid melt seg-
and gas geochemistry data when the samples are residence times within magma storage regions regation and shallow accumulation of rhyolitic
well constrained (i.e., both timing and eruption (e.g., Zellmer et al., 2003; Cooper and Reid, melt prior to large caldera-forming eruptions
conditions are known; e.g., Blundy et al., 2008; 2008). These studies reflect the integrated age of are consistent with melt inclusion evidence for
Saunders et al., 2012). Additionally, discrepan- the crystal population and commonly yield time sill-like geometries (e.g., Blundy and Cashman,
cies between petrologic and geophysical moni- scales of thousands of years. In contrast, diffu- 2008), field and theoretical evidence for the in-
toring data may provide critical information on sion studies take advantage of chemical zon- herent instability of such melt accumulations
late-stage processes (those that occur just prior ing profiles in phenocrysts caused by magma (e.g., Jellinek and DePaolo, 2003; De Silva et al.,
to eruption) such as magma rise (Blundy and recharge or depressurization. This approach is 2006), thermal models (Annen, 2009), and lack
Cashman, 2001), flushing of volatiles through more likely to reflect events responsible for trig- of geophysical evidence for large melt accumu-
the magma chamber (Hammer and Rutherford, gering eruptive activity, and commonly yields lations in most magmatic settings.

670 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2013

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How volcanoes work

A 0 0 B 1600
months, or even years. For example, about eight
Trid 250 weeks of precursory activity (seismicity, defor-
Qz 2 mation, and explosions) preceded climactic
Amph-out 30 20 eruptions of both the 1980 eruption of Mount
100 4 1200

10
St. Helens, United States, and the 1991 erup-
Pressure (MPa)

%c

Depth (km)

CO 2 (ppm)
-in

6 150 tion of Pinatubo volcano, Philippines. Both of

rys
Qz

these precursory sequences involved movement

tall
200 8 800

iza
Water saturation of magma to shallow levels, as evidenced by
tion 10 the growth of a cryptodome (Mount St. Helens)
or dome (Pinatubo). However, a time delay of
Liquidus
300 400
12 50
hours (Mount St. Helens) to a few days (Pina-
14 tubo) between eruption initiation and full devel-
400 0 opment of climactic activity suggests that the
700 800 900 1000 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
conduit did not develop full connectivity until
Temperature (°C) H 2 O (wt%)
after the main eruptive phase had commenced
Figure 7. Magma storage conditions determined from (A) phase equilibria experiments and (Scandone et al., 2007).
(B) phenocryst-hosted melt inclusions. Phase equilibria data are for magma erupted from Once formed, conduit geometry can evolve
Mount St. Helens in 1980; solid square shows location of last magma storage as determined in space and time as the result of mechanical
from the phenocryst assemblage and Fe-Ti–oxide thermometry (modified from Blundy and and/or thermal erosion, magma solidification,
Cashman, 2001). Melt inclusion data are from early (open circles) and late (filled circles) and changing stress conditions. Conduit evolu-
phases of the Bishop Tuff (Wallace et al., 1999) and Oruanui (Liu et al., 2006) ignimbrites tion is particularly apparent in basaltic erup-
and Popocatepetl stratovolcano (solid diamonds; Atlas et al., 2006). Note that early phases tions, which typically initiate with a “curtain of
of ignimbrite eruptions have melt inclusions that are H2O-rich and CO2 -poor, suggesting fire” as magma-transporting dikes intersect the
long residence times within upper crust. In contrast, both late-stage ignimbrites and open- surface, but rapidly focus into one (or a few) lo-
system volcano Popocatepetl preserve melt inclusions with a wide range in CO2 (pressure) calized vents. Processes that promote focusing
for a limited range of H2O. Figure is modified from Blundy and Cashman (2008). in these systems most likely involve feedbacks
among flow, magma rheology, and cooling
(Bruce and Huppert, 1989). For example, ad-
VOLCANIC CONDUITS is commonly assumed that magma ascends via vection of heat by rapid flow through the widest
dike propagation, at least until it reaches shal- part of the initial dike will slow, or eventually
Prior to the mid-1980s, the vigor of erup- low levels. The speed of dike propagation de- reverse, rates of chilled margin growth (Holness
tive activity was linked directly to the extent to pends principally on magma viscosity (Kerr and and Humphreys, 2003); at the same time, lower
which stored magma was saturated, or under- Lister, 1991) and can be fast for basaltic magmas flow rates through narrower regions will pro-
saturated, with volatile components. The 1990s (decimeters to meters per second; e.g., Linde mote cooling and eventual solidification of dike
saw a change in emphasis to conditions of et al., 1993). Dike width is controlled by magma extremities. Viscosity changes caused by degas-
magma transport from magma storage regions pressure through elastic deformation of the wall sing and crystallization should produce a similar
to the surface (that is, the role of conduits). This rock, with magma flow rate proportional to the flow focusing if the rheological changes occur
shift was largely the result of detailed observa- product of the cube of the dike width and the preferentially at the dike margins (for example,
tions of effusive eruptions of Mount St. Helens, length. For this reason, dike-fed eruptions show in regions of high shear).
United States, and Unzen volcano, Japan, cou- strong interactions between eruption rate and The geometry of volcanic conduits can also
pled with recognition of the extent to which the magma pressure (e.g., Costa et al., 2006). Dike evolve by mechanical processes. Mechanical
physical properties of magma could change dur- closure may cause eruptions to end (or vents to erosion is most likely where dikes change ori-
ing transport because of decompression-driven shift) if the pressure becomes too low to drive entation, or at shallow levels in explosive vents.
volatile exsolution (e.g., Dingwell et al., 1996) continued magma flow or if magma cools and Exposures in caldera walls show that dikes are
and crystallization (e.g., Cashman, 1992). These solidifies on the dike walls. These scenarios can commonly segmented; offsets or jogs between
rheological changes set up complex feedbacks be distinguished if there are good temporal con- segments are regions of complex brittle defor-
between conditions of magma ascent and result- straints on mass flux. For example, documenta- mation, brecciation, and dilation that can local-
ing styles of eruptive behavior (e.g., Melnik and tion of a linear decrease in magma supply to the ize flow. Xenoliths generated by deformation
Sparks, 1999). Kūpaianaha vent of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, associated with localization can be removed
between April and November of 1991 provided by flowing magma and transported to the sur-
Conduit Construction and Evolution evidence of a gradual loss of driving pressure face (Brown et al., 2007; Kavanagh and Sparks,
with time (Kauahikaua et al., 1996). Alterna- 2011). Additionally, protracted effusive erup-
With the exception of open-system volcanoes tively, dikes may fail to close completely when tions may create complex conduit systems. An
such as Stromboli, Italy, and Villarica, Chile, cooling at the thin edges is combined with in- unusual opportunity to view such a system in a
magma storage regions are not connected to elastic deformation (Daniels et al., 2012). recently active volcanic conduit was provided
the surface; it is this isolation that allows them Eruptions of viscous silicic magma are by the Unzen (Japan) drilling project. Drilling
to develop sufficient overpressure to generate also dike-fed (e.g., Mastin and Pollard, 1988; of the conduit system that fed a 1991–1995
eruptive activity. Thus, magma must construct Roman and Cashman, 2006), although silicic dome-building eruption revealed a wide (500 m)
a pathway (conduit) to the surface. Conduit dikes ascend sufficiently slowly that arrival conduit zone consisting of numerous individual
construction is not well understood, although it of magma at Earth’s surface may take weeks, feeder dikes (e.g., Sakuma et al., 2008).

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Cashman and Sparks

Explosive eruptions also create conditions 0.1 of rapid (syneruptive) crystallization and associ-
that promote mechanical erosion. In particular, 8.5
MP ated heterogeneous bubble nucleation.
a/s
cylindrical near-surface conduits develop when 0.0 The number and proportion of crystal phases

eq
25
MP
early magma is either sufficiently overpressured a/s also provide information on conditions of

uili
bri
to excavate a conduit or sufficiently underpres- 50 0.003 MP
a/s
magma ascent, particularly when the stability

um
Pressure (MPa)
sured to cause wall rocks to fail, fall into the of the crystal is controlled by the water con-

HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION
conduit, and be transported out of the conduit by tent of the melt (e.g., Hammer et al., 2000; Tora-

sol

HE
ub
high-speed explosive flows (Sparks et al., 2007; maru et al., 2008; Blundy and Cashman, 2008).

TE

∆P ~ 150 MPa
ility
Barnett and Lorig, 2007). In powerful explosive The time required for crystals to nucleate and

RO
eruptions, the level of fragmentation, and thus 100 grow in response to water exsolution depends

GE
NE
the depth of the resulting cylindrical conduits, on the melt composition and temperature (dif-

OU
can extend to kilometers. Early phreatic or phre- fusion rate), the undercooling (driving force) for

S
atomagmatic stages of eruptive activity may also crystallization, and the presence or absence of
form cylindrical near-surface pathways that can 150 phenocryst phases. For a single melt composi-
then be used by magma fed from a deeper dike. tion, decompression experiments confirm that
both the number density and volumetric pro-
Synascent Changes in Magma Properties portion of plagioclase crystals record the con-
200 ditions of decompression (reviewed in Blundy
As magma ascends toward Earth’s surface, 0 2 4 6 8 and Cashman, 2008; Hammer, 2008). Experi-
decompression causes some volatile phases to Dissolved water (wt%) ments also confirm observational evidence that
exsolve and some solid phases to precipitate. decompression-induced crystallization can occur
These phase transformations affect the density Figure 8. Degassing/vesiculation paths for on eruptive time scales (e.g., Geschwind and
and rheology of the magma and, to a lesser rhyolite decompression experiments per- Rutherford, 1995; Hammer and Rutherford,
extent, its temperature. The past few decades formed at conditions that promote both 2002). The combined effects of vesiculation and
have seen extensive research on the kinetics of homogeneous and heterogeneous bubble crystallization during magma ascent have pro-
the phase transitions, the rheology of complex nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation per- found consequences for the rheological evolu-
(multiphase) suspensions, and the evolution of mits the melt to maintain equilibrium de- tion of ascending magma, and for the course of
the gas phase, all of which are important for gassing paths. In contrast, homogeneous volcanic eruptions.
understanding the highly nonlinear dynamics nucleation occurs only at large supersatu-
of conduit flow processes that control eruptions. rations (ΔP) regardless of magma ascent Magma Rheology
rates; once nucleation occurs, ascent rate
Volatiles, Bubbles, and Crystals controls the degassing path. Figure is modi- Rheology refers to flow behavior (that is,
fied from Mangan and Sisson (2000). the deformational response to imposed stress).
Volatiles are more soluble in silicate melts Magma rheology is usually measured by
at high pressure than at low pressure (e.g., magma viscosity, which varies depending on
Newman and Lowenstern, 2002; Papale et al., exsolution of a mixed (H2O-CO2) volatile phase the melt composition and temperature as well
2006). For this reason, decompression of (e.g., Cashman, 2004). This conclusion has im- as the bubble and crystal content. The rheologi-
volatile-saturated melt causes exsolution of the portant implications for conditions of magma cal properties of magma govern the dynamics of
volatile phase as bubbles (vesiculation). The fragmentation in silicic eruptions where delayed magma chambers, the wall friction generated by
rate of vesiculation is controlled by the rate nucleation may generate explosive vesiculation conduits flows, and therefore the rate of erup-
of bubble nucleation and growth, which de- bursts at high overpressures (e.g., Mangan et al., tion, the kinetics of crystal and bubble forma-
pends not only on the degree of supersatura- 2004; Scandone et al., 2007). Additionally, these tion, and the flow of lava on Earth’s surface.
tion caused by the decompression but also on data show that the kinetics of bubble and crys- Critical constraints on the rheology of silicic
the surface tension and viscosity of the melt tal formation are intimately linked and together melts have been provided by experimentally
phase (e.g., Mangan and Sisson, 2005) and the may control transitions in eruption style. Unfor- calibrated models for melt viscosity as a func-
availability of nucleation sites (e.g., Hurwitz tunately, there are no equivalent data for bubble tion of composition, temperature, and water
and Navon, 1994). Results from decompres- nucleation in mafic melts because of experimen- content (e.g., Dingwell, 1998; Giordano et al.,
sion experiments show that in rhyolitic melts, tal challenges. Measurement of bubble number 2008). Most silicate melts are Newtonian (for
homogeneous nucleation (that is, nucleation densities in the pyroclastic products of low- to details, see Giordano and Dingwell, 2003) and
within the melt) has to overcome substantial moderate-intensity eruptions, however, suggests have viscosities that vary from less than 0.1 Pa s
energy barriers and therefore requires very that there is little to no activation energy barrier to over 1012 Pa s. Silicate melts that are either al-
large overpressures (100–150 MPa; Fig. 8). In for bubble nucleation in mafic melts (e.g., Rust kalic or hydrous, however, show non-Arrhenian
contrast, the undercooling required for bubble and Cashman, 2011), although textural studies behavior controlled by the effect of alkalis/water
nucleation is much lower if nucleation can oc- of mafic Plinian deposits show that these sys- on the melt structure. Understanding the effect
cur heterogeneously on crystal surfaces (Hur- tems can attain bubble number densities that ap- of water, in particular, is important for modeling
witz and Navon, 1994; Gardner et al., 1999). proach those of silicic pumice (e.g., Sable et al., the behavior of ascending and degassing mag-
Bubble number densities preserved in pyro- 2006; Costantini et al., 2010; Vinkler et al., mas. Importantly, the glass transition also varies
clastic material (pumice) produced by silicic 2012). Very high bubble number densities may as a function of melt composition, temperature,
Plinian eruptions suggest that bubble nucleation reflect large supersaturations generated by rapid and shear rate (e.g., Dingwell and Webb, 1989;
is commonly homogeneous and controlled by magma decompression, or possibly the effects Webb and Dingwell, 1990). The glass transition

672 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2013

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How volcanoes work

is a kinetic barrier (relaxation time scale) that crystal volume fraction for particle interactions average shear rate and shear stress experienced
separates liquid from glassy behavior, which in depends on crystal shape, with higher aspect by a sample can be determined from the dimen-
turn determines the behavior of silicate liquids ratios allowing interaction at lower volume sions of moderately deformed bubbles (Rust
when strained. One application of these data has fractions (Saar et al., 2001; Walsh and Saar, et al., 2003). Suspensions of bubbles in viscous
been to define magma fragmentation in melt- 2008). For this reason, crystallization caused liquids are shear-thinning (Fig. 9C): Addition of
viscosity shear space (e.g., Gonnermann and by volatile exsolution during rapid decompres- bubbles increases the viscosity at low Ca (small
Manga, 2003). An important outcome of such an sion, which generates numerous small elongate bubbles, low strain rates) but decreases viscos-
analysis is to demonstrate that viscous rhyolitic or platy plagioclase crystals, can cause the ap- ity at high Ca (large bubbles, high strain rates).
glass, in particular, may repeatedly break and parent viscosity to change by many orders of Bubble suspensions are more strongly shear-
re-anneal during slow ascent at shallow levels. magnitude as magma ascends from the reservoir thinning at higher bubble volume fractions (φb).
Repeated fracture, in turn, may explain the char- to the surface (e.g., Sparks, 1997). The effect Under these conditions, the relative viscosity
acteristic “hybrid” earthquakes that accompany of crystals on viscosity is enhanced by the ten- (µsusp /µmelt) approaches 1 – φb at high Ca, because
extrusion of silicic domes (Tuffen et al., 2003; dency of the remaining melt to become more si- the bubbles are sufficiently deformed that resis-
Neuberg et al., 2006). licic (more viscous) as crystallization proceeds tance to flow is provided only by the melt frac-
When the melt contains suspended crys- (e.g., Cashman and Blundy, 2000). tion (= 1 – φb). Shear-thinning behavior means
tals and bubbles, the magma can develop non- The effect of bubbles on magma rheology de- that ascent of bubbly viscous magma through
Newtonian rheological properties. The addition pends on both bubble size and shear rate (e.g., volcanic conduits probably occurs by plug flow,
of a small volume fraction of crystals causes an Rust and Manga, 2002; Pal, 2003; Llewellin with localization of shear along the conduit mar-
increase in magma viscosity; when the crystal and Manga, 2005). The deformation behavior gins (e.g., Llewellin and Manga, 2005).
content is sufficiently high, crystal interactions of bubbles in a shear flow is described by a
generate a yield strength (e.g., Lejeune and nondimensional parameter called the capillary Conduit Controls on Eruption Style
·
r γμ
, where r is bubble radius, γ·
Richet, 1995; Mueller et al., 2010; Castruccio
number (Ca =
et al., 2010; Fig. 9A) and either shear-thicken- Γ The flow of magma along conduits is driven
ing (shear-dilatancy) or shear-thinning behavior is strain rate, µ is melt viscosity, and Γ is sur- by pressure gradients between the deep source
(e.g., Costa et al., 2009; Fig. 9B). The critical face tension). In dilute bubble suspensions, the and the surface, and opposed by both friction

A B
m ing
inn

n
ha
r-th

ia
ea
ng

on
Sh
Log10 viscosity (Pa s)

12
Bi

wt
Ne
Stress

σy
10

Shear rate
6
Homogeneous 40 vol% 60 vol%
Polycrystal C 10
liquid
Relative viscosity µr

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

µr = 1 for all φ at Ca = 0.645
Crystal Content
Newtonian non-Newtonian 1
φ = 0.1
Flow Flow
φ = 0.3

φ = 0.5

0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Capillary number Ca
Figure 9. Basics of magma rheology. (A) Effect of adding spherical particles; y-axis shows viscosity normalized to reference (melt) viscosity;
dashed lines at 40% and 60% particles show locations of rapid viscosity increase and maximum packing, respectively. Diagrams show sche-
matic representation of particle concentrations (modified from Lejeune and Richet, 1995). (B) Schematic stress–shear rate diagram illustrating
different rheologies; σy is yield strength (minimum stress that must be overcome for fluid deformation). (C) Effect of adding bubbles; viscosity
is normalized to bubble-free values and shown as a function of Ca for different bubble concentrations (φ; modified from Pal, 2003).

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Cashman and Sparks

along the conduit margins and the tendency of dome extrusion or destruction of an impermea- influx of new magma. Bubbles can have a pro-
magma to degas and solidify. The rate of magma ble magma plug when overpressure exceeds a found effect because gas is highly compressi-
ascent controls the eruption style (explosive or threshold (e.g., Wylie et al., 1999; Druitt et al., ble; for this reason, bubble-bearing magma can
effusive) by modulating the extent to which 2002b), or (2) crystallization coupled with sustain much higher chamber pressures dur-
exsolving gas is retained within, or lost from, rheological changes (Melnik and Sparks, 1999, ing eruption, and therefore erupt much more
magma during ascent. Gas loss, in turn, is con- 2005). Intermediate time scales are marked by magma, than a chamber without bubbles (Hup-
trolled by the relative rates of bubble rise, bubble 6–7 wk cycles of earthquakes, tilt, and eruptive pert and Woods, 2002). For this reason, the rise
coalescence, and the development of permeable activity that may be explained by opening and and accumulation of exsolved gas at the top of a
pathways in magma and surrounding host rocks. closing of dikes because of pressure fluctuations magma chamber (a consequence of crystalliza-
As bubble rise is controlled primarily by magma (Roman et al., 2006). The longest time scale tion of volatile-saturated magma) can generate
viscosity, the orders-of-magnitude variation in is represented by 2–3 yr alternating periods large pressure increases (Tait et al., 1989), as
viscosity between mafic and silicic melts means of dome growth and quiescence. Long-time- can influx of new magma.
that mechanisms of gas loss are very different in scale behavior can be explained if the magma
mafic and silicic magmas. chamber and conduit act like capacitors, that Gas Behavior during Magma Ascent
is, if they store energy because of elastic de-
Modeling Conduit Flow formation of the wall rocks and then discharge Once mobilized, magma ascends because of
magma episodically when the pressure exceeds volatile exsolution; ascent is therefore modu-
Modeling the flow of magma through volcanic some threshold. The time scale for this process lated by conditions of both vesiculation and gas
conduits requires coupling equations of mass reflects the elastic relaxation of the chamber, escape, which depend critically on the viscosity
and momentum with expressions for changes with longer periods being the consequence of of the melt. The low viscosity of basaltic melts
in phase proportions, and resulting changes in larger chamber volumes (Barmin et al., 2002). allows bubbles to separate from the ascending
rheology. The numerous interacting factors that Periodic behavior may occur when magma vis- magma when the rise rate of individual bubbles
control flow rates explain the very rich variety cosity increases during magma ascent (because (the “drift velocity”) is rapid relative to the
of volcano behaviors (reviewed in Melnik et al., of devolatilization ± crystallization) given an rate of magma ascent (Fig. 11A). As the ratio
2008). These complex interactions can be illus- appropriate input flux and input/output viscos- between drift velocity and ascent velocity in-
trated by a simplified reference case for effusive ity ratio (e.g., Melnik et al., 2008; Fig. 10A). creases, the distribution of the gas phase in the
eruption from a pressurized magma chamber Magma rheology, particularly yield strength, liquid changes from distributed bubbles (bubbly
with elastic walls. Under these conditions, the will affect the overpressure threshold that must flow) to large conduit-filling bubbles (slug flow)
flow rate of magma through a cylindrical con- be exceeded for magma ascent (Fig. 10B). to a continuous gas phase concentrated in the
duit or parallel-sided fracture is controlled by The reference case described here includes center of the conduit (annular flow).
the pressure gradient and wall friction, which, in numerous simplifications. For example, in the Two-phase flow regimes are well character-
turn, reflect both conduit geometry and magma reference case, the magma chamber pressure ized for water-gas systems (e.g., Mudde, 2005).
viscosity. If magma viscosity and conduit di- changes only with volume, whereas chamber Only recently, however, have volcanologists
mensions are constant, the magma discharge rate pressure may actually depend on other variables attempted to scale experiments and develop
will decline exponentially with time as pressure such the presence of bubbles and crystals or the numerical models to examine two-phase flow
and volume in the chamber decline (e.g., Stasiuk
et al., 1993). Deviations from this simple model
will occur with (1) the growth of a lava dome,
which can increase the column weight; (2) for-
A 3 B
mation of chilled margins, which can reduce T
Discharge rate (m 3/s)

EN sity
conduit width; (3) elastic deformation of the dike C o
AS isc 20
itself; (4) viscous dissipation at the flow margins I D nt v
Discharge rate

P ta
where shear rates are high; and (5) variations of RA ns
magma composition, temperature, and gas con- co
tent, which can change viscosity.
Important feedbacks develop during magma 4 10 NEWTONIAN BINGHAM
ascent because of the competing effects of
PERIODIC BEHAVIOR
buoyancy (vesiculation and gas loss), viscosity 2 σy = 0.05
(which changes with volatile loss and crystal ) σy = 0.1 σ
UT
1 > Q(O y = 0.2
formation), and wall friction. Such feedbacks Q(IN)
0
may explain, for example, three different time Chamber pressure 130 140 150
scales of episodic behavior that have been iden- Chamber pressure (MPa)
tified at Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat
(e.g., Costa et al., 2006; Wadge et al., 2008). Figure 10. (A) General steady-state solution of feedbacks among magma input, overpres-
The shortest time scale of several hours to a surization, and eruption. When decompression-related changes in magma viscosity are lim-
few days is recorded in deformation and seis- ited, system proceeds as 1–2-3–4; periodic behavior is most likely when magma input lies
mic data, and in patterns of dome extrusion and in gray shaded region. (B) Comparison of steady-state solutions for magmas of Newtonian
Vulcanian explosions (e.g., Voight et al., 1999). and Bingham rheology (yield strength σy in MPa). Bingham rheology prohibits discharge
This time scale has been explained by (1) gas between eruptions and produces higher chamber pressures prior to renewal of eruptive
pressure cycles that generate either stick-slip activity. Figure is modified from Melnik et al. (2008).

674 Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2013

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How volcanoes work

Figure 11. (A) Bubble rise A B

time (drift velocity) as a func- 4
BUBBLES DEFORM
tion of bubble radius and melt

Log bubble rise rate (m/s)

MSR = 1000 m3/s GAS ESCAPES
vis cosity. Shaded area shows

Increasing permeability
0
magma ascent rates for typical
s)
Pm
magma supply rates (MSR), MSR = 0.1 m3/s
s ) s) 8 Pa
a )
calculated assuming a cylindri- –4 4 Pa s 0
0P 0 6 Pa (1 MAGMA
cal conduit of radius = 10 m, ( 10 (1 (10 I TE
DENSIFIES
T E L
L IT E O
and shows that drift velocity is A SA ES CIT RHY
D
most likely to exceed ascent ve-
–8 B
AN DA
locity in low-viscosity (basaltic) BUBBLES CONNECT
Magma ascent velocities
magma. (B) Illustration of hys- LIMIT VESICULARITY
P
–12 calculated assuming a
teresis in permeability-porosity cylindrical conduit of c
10m diameter
data. Initial expansion occurs ISOLATED BUBBLES EXPAND
in isolated bubbles until perco- –16
–3 –1 1 3
lation threshold (Pc) is reached Increasing vesicularity
Log bubble radius (mm)
at ~60% vesicularity. Perme-
ability then increases rapidly to a permeability threshold (Pm) that limits further expansion. Deformation of vesicular magma permits gas
loss (porosity reduction) without loss of permeability as bubbles deform, until bubble collapse reduces permeability (bubbles again become
isolated). Figure is modified from Rust and Cashman (2004).

regimes in viscous fluids and large conduits. tion threshold) will form at volume fractions as foam) is enhanced when permeability-porosity
When gas is introduced into static liquid col- low as 30% (Sahimi, 1994). However, evidence curves are hysteretic, such that high permeabili-
umns from below, high-viscosity fluids enhance from both pumice samples and recent experi- ties are maintained as bubbles collapse, thereby
bubble coalescence by decreasing the drift ve- ments suggests that bubbles in rapidly vesicu- facilitating gas escape (Fig. 11B). Horizontal gas
locity of individual bubbles, thereby stabilizing lating magmas do not always coalesce (become flow is enhanced at low pressures when fractured
slug flow at the expense of bubbly flow (e.g., connected) at low vesicularities, and instead wall rocks are at hydrostatic, or atmospheric,
James et al., 2009; Pioli et al., 2012). Internal attain a connectivity, or percolation, threshold pressure. Porosity decrease in the upper parts
vesiculation, the most likely source of distrib- (Pc) at vesicularities of ~60%–70% (Rust and of the conduit can also occur if vertical gas flow
uted bubbles in volcanic systems, has not been Cashman, 2011). The permeability threshold exceeds the ascent rate of host magma (Melnik
studied experimentally from the perspective (Pm) for sufficiently rapid gas escape to pre- and Sparks, 1999). In this scenario, hysteretic
of two-phase flow regimes. Numerical models vent continued magma expansion is probably permeability functions predict rapid formation
suggest that large conduit-filling bubbles may slightly higher than the percolation threshold of compaction waves manifested by alternating
be dynamically unstable during buoyancy- (Fig. 11B). Available experimental data suggest regions of high and low porosity (Michaut et al.,
driven ascent (Suckale et al., 2010) and that that the percolation and permeability thresholds 2009). Degassing-driven crystallization may fur-
cyclic patterns of flow developed in two-phase may increase with increasing melt viscosity, and ther enhance the hysteresis of porosity-permea-
bubbly magmas may explain the strong pulsing decrease with increasing sample crystallinity, bility relationships in viscous magmas, as shown
of Hawaiian, Strombolian, and violent Strombo- although these hypotheses need to be tested by by the maintenance of high permeabilities to
lian activity (e.g., Manga, 1996; Slezin, 2003). If additional experiments. low bulk vesicularities in crystal-rich andesites
crystals are present, gas migration may be hin- The high viscosity of silicic melts also pro- (Melnik and Sparks, 2002).
dered if bubbles are trapped within the crystal motes bubble deformation (by increasing Ca).
network, or aided by increased bubble coales- Evidence for bubble deformation can be found Controls on Fragmentation
cence within melt pathways. Either case will af- in (1) the prevalence of tube (elongated bubble)
fect flow regimes (Belien et al., 2010). Together, pumice in high-intensity silicic eruptions (e.g., If gas is retained within magma rather than
these studies suggest that simple two-phase flow Wright et al., 2006); (2) observed bubble flat- lost to wall rocks or the atmosphere, then as-
interpretations of mafic eruptive activity should tening; and (3) the common occurrence of pyro- cending magma will erupt explosively. Rapid
be reconsidered. clastic obsidian in subplinian eruptions, which vesiculation (and expansion) under closed-sys-
Bubble rise is sufficiently hindered in vis- probably forms by efficient gas loss along con- tem conditions accelerates magma to the sur-
cous magmas that bubbles will remain in the duit walls (Rust and Cashman, 2007) and may face, as illustrated by the popular Mentos® and
melt from which they formed unless they con- record shear-enhanced permeability develop- Diet Coke® experiments (Coffey, 2008). These
nect to create permeable networks. Gas escape ment (e.g., Okumura et al., 2009). two processes—expansion and acceleration—
through a permeable foam may not only allow Gas escape through the permeable magma form the core of fragmentation theory. In vol-
degassed lavas to form from originally gas-rich leads to some interesting nonlinear dynamics. canology, “fragmentation” denotes the transition
magma (Eichelberger et al., 1986), but may If bubbles within the magma are sufficiently from a melt (± crystals) with included bubbles
also explain sharp transitions between explo- connected to supply gas to the wall rock, rapid to a continuous gas phase with suspended drop-
sive and effusive styles of activity (e.g., Jaupart horizontal gas escape can be driven by pressure lets or particles (Fig. 12). Fragmentation may
and Allegre, 1991). Permeability is commonly differences between the magma and low-pressure be ductile or brittle; in general, fragmentation
modeled using percolation theory, which shows (wall rock) environments (Jaupart and Allegre, is ductile in low-viscosity (basaltic) melts and
that a touching network of spheres (the percola- 1991). Gas escape (and collapse of the magma brittle in high-viscosity (silicic) melts.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, May/June 2013 675

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Cashman and Sparks

Figure 13. Cumulative total Hawaiian fire fountains

grain-size distributions (TGSDs)
for different eruption styles.
100
Plinian pumice
Bubble size
}
Steeper curves represent better

Strom
sorting. Available data suggest

Ha wa
80
a systematic increase in median

viole
% Deposit mass > d

bolian
fragmentation grain size from Plinian-sub-

iian
Vulc mbolian
nt St
Pli
plinian to Vulcanian–violent 60

nia

ania
ro
Strombolian to Strombolian-

n-s

n
ub
Hawaiian eruption styles, al- 40

pli
though more data are needed.

nia
n
Also shown is range of bubble 20
sizes observed in individual
pyroclasts from Plinian and 0
saturation exsolution Hawaiian eruptions. Overlap –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
in bubble size distributions Log d, grain diameter (m)
(BSDs) and TGSDs for Plinian
eruptions suggests a direct relationship between vesiculation kinetics and fragmentation.
Figure 12. Schematic representation of vesic- Figure is modified from Rust and Cashman (2011).
ulation and fragmentation within a volcanic
conduit. Saturation level requires saturation
with at least one volatile phase; although pumice clasts. The lower values derive from porosity (permeability; Spieler et al., 2004;
shown here as top of magma chamber, CO2 - minimum preserved vesicularities and assume Koyaguchi et al., 2008; Mueller et al., 2008)
rich magmatic systems may be volatile-satu- that higher vesicularities record postfragmenta- and fragmentation efficiency that is controlled
rated throughout the upper-crustal storage tion expansion prior to quenching. The critical by the applied pressure/decompression rate
region. Exsolution (bubble formation) may overpressure criterion accounts for the pressure (Kueppers et al., 2006a).
occur at any pressure below the saturation difference between a growing bubble and the
level; exsolution pressure depends on vesicu- surrounding melt (Melnik, 2000). The strain rate VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
lation kinetics. Fragmentation occurs when criterion comes from an observed threshold in
the exsolved volatile phase reaches one of the deformation properties (from ductile to brittle) Eruption styles, and associated volcanic
criteria discussed in the text. at high strain rates (Dingwell and Webb, 1989). landforms, were introduced descriptively in the
These criteria are not mutually exclusive, and previous sections. In this section, we examine
all require ascending magma to expand until the ways in which conditions of magma storage and
Ductile fragmentation results from instabili- point of fragmentation. This, in turn, requires transport combine to generate some of the ob-
ties in the accelerating liquid phase (e.g., Mader that the volume of gas in the component bub- served range in eruptive activity. For simplicity,
et al., 1994; Mangan and Cashman, 1996). bles increases by decompression (expansion) we separate discussions of explosive and effu-
Evidence for fragmentation in the fluid, rather and volatile exsolution faster than it escapes by sive eruptions, and then provide an overview of
than solid, state comes from the fluidal shape permeable flow through pathways of intercon- “transitional” eruptions, which show both ex-
of mafic volcanic bombs and commonly asso- nected bubbles (Klug and Cashman, 1996). The plosive and effusive behavior.
ciated pyroclasts such as Pele’s tears (droplets) small grain size of most silicic tephra deposits,
and Pele’s hair (finely elongated glass strands). and the uniformity of accompanying pumice Explosive Eruptions
Resultant clasts in Hawaiian eruptions are textures (bubble size and number density; Fig.
large—tens of centimeters—and substantially 13) suggest that fragmentation in silicic explo- Key observable parameters of witnessed ex-
larger than constituent bubbles (Fig. 13). This sive eruptions is controlled primarily by bubble- plosive eruptions are the plume height (used to
suggests that bubbles accelerate the magma bubble interactions (Rust and Cashman, 2011). infer eruption intensity, or mass eruption rate),
(through expansion) but do not exert a direct Fragmentation can also occur in highly the duration of eruptive activity, and the final
control on the fragmentation process (Rust and viscous magma because of unloading by a volume, areal distribution, internal structure,
Cashman, 2011). downward-propagating decompression wave and grain-size characteristics of pyroclastic
Silicic melts, in contrast, are apparently frag- (Alidibirov and Dingwell, 1996; Fowler et al., deposits. Here, we briefly review advances in
mented by brittle processes. Fragmentation may 2010). Under these conditions, fragmentation understanding the dynamics of volcanic plumes
occur when expanding magma exceeds a criti- may occur by: (1) propagation of an unloading and their relationship to the pyroclastic deposits
cal vesicularity, when volatile phases contained elastic wave, (2) layer-by-layer bubble bursting that they produce.
within bubbles attain a critical overpressure, in response to a pressure difference between the
and/or when the expanding melt exceeds a criti- (pressurized) bubbles and the decompression Volcanic Plumes
cal strain rate. The vesicularity criterion for si- wave, and (3) rapid gas flow through permea-
licic Plinian eruptions has variously been placed ble networks (Alidibirov and Dingwell, 2000). Volcanic plumes form when fragmented
at 60% (Kaminski and Jaupart, 1997), 64% In many situations, these mechanisms may act magma and associated gases are ejected into the
(Gardner et al., 1996), and 75%–83% (Sparks, in concert. Experimental investigations of this atmosphere. For ascending hydrous magmas,
1978; Houghton and Wilson, 1989) based on process describe a minimum pressure differen- the pressure at the fragmentation level may be
the observed range of vesicularity in preserved tial (fragmentation threshold) that varies with several MPa. At these pressures, the melt retains

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How volcanoes work

a substantial amount of water that may be re- sphere, and the flow runs out of kinetic energy
leased in the plume, or within density currents. and collapses to feed a pyroclastic density cur-
Fragmentation, in turn, decreases the bulk vis- rent. More recent models relax the assumption

Log Thickness (m)

HIGH Re
cosity of mixture by up to 14 orders of magni- of homogeneity and allow larger particles to
PARTICLES
tude; the change in both bulk viscosity and bulk separate from the plume. These models show
density causes the gas-particle mixture to ac- that fallout of dense particles as pyroclastic den-
celerate to very high speeds (typically hundreds sity currents can increase the rise velocity of the
TRANSITIONAL Re
of meters per second) and to discharge into the convective plume by decreasing its bulk density PARTICLES
atmosphere as a momentum-dominated jet. The (e.g., Clarke et al., 2002). Importantly, these
exit conditions of the flow can be divided into models also explain the common observation of
three cases that are controlled by the flow veloc- simultaneous production of buoyant plumes and
ity and vent shape: (1) The flow is able to adjust pyroclastic density currents. LOW Re
the atmospheric pressure at the exit; (2) the vent Volcanic plumes eventually reach a level of PARTICLES
is sufficiently narrow that the mixture exits at neutral buoyancy (HB) high in the atmosphere,
above atmosphere pressure (choked flow) and where they spread laterally (the umbrella re- √Area (km)
adjusts to ambient pressure in the atmosphere; gion). The tendency of rising plumes to over-
(3) the mixture reaches supersonic speeds shoot HB produces maximum plume heights HT Figure 14. Schematic of deposit thickness
through a diverging vent. The topic of such ~1.4HB. The thermal energy flux determines the as a function of √area covered. Linear seg-
flows is a complex area of geological fluid me- final plume height and is proportional to the in- ments on a log thickness versus √area plot
chanics that is far from completely understood tensity of the eruption (i.e., the flux of magma indicate exponential thinning; individual
(for more details, see Sparks et al., 1997; Ogden through the vent in kg/s; Sparks et al., 1997). segments reflect transitions in particle be-
et al., 2008; Bercovici and Michaut, 2010). During Plinian eruptions, mass fluxes of 105 to havior as a function of Reynolds number
Once the mixture emerges as a jet into the over 109 kg/s feed eruption columns that rise to (see text).
atmosphere, interaction with the air generates ≤55 km. As a result, lateral flow within umbrella
high eruption plumes and/or pyroclastic den- regions combines with high-level winds to dis-
sity currents. The former produce tephra fallout, tribute tephra-fall deposits over hundreds to mil- U is the fall velocity, dp is the particle diameter,
and the latter form various kinds of pyroclastic lions of square kilometers. In contrast, weaker and µa is the viscosity of the air. The Re, in turn,
surges and flows (and associated ash fall), which explosive eruptions generate small to moderate controls the drag coefficient, which controls
are the most destructive and hazardous kinds of volcanic plumes with heights that are influenced the fall velocity. In subaerial fall deposits, par-
volcanic phenomena. In both cases, the funda- strongly by wind velocity, particularly because ticle size variations exert the primary control on
mental process of interaction is turbulent air of changes in conditions of air entrainment in particle Re. For this reason, the steep proximal
entrainment into the high-speed erupting mix- bent-over plumes (Bursik, 2001). As a conse- segment shown in Figure 14 can be attributed to
ture; this has two major consequences. First, quence, the mass flux required for weak plumes fall of large particles (high Re) from the outer
entrainment of air decelerates the ascending to reach a specific height increases markedly as margin of the rising plume, the middle segment
mixture by momentum transfer (the entrained wind speed increases. to fall of intermediate-size particles (transitional
air has to be accelerated). Second, the entrained Re) from the umbrella region, and the distal seg-
air is heated, and the mixture density reduces Pyroclastic Fall Deposits ment to deposition of fine particles in a low-Re
as the plume rises. As erupting mixtures are regime (e.g., Bonadonna et al., 1998; Alfano
almost always denser than air, they typically The characteristics of pyroclastic fall depos- et al., 2011). The volume of the distal segment
have enough initial kinetic energy to rise only its can be related to the nature of the eruption is the most difficult to quantify accurately, be-
hundreds of meters to a few kilometers into the plumes that produced them. For this reason, cause fine ash layers are poorly preserved and
atmosphere. Thus, formation of the towering pyroclastic fall deposits are commonly used to distributed over vast areas of land and ocean.
convecting eruption columns commonly seen assign both magnitude and intensity to prehis- In submarine environments, density becomes a
in Plinian eruptions requires air entrainment and toric eruption deposits, information that is criti- critical parameter in determining conditions of
heating of the air by the volcanic particles. This cal for volcanic hazard assessment. particle deposition (Cashman and Fiske, 1991);
process generates potential energy by convert- Deposit magnitude is measured by changes in the density difference between pumice and sea-
ing thermal energy in the magma to mechanical deposit thickness (or, ideally, mass) as a func- water will vary greatly depending on whether
energy through buoyancy of the mixture. Typi- tion of distance from the vent. Tephra depos- the pore spaces within pumice are filled with air,
cally, thermal energy is more than an order of its generally thin exponentially away from the steam, or water (Allen et al., 2008).
magnitude greater than the kinetic energy. source vent and can be used to estimate the total Eruption intensity (mass eruption rate) can be
Early model treatment of the erupting mixture volume (or mass, if corrected for deposit den- inferred from derived relationships among grain
of gas and entrained material as a homogeneous sity) of a fall deposit (Pyle, 1989). Log thick- size, grain density, column height, and deposi-
“pseudogas” led to the development of two end- ness versus distance (measured as √area) plots tional characteristics (e.g., Carey and Sparks,
member scenarios (Woods, 1995): (1) Heating for Plinian deposits are thus linear, although 1986; Ernst et al., 1996; Burden et al., 2011).
of entrained air makes the mixture less dense they commonly show three or four different Although simple in principle, large uncertain-
than the surrounding atmosphere, and the jet linear segments because of variations in fall ties are introduced during the collection of field
transforms into a buoyant plume to form a high behavior (e.g., Fierstein and Nathenson, 1992; data (e.g., Biass and Bonadonna, 2011). Per-
eruption column in the atmosphere; or (2) air en- Fig. 14). The fall behavior (terminal velocity) is haps more important is characterization of the
trainment is not sufficient to reduce the density controlled by the Reynolds number (Re), where total grain-size distribution (TGSD), which is
of the erupting mixture below that of the atmo- Re = ρPUdp /µa; here ρp is the particle density, critical input for ash dispersion models (Mastin

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Cashman and Sparks

et al., 2009a). TGSDs are notoriously difficult preserves evidence of multiple discrete flows Another important characteristic of many
to measure accurately because (1) tephra depos- separated by time breaks of minutes to hours pumiceous pyroclastic flows is their extreme
its are widespread, (2) the grain size at a single (Fierstein and Wilson, 2005). In the example of mobility, even on very low slopes (e.g., Druitt,
site often varies up section, thus requiring mul- the Bishop Tuff, California, a coeval fall deposit 1998). Recognition of this mobility has led to
tiple measurements at individual locations, and has been used to infer an emplacement time of experimental studies of flow behavior as in-
(3) fine-grained distal deposits are often poorly ~90 h for the entire flow-fall sequence (Wilson fluenced by fluidization, gas retention, pore-
preserved and/or limited in accessibility (e.g., and Hildreth, 1997). pressure generation, and depositional processes
deposited within the ocean). For this reason, Field characterization of pyroclastic depos- (e.g., Dellino et al., 2010; Roche et al., 2010;
there are relatively few tephra deposits for which its is often complicated by postemplacement Girolami et al., 2010). Fluidization occurs when
the TGSD is well constrained. A compilation modification of primary ignimbrite textures, the weight of a particle is balanced by the ver-
of existing data shows sharp differences among particularly those related to welding. Welding tical drag force exerted by a flowing gas, and
deposits of different types, with Plinian/subplin- refers to the densification (porosity reduction) is therefore determined by the settling velocity
ian deposits typically fine grained and poorly of pyroclastic flow deposits by a combination of individual particles (Fig. 15A). A particulate
sorted, Vulcanian/violent Strombolian eruptions of sintering, compaction, and flattening of con- bed expanded by fluidization will collapse when
medium grained and often well sorted (particu- stituent material. These physical changes reflect the gas supply is reduced, causing the particles
larly the mafic end members), and Strombo- the weight of overlying material, the viscosity to be deposited (Fig. 15B). When viewed from
lian/Hawaiian deposits coarse grained and well and porosity of the deposit (controlled by erup- another perspective, the gas retention (and resul-
sorted (Fig. 13). Data of this type are critical for tion conditions, composition, and tempera- tant high pore pressures) within a fluidized flow
developing nominal source input parameters ture), and the time available for deformation (a required for pyroclastic density current mobility
for plume models (e.g., Mastin et al., 2009a). function of the rates of cooling and gas loss). will be controlled by time scales for both dif-
For the end-member case of no volatile resorp- fusive outgassing and hindered settling of con-
Pyroclastic Density Currents tion, the degree of compaction is limited by the stituent particles (e.g., Druitt et al., 2007). Also
permeability of the deposit (e.g., Riehle et al., important is the trajectory of particles and gas
Pyroclastic density currents are among the 1995). However, in thick deposits that accumu- within the moving flow (e.g., Giordano, 1998).
most hazardous of all volcanic phenomena, and late rapidly, water vapor can dissolve into glass From a broader perspective, theoretical and
yet they are also one of the least understood. and facilitate pore-space collapse if pore pres- experimental studies of multiphase flows
Pyroclastic density currents are hot gravity- sures are sufficiently elevated and permeability show that mixtures of high-temperature solids,
driven currents that travel at high velocities and is sufficiently low (Sparks et al., 1999). Welding liquids, and gases can simultaneously have
inundate (and bury) large areas. They can form characteristics thus place important constraints properties of gas (e.g., compressibility), of
by lava dome collapse, by column collapse dur- on flow emplacement conditions. solids (through small-scale interactions between
ing Plinian/subplinian eruptions, or accompa- From a process perspective, pyroclastic den- particles), and of liquids. Moreover, individual
nying caldera collapse during large-magnitude sity current deposits can be viewed as either in- particles can behave like rigid solids or ductile
explosive eruptions. The high velocities, high crementally deposited from the density current liquids, depending on time scales of deforma-
temperatures, and complex nature of these flows (e.g., Branney and Kokelaar, 2003) or deposited tion. For these reasons, most models use end-
make it impossible to measure either their ma- rapidly when the flow loses energy (e.g., Wilson, member descriptions and treat pyroclastic
terial properties or their dynamics directly. For 1985). It is likely that these differences of view density currents as either a turbulent suspension
this reason, pyroclastic density current studies reflect the real complexities of these high-tem- (dilute) or a granular flow (dense). Granular
combine field observations of deposits (ignim- perature multiphase flows. One way to combine flow dynamics, including fluidization by escap-
brites) with laboratory experiments and numeri- these two perspectives is to view pyroclastic ing gases, provide a framework for modeling
cal models of flow dynamics. density currents as having two components, the concentrated parts of pyroclastic density
Detailed studies of individual ignimbrites with overlying dilute turbulent ash-cloud surges currents (e.g., Titan2D; Patra et al., 2005). Other
show that neither the grain size nor the com- and concentrated dense basal flows (e.g., Druitt, important factors are interactions with topog-
positional variation of the ignimbrite at any 1998). Pyroclastic density currents can then be raphy that cause the dense basal portion of the
given location can be simply related to the na- described as a continuum between these two flow to decouple from the dilute turbulent cloud
ture of either the eruptive mixture or the parent end members. This conceptual model allows the (e.g., Andrews and Manga, 2011; Esposti On-
flow (Wilson, 1985; Branney and Kokelaar, mass distributed between the two components to garo et al., 2011). Modeling the dense basal
1992, 2003). Instead, ignimbrites show distinct vary in space and time, or even to decouple from current is critical for predicting maximum run-
facies that result from transport and deposition one another. Such flow transformations (be- out distances of pyroclastic density currents
processes. An important factor from a hazards tween dilute and dense flows) are often caused (Doyle et al., 2008). Limitations of existing
point of view is using the physical attributes of by topographic changes and have major hazards models are highlighted by field evidence for a
ignimbrites to constrain eruption time scales. implications (e.g., Giordano, 1998; Druitt et al., wide range of emplacement temperatures (e.g.,
For example, in the low-aspect-ratio Taupo 2002a). A third component of pyroclastic den- McClelland et al., 2004; Gurioli et al., 2005;
ignimbrite, lateral variations in grain-size dis- sity currents is the overlying buoyant ash plume Lesti et al., 2011), which point to the need to
tribution are similar to vertical variations in a that develops in parts of the current that become incorporate effects of temperature into existing
fluidized bed, which suggests that fluidization less dense than the overlying atmosphere (e.g., models. Moreover, although separate models of
was critical to flow emplacement and, by exten- Calder et al., 1999). Co-flow, or coignimbrite, dilute and dense flow components are useful for
sion, that emplacement was rapid and occurred ash plumes can be generated either continuously understanding individual end members, future
as a discrete event (Wilson, 1985). In contrast, during flow or abruptly, if the pyroclastic den- models must strive to couple these two different
a high-aspect-ratio valley-filling ignimbrite gen- sity current is initially well mixed but suddenly regions to fully describe pyroclastic density cur-
erated by the 1912 eruption of Katmai, Alaska, loses mass by deposition and becomes buoyant. rent behavior (e.g., Neri et al., 2003).

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How volcanoes work

flows. The rates and mechanisms of flow ad-

A Expansion vance are therefore controlled primarily by de-
Total bed height
(dense phase + bubbles) velopment of a solid crust on the flow surface
H mb (Griffiths, 2000), as well as by cooling-induced
Dense phase height (H be ) crystallization of flow interiors (Cashman et al.,
Bed Height 1999). In contrast, lava flows produced by more
water-rich magmas, such as those of Mt. Etna,
BUBBLING REGIME Italy, experience syneruptive crystallization be-
cause of volatile loss during magma ascent, and
may therefore be highly crystalline on eruption.
H mp
These flows have higher viscosities, and are
UNIFORM REGIME shorter and advance more slowly, than Hawaiian
lava flows (e.g., Kilburn, 2004). Common to
U mp U mb Gas velocity both regions, however, are pahoehoe and ‘a‘ā
morphologies, surface textures that reflect both
B Collapse
Bed Height

rheological and deformation rate thresholds

(1) (2) (3) (Figs. 16A–16C). These morphological differ-
(1) BUBBLE ences may also be viewed from the perspective
U sett
EVACUATION of simple and compound flow forms.
Simple lava flows may have lengths that are
H be (2) limited either by erupted volume or by cooling.
HIN
DE
RE
DS
settled When simple flows are cooling-limited, they
ETT particles
LIN are generally assumed to have lengths that are
G(
slop
e=
proportional to the extrusion rate (Walker et al.,
U 1973; Harris et al., 2007), although this correla-
sett )
(3) PACKED BED tion is not always robust for Hawaiian lava flows
H sett
(e.g., Riker et al., 2009). Also important for haz-
Time ard assessment is the recognition that higher-
effusion-rate flows advance more rapidly than
Figure 15. Behavior of fluidized beds. (A) Schematic diagram of the lower-effusion-rate flows (Rowland and Walker,
expansion regime, showing the onset of fluidization at Ump (gas veloc- 1990; Kauahikaua et al., 2003), and that flow ad-
ity that creates maximum pressure drop tolerated by the particle bed) vance rates diminish with the distance that a flow
and the onset of the bubbling regime at gas velocity Ube. When Ump has traveled. Together, these constraints indicate
< U < Ube, the bed expands uniformly (although the distribution of that lava flow hazards are determined by both ini-
gas in this regime depends on the particle size, shape, and density dis- tial rates of effusion and proximity to vent regions
tribution). (B) Schematic diagram of the collapse regime, which oc- (e.g., Kauahikaua et al., 2002; Soule et al., 2004).
curs when the gas flow is reduced. Initially, gas is lost as bubbles rise Another characteristic of simple lava flows is
through the bed. When H = Hbe, all macroscopic bubbles have escaped, that they form channels by construction of lat-
and the bed slowly densifies as particles settle. Umb is the gas velocity eral levees. Crystal-rich Etna lavas have a yield
at which bubbling starts. Figure is modified from Druitt et al. (2007). strength that promotes channel (and levee) devel-
opment by inhibiting lateral spreading (Hulme,
1974). In contrast, fluid Hawaiian flows cool
Effusive Eruptions Mafic Lava Flows rapidly, so that levees develop because spreading
is inhibited by solidification at the flow margins
Lava flows form when magma degassing is The two primary laboratories for studies (Kerr et al., 2006). An understanding of controls
sufficiently fast relative to the rate of ascent that of mafic lava flows over the past two decades on channel geometries is required for develop-
magma reaches the surface without fragment- have been Hawaii, United States (e.g., Heliker ing fully predictive models of lava flow advance
ing. This may occur by slow ascent of H2O-rich et al., 2003), and Etna, Italy (e.g., Bonaccorso (e.g., Harris and Rowland, 2001). Challenges to
magma accompanied by gas loss, or more rapid et al., 2004). Both have had frequent (or in the modeling include not only the common presence
rise of H2O-poor magma. Alternatively, clasto- case of Hawaii, continuous) eruptive activ- of multiple parallel channels (e.g., Favalli et al.,
genic lava flows may form from re-fusion of ity over this time period; as a result, both have 2010; James et al., 2010) but also the distribu-
fragmented material. Individual lava flows may contributed extensive observational data sets of tary nature of many channelized flows, which
range in volume from a few cubic meters to hun- lava flow behavior. Moreover, as Hawaii erupts split because of topographic barriers and chan-
dreds (or even a few thousand) cubic kilometers H2O-poor magma while Etna erupts hydrous nel overflows produced by temporary increases
in large flood basalt eruptions. The range of magma, comparisons of these two systems al- in lava supply or channel blockages.
flow emplacement conditions is reflected in the low assessment of the role of water (particularly Compound lava flows may consist of tens
variability of flow morphology, length, thick- degassing-induced crystallization) in lava flow to thousands of individual lava lobes and are
ness, structures, and surface textures. As with emplacement. most common in large and long-lived tube-fed
explosive eruptions, we consider separately the In general, Hawaiian lava erupts at near- pahoehoe flow fields, such as the Pu’u ‘Ō’ō-
behavior of mafic and silicic lavas. liquidus temperatures and cools rapidly as it Kūpaianaha flow field that has developed in

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Cashman and Sparks

Figure 16. Hawaiian lava flows. 3

TRANSITION
(A) Pahoehoe lobe showing A C
rapid cooling, skin formation,

Shear rate (1/s)

and surface deformation dur- 2
ing emplacement. (B) ‘A‘ā flow

THRESHOL
with broken crust and exposed 100 µm
’A’ā
lava core. (C) Strain rate–ap-
parent viscosity relationships 1

D ZONE
and estimated transitional
threshold zone (TTZ) separat- Pāhoehoe
ing pahoehoe from ‘a‘ā (modi- 0
fied from Hon et al., 2003; 2 3 4
Soule and Cashman, 2005). Log apparent viscosity (Pa s)

Log Advection rate / Cooling rate (Ψ)

Inset photographs are back- B 1

scattered electron images of D MOBILE CRUST

(channelized ’a’ā)
quenched pahoehoe and ‘a‘ā
lavas; dark-gray phase is plagio-
clase, medium-gray phase is
pyroxene, light-gray phase 0
is glass; scale bar is the same for
both images. (D) Parameter-
ization from analogue experi-
TUBES
ments showing threshold in Ψ (tube-fed pāhoehoe)
(advection time scale/cooling –1
time scale)–Ra (Rayleigh num- 4 5 6 7 8 9
Log Ra
ber measures thermal convec-
tion strength) space. Open squares represent experiments in “mobile crust” (open channel) regime; filled circles show experiments in tube
regime; line is boundary between regimes (modified from Griffiths et al., 2003).

Hawaii between 1986 and the present (Heliker A physics-based description of cooling-lim- et al., 2004). Satellite-based radar images have
et al., 2003). Lava tubes form where a solidified ited behavior is that the flow has reached a criti- the advantages of both seeing through cloud
roof is created and maintained over a section of cal Peclet number, which is the ratio of the flow cover and having higher resolution than satellite-
the flow (e.g., Peterson et al., 1994; Cashman rate to the product of the thermal diffusivity and based thermal imaging techniques. Radar cor-
et al., 2006). Because solidified lava has low flow distance (e.g., Pinkerton and Wilson, 1994; relation imaging, in particular, provides image
thermal conductivity, lava tubes are well insu- Kerr and Lyman, 2007). An extension of this resolution sufficient for monitoring individual
lated and facilitate lava transport over large dis- concept shows that flow surface morphology is lava flows (e.g., Zebker et al., 1996; Dietterich
tances with little cooling (e.g., Helz et al., 1995, governed by the balance between flow cooling et al., 2012), as well as postemplacement flow
2003; Ho and Cashman, 1997). Two important and flow advection (measured as Ψ = Uots /Ho, volumes (e.g., Stevens et al., 1997; Lu et al.,
phenomena in tube-fed compound lavas are flow where Uo is flow velocity, ts is cooling time, and 2003) and cooling-induced subsidence (Stevens
inflation and lava tube drainage. On low slopes, Ho is flow thickness), and the strength of internal et al., 2001). High-resolution thermal imaging
lava tubes form within spreading sheet flows. The convection within the flow (as measured by the data can be obtained using airborne (e.g., Real-
tubes are typically filled with lava, such that con- Rayleigh number Ra; Fig. 15D). When cooling muto et al., 1992) and hand-held (e.g., Harris
tinued flow through the tube is accompanied by rates are large relative to flow advance, an insu- et al., 2005; Ball and Pinkerton, 2006; Spampi-
cooling-induced lava accretion to the tube roof. lating surface crust forms to produce lava tubes nato et al., 2011) cameras. Similarly airborne
Under these conditions, maintenance of a con- that feed pāhoehoe flows; when flow advance (ALSM) and terrestrial (TLS) laser scanning
stant lava flux through the tubes requires that the is rapid, the insulating crust is continually dis- and ground-based radar provide high-resolution
flow inflate (Hon et al., 1994). Thus, Hawaiian rupted, the interior lava cools rapidly, and ‘a‘ā digital topographic data. In all cases, spatial
lava flows with initial heights of only centime- flows are formed. resolution is improved at the expense of the
ters commonly inflate to several meters during The past few decades have seen an explo- aerial (and often temporal) coverage of satellite-
prolonged emplacement. On steeper slopes, lava sion of new tools applied to lava flow studies, based systems. These data are revolutionizing
tubes are not completely filled, and persistent including global positioning system (GPS), digi- quantitative analysis of lava flows, as they allow
flow in large tubes can lower the tube floor by tal topographic data, and satellite-based remote detailed imaging of the thermal and morphologi-
thermal and mechanical erosion (Kauahikaua sensing. Appropriate application of these tools cal evolution of lava flows that can be related
et al., 1998; Kerr, 2001). When the lava supply requires balancing the spatial and temporal reso- to the dynamics of emplacement (e.g., Harris
rate diminishes, lava tubes may drain, sometimes lution with the areal coverage. Satellite-based et al., 2007). Particularly exciting is the advent
creating a series of collapse pits. These features thermal images generally have low spatial (1–4 of multitemporal imaging of active flows (e.g.,
are common in older volcanic landscapes, and km/pixel) but high temporal resolution, and are Favalli et al., 2010; James et al., 2010), which
have also been recognized on both the Moon therefore used for monitoring entire flow fields provides detailed information on the develop-
and Mars (e.g., Garry and Bleacher, 2011). (for reviews, see Oppenheimer, 1998; Wright ment of individual lava flow channels and lobes.

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How volcanoes work

Together, these new measurement capabilities tions fed by magma supply rates intermediate 1.0
SUBPLINIAN

Mass of tephra / Total mass

can be used to test proposed models of channel between those of the explosive and effusive
0.8
development, lava tube formation, rates of flow counterparts. Mafic transitional eruptions often
advance, and flow conditions within lava chan- show simultaneous Strombolian/violent Strom- 0.6
nels; they also provide new ways to assess the bolian explosions from a central scoria cone and
VIOLENT
hazard and risk posed by lava flow inundation. lava effusion from the cone base. A classic ex- 0.4
STROMBOLIAN
ample of this type of activity is the 1943–1952 0.2
Viscous Flows and Domes eruption of Paricutin volcano, Mexico (Luhr EFFUSIVE
and Simkin, 1993). Silicic transitional erup- 0
1 3 5 7 9
Well-studied examples of viscous lava flows tions include alternation between lava dome/ Log mass eruption rate (kg/s)
and domes are provided by recent activity at plug formation and Vulcanian to subplinian ex-
Mount St. Helens, United States (1980–1986 plosions, as seen at Mount St. Helens in 1980 Figure 17. Value of tephra production (mass
and 2004–2008; Swanson and Holcomb, 1990; (e.g., Cashman and McConnell, 2005) and at tephra/ mass[tephra + scoria cone + lava]) as a function
Sherrod et al., 2008), Unzen, Japan (1991– Soufriere Hills, Montserrat in 1996 (e.g., Voight of mass eruption rate (in kg/s). Filled circles
1995; e.g., Nakada and Motomura, 1999), and et al., 1999). Although these eruptive patterns do show annual data from the 1943–1952
Soufriere Hills, Montserrat (1995–present; not fit neatly into simple classification schemes, eruption of Parícutin, Mexico; open circles
e.g., Voight and Sparks, 2010). In all of these understanding transitions in eruptive behavior is represent other mafic eruptions. Figure is
examples, degassing and crystallization during critical for improved hazard assessment during modified from Pioli et al. (2009).
magma ascent cause very large increases in vis- volcanic crises.
cosity, and lava dome morphology is controlled Eruptions of low-viscosity mafic magma vary
by magma ascent rate through the kinetics of the in explosivity with changes in rates of magma constraints on the rates of gas loss, densification,
phase changes. ascent. When the magma ascent rate is negli- and pressure buildup (e.g., Druitt et al., 2002b).
When magma ascent is rapid, volatiles are gible, rising gas bubbles can coalesce and reach Vulcanian activity can trigger subplinian erup-
retained within the melt, and crystallization is the surface as large bubble bursts, as commonly tions when the initial downward-propagating
limited. In this case, the relatively fluid erupt- seen in lava lakes and open vent volcanoes decompression wave produced by the Vulcanian
ing magma creates either pancake-like domes such as Villarica, Chile, Sanguy, Ecuador, and event triggers degassing and eruption of gas-rich
(e.g., Watts et al., 2002) or obsidian flows. the eponymous Stromboli volcano, Italy. When magma within the conduit. Both Vulcanian and
Scaling analysis suggests that eruption rates of magma ascent rates are higher, lava flows may subplinian eruptions are often associated with
~10–100 m3/s may be required to produce these emerge from lateral vents (e.g., Ripepe et al., effusion of lava flows or domes.
flow morphologies (e.g., Lyman et al., 2004). 2005) or initiate simultaneous effusive and ex- Transitional activity at intermediate-compo-
These rates are consistent with strain rates ob- plosive activity that characterizes violent Strom- sition volcanoes may alternate between Strom-
tained from microlite orientations (Castro et al., bolian eruptions (Pioli et al., 2008). At even bolian and Vulcanian explosions depending on
2002) and with recent observations of extrusion higher rates of magma ascent, eruptions are the rate of magma supply, which controls the ex-
rates of 20–100 m3/s during the first few months subplinian. This progression reflects a decrease tent of crystallization and, as a result, the com-
of rhyolite lava extrusion during the 2008–2009 in the efficiency of synascent gas segregation position of the matrix melt (Wright et al., 2012).
eruption of Chaiten volcano, Chile (Carn et al., (and resulting increase in eruption explosivity Examples include ongoing activity at Tungura-
2009). The dense and degassed nature of obsid- and tephra production) with increased rates of hua volcano, Ecuador, and Llaima, Chile (http://
ian further requires efficient gas loss via both magma ascent (Fig. 17). www.volcano.si.edu). This alternation can be
gas flow through a permeable foam (Eichel- Intermediate/silicic magmas also have erup- explained by variations in rates of magma as-
berger et al., 1986) and along permeable and tive styles that reflect the rate of magma supply cent, and resulting changes in crystallinity, melt
fractured conduit walls (e.g., Tuffen et al., 2003; to the vent. In this case, eruptive style changes composition, and mode of gas escape (Fig.
Rust et al., 2004; Cabrera et al., 2011). from Vulcanian to subplinian and finally to sus- 11A). Melt composition appears particularly
When magma ascent is very slow, degassing tained Plinian explosive eruptions as the magma important, as illustrated by a plot of sample
and crystallization combine to produce mag- supply rate to the vent increases. The change in crystallinity (phenocryst, microphenocryst, and
mas with high viscosity and non-Newtonian eruptive style probably reflects the efficiency of groundmass) and matrix glass composition (as
rheologies. In the extreme, the lava solidifies both degassing and degassing-induced crystal- wt% SiO2 ; Fig. 18). This plot shows that the
completely and extrudes as a rigid spine with lization relative to the velocity of magma ascent products of volcanoes that exhibit transitional
marginal fault zones (e.g., Cashman et al., 2008; (Cashman, 2004; Mason et al., 2006). Of this activity are typically crystal-rich, and that the
Pallister et al., 2008; Fig. 3D). Thus, a wide spectrum, Vulcanian activity requires the most eruptive style (violent Strombolian, Vulcanian,
spectrum of lava morphologies, from pancake- efficient gas loss from, and densification of, or both) is strongly dependent on the residual
shaped domes to shear lobes and spines, can be magma residing within shallow conduits (e.g., melt composition.
explained simply by variations in effusion rate Fig. 11B). The nature of the resulting plug, and
and resulting changes in bulk rheology (e.g., the characteristics of conduit-filling magma be- Eruptions Involving Water
Nakada and Motomura, 1999; Watts et al., 2002). tween eruptions, can be determined by combin-
ing analysis of ejected breadcrust bombs (e.g., All of the eruptive behaviors reviewed herein
Transitional Eruptions Wright et al., 2007) with models that link bomb relate to purely magmatic activity, that is, eruptive
characteristics to conduit pressure (e.g., Bur- behavior that is controlled entirely by the physi-
Eruptions may be considered transitional gisser et al., 2011). Information on the repose cal properties and driving forces of the magma
when they include both explosive and effusive interval between events and the volume erupted itself. However, rising magma may also encoun-
activity; transitional activity characterizes erup- during each explosion can place important time ter either groundwater or surface water/snow/ice

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Cashman and Sparks

Figure 18. Plot of pyroclast 90 tensive fragmentation requires intimate mixing

STROMBOLIAN VULCANIAN
crystallinity (phenocrysts, micro- between magma and water. This is generally
phenocrysts, and microlites) GAL most efficient for low-viscosity mafic magmas
COL

Crystallinity (%)
as a function of SiO2 (wt%) (e.g., Zimanowski et al., 2003), although recent
60 TUN PCH
in the groundmass glass for SH MRT experiments suggest that shear-induced changes
products of transitional erup- ET MSH
PAR in melt deformation from ductile to brittle may
tions; eruptive style is labeled CN facilitate water interaction in more viscous
as Strombolian (includes vio- 30 melts (Austin-Erickson et al., 2011). Both the
lent Strombolian) and Vul- VS influence of water on changes in eruption style
canian. All eruptive products and the ability of external water to increase the
are highly crystalline; eruption efficiency of magmatic fragmentation are im-
style appears to reflect matrix 0 40 50 60 70 80 portant for evaluating volcanic hazards in re-
glass composition (viscosity). SiO2 in matrix glass (wt%) gions where there is potential for magma-water
Volcanoes that erupt magma interaction, particularly regions of distributed
with bulk compositions of basaltic andesite to andesite can have different eruptive styles volcanism (such as cinder cone fields). An area
depending on the amount of groundmass crystallization (and resulting evolution of matrix of future research is in developing ways to map
glass). ET—Etna, Italy; VS—Vesuvius, Italy; CN—Cerro Negro, Nicaragua; SH—Shishaldin, both the spatial extent of groundwater systems,
United States; PAR—Paricutin, Mexico; TUN—Tungurahua, Ecuador; GAL—Galeras, and the effective permeability of host rocks in
Colombia; COL—Colima, Mexico; PCH—Pichincha, Ecuador; MRT—Soufriere Hills, active volcanic regions.
Montserrat; MSH—Mount St. Helens, United States. Data are from Santacroce et al. (1993),
Calvache and Williams (1997), Roggensack et al. (1997), Cashman and Blundy (2000), Luhr CONCLUDING REMARKS
(2001), Stelling et al. (2002), Mora et al. (2002), Harford et al. (2003), Tadduecci et al. (2004),
and Wright et al. (2012). The overview provided here highlights the
physical processes responsible for magma
ascent, arrest in the upper crust, migration to-
during ascent and eruption. The past few decades on subaqueous eruption-fed density currents ward Earth’s surface, eruption, and emplace-
have seen numerous advances in field, experi- (White, 2000), historic submarine pumice erup- ment as pyroclastic fall and flow deposits, or as
mental, and theoretical perspectives on magma- tions (Kano, 2003), and explosive submarine lava flows and domes. Critical factors to most
water interactions, as reviewed in Head and eruptions (White et al., 2003) discuss eruption of these processes is the behavior of volatile
Wilson (2003) and White et al. (2003). and deposition of pumice on the seafloor. A phases as they exsolve and escape from the
In submarine environments, the style of critical factor for understanding pumice deposi- transporting magma, the response of the melt
magma-water interaction depends primarily on tion is defining conditions under which pumice phase in terms of phase stability and crystalli-
the height (pressure) of the overlying water col- transforms from being less dense to being more zation, and the resulting changes in rheology.
umn and its effect on vapor formation and ex- dense than the surrounding seawater (e.g., Cash- These complex interactions speak to the need
pansion (e.g., Kokelaar, 1986; Head and Wilson, man and Fiske, 1991; Allen et al., 2008). for continued advances in our understanding of
2003). Although the overlying water pressure is Magma-water interactions in subaerial envi- both physical and chemical aspects of the entire
unlikely to affect fragmentation of ascending ronments include interaction of rising magma phase space that encompasses mixtures of gases,
hydrous magmas (which should reach fragmen- with groundwater aquifers, hydrothermal sys- liquids, and particles. Additionally, because an
tation conditions well within the conduit), the tems, or surface water (including ice and snow). important goal of volcanological research is
water column will control the extent to which Interaction of magma with external water typi- improved assessment of the hazards posed by
eruption plumes are suppressed by the weight cally produces abundant fine ash, with the small volcanic eruptions and the associated risks to
of the overlying water column. Interaction with grain size reflecting the high energy provided by human populations, improved understanding of
seawater can also enhance magmatic fragmenta- water expansion (e.g., Koyaguchi and Woods, the underlying processes must be translated to
tion by rapid quenching. 1996; Mastin, 2007). Introduction of exter- improvements in hazard and risk assessment.
Observations from many mid-ocean-ridge nal water may affect the course of magmatic For this reason, the past few decades have seen
and ocean-island environments show extensive eruptions, as illustrated by the 1875 eruption a proliferation of cross-disciplinary research
evidence for fragmentation driven by magmatic of Askja volcano, Iceland, where variations themes and publications related to volcanic
gases, including characteristic mafic fluidal in groundwater availability controlled shifts in activity, including volcano impacts on health
pyroclast forms such as Pele’s hair (e.g., Davis eruption style (Lupi et al., 2011). (e.g., Hansell and Oppenheimer, 2004; Horwell
and Clague, 2006; Clague et al., 2009). In con- Pyroclasts produced by phreatomagmatic and Baxter, 2006), culture (e.g., Cashman and
trast, hydrous mafic magmas that have experi- eruptions often have lower vesicularities than Giordano, 2008; Grattan and Torrence, 2010),
enced both degassing and crystallization during pyroclasts from magmatic eruptions, a char- religion (e.g., Gaillard and Texier, 2010), and
ascent appear more susceptible to secondary acteristic that is attributed to premature clast societal resilience (e.g., Paton and Johnston,
(quench fragmentation) processes (e.g., Dear- quenching because of water (e.g., Houghton and 2006), as well as modeling of ash plumes (e.g.,
dorff et al., 2011). Silicic submarine eruptions Wilson, 1989). The angular form of many clasts Mastin et al., 2009a) and issues of risk and un-
may be highly explosive, as shown by silicic cal- also points to the importance of quench frag- certainty in volcanic hazard assessment (Sparks
deras on the modern seafloor that have produced mentation, particularly of rapidly chilled glassy et al., 2012). Although a thorough review of
substantial volumes of highly vesicular pumice rinds (Mastin et al., 2009b), as does the appear- these themes is outside the scope of this re-
deposits (e.g., Fiske et al., 2001; Wright et al., ance of quench cracks on particle surfaces (e.g., view, we end by placing basic volcanological
2003; Tani et al., 2008). Recent review papers Büttner et al., 1999; Dellino et al., 2012). Ex- research within the context of applied research

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How volcanoes work

to illustrate the challenges posed by the need ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Geothermal Research, v. 149, p. 85–102, doi:10.1016
/j.jvolgeores.2005.06.002.
for both short- and long-term forecasts of vol- Bacon, C.R., 1983, Eruptive history of Mount Mazama and
KVC would like to acknowledge support from the
canic activity. AXA Research Fund; RSJS acknowledges support Crater Lake caldera, Cascade Range, U.S.A.: Journal
The goal of short-term eruption forecasting is of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 18, p. 57–
from the European Research Council. We also thank
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suggesting that we write this paper. Morphology, volcanism, and mass wasting in Crater
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