OCR A Biology
2.1
History of the light microscope and development of cell theory
1 idea that cell is unit of life (1) / many organisms unicellular (1) / (most) cells are too small to see
without microscope (1) / cell components / organelles, are even smaller (1) / idea that need to see
organelles to determine function (1)
2 Prior to the mid-19th century microscopes were of too low a magnification (1) to see and identify
cells (1) and cell components (1).
Sample preparation
1 a so light can shine through it (1) / details can be seen (1)
b reduce / prevent, diffraction between liquid and glass (1) / prevent / reduce distortion of
image (1)
c reduce / prevent air bubbles being trapped (1)
Using staining
1 Gram negative have thinner cell wall (1) / penicillin disrupts cell wall formation (1) / less cell wall
formation (in gram negative) / membrane (around gram negative) prevents entry of penicillin (1)
2 Avoid skin / eye contact (1) / wear gloves / goggles (1)
Less is more
1 a shading / label lines not touching relevant object (1) label lines not parallel with top of
page (1) no magnification stated (1)
Summary questions
1 Both plant and animal tissue is composed of cells (1); cells are the basic unit of all life (1); cells only
develop from existing cells (1)
2 Staining provides contrast (1) / different structures/organelles absorb stain differently allowing
identification (1).
3 Objective lens and eyepiece lens (1); objective lens magnifies the specimen (1); eyepiece lens
magnifies image (from objective lens) (1); higher magnification (produced than with just one
lens) (1)
4 a i 0 × 10 = 100 (1) ii 10 × 40 = 400 (1)
b diameter of field of view = 2000 μm (1) / 2000 / 60 (1) / number of whole cells = 33 (1)
2.2
Using a graticule to calibrate a light microscope
1 graticule / stage micrometer, eyepiece graticule (1)
2 20 divisions of the eyepiece graticule were equivalent to 9.5 micrometer divisions (1); 1 micrometer
division = 10 µm (1); 20 graticule units = 95 µm (1); so 1 graticule unit = 95/20 = 4.75 µm (1);
calibration factor of the ×10 lens = 4.75.
3 a 14 (1)
b
Results 1 2 3
Diameter of pollen grain / 11 16 14
divisions
Diameter of pollen grains in µm 11 × 4.75 = 52.25 16 × 4.75 = 76.0 14 × 4.75 = 66.50
c 52.25 + 76.0 + 66.5 = 194.75/3 = 64.9 µm
d Scale on eyepiece graticule is always the same (1); but magnification of other lenses changes (1);
need to calibrate eyepiece graticule for each lens to know actual measurements represented by
eyepiece graticule at different magnifications (1); necessary to calculate real size of objects seen.
Summary Questions
1 simplifies calculation (1) / reduces errors (1)
2 3846 × 10 × 1000 × 1000 (1) / = 3.846 × 1010 (1)
3 Contrast is difference in colour/shade between two objects (1) Resolution is the smallest distance
between two objects that can still be seen as separate (1)
4 Approximately ×366, when the diameter is 22 mm (2).
5 diffraction happens when light passes through structures (1) / light waves spread out (1) /
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OCR A Biology
(light waves) overlap (1) / individual objects do not appear separate (1) / causes blurring (1)
6 (eyepiece graticule is) arbitrary scale / calibrated for each lens (1) / using stage micrometer (1)
2.3
Sample preparation for electron microscopes
fixation stabilise sample / prevents decomposition (1) / dehydration prevent vaporisation of water in
vacuum (1) vaporisation would damage sample (1) / embedding allows thin slices to be obtained (1)
staining with heavy metals creates contrast (1) in electron beams (1)
Scientific drawings from electron micrographs
a is best (1) no shading (1) / label lines parallel with top of page (1)
Identifying artefacts
Evidence supports artefact theory (1) / not present normally (1) / idea that antibiotics responsible for
appearance (1).
Fluorescent tags
a ability to see individual objects as separate (1)
b resolution the same (1) / resolution limited by wavelength of light (1) / fluorescence is
light emitted (1) / super resolved fluorescent microscopy has higher resolution (1)
Atomic force microscopy
1 image not formed by light (1) / (image formed by) deflections of, tip / probe (1) / (as tip / probe)
moves across surface of specimen (1)
2 higher resolution (than electron microscope) (1) / magnification depends on resolution (1)
3 (AFM) only scans surface (1) / idea that cannot see into cells (1) / idea that need to see how
organelles are related to understand function (1)
Super resolved fluorescence microscopy
1 a specimen preparation kills cells (1); detail e.g., fixation (1)
b single molecules can fluoresce (1); multiple images obtained (1); different molecules fluoresce in
each image (1); images superimposed (1); idea of individual molecules seen in relation to each other
interacting (1)
Summary questions
1 Electron microscopes use electrons instead of light and electrons have a shorter wavelength
than light (1) which produces images with a higher resolution (1).
2 a An artefact is a visible object (1) or distorted cell structure (1) present in an electron micrograph
(or other micrograph) due to the sample preparation process (1).
b more sample preparation (in electron microscopy) (1) / (leads to) more damage to specimen (1) /
damage results in artefacts (1)
3 a Left: transmission electron microscope Right: scanning electron microscope (1)
b organelles visible in a (1) / a has greater magnification (1) b shows surface detail (1)
c TEM advantages greater, magnification / resolution (1) / more detail (1) TEM disadvantages 2D
image (1) / very thin specimens needed (1) more preparation so more artefacts (1) SEM advantages
specimens do not need to be thin (1) 3D image (1) SEM disadvantages lower, magnification /
resolution (1) (max 6)
4 a Answers a emission of light (1); (that has been) absorbed (1)
b increase intensity (of light) (1)
c scattered light / light from outside the focal plane (1); is eliminated (1); reduces blurring / increases
resolution (1)
d idea of light penetration (of sample) is limited (1)
2.4
Cell movement
1 microtubules (and microfilaments) are involved (1) / undergo polymerisation and hydrolysis (1)
/ intermediate fibres are not involved (1) (have) role in cell stability (1)
Summary Questions
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OCR A Biology
1 Lysosomes are specialised vesicles (1) that contain hydrolytic enzymes (1) for breaking down waste
material. The membrane that forms lysosomes has an important role in compartmentalising these
enzymes away from cell structures that could be damaged by activity of the enzyme (1).
2 Incompatible reactions / catabolic and anabolic reactions require different conditions / damage
due to hydrolytic enzymes (3) three named examples (e.g. nucleus, vesicle, lysosome, mitochondrion,
Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast) (1).
3 Rough ER has ribosomes attached and smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached (1); rough
ER protein synthesis (and modification) (1); smooth ER lipid synthesis (1).
4 The cytoskeleton has three components: microfilaments (1) are contractile fibres made of actin that
bring about cell contraction during cytokinesis (1); microtubules (1) are formed from the cylindrical
protein tubulin and form scaffold like structures used both in the movement of organelles and vesicles
and as spindle fibres in the segregation of chromosomes/chromatids in cell division (1); intermediate
fibres give mechanical strength to cells (1).
5 a 7 × 107 × 0.34 × 10−9 (1) / = 2.38 × 10−2 × 46 (1) 1.09 m (1)
b coiled / wrapped (1) / around histones (1) / further coiling (1) / formation of chromatin (1)
6 microfilaments composed of actin (1) / (actin is) contractile (1) / microtubules composed of tubulin
(1) / (tubulin) polymerises (1) / (contraction and polymerisation lead to) change in length of
filaments (1) / change in length (of filaments) results in movement of cell (1) / intermediate fibres have
fixed length (1) / for stability (1)
2.5
Summary Questions
1 cell wall (1) / chloroplast (1) / plant cell (1) / presence of, chloroplast / cell wall (1).
2 a plant cell walls contain cellulose (1)
b prevent cells bursting (1) / allows turgidity (1) / idea that keep plants upright (1).
3 both have three named organelles (e.g. nucleus, cell surface membrane, mitochondria,
ribosomes, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum) (1) / only plants have two named organelles (e.g.
chloroplasts, cell wall, large (central) vacuoles) (1) / centrioles present in animal cells but not
flowering plants (1).
2.6
Endosymbiosis
1 mitochondria / chloroplasts, are (about) the same size as bacteria (1) / have a double membrane
(1) / (second membrane) acquired upon entry to cell (1) / contain DNA (1) / necessary for protein
synthesis (1) / (and) replication (1)
Prokaryotic cell study
1 a correctly drawn scientific diagram (1) / showing cell wall (1) / DNA / chromosome (1) / cytoplasm
(1)
b idea of many more structures (1) / membrane bound organelles (1) / three named structures (e.g.
nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body) (1)
Summary Questions
1 prokaryotic cells: no nucleus / no membrane bound organelles, e.g. mitochondria / smaller / 70s
ribosomes / plasmid / extra chromosomal DNA / peptidoglycan / murein cell wall. (Any 3). Accept
reverse arguments for eukaryotic cells.
2 Prokaryotic cells have ribosomes (1), which are needed for protein synthesis (1). Ribosomes are
not membrane bound (1).
3 Eukaryotic cells do not have peptidoglycan (1) cell walls (1) and these antibiotics do not damage
any other cell components (1) named example (e.g., nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria) (1)
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