SECTION 1 The body and its constituents

Cells are the body’s smallest functional units. They are Smooth Centrosome
grouped together to form tissues, each of which has a endoplasmic
reticulum
specialised function, e.g. blood, muscle, bone. Different
tissues are grouped together to form organs, e.g. the heart, Centrioles
stomach and brain. Organs are grouped together to form
systems, each of which performs a particular function that Nuclear
Nucleus
envelope
maintains homeostasis and contributes to the health of
the individual (see Fig. 1.2, p. 5). For example, the diges- Rough Nucleolus
tive system is responsible for taking in, digesting and endoplasmic
absorbing food, which involves a number of organs, reticulum
(with Ribosomes
including the stomach and intestines. The structure and ribosomes)
functions of cells and types of tissue are explored in this
chapter. Golgi
The terminology used to describe the anatomical rela- apparatus Mitochondria
tionships between body parts, the skeleton and the cavi-
ties within the body are then considered. Plasma membrane
The final section considers features of benign and Lysosomes Cytoplasm
malignant tumours, their causes and how they grow and
may spread. Figure 3.1 The simple cell.

The cell: structure and functions

Plasma membrane
Learning outcomes The plasma membrane (Fig. 3.2) consists of two layers
of phospholipids (see p. 27) with proteins and sugars
After studying this section, you should be able to:
embedded in them. In addition to phospholipids, the
■ describe the structure of the plasma membrane lipid cholesterol is also present. The phospholipid mole-
■ explain the functions of the principal organelles cules have a head, which is electrically charged and
hydrophilic (meaning ‘water loving’), and a tail which has
■ outline the process of mitosis no charge and is hydrophobic (meaning ‘water hating’,
■ compare and contrast active, passive and bulk Fig. 3.2A). The phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a
transport of substances across cell membranes. sandwich with the hydrophilic heads aligned on the
outer surfaces of the membrane and the hydrophobic
tails forming a central water-repelling layer. These dif-
ferences influence the transfer of substances across the
The human body develops from a single cell called the membrane.
zygote, which results from the fusion of the ovum (female
egg cell) and the spermatozoon (male sex cell). Cell Membrane proteins
division follows and, as the fetus grows, cells with Those proteins that extend all the way through the mem-
different structural and functional specialisations develop, brane provide channels that allow the passage of, for
all with the same genetic make-up as the zygote. Indi- example, electrolytes and non-lipid soluble substances.
vidual cells are too small to be seen with the naked Protein molecules on the surface of the plasma membrane
eye. However, they can be seen when thin slices of are shown in Figure 3.2B. The membrane proteins perform
tissue are stained in the laboratory and magnified using several functions:
a microscope. • branched carbohydrate molecules attached to the
A cell consists of a plasma membrane enclosing a outside of some membrane protein molecules give the
number of organelles suspended in a watery fluid called cell its immunological identity
cytosol (Fig. 3.1). Organelles, literally ‘small organs’, • they can act as receptors (specific recognition sites) for
have individual and highly specialised functions, and are hormones and other chemical messengers
often enclosed in their own membrane within the • some are enzymes (p. 28)
cytosol. They include: the nucleus, mitochondria, ribo- • transmembrane proteins form channels that are filled
somes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lyso- with water and allow very small, water-soluble ions to
somes and the cytoskeleton. The cell contents, excluding cross the membrane
the nucleus, is the cytoplasm, i.e. the cytosol and other • some are involved in pumps that transport substances
organelles. across the membrane.
32
 The cells, tissues and organisation of the body CHAPTER 3

Carbohydrate
chains

Phospholipid Membrane protein

bilayer molecules B

Head – hydrophilic Cholesterol molecule

A Tail – hydrophobic

Figure 3.2 The plasma membrane. A. Diagram showing structure. B. Coloured atomic force micrograph of the surface showing plasma
proteins.

Organelles 3.1

Nucleus
All body cells have a nucleus, with the exception of
mature erythrocytes (red blood cells). Skeletal muscle
fibres and some other cells contain several nuclei. The
nucleus is the largest organelle and is contained within
the nuclear envelope, a membrane similar to the plasma
membrane but with tiny pores through which some sub-
stances can pass between it and the cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains the body’s genetic material, in the
form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA, p. 438); this directs
all its metabolic activities. In a non-dividing cell DNA is
present as a fine network of threads called chromatin, but
when the cell prepares to divide the chromatin forms
distinct structures called chromosomes (Fig. 17.1, p. 439).
A related substance, ribonucleic acid (RNA) is also found
in the nucleus. There are different types of RNA, not all
found in the nucleus, but which are in general involved Figure 3.3 Mitochondrion and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
in protein synthesis. False colour transmission electron micrograph showing
Within the nucleus is a roughly spherical structure mitochondrion (orange) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (turquoise)
called the nucleolus, which is involved in synthesis (manu- studded with ribosomes (dots).
facture) and assembly of the components of ribosomes.

Mitochondria the greatest number of mitochondria, e.g. liver, muscle

Mitochondria are membranous, sausage-shaped struc- and spermatozoa.
tures in the cytoplasm, sometimes described as the ‘power
house’ of the cell (Fig. 3.3). They are central to aerobic Ribosomes
respiration, the processes by which chemical energy is These are tiny granules composed of RNA and protein.
made available in the cell. This is in the form of ATP, They synthesise proteins from amino acids, using RNA
which releases energy when the cell breaks it down as the template (see Fig. 17.5, p. 441). When present in free
(see Fig. 2.10, p. 28). Synthesis of ATP is most efficient units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm, the ribosomes
in the final stages of aerobic respiration, a process which make proteins for use within the cell. These include the
requires oxygen (p. 315). The most active cell types have enzymes required for metabolism. Metabolic pathways
33
 SECTION 1 The body and its constituents

consist of a series of steps, each driven by a specific Lysosomes in white blood cells contain enzymes that
enzyme. Ribosomes are also found on the outer surface digest foreign material such as microbes.
of the nuclear envelope and rough endoplasmic reticu-
lum (see Fig. 3.3 and below) where they manufacture Cytoskeleton
proteins for export from the cell. This consists of an extensive network of tiny protein
fibres (Fig. 3.5).
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Microfilaments. These are the smallest fibres. They
Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive series of intercon-
provide structural support, maintain the characteristic
necting membranous canals in the cytoplasm (Fig. 3.3).
shape of the cell and permit contraction, e.g. actin in
There are two types: smooth and rough. Smooth ER syn-
muscle cells (p. 421).
thesises lipids and steroid hormones, and is also associ-
ated with the detoxification of some drugs. Some of the Microtubules. These are larger contractile protein fibres
lipids are used to replace and repair the plasma mem- that are involved in movement of:
brane and membranes of organelles. Rough ER is studded • organelles within the cell
with ribosomes. These are the site of synthesis of proteins, • chromosomes during cell division
some of which are ‘exported’ from cells, i.e. enzymes and • cell extensions (see below).
hormones that leave the parent cell by exocytosis (p. 37)
to be used by cells elsewhere. Centrosome. This directs organisation of microtubules
within the cell. It consists of a pair of centrioles (small
Golgi apparatus clusters of microtubules) and plays an important role in
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of closely folded cell division.
flattened membranous sacs (Fig. 3.4). It is present in all Cell extensions. These project from the plasma mem-
cells but is larger in those that synthesise and export pro- brane in some types of cell and their main components
teins. The proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum are microtubules, which allow movement. They include:
to the Golgi apparatus where they are ‘packaged’ into
membrane-bound vesicles. The vesicles are stored and,
• microvilli – tiny projections that contain
microfilaments. They cover the exposed surface of
when needed, they move to the plasma membrane and
certain types of cell, e.g. absorptive cells that line the
fuse with it. The contents are expelled (secreted) from the
small intestine (see Fig. 3.6). By greatly increasing the
cell. This process is called exocytosis (p. 37).
surface area, microvilli make the structure of these
cells ideal for their function – maximising absorption
Lysosomes
of nutrients from the small intestine.
Lysosomes are small membranous vesicles pinched off
from the Golgi apparatus. They contain a variety of
• cilia – microscopic hair-like projections containing
microtubules that lie along the free borders of some
enzymes involved in breaking down fragments of
cells (see Fig. 10.12, p. 249). They beat in unison,
organelles and large molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA, carbo-
hydrates, proteins) inside the cell into smaller particles
that are either recycled, or extruded from the cell as
waste material.

Figure 3.4 Coloured transmission electron micrograph showing Figure 3.5 Fibroblasts. Fluorescent light micrograph showing their
the Golgi apparatus (green). nuclei (purple) and cytoskeletons (yellow and blue).
34
 The cells, tissues and organisation of the body CHAPTER 3

sion
ll divi
– ce
se

Cytokinesis
p ha
M s
osi
Mit

Telop
An
aph ase
hase
Me

ase
Pro

ta ph
ph
as
e

G2 phase G1 phase

S phase
(DNA replication)

Int
erp G0
has
e – cell
growth
Figure 3.6 Coloured scanning electron micrograph of microvilli
in small intestine. Figure 3.7 The cell cycle.

moving substances along the surface, e.g. mucus round the cell cycle but enter a resting phase (G0);
upwards in the respiratory tract. during this time cells carry out their specific functions,
• flagella – single, long whip-like projections, containing e.g. secretion, absorption.
microtubules, which form the ‘tails’ of spermatozoa • synthesis of DNA (S phase) – the chromosomes
(see Fig. 1.19, p. 15) that propel them through the replicate forming two identical copies of DNA
female reproductive tract. (see p. 442). Therefore, following the S phase,
the cell now has 92 chromosomes, i.e. enough
DNA for two cells and is nearly ready to divide
The cell cycle
by mitosis.
Many damaged, dead, and worn out cells can be replaced • second gap phase – (G2) there is further growth and
by growth and division of other similar cells. The fre- preparation for cell division.
quency with which cell division occurs varies with differ-
ent types of tissue (p. 44). This is normally carefully Mitosis (Figs 3.8 and 3.9) 3.2
regulated to allow effective maintenance and repair of This is a continuous process involving four distinct stages
body tissues. At the end of their natural lifespan, ageing visible by light microscopy.
cells are programmed to ‘self destruct’ and their compo-
nents are removed by phagocytosis; a process known as Prophase. During this stage the replicated chromatin
apoptosis (p. 54). becomes tightly coiled and easier to see under the micro-
Cells with nuclei have 46 chromosomes and divide by scope. Each of the original 46 chromosomes (called a chro-
mitosis, a process that results in two new genetically iden- matid at this stage) is paired with its copy in a double
tical daughter cells. The only exception to this is the for- chromosome unit. The two chromatids are joined to each
mation of gametes (sex cells), i.e. ova and spermatozoa, other at the centromere (Fig. 3.8). The mitotic apparatus
which takes place by meiosis (p. 442). appears; this consists of two centrioles separated by the
The period between two cell divisions is known as the mitotic spindle, which is formed from microtubules.
cell cycle, which has two phases that can be seen on light The centrioles migrate, one to each end of the cell, and
microscopy: mitosis (M phase) and interphase (Fig. 3.7). the nuclear envelope disappears.

Metaphase. The chromatids align on the centre of the

Interphase
spindle, attached by their centromeres.
This is the longer phase and three separate stages are
recognised: Anaphase. The centromeres separate, and one of each
• first gap phase (G1) – the cell grows in size and pair of sister chromatids (now called chromosomes again)
volume. This is usually the longest phase and most migrates to each end of the spindle as the microtubules
variable in length. Sometimes cells do not continue that form the mitotic spindle contract.
35
 SECTION 1 The body and its constituents

Nuclear
membrane Centriole
Centromere
Anaphase
Mitotic spindle
Chromatid
Metaphase
(replicated
Prophase
chromosome)

Interphase

Cytokinesis

Metaphase
Figure 3.9 Mitosis. Light micrograph showing cells at different
stages of reproduction with chromatin/chromatids shown in pink.

Sister
chromatids
Transport of substances across
cell membranes
Anaphase The structure of the plasma membrane provides it with
the property of selective permeability, meaning that not all
substances can cross it. Those that can, do so in different
ways depending on their size and characteristics (see
Fig. 1.3, p. 6). 3.3

Nuclear
membrane Passive transport
reforms
This occurs when substances can cross the semipermeable
plasma and organelle membranes and move down
Telophase the concentration gradient (downhill) without using
energy. 3.4

Diffusion
Two identical This was described on page 29. Small molecules diffuse
daughter cells down their concentration gradient:
• lipid-soluble materials, e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide,
fatty acids and steroids, cross the membrane by
dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane
• water-soluble materials, e.g. sodium, potassium and
Cytokinesis calcium, cross the membrane by passing through
water-filled channels.
Figure 3.8 The stages of mitosis.
Facilitated diffusion
This passive process is used by some substances that are
unable to diffuse through the semipermeable membrane
Telophase. The mitotic spindle disappears, the chromo- unaided, e.g. glucose, amino acids. Specialised protein
somes uncoil and the nuclear envelope reforms. carrier molecules in the membrane have specific sites that
Following telophase, cytokinesis occurs: the cytosol, attract and bind substances to be transferred, like a lock
intracellular organelles and plasma membrane split and key mechanism. The carrier then changes its shape
forming two identical daughter cells. and deposits the substance on the other side of the
36
 The cells, tissues and organisation of the body CHAPTER 3

membrane (Fig. 3.10). The carrier sites are specific and can specialised protein carrier molecules that transport sub-
be used by only one substance. As there are a finite stances across the membrane in either direction (see
number of carriers, there is a limit to the amount of a Fig. 3.10). The carrier sites are specific and can be used by
substance which can be transported at any time. This is only one substance; therefore the rate at which a sub-
known as the transport maximum. stance is transferred depends on the number of sites
available.
Osmosis
Osmosis is passive movement of water down its concen- The sodium–potassium pump
tration gradient towards equilibrium across a semiper- All cells possess this pump, which indirectly supports
meable membrane and is explained on page 29. other transport mechanisms such as glucose uptake,
and is essential in maintaining the electrical gradient
Active transport 3.5
needed to generate action potentials in nerve and muscle
cells.
This is the transport of substances up their concentration This active transport mechanism maintains the unequal
gradient (uphill), i.e. from a lower to a higher concentra- concentrations of sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions
tion. Chemical energy in the form of ATP (p. 27) drives on either side of the plasma membrane. It may use up to
30% of cellular ATP (energy) requirements.
Potassium levels are much higher inside the cell than
Outside surface of
outside – it is the principal intracellular cation. Sodium
cell membrane levels are much higher outside the cell than inside – it is
the principal extracellular cation. These ions tend to
diffuse down their concentration gradients, K+ outwards
and Na+ into the cell. In order to maintain their concentra-
tion gradients, excess Na+ is constantly pumped out
across the cell membrane in exchange for K+.

Bulk transport (Fig. 3.11)

Inside surface of
Transfer of particles too large to cross cell membranes
cell membrane
occurs by pinocytosis (‘cell-drinking’) or phagocytosis
Carrier protein (‘cell-eating’). These particles are engulfed by extensions
molecule
of the cytoplasm (see Fig. 15.1, p. 376) which enclose
them, forming a membrane-bound vacuole. Pinocytosis
allows the cell to bring in fluid. In phagocytosis larger
particles (e.g. cell fragments, foreign materials, microbes)
are taken into the cell. Lysosomes then adhere to the
vacuole membrane, releasing enzymes which digest the
contents.
Extrusion of waste material by the reverse process
through the plasma membrane is called exocytosis. Vesi-
cles formed by the Golgi apparatus usually leave the
Figure 3.10 Specialised protein carrier molecules involved in cell in this way, as do any indigestible residues of
facilitated diffusion and active transport. phagocytosis.

A B C D E F
Particle engulfed Formation Adhesion of Digestion of Exocytosis
by plasma of a vacuole lysosomes the particle by
membrane lysosomal
enzymes

Figure 3.11 Bulk transport across plasma membranes. A–E. Phagocytosis. F. Exocytosis.
37