Outline

Attributes and Objects

Types of Data

Data Quality

Similarity and Distance

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What is Data?

Collection of data objects Attributes

and their attributes
An attribute is a property Tid Refund Marital Taxable
or characteristic of an Status Income Cheat

object 1 Yes Single 125K No

– Examples: eye color of a 2 No Married 100K No
person, temperature, etc.
3 No Single 70K No

Objects
– Attribute is also known as
variable, field, characteristic, 4 Yes Married 120K No
dimension, or feature 5 No Divorced 95K Yes

A collection of attributes 6 No Married 60K No

describe an object 7 Yes Divorced 220K No
– Object is also known as 8 No Single 85K Yes
record, point, case, sample, 9 No Married 75K No
entity, or instance
10 No Single 90K Yes
10
Attribute Values

Attribute values are numbers or symbols assigned to

an attribute for a particular object

Distinction between attributes and attribute values

– Same attribute can be mapped to different attribute values
◆ Example: height can be measured in feet or meters

– Different attributes can be mapped to the same set of values

◆ Example: Attribute values for ID and age are integers

– But properties of attribute can be different than the

properties of the values used to represent the
attribute

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Attribute Types

Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”

– Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
– marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
Binary
– Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
– Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
◆ e.g., gender
– Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
◆ e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
◆ Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
Ordinal
– Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
– Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
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Numeric Attribute Types

Interval
◆ Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
◆ Values have order
– E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
◆ No true zero-point
Ratio
◆ Inherent zero-point
◆ We can speak of values as being an order of magnitude
larger than the unit of measurement (10 K˚ is twice as high as
5 K˚).
– e.g. length, counts, monetary quantities

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https://www.graphpad.com/support/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-ordinal-interval-and-ratio-
variables-why-should-i-care/
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Discrete and Continuous Attributes

Discrete Attribute
– Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
– Examples: zip codes, counts, or the set of words in a
collection of documents
– Often represented as integer variables.
– Note: binary attributes are a special case of discrete
attributes
Continuous Attribute
– Has real numbers as attribute values
– Examples: temperature, height, or weight.
– Practically, real values can only be measured and
represented using a finite number of digits.
– Continuous attributes are typically represented as floating-
point variables.
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Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

Motivation
– To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
Data dispersion characteristics
– median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
– Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
– Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
Dispersion analysis on computed measures
– Folding measures into numerical dimensions
– Boxplot orIntroduction
quantileto analysis on the transformed cube
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Measuring the Central Tendency

Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n

x =  xi =  x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i =1 N
n
– Weighted arithmetic mean:
w x i i
– Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x= i =1
n

Median: w
i =1
i

– Middle value if odd number of values, or average of

the middle two values otherwise
– Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
n / 2 − ( freq)l
median = L1 + ( ) width
freqmedian
Mode
– Value that occurs most frequently in the data

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Symmetric vs. Skewed
Data

Median, mean and mode of symmetric

symmetric, positively and
negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

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Measuring the Dispersion of Data

Quartiles, outliers and boxplots

– Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile of data below this point), Q3 (75th percentile)
– Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
– Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
– Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
– Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
– Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 2
 [ xi − ( xi ) ]
n n
1 1
s = ( xi − x ) =  =  −  =  xi −  2
2 2 2 2 2
( x )
n − 1 i =1 n − 1 i =1 n i =1 N i =1
i
N i =1

– Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

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Boxplot Analysis

Five-number summary of a distribution

– Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
Boxplot
– Data is represented with a box
– The ends of the box are at the first and
third quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is
IQR
– The median is marked by a line within the
box
– Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually.

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Example

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Example

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Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi
Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of one
univariant distribution against the corresponding quantiles
of another
Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
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Histogram Analysis
Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as
40
bars
35
It shows what proportion of cases fall
into each of several categories 30

Differs from a bar chart in that it is 25

the area of the bar that denotes the 20
value, not the height as in bar charts,
15
a crucial distinction when the
categories are not of uniform width 10
The categories are usually specified 5
as non-overlapping intervals of some 0
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000
variable. The categories (bars) must
be adjacent

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Histogram vs. Bar Graph

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Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

◼ The two histograms shown in the left

may have the same boxplot
representation
◼ The same values for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
◼ But they have rather different data
distributions

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Quantile Plot

Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both

the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information
– For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi
indicates that approximately 100 fi% of the data are
below or equal to the value xi

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Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot

Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the

corresponding quantiles of another
View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for each
quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower than those
at Branch 2.

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Scatter plot

Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of

points, outliers, etc
Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane

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Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

The left half fragment is positively

correlated

The right half is negative correlated

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Uncorrelated Data

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Important Characteristics of Data

– Dimensionality (number of attributes)

◆ High dimensional data brings a number of challenges

– Sparsity
◆ Only presence counts

– Resolution
◆ Patterns depend on the scale

– Size
◆ Type of analysis may depend on size of data

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Types of data sets
Record
– Data Matrix
– Document Data
– Transaction Data
Graph
– World Wide Web
– Molecular Structures
Ordered
– Spatial Data
– Temporal Data
– Sequential Data
– Genetic Sequence Data

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Record Data

Data that consists of a collection of records, each

of which consists of a fixed set of attributes
Tid Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

1 Yes Single 125K No

2 No Married 100K No
3 No Single 70K No
4 Yes Married 120K No
5 No Divorced 95K Yes
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes
9 No Married 75K No
10 No Single 90K Yes
10

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Data Matrix

If data objects have the same fixed set of numeric

attributes, then the data objects can be thought of as
points in a multi-dimensional space, where each
dimension represents a distinct attribute

Such a data set can be represented by an m by n matrix,

where there are m rows, one for each object, and n
columns, one for each attribute
Projection Projection Distance Load Thickness
of x Load of y load

10.23 5.27 15.22 2.7 1.2

12.65 6.25 16.22 2.2 1.1

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Document Data

Each document becomes a ‘term’ vector

– Each term is a component (attribute) of the vector
– The value of each component is the number of times
the corresponding term occurs in the document.

timeout

season
coach

game
score
play
team

win
ball

lost
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2

Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0

Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0

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Transaction Data

A special type of data, where

– Each transaction involves a set of items.
– For example, consider a grocery store. The set of products
purchased by a customer during one shopping trip constitute a
transaction, while the individual products that were purchased
are the items.
– Can represent transaction data as record data

TID Items
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
2 Beer, Bread
3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
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 Graph Data

Examples: Generic graph, a molecule, and webpages

2
5 1
2
5

Benzene Molecule: C6H6

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Ordered Data

Sequences of transactions
Items/Events

An element of
the sequence
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Ordered Data

Genomic sequence data

GGTTCCGCCTTCAGCCCCGCGCC
CGCAGGGCCCGCCCCGCGCCGTC
GAGAAGGGCCCGCCTGGCGGGCG
GGGGGAGGCGGGGCCGCCCGAGC
CCAACCGAGTCCGACCAGGTGCC
CCCTCTGCTCGGCCTAGACCTGA
GCTCATTAGGCGGCAGCGGACAG
GCCAAGTAGAACACGCGAAGCGC
TGGGCTGCCTGCTGCGACCAGGG

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Ordered Data

Spatio-Temporal Data

Average Monthly
Temperature of
land and ocean

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Similarity and Dissimilarity Measures

Similarity measure
– Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are.
– Is higher when objects are more alike.
– Often falls in the range [0,1]
Dissimilarity measure
– Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
– Lower when objects are more alike
– Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
– Upper limit varies
Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity
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 Similarity/Dissimilarity for Simple Attributes

The following table shows the similarity and dissimilarity

between two objects, x and y, with respect to a single, simple
attribute.

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Euclidean Distance

Euclidean Distance

where n is the number of dimensions (attributes) and

xk and yk are, respectively, the kth attributes
(components) or data objects x and y.

Standardization is necessary, if scales differ.

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Euclidean Distance

3
point x y
2 p1
p1 0 2
p3 p4
1
p2 2 0
p2 p3 3 1
0 p4 5 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0
Distance Matrix
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Minkowski Distance

Minkowski Distance is a generalization of Euclidean

Distance

Where r is a parameter, n is the number of dimensions

(attributes) and xk and yk are, respectively, the kth
attributes (components) or data objects x and y.

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Minkowski Distance: Examples

r = 1. City block (Manhattan, taxicab, L1 norm) distance.

– A common example of this for binary vectors is the
Hamming distance, which is just the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors

r = 2. Euclidean distance

r → . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

– This is the maximum difference between any component of
the vectors

Do not confuse r with n, i.e., all these distances are

defined for all numbers of dimensions.

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Minkowski Distance

L1 p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 4 4 6
p2 4 0 2 4
p3 4 2 0 2
p4 6 4 2 0
point x y
p1 0 2 L2 p1 p2 p3 p4
p2 2 0 p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p3 3 1 p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p4 5 1 p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0

L p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2 3 5
p2 2 0 1 3
p3 3 1 0 2
p4 5 3 2 0

Distance Matrix
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 Mahalanobis Distance

𝐦𝐚𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐬 𝐱, 𝐲 = ((𝐱 − 𝐲)𝑇 Ʃ−1 (𝐱 − 𝐲))-0.5

 is the covariance matrix

For red points, the Euclidean distance is 14.7, Mahalanobis distance is 6.

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Common Properties of a Distance

Distances, such as the Euclidean distance,

have some well known properties.
1. d(x, y)  0 for all x and y and d(x, y) = 0 if and only
if x = y.
2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x and y. (Symmetry)
3. d(x, z)  d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all points x, y, and z.
(Triangle Inequality)

where d(x, y) is the distance (dissimilarity) between

points (data objects), x and y.

A distance that satisfies these properties is a

metric
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Common Properties of a Similarity

Similarities, also have some well known

properties.

1. s(x, y) = 1 (or maximum similarity) only if x = y.

(does not always hold, e.g., cosine)
2. s(x, y) = s(y, x) for all x and y. (Symmetry)

where s(x, y) is the similarity between points (data

objects), x and y.

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Similarity Between Binary Vectors
Common situation is that objects, x and y, have only
binary attributes

Compute similarities using the following quantities

f01 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 1
f10 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 0
f00 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 0
f11 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 1

Simple Matching and Jaccard Coefficients

counts both presences and absences equally and it is normally
used for symmetric binary attributes

SMC = number of matches / number of attributes

= (f11 + f00) / (f01 + f10 + f11 + f00)

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Similarity Between Binary Vectors
Common situation is that objects, x and y, have only
binary attributes

Compute similarities using the following quantities

f01 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 1
f10 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 0
f00 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 0
f11 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 1

Jaccard Coefficients
counts only presences and it is frequently for asymmetric binary
attributes.
J = number of 11 matches / number of non-zero attributes
= (f11) / (f01 + f10 + f11)

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SMC versus Jaccard: Example

x= 1000000000
y= 0000001001

f01 = 2 (the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 1)

f10 = 1 (the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 0)
f00 = 7 (the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 0)
f11 = 0 (the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 1)

SMC = (f11 + f00) / (f01 + f10 + f11 + f00)

= (0+7) / (2+1+0+7) = 0.7

J = (f11) / (f01 + f10 + f11) = 0 / (2 + 1 + 0) = 0

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Cosine Similarity

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Cosine Similarity

If d1 and d2 are two document vectors, then

cos( d1, d2 ) = <d1,d2> / ||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where <d1,d2> indicates inner product or vector dot
product of vectors, d1 and d2, and || d || is the length of
vector d.

Example:
d1 = 3 2 0 5 0 0 0 2 0 0
d2 = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
<d1, d2> = 3*1 + 2*0 + 0*0 + 5*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 2*1 + 0*0 + 0*2 = 5
| d1 || = (3*3+2*2+0*0+5*5+0*0+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5 = (42) 0.5 = 6.481
|| d2 || = (1*1+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+1*1+0*0+2*2) 0.5 = (6) 0.5 = 2.449
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.3150

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Correlation measures the linear relationship
between objects

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Correlation

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 Drawback of Correlation (Non-linear Data)

x = (-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3)

y = (9, 4, 1, 0, 1, 4, 9)

yi = xi2

mean(x) = 0, mean(y) = 4
std(x) = 2.16, std(y) = 3.74

corr = (-3)(5)+(-2)(0)+(-1)(-3)+(0)(-4)+(1)(-3)+(2)(0)+3(5) / ( 6 * 2.16 * 3.74 )

=0

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Correlation vs cosine vs Euclidean distance

Choice of the right proximity measure depends on the domain

What is the correct choice of proximity measure for the
following situations?
– Comparing documents using the frequencies of words
◆ Documents are considered similar if the word frequencies are similar

– Comparing the temperature in Celsius of two locations

◆ Two locations are considered similar if the temperatures are similar in
magnitude

– Comparing two time series of temperature measured in Celsius

◆ Two time series are considered similar if their “shape” is similar, i.e., they
vary in the same way over time, achieving minimums and maximums at
similar times, etc.

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