ENGINEERING PHYSICS (SH 402)

Syllabus
1. Oscillation: ( 7 hours)
 Mechanical oscillation:- Introduction
 Free oscillation
 Damped oscillation
 Forced mechanical oscillation
 EM oscillation:- Free, damped and forced
electromagnetic oscillation.

2. Wave motion: (2 hours)

 Wave and particles
 Progressive wave
 Energy, power and intensity of progressive wave

3. Acoustics: (3 hours)
 Reverberation
 Sabine’s Law
 Ultrasound and it’s applications

4. Physical optics: (12 hours)

 Interference: - analytical treatment of interference,
Intensity in double slit interference, Interference in
thin films, Newton’s rings, Hadinger fringes.

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  Diffraction: -Fresnel and Frounhoffer’s diffraction,
intensity due to single slit diffraction, Diffraction
grating, x-ray diffraction.
 Polarization: - Double refraction, Nichol prism, wave
plates, optical activity, and Specific rotation.

5. Geometrical optics: (3 hours)

 Lenses, combination of lenses
 Cardinal points
 Chromatic aberration

6. Laser and optical fiber ( 4 hours)

 Laser production, He-Ne laser, uses of laser.
 Fiber optics, types of optical fiber, Acceptance angle,
Numerical aperture, self focusing, application of
optical fiber.

7. Electrostatics: ( 8 hours)
 Electric charges and force
 Electric field and potential
 Electrostatic potential energy
 Capacitors, types of capacitors, capacitors with
dielectric
 Charging and discharging of a capacitor.

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 8. Electromagnetism: (11 hours)
 Direct current: Ohm’s law, resistance and resistivity
 Semiconductor and Superconductor
 Magnetic fields: magnetic force, Biot and Savert law
and its applications, Ampere’s law and application,
Hall effect, cyclotron, synchrotron
 Electromagnetic induction: Faraday’s law, LR
circuit, induced magnetic field, displacement current.

9. Electromagnetic waves: (5 hours)

 Maxwell’s equations
 Wave equations, Speed
 E and B fields
 Continuity equation
 Energy transfer and Poynting vector.

10. Photon and matter waves: (5 hours)

 Quantization of energy
 Electrons and matter waves
 De-Broglie wave equation
 Wave function and its significance
 Schrodinger wave equation
 Probability density
 One dimensional potential well
 Barrier tunneling.

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Reference books:
 Fundamental of physics, Halliday, Resnick and
Walker (Latest edition)
 Engineering physics: R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta
 A text books of Optics: Brij lal and Subrahmanyam
 Modern Engineering Physics: A.S. Basudeva
 Waves and Oscillation: Brij lal and Subrahmanyam
 Fundamental of Engineering physics: Balkrishna
Sapkota, Bhadra pokharel and Binod Bhattarai

Evaluation Scheme
Theory: - 20 (internal) +80 (final) = 100 marks
Practical: - 20 (internal) +30 (final) = 50 marks
Chapters Hours Marks
Oscillation 7 10
Wave motion and Acoustics 5 5
Physical optics 12 15
Geometrical optics 3 5
Laser and optical fiber 4 5
Electrostatics and electromagnetism 19 30
Electromagnetic waves 5 5
Photon and Matter waves 5 5
Total 60 80

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 Mechanical Oscillation
Simple harmonic motion (SHM):-
It is periodic motion in which acceleration is directly
proportional to the displacement from mean position and
displacement is directly proportional to restoring force. e.g.
pendulum, spring mass system etc.

Differential equation of simple harmonic motion:-

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is in SHM and displacement of
the particle at that instant is ‘x’. Then from definition of SHM
restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from
mean position.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 … … … (1)

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Where, k is constant of proportionality called force constant and
negative sign indicates that restoring force and displacement are
in opposite direction.
Also, From Newton’s second law of motion;
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 2 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (1) and (2);
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 2 𝑥 = 0 … … … (3)
𝑜𝑟, + 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑘
Where, 𝜔2 =
𝑚

𝑘
∴𝜔= √ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑚

𝑘
2𝜋𝑓 = √
𝑚

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 1 𝑘
∴𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

Equation (3) represents the displacement equation of SHM. The

solution of equation (3) is; 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

Velocity of the particle:-

We have displacement of the particle is;
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝐴𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔√12 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

𝑥2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔√1 − 2
𝐴

∴ 𝑣 = 𝜔 √𝐴 2 − 𝑥 2
∴ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝜔 (𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Acceleration of the particle:-

We have, 𝑣 = 𝐴𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

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 𝑑𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑎) =
𝑑𝑡
= −𝐴𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
∴ 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
∴ 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝐴

Total Energy in SHM:-

The sum of kinetic and potential energies at any instant is the
total energy of a particle executing SHM at that instant.
i.e. E = K. E. + P.E.
The displacement of a particle executing SHM at any instant is x
= A sin(t ±)
𝑑𝑥
The velocity at that instant is v = = A Cos (t ± ) and
𝑑𝑡
acceleration is
a = - 2x
Now, the kinetic energy at that instant is given by
1 1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝐴2 2 cos2 (𝑡 + ∅)
2
2 2
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force
produced on the accelerated particle is F = mass × acceleration =
m2x. If dx be the small displacement on the particle executing

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SHM then small amount of work done is given by dU = force ×
displacement = m2x dx
For 0 to x displacement, total amount of work done is given by
𝑥 1 1
U = ∫0 m2 x dx = 𝑚 2 𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2 2

This amount of work done represent the potential energy

associated at t.
1 2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑘𝑥
2
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑘𝐴2 sin2 (𝑡 + ∅)
2
1
∴ 𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝐴2 2 sin2 (𝑡 + ∅)
2
Now, total energy (𝐸 ) = 𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸.
1 1
= 𝑚𝐴  cos 𝑡 + ∅ + 𝑚𝐴2 2 sin2 (𝑡 + ∅)
2 2 2 ( )
2 2
1
𝐸= 𝑚𝐴2 2
2
1 2
∴𝐸= 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
2

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 Figure. P.E. , K.E. and Total energy as a function of
displacement.

Figure shows that P.E. become maximum, twice during a time

period. For x=0, P.E. becomes zero. Where, 𝑥 =
1 1
∓𝐴, 𝑘𝑥 2 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑘𝐴2 which is maximum (total) energy
2 2
and vice versa, for K.E.

Spring mass system:-

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Consider a mass less spring having spring constant ‘k’. One end
of spring is connected to mass ‘m’ and other is connected to the
rigid support. If ‘x’ is the displacement of the body, then the
restoring force exerted by the spring at any instant is given by;
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 … … … (1)
And also from Newton’s second law of motion;
𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 2 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑 2𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑘 𝑘
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = √
𝑚 𝑚

𝑘
∴ 2𝜋𝑓 = √
𝑚

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 1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

2𝜋 𝑘
∴𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝑤 𝑚

𝑘
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ is the time period for the spring mass system.
𝑚

Physical pendulum:-

A physical pendulum or compound pendulum is just a rigid

body of whatever shape. It is capable of oscillating about
horizontal axis passing through it. All real pendulums are
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physical pendulum. Let the pendulum be given small angular
displacement ‘𝜃’. So that it’s CG takes new position. Now
restoring torque from above figure is;
𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … (1)
(-)ve sign indicates that torque is in opposite direction to the
displacement ‘𝜃’.
Also, from Newton’s second law of motion;
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 … … … (2)
Where, ‘I’ is moment of inertia and 𝛼 is the angular
acceleration.
𝑑2 𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡 2
From equation (1) and (2)
𝐼𝑑2 𝜃
= −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
Now, for small displacement 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≅ 𝜃
𝐼𝑑2 𝜃
∴ = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2
𝐼𝑑2 𝜃
𝑜𝑟, + 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
𝑜𝑟, + 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
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If k is the radius of gyration of pendulum, then from parallel
axis theorem, the total momentum of inertia of pendulum about
the axis through point of suspension is;
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 2 + 𝑚𝑙 2 = 𝑚(𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 )
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
∴ + 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚(𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 )
which is required differential equation for physical or compound
pendulum.
Now, comparing this equation with standard differential
𝑔𝑙
equation of SHM we get; 𝜔2 =
(𝑘 2 +𝑙 2 )

𝑔𝑙
∴𝜔= √ 2
𝑘 + 𝑙2

2𝜋 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
∴𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝜔 𝑔𝑙

𝑘2
+𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
𝑔

which is required time period for physical pendulum or

compound pendulum.

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When,
𝑘2
+ 𝑙 = 𝐿, (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚)
𝑙
Then physical pendulum is equivalent to simple pendulum.

Bar pendulum:-

A bar pendulum is the simplest form of a compound pendulum

and consists of a uniform metal bar having equally spaced holes
along its length on either side of its CG. We have time period of
the bar pendulum is;

𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔𝑙

It can be seen from the graph that there are two point’s on each
sides of the bar, where the time period are equal.

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We have,
𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔𝑙

Squaring both sides;

2
𝑘2 + 𝑙2
2
𝑇 = 4𝜋 ( )
𝑙𝑔
4𝜋 2 𝑙 2 + 4𝜋 2 𝑘 2 − 𝑇 2 𝑙𝑔 = 0
4𝜋 2 𝑙 2 − 𝑇 2 𝑙𝑔 + 4𝜋 2 𝑘 2 = 0
Solving this equation we get;

𝑇 2 𝑔 ∓ √𝑇 4 𝑔2 − 64𝜋 4 𝑘 2
𝑙=
8𝜋 2
From this equation it is clear that there are two different points
having equal volume of time period on each sides of the bar
pendulum. Therefore, we can say that there are four collinear
points on bar.

Determination of Radius of gyration:-

Radius of gyration is the square root of mean square distance
from axis of rotation. Two points one is point of suspension and
other is point of oscillation on bar pendulum. Let their distance
be 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 from the CG as shown in figure. Thus the equivalent
length of the pendulum is;
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 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
Now, using the relation of time period;

𝑘2
𝑘 2 + 𝑙12 + 𝑙1
√ 𝑙1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋
𝑔𝑙1 𝑔

𝐿
In other way, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

𝑘2
𝑠𝑜, + 𝑙1 = 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝑙1
𝑘2
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙2
𝑙1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑘 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2

∴ 𝐾 = √𝑙1 𝑙2

Point of oscillation and point of suspension are

interchangeable on bar pendulum:-
Let the time period be 𝑇1 for a point at distance 𝑙1 from CG.
Similarly, the time period 𝑇2 for a point at distance 𝑙2 from CG,
then time periods are;

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 𝑘2
𝑘 2 + 𝑙12 + 𝑙1
√ 𝑙1
𝑇1 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋
𝑔𝑙1 𝑔

𝑘2
+ 𝑙2
√ 𝑙2
𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑇2 = 2𝜋
𝑔

But, we know that;

𝑘 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑘2
𝑠𝑜, + 𝑙1 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝑙1
𝑘2
𝑎𝑛𝑑, + 𝑙2 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2
𝑙2
∴ 𝑇1 = 𝑇2
This proves that point of suspension and point of oscillation are
interchangeable.
Minimum time period:-
We know that,
𝑘2
𝑘 2 + 𝑙12 + 𝑙1
√ 𝑙1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋
𝑔𝑙1 𝑔

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 𝑘2
In the equation of time period T be minimum if + 𝑙1 is
𝑙1
minimum.
𝑘2
Differentiating + 𝑙1 with respect to 𝑙1 we get;
𝑙1

𝑑 𝑘2 𝑘2
[ + 𝑙1 ] = − 2 + 1
𝑑𝑙1 𝑙1 𝑙1
𝑘2
For the time period to be minimum − + 1 is should be zero.
𝑙12

𝑘2
𝑠𝑜, − 2 +1=0
𝑙1
∴ 𝑘 2 = 𝑙12
But we have,
𝑘 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2
∴ 𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝑙12
∴ 𝑙1 = 𝑙2
That is point of suspension and point of oscillation should be
equal distance from CG. And time period will be maximum at
𝑙 = 0.

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Torsional pendulum:-

A heavy body such as a disc is suspended at the one end of wire

and the other end of the wire is fixed at a rigid support is known
as torsional pendulum. When a disc is rotated the wire is twisted
by an angle 𝜃. In this case the restoring torque is created the
restoring torque is directly proportional to the angular
displacement of the wire.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜏 ∝ 𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏 = −𝐶𝜃 … … … (1)
𝜋ƞ𝑟 4
Where ‘C’ is tortional constant 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶 =
2𝑙

The rotational form of Newton’s second law of motion is;

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼 2 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡

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From equation (1) and (2)
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 2 + 𝐶𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜃 𝐶
+ 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
which is required differential equation of tortional pendulum.
Now, comparing this equation with standard differential
equation of SHM, we get,
𝐶
𝜔2 =
𝐼

𝐶
∴𝜔= √
𝐼

2𝜋 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇= = 2𝜋√
𝜔 𝐶

𝐼
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ … … … (3)
𝐶

which is required time period for torsional pendulum.

For regular body having moment of inertia I1 is placed on the
disc. Then,

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 𝐼 + 𝐼1
𝑇1 = 2𝜋 √ … … … . (4)
𝐶

And, for irregular body having moment of inertia I2 is placed on

the disc. Then,

𝐼 + 𝐼2
𝑇2 = 2𝜋 √ … … … . (5)
𝐶

From equation (3) and (4)

𝑇12 𝐼 + 𝐼1
=
𝑇2 𝐼
𝑇12 𝐼1
=1+
𝑇2 𝐼
𝑇12 − 𝑇 2 𝐼1
= … … … (6)
𝑇2 𝐼
From equation (3) and (5)
𝑇22 𝐼 + 𝐼2
=
𝑇2 𝐼
𝑇22 𝐼2
=1+
𝑇2 𝐼
𝑇22 − 𝑇 2 𝐼2
= … … … (7)
𝑇2 𝐼
From equation (6) and (7)
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 𝑇22 − 𝑇 2 𝐼2
=
𝑇12 − 𝑇 2 𝐼1
𝑇22 − 𝑇 2
∴ 𝐼2 = 2 × 𝐼1
𝑇1 − 𝑇 2

Free Oscillation:-
Consider a simple pendulum in vacuum, there is no loss of
energy by friction. The amplitude of such vibration remains
unchanged. Such vibration is called free vibration or un-damped
vibration. From the definition of simple harmonic motion, for
displacement 𝑦 we have;
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 … … … (1)
And also from Newton’s second law of motion;
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 2 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (1) and (2)
𝑑 2𝑦
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑 2𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 + 𝑘𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, + 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

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 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 2
+ 𝑤2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑘 𝑘
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑤 2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = √
𝑚 𝑚

𝑘
∴ 2𝜋𝑓 = √
𝑚

1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

And solution is; 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝑤𝑡

Damped Oscillation:-
It is such type of oscillation in which energy is loss by
external resistance or from internal friction within a system.
Particularly all oscillations are damped. The energy of such
oscillation decreases in time, this causes the amplitude also
decreases in time.
For a pendulum there is frictional force of air. Hence is
dissipated in each vibration. The dissipative force is proportional
to velocity of the particle at that instant and velocity decreases
exponentially in the time.
i. e. dissipative force (F) ∝ v
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 𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 = −𝑏𝑣 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 = −𝑏
𝑑𝑡
The differential equation of motion in this case will be;
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, + + 𝑥 = 0 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Which is required differential equation for damped harmonic
oscillation. The solution of above equation is;
𝑏
−( )𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 2𝑚 sin(𝜔𝐼 𝑡)
𝑏
−( )𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 2𝑚

𝑡
−( ) 1 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴= 𝐴0 𝑒 2𝜏 … … … (2) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, =
𝜏 𝑚
The damped angular velocity is;

𝐾 𝑏2
𝜔𝐼 = √ −
𝑚 4𝑚2

And frequency is;

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 1 𝐾 𝑏 2
𝑓𝐼 = √ −
2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚2

Which is the less than the natural frequency 𝑓, and damped

energy is;
1 𝑏𝑡
2 2 −( 𝑚 )
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 𝑒
2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

Figure:- Damped oscillation

We have,

𝑏2
𝜔𝐼 = √𝜔02 −
4𝑚2
𝑏
1) When 𝜔0 > , 𝜔𝐼 is positive, the oscillation is under
2𝑚
damped.
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 𝑏
2) When 𝜔0 = , 𝜔𝐼 is 0, the oscillation is critically
2𝑚
damped.
𝑏
3) When 𝜔0 < , 𝜔𝐼 is negative, the oscillation is over
2𝑚
damped.

Forced oscillation:-
The phenomenon of setting a body into continuous vibration
with the help of strong period force having a frequency different
from the natural frequency of the bodies is called forced
oscillation.
Let the applied force is sinusoidal and represented as;
𝐼
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where 𝑤 is angular frequency applied externally.
Now, resulting force becomes;
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏 + 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹0
𝑜𝑟, + + 𝑥 = sin 𝜔𝑡 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
And solution of above equation is;

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 𝑥 = 𝐴0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅0 )
𝐹0
Where, 𝐴0 =
𝜔2 𝑏2
𝑚√(𝜔2 −𝜔02 )2 +
𝑚2

(𝜔2 −𝜔02 )
And, ∅0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ 𝑏 ]
𝜔( )
𝑚

When natural frequency 𝜔0 is equal to applied frequency 𝜔then

the condition is called resonance condition.

Quality factor (Q-factor):-

Quality factor of a damped oscillation is defined as the quality
of oscillator. Less is the damping, higher is the quality factor.
energy stored
Q − factor =
energy loss per cycle
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔
= 2𝜋 … … … . (1)
𝑃×𝑇
Rate of loss of energy is power dissipation.
−𝑑𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 =
𝑑𝑡
We know that energy in damped harmonic oscillator is;
1 2 2
𝑏𝑡
−( )
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥𝑚 𝑒 𝑚
2

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 1 𝑏
𝑎𝑠, = = 2𝛿
𝜏 𝑚
2δ is the logarithmic decrement and τ is relaxation time.
1
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥𝑚
2 −2𝛿𝑡
𝑒
2
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸0 𝑒 −2𝛿𝑡

−𝑑𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 −𝑑𝐸0 𝑒 −2𝛿𝑡

∴ 𝑃= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃 = 2𝛿𝐸0 𝑒 −2𝛿𝑡
∴ 𝑃 = 2𝛿𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 … … … (2)
From equation (1) and (2);
2𝜋 1
𝑄= .( )
𝑇 2𝛿
𝜔
𝑄=
2𝛿
∴ 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏

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Numerical Examples:-

1. An oscillatory motion of a body is represented by 𝒚 =

𝒂𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕 where 𝒚 is displacement in time 𝒕, 𝒂 is amplitude
and 𝝎 is angular frequency. Show that the motion is
simple harmonic.
Solution:-

We have 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
Now differentiating with respect to time,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑(𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 )
= = 𝑖𝜔𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Again differentiating with respect to time,

𝑑2 𝑦
2
= 𝑖 2 𝜔2 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 2 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑦
∴ + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 represent the motion is simple harmonics.
𝑑𝑡 2

2. A linear spring whose force constant is 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑵/𝒎 hangs

vertically supporting a 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 mass at rest. The mass is
pulled down a distance 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎 and then released. What

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 will be its maximum velocity and also find the
frequency of vibration?
Solution:-
Force constant (𝑘) = 0.2 𝑁/𝑚

Mass (𝑚) = 1 𝑘𝑔
Amplitude (𝐴) = 0.2 𝑚
Maximum velocity (𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) =?
Frequency (𝑓) =?
We know that;

𝑘 0.2
𝜔= √ = √ = 0.447 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚 1

𝑁𝑜𝑤, (𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝜔𝐴 = 0.089 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

1 𝑘
𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑓= √ = 0.071 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑚

3. A small body of mass 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 under going SHM of

amplitude 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎 and time period 𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄. (i) What is the
maximum force on the body? (ii) If the oscillations are
produced on the spring, what should be the force
constant?
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Solution:-
Mass (𝑚) = 0.1 𝑘𝑔
Amplitude (𝐴) = 0.1 𝑚
Tie period (𝑇 ) = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚
We have time period (𝑇 ) = 2𝜋 √
𝑘

0.1
𝑜𝑟, 2 = 2𝜋 √
𝑘

∴ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘) = 0.987 𝑁/𝑚

Now, Maximum force (𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝐴 = 0.987 × 0.1
∴ 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.0987 𝑁

4. An oscillating block spring system has mechanical

energy of 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝑱 and amplitude of 𝟗. 𝟖𝟒 𝒄𝒎 and
maximum speed of 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝒎/𝒔, find (i) The force
constant of spring (ii) The mass of the block (iii) The
frequency of oscillation.
Solution:-
Total energy (𝐸 ) = 1.18 𝐽
Amplitude (𝐴) = 9.84 𝑐𝑚 = 0.0984 𝑚

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 Maximum speed (𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 1.22 𝑚/𝑠
1 2
(𝑖) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑘𝐴
2
1
𝑜𝑟, 1.18 = × 𝑘 × (0.0984)2
2
∴ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑘) = 243.72 𝑁/𝑚
(𝑖𝑖)𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 1.22 = 𝜔 × 0.0984
∴ 𝜔 = 12.39 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘
Also we have, 𝜔2 =
𝑚

𝑘 243.72
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚= =
𝑤2 153.71
∴ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 (𝑚) = 1.58 𝑘𝑔
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑤 12.39
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓= =
2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑓) = 1.97 𝐻𝑧

5. The balance wheel of watch oscillates with angular

amplitude of 𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅 and the period of 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄. Find (i)
maximum angular speed of wheel, (ii) The angular
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 𝝅
speed of wheel, when the displacement is 𝒓𝒂𝒅. And
𝟐
(iii) Magnitude of angular acceleration of wheel, when
𝝅
its displacement is 𝒓𝒂𝒅.
𝟒

Solution:-
Amplitude (𝐴) = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Time period (𝑇 ) = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = =
𝑇 0.5
∴ 𝑤 = 12.56 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
(𝑖)𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑤𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 12.56 × 𝜋
∴ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 39.438 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣) = 𝑤 √𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝜃 2

𝜋
= 12.56 √𝜋 2 − ( )2
2
= 34.154 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
𝜋 2
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝛼) = 𝜔 𝜃 = (12.56) ×
4
∴ 𝛼 = 123.84 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

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 6. A mass of 2 kg is suspended from a spring of spring
constant 18 N/m. If the un-damped frequency is 𝟐/√𝟑
times the damped frequency, what will be its damping
factor?
Solution:-
Mass (m) = 2 kg
Spring constant (k) = 18 N/m
Damping factor (b) = ?
Given that; undamped frequency (f0 )
2
= damped frequency(f I )
√3
f0 2
𝑜𝑟, =
f I √3
1 √𝑘
2𝜋 𝑚 2
or, =
1 √𝑘 𝑏2 √3
−
2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚2
𝑘
𝑚 4
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑘 𝑏2 3
− 2
𝑚 4𝑚
𝑘 𝑘 𝑏2
𝑜𝑟, 3 =4 − 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑏2 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑚2 𝑚
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑚 = 18 × 2 = 36
∴𝑏 = 6 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚

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 7. If the relaxation time of a damped harmonic oscillator
𝟏
is 50 sec. Find the time in which the amplitude falls to
𝒆𝟑
times the initial value and energy of the system falls to
𝟏
of its initial value.
𝒆𝟒
Solution:-
1 1
Given that; A = A and E = E
𝑒3 0 𝑒4 0
Relaxation time (τ) = 50 sec
Now we know that;
𝑡
−( )
Damped amplitude (A) = 𝐴0 𝑒 2𝜏
1 𝑡
−( )
𝑜𝑟, A = 𝐴0 𝑒 2𝜏
𝑒3 0
𝑡
−( )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −3 = 𝑒 2𝜏
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, =3
2𝜏
∴ 𝑡 = 6𝜏 = 6 × 50 = 300 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑡
−( )
And damped energy (E) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 𝑡
−( )
𝑜𝑟, E = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
𝑒4 0
𝑡
−( )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −4 = 𝑒 𝜏
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, =4
𝜏
∴ 𝑡 = 4𝜏 = 4 × 50 = 200 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

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Exercise:-
1. What is simple harmonic motion? Show that total energy
of spring mass system which is oscillating in SHM is
conserved.
2. What do you mean by centre of suspension and oscillation
of a compound pendulum? Derive the time period of
compound pendulum and also show that point of
suspension and point of oscillation are interchangeable.
3. Deduce the time period of a simple harmonic vibration.
Explain why a loaded bus is more comfortable than an
empty bus.
4. Explain forced oscillation with its differential equation.
Write the relation for the frequency dependent amplitude
and hence give a rough sketch of the resonance curve.
5. Define compound pendulum. Show that the motion of
torsional pendulum follows angular SHM. Use it to find
modulus of rigidity of a given wire.
6. Write the difference between mechanical oscillation and
e.m. oscillation. Set up the differential equation of damped
harmonic mechanical oscillation. Obtain the relation for
frequency of such oscillation. Hence explain the condition
for different types of damped oscillation.
7. Differentiate between bar pendulum and torsional
pendulum. Prove that there exists four collinear points in
bar pendulum.

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 8. In simple harmonic motion, when the displacement is one –
half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy is KE
and what fraction is PE? At what displacement is the
energy half KE and half PE?
9. What do you mean by torsional pendulum? Using a
torsional pendulum, derive a relation for modulus of
rigidity of the metallic wire.
10. Show that in a bar pendulum, minimum time period is
achieved if radius of gyration is equal to the distance of
point of suspension or point of oscillation from centre of
gravity.
11. Derive a relation to find the moment of inertia of a
rigid body about an axis passing through its centre of
gravity using the torsional pendulum.
12. Distinguish between free and force vibrations. Write
the differential equation of forced oscillation. Determine
the amplitude of oscillation for forced oscillation and hence
explain sharpness of the resonance.
13. Obtain an expression for the time period of a
compound pendulum and show that its time period is
unaffected by the fixing of a small additional mass to it at
its centre of suspension.
14. Differentiate between linear and angular harmonic
motion. Show that the motion of torsional pendulum is
angular harmonic motion. Also find its time period.
15. Explain the theory of a simple mass spring system.
Developed the relation for the time period and frequency of
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 a two springs having spring constants K1 and K2
supporting a mass ‘M’ between them on a frictionless
horizontal table.
16. Derive a relation to determine the radius of gyration
of a compound pendulum. Why determination of
acceleration due to gravity is more accurate from a
compound pendulum then a simple pendulum?
17. Define the quality factor. Derive a relation of quality
factor from the damped harmonic motion and show that the
quality factor is inversely proportional to damping constant.
18. What are drawbacks of simple pendulum? Show that
the period of torsional oscillations remains unaffected even
if the amplitude be large, provided that the elastic limits of
the suspension wire is not exceeded.
19. A meter stick suspended from one end swings as a
physical pendulum (a) what is the period of oscillation. (b)
What would be the length of the simple pendulum that
would have a same time period.
20. A uniform circular disc of radius R oscillates in a
vertical plane about a horizontal axis. Show that disc will
oscillate with the minimum time period when the distance
𝑅
of the axis of rotation from the centre is .
√2
21. A simple pendulum of length 40 cm and mass 50 gm
is suspended in a car that is travelling with a constant speed
40 m/sec around a circle of radius 100 m. If the pendulum
goes small oscillation in a radial direction about its

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 equilibrium position, what will be its frequency of
oscillation?
22. The amplitude of lightly damped oscillator decreases
by 3 % during each cycle. What fraction of the energy of
the oscillator is lost in each full oscillation?
23. In damped harmonic motion, calculate the time in
which (i) its amplitude and (ii) its energy falls to 1/e of its
un-damped value if the mass of the system is 0.25 gm and
damping constant is 0.01g/s?
24. A particle is moving with simple harmonic motion in
a straight line. If it has a speed v1 when the displacement is
x1 and speed v2 when the displacement is x2 then show that
𝑣22 𝑥12 −𝑣12 𝑥22 1/2
the amplitude of motion is, 𝑎 = [ 2 2 ] .
𝑣2 −𝑣1
25. A 750 gm block oscillates on the end of a spring
whose force constant is 56 N/m. The mass moves in a fluid
which offers a resistive force F = −bv, where b =
0.162 Ns/m. What is the period of the oscillation?

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 Wave Motion

Wave motion is a form of disturbance which travels through a

medium due to the repeated periodic motion of the particles of
the medium about their mean position.
Characteristics of wave motion:-
 Wave motion is the disturbance produced in the medium
due to repeated periodic motion of the particle.
 Wave travels in forward direction while the particle of the
medium vibrates about their mean position.
 In each vibration, a particle handover some of its energy to
the next particles, which it receive from the previous
particle.
 The velocity of wave is different from the velocity of the
particle.
 Wave velocity is uniform while particle velocity is different
at different position. It is maximum at mean position and
minimum at extreme position.

Types of wave:-
On the basis of modes of vibration of the particle of the medium,
there are two types of waves;

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Transverse Wave:-
When the particle of the medium vibrates about their mean
position in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave, the wave is called transverse wave. Eg.
Transverse wave produced in water, when stone is thrown to the
water.

Longitudinal wave:-
If the particles of the medium propagating the wave motion
vibrate in the direction of propagation then the wave is called
longitudinal wave. Eg. Sound waves.

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Equation of propagation of wave (travelling waves):-
A wave travelling from one region to another region of medium
through the successive vibration of the particle of the medium is
called progressive wave.

Suppose a wave originate at ‘O’ the displacement of the particle

at that instant is;
𝑦 = asin 𝑤𝑡 … … … (1)
Also consider another particle ‘P’ at a distance ‘x’ from ‘O’ to
its right side.
Let the wave travelling from left to right with a velocity 𝑣 and
displacement of particle at point ‘P’ will be;
𝑦 = asin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅) … … … (2)
2𝜋
Also, phse difference(∅) = × path difference
𝜆
2𝜋
∴∅= ×𝑥
𝜆

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 2𝜋 𝜆 𝜆
And, also 𝑤 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑇 𝑣

2𝜋𝑣
∴𝑤=
𝜆
Therefore equation (2) becomes;
2𝜋
𝑦 = asin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝜆
Above equation can be expressed in terms of wave number 𝑘 =
2𝜋
and angular frequency 𝑤 as;
𝜆

y = asin(wt − kx) left to right and

𝑦 = asin(wt + kx) right to left

Differential equation of wave motion:-

We have general wave equation travelling from left to right is
2𝜋
𝑦 = asin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (1)
𝜆
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time
𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑣𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
Now, differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
𝑑𝑦 −2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆
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Again, differentiating equation (2) with respect to time
𝑑2 𝑦 −4𝜋 2 𝑣 2 2𝜋
2 = 2 a sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
And again differentiating equation (3) with respect to x
𝑑2 𝑦 −4𝜋 2 2𝜋
= asin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥) … … … (5)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜆2 𝜆
From equation (2) and (3)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= −𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
∴ Velocity of particles = (-)ve of velocity of wave and product
of slope of curve.
And from equation (4) and (5)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 2𝑦

2
= 𝑣2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2
∴ Particle acceleration at a point = -(wave velocity)2 ×
curvature of the displacement curve at that point.

Wave velocity and particle velocity:-

We have v is the velocity of wave and y is the displacement of
the particle
2𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = asin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝜆
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 𝑑𝑦 2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = 𝑣𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋
∴ (𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑤𝑎
𝜆
And, Acceleration of the particle (ap) is
𝑑2 𝑦 −4𝜋 2 𝑣 2 2𝜋
2
= 2
a sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑡 𝜆 𝜆
−4𝜋 2 𝑣 2
(𝑎𝑝 ) max = 2
𝑎 = −𝑤 2 𝑎
𝜆
𝑑𝑦 −2𝜋 2𝜋
We have, = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝜆

𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = −𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Where, represent the slop of the displacement curve.
𝑑𝑥

Energy, power and intensity of progressive wave:-

Total energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
Therefore, potential energy is the progressive wave is;
1 2
𝑈= 𝑘𝑦
2
Where, y is the displacement of the particle

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 2𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = asin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝜆
1 2 2 2𝜋
∴𝑈= 𝑘𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
2 𝜆
1 2𝜋
= 𝑚𝑤 2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
2 𝜆
Now, potential energy per unit volume is
1 2𝜋
𝑈= 𝜌𝑤 2 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
2 𝜆
And, Kinetic energy per unit volume is
1 2
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝜌𝑣
2
1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝜌( )
2 𝑑𝑡
2
1 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝜌 ( 𝑣𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥))
2 𝜆 𝜆

1 4𝜋 2 𝑣 2 𝑎 2 2
2𝜋
= 𝜌 cos (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
2 𝜆2 𝜆
1 2 2 2
2𝜋
= 𝜌𝑤 𝑎 cos (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
2 𝜆
So, Total energy per unit volume is sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑈
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 1
∴ 𝐸 = 𝜌𝑤 2 𝑎 2
2
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑎2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 =
𝜆2
Since, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆,
2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝜆2 𝑎2
∴ 𝐸=
𝜆2
∴ 𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎 2
Now, total energy for volume 𝑉 is
𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎2 𝑉
Since, 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙
But, 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑡
∴ 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡
∴ 𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎2 𝐴𝑣𝑡
𝐸
Now, power (𝑃 ) =
𝑡

∴ 𝑃 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎2 𝐴𝑣
𝑃
∴ Intensity (𝐼) =
𝐴

∴ 𝐼 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎 2 𝑣

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Standing or Stationary wave:-

When two progressive waves of the same amplitude and

frequency travelling through a medium with the same speed but
in opposite direction superimpose in each other, stationary or
standing wave is formed. The wave is so called stationary
because it does not travel in both direction and all the particles
of medium are permanently at rest. There is not flow of energy
along the wave.

Velocity of transverse wave in a stretched string:-

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Consider a portion of AEFB of a stretched string with a
transverse wave is travelling from left to right with velocity v.
Consider a small string element EF of length ∆𝑙 forming an arc
of a circle of radius R and subtending an angle 2𝜃 at the centre
of that circle. A force with a magnitude is equal to the tension on
the string 𝑇, pulls tangentially on this element at each end. The
horizontal components are equal and opposite so they canceled
each other and the vertical components gets added since they are
along same direction to give resultant tension.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 = 2(𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
As 𝜃 is small 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃,
∆𝑙
∴ Resultant tension(𝐹) = 𝑇(2𝜃) = 𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸𝐹 = ∆𝑙
𝑅
If µ is the linear mass density of the string, and ∆𝑚 is the mass
of the small element,
∆𝑚 = 𝜇 ∆𝑙
𝑣2
The element has a centripetal acceleration: 𝑎 =
𝑅

From Newton’s second law; 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

∆𝑙 𝑣2
Therefore, 𝑇 = (𝜇 ∆𝑙)
𝑅 𝑅

𝑇
𝑣= √
𝜇

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Numerical Examples:-
1. A stretched string has linear density 𝟓𝟐𝟓 𝐠𝐦/𝐦 and is
under tension of 𝟒𝟓 𝐍 and sinusoidal wave with
frequency 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐇𝐳 and amplitude 𝟖. 𝟓 𝐦𝐦 is stretched
along a string from one end. At what average rate does
the wave transport energy?
Solution:-
Linear density(μ) = 525 gm/m = 0.525 kg/m
Tension (T) = 45 N
Frequency (f) = 120 Hz
Amplitude (a) = 8.5 mm = 0.0085 m
We have, velocity of transverse wave in stretched string
is;

𝑇 45
𝑣= √ = √ = 9.258 m/sec
𝜇 0.525

Now rate of energy is;

𝑃 = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎2 𝐴𝑣
𝜇 2 2
or, 𝑃 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 𝑎 𝐴𝑣 = 2𝜋 2 𝜇𝑓 2 𝑎 2 𝑣
𝐴
or, P = 2 × (3.14)2 × 0.525 × (120)2 × (0.0085)2 × 9.258
∴ P = 99.7 J/sec
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 2. A source of sound has a frequency of 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝐇𝐳 and
amplitude of 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐦. What is the flow of energy
across a square cm per second? If the velocity of sound
in air is 𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝐦/𝐬𝐞𝐜. And density of air is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟗 𝐠/
𝐜𝐦𝟑 .
Solution:-
Frequency (f) = 512 Hz
Amplitude (a) = 0.25 cm = 2.5 × 10−3 m
Velocity (𝑣) = 340 m/sec
Density (ρ) = 0.00129 gm/cm3 = 1.29 Kg/m3
Now we know that;
Intensity (𝐼) = 2𝜋 2 𝜌𝑓 2 𝑎2 𝑣
= 2 × (3.14)2 × 1.29 × (512)2 × (2.5 × 10−3 )2 × 340
∴ I = 14170.26 Watt/m2

3. The equation of transverse wave travelling in a rope is

given by 𝐲 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛑 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝐱 − 𝟐𝐭)𝐜𝐦. Find the
amplitude, frequency, velocity and wave length of the
wave.
Solution:-
We have;

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 y = 10 sinπ (0.01x − 2t) … … … (i)
Comparing this equation with;
y = a sin(kx − wt)
a = 10, k = 0.01π, w = 2π
now, w = 2πf ∴ f = 1 Hz
2π 2π
Also, k= , or, 0.01π = ∴ λ = 200 cm
λ λ
And, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 200 cm/sec

4. In simple harmonic motion when the displacement is

one half the amplitude. What fraction of total energy is
the kinetic energy and what fraction is potential energy.
At what displacement is the energy half kinetic and half
potential energy?
Solution:-
We have in SHM;
1 1
K. E. = mv = mw 2 A2 cos2 (wt + ∅)
2
2 2
1 2 1 1
P. E. = kx = mw 2 x 2 = mw 2 A2 sin2 (wt + ∅)
2 2 2
1
∴ T. E. = mw 2 A2
2
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 From question;
A
x=
2
A
A sin(wt + ∅) =
2
1
∴ sin(wt + ∅) =
2

1 2 √3
( ) √
∴ cos wt + ∅ = 1 − ( ) =
2 2

1 1
So, P. E. = mA2 w 2 .
2 4
1
∴ P. E. = T. E.
4
1 3
And, K. E. = mA2 w 2 .
2 4
3
∴ K. E. = T. E.
4
1
Now given that, P. E. = T. E
2
1 1 1
or, mx 2 w 2 = [ mA2 w 2 ]
2 2 2

2
A2
or, x =
2
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 A
∴x=
√2

5. The equation of transverse wave on a string is 𝐲 =

(𝟐. 𝟎 𝐦𝐦) 𝐬𝐢𝐧[(𝟐𝟎 𝐦−𝟏 )𝐱 − (𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐬−𝟏 )𝐭]. The tension
on the string is 𝟏𝟓 𝐍. What is the wave speed? Find the
linear density of the string in gm/m.
Solution:-
y = (2.0 mm) sin[(20 m−1 )x − (600 s−1 )t]
Now comparing this equation with;
y = a sin(kx − wt)
a = 2 mm = 2 × 10−3 m
2π
k = 20 m−1 or, = 20 ∴ λ = 0.314 m
λ
w = 600 s−1 or, 2πf = 600 ∴ f = 95.5 Hz
𝑘
we have, 𝑤2 =
𝑚
∴ m = 5.55 × 10−5 kg
And, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 95.5 × 0.314 = 30 m/sec

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 𝑇
Also we have 𝑣 = √
𝜇

𝑇 15
∴ linear density (𝜇) = = = 0.0167 kg/m
𝑣2 302
∴ μ = 16.67 gm/m

Exercise:-
6. Define transverse wave. Develop a differential equation of
the wave in a stretched string and then find the velocity of
transverse wave.
7. Prove that if a transverse wave is travelling along a string,
then the slope at any point of the string is numerically
equal to the ratio of the particle speed to the wave speed at
that point.
8. In the progressive wave, show that the potential energy and
kinetic energy of every particle will change with time but
the average KE per unit volume and PE per unit volume
remains constant.
9. Show that the wave equation of a transverse wave in string
𝑑 2𝑦 1 𝑑 2𝑦 𝐹
is = , where 𝑣 = √ , where µ is mass per unit
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝜇

length.
10. Write a plane progressive wave equation for a wave
propagating along the +ve x-axis. Prove that (i) particle

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 velocity at a point = -(wave velocity) × (slope of the
displacement curve at that point) and (ii) particle
acceleration at a point = -(wave velocity)2 × (curvature of
the displacement curve at that point).
11. Derive a relation for speed of transverse wave in a
stretched string and show that the average rate of energy
1
transfer is 𝜇𝑣𝑤 2 𝐴2 , where the symbols are having usual
2
meaning.
12. The speed of transverse wave on a string is 170 m/s
when the string tension is 120 N. To what value must the
tension be changed to raise the wave speed to 180 m/s?
13. A rod vibrating at 12 Hz generates harmonic waves
with amplitude of 1.5 mm in a string of linear mass density
2 gm/m. If the tension on the string is 15 N, What is the
average power supplied by the source?
14. A string has linear density of 625 gm/m and is
stretched with a tension 50 N. A wave, whose frequency
and amplitude are 160 Hz and 10 mm respectively, is
travelling along the string. At what average rate is the
wave transporting energy along the string?
15. The elastic limit of steel forming a piece of wire is
equal to 2.7 × 108 𝑃𝑎. what is the maximum speed at
which transverse wave pulses can propagate along this
wire without exceeding this stress? (Density of steel =
7.89 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ).

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 Acoustics
It is branch of sound engineering that deals with the production,
control, transmission, absorption and effect of sound.
Acoustics of building:-
The acoustics of building is a branch of sound engineering. It
has an important role in civil and architectural engineering.
Acoustics of building is connected with the hearing to speakers
and musicians in halls and auditoriums. It is found that some
auditoriums are acoustically good and some bad. In bad, sound
lack in distinctness. It is sometimes observed that a speech made
in a certain hall or sound produced in theatre is not audible at
certain places. In some areas there is so much interference that it
is sometimes difficult to understand what is being said.
Therefore in good hall the following conditions should be
satisfied;
 The sound must be sufficiently loud everywhere.
 The sound must be clear and distinct.
 There should be no echo or disturbance.
 The quality of sound must not be change.
 There should be neither be any focusing of sound nor any
zone of silence in any part of the hall.

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Reverberation:-
It is the collection of reflected sounds from the surface in an
enclosure like an auditorium. The distance between source and
observer must be less than 17.5 m.

If the source is stopped, the sound does not stop immediately but
the listener continuous to pick up the successive reflection until
they fall below the minimum audibility, this gradually decay of
sound is known as reverberation.
Reverberation time:-
The duration for which the sound can be heard after the source
has stopped to produce the sound is called reverberation time. It
is also defined as the time taken by sound to fall to one millionth
of its intensity just before the cutoff.
Absorption of sound:-
The amount of absorption of sound depends upon the nature of
the material and their surface area. The absorption coefficient of
sound is the ratio of sound energy absorbed by the given surface

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to the sound energy by an equal area of a perfect absorber.
Window is a example of perfect absorber.
Let 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3……….. are the absorption coefficient of absorbing
surface of area 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 … ….made of different materials
forming the interior surface of the room. The total absorption is
𝐴 = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝑆𝑖
The average absorption is given by;
∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝑆𝑖
𝛼=
∑ 𝑆𝑖

Sabine’s Relation:-
Fall in intensity (𝛿𝐼) at a small time interval (𝛿𝑡) is mainly
depends upon mean absorption coefficient (𝛼), average intensity
(I) and number of reflection of sound per second (n).
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛿𝐼 = −𝛼𝑛𝐼𝛿𝑡 … … … (1)
Jaeger has shown statistically that number of reflection per
second is,
𝑆𝑣
𝑛= … … … (2)
4𝑉
Where, 𝑣 is velocity of sound, V is volume of hall and S is total
surface area of all reflecting surface.
From equation (1) and (2);

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 𝑆𝑣
𝛿𝐼 = −𝛼 𝐼𝛿𝑡
4𝑉
𝛿𝐼 𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, = −𝛼 𝛿𝑡
𝐼 4𝑉
𝑑𝐼 𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, = −𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 4𝑉
Now, integrating both sides we get;
𝐼𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑆𝑣
∫ = ∫ −𝛼 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 4𝑉
𝐼0 0

𝐼𝑡 𝑆𝑣
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = −𝛼 𝑡
𝐼0 4𝑉
𝐼𝑡 𝑆𝑣
−𝛼 𝑡
= 𝑒 4𝑉
𝐼0
𝐼0
But we have; 𝐼𝑡 =
106
𝑆𝑣
−𝛼 𝑡
10−6 =𝑒 4𝑉

4𝑉
𝑡 = 6𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 10 ×
𝛼𝑆𝑣
4𝑉
𝑡 = 6 × 2.3026 ×
𝛼𝑆𝑣
Taking speed of sound in room temperature (𝑣) = 350 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

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 4𝑉
𝑡 = 6 × 2.3026 ×
𝛼𝑆 × 350
0.158𝑉
∴𝑡= in S. I. unit
𝛼𝑆
Which is required Sabine’s Relation.
If we put 𝑣 = 1120 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐, The expression for reverberation
time will be,
0.05𝑉
𝑡= in F. P. S.
𝛼𝑆
This shows that Reverberation time is directly proportional to
the volume of auditorium and inversely proportional to
absorption coefficient and total surface area.
For good acoustics of a hall, the reverberation time should have
appropriate value. If it is too large, there may be multiple
reflections and over lapping of sound causing confusing to
listener. If it is too small, the sound drops instantaneously and
gives the dead effect. The suitable value of reverberation time is
1.03 sec for a hall of 10,000 cu ft capacity.

Ultrasonic Waves:-
Wave of frequency greater than that of audible sound is called
ultrasonic wave. The frequency of such wave is just greater than
20 KHz. The sound waves of frequency lower than the audible

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limit are called infrasonic waves. Velocity of wave higher than
the velocity of sound is called supersonic waves.

Production of ultrasonic waves:-

There are two different methods for the generation of ultrasonic
waves. Which are
(1) Piezo-electric generation:-

If a transverse electric field is applied along the certain crystal

like quartz or tourmaline then mechanical stress is produced on
the crystal. This effect is used to produce the ultrasound.
An ac field produced by the oscillator circuit is applied in two
metallic plates A and B with the help of setup transformer there
is a crystal like quartz or tourmaline as a dielectric between two
plates as shown in figure above. On the application high electric
field the crystal starts to vibrate and surrounding the crystal

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there produced a wave whose frequency is very high. That wave
is ultrasound.
(2) Magneto-striction generation:-

When a ferromagnetic rod like iron and nickel is placed in a

magnetic field parallel to its length, the rod experiences a small
change in its length. This is called magneto-striction generation.
The change in length produced in the rod depends upon the
magnetic field, the nature of the materials and is independent of
the direction of the magnetic field applied. The experimental
arrangement is as shown in figure above.
In figure XY is rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron or
nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle. The alternating
magnetic field is generated by electronic oscillator. The coil L1
wound on the right hand portion of the rod along with a variable
capacitor C. This forms the resonant circuit of the collector
tuned oscillator. The frequency of oscillation is controlled by
variable capacitor. The coil wound on the left hand portion of
the rod is connected to the base circuit. The coil L2 acts as a
feedback loop.
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
Application of ultrasonic waves:-
 Directional signaling.
 Detection of sub-marine and aircraft.
 Depth of sea investigation.
 Structure of matter investigation.
 Detection of cracks in metal.
 Mechanical Engineering.
 Chemical uses such that an emulsion of water and oil.
 Biological uses such that it is use to lame smaller animals.
 Medical uses such that ultrasound.

Numerical Examples:-
1. The volume of a room is 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝟑, wall area of a room is
𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝟐 . The floor and ceiling area each is 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝟐. If
average absorption coefficient for wall is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 for
ceiling is 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 and for floor is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔, calculate average
absorption coefficient and reverberation time?
Solution:-
Volume of room (V) = 600 m3
Area of wall (S1 ) = 220 m2 ,
Absorption coefficeint of wall (α1 ) = 0.03

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 Area of ceiling (S2 ) = 120 m2 ,
Absorption coefficent of ceiling (α2 ) = 0.80
Area of floor (S3 ) = 120 m2 ,
Absorption coefficent of floor (α3 ) = 0.06

∴ ∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝑆𝑖 = 𝛼1 𝑆1 + 𝛼2 𝑆2 + 𝛼3 𝑆3

= 220 × 0.03 + 120 × 0.80 + 120 × 0.06

= 109.8

And ∑ 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3

= 220 + 120 + 120

= 460
∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝑆𝑖
Now, average absorption coefficient (𝛼) =
∑ 𝑆𝑖
109.8
=
460
= 0.2386
0.158𝑉 0.158 × 600
And reververation time (𝑡) = =
𝛼𝑆 0.2386 × 460
∴ 𝑡 = 0.864 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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 2. A lecture hall with a volume of 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝟑 is found to
have a reverberation time of 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄. What is the total
absorbing power of the entire surface in the hall? If the
area of sound absorbing is 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝟐. Calculate average
absorption coefficient.
Solution:-
Volume of hall (V) = 4500 m3
Reverberation time (𝑡) = 1.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Total absorption power (𝛼𝑆) = ?
We know that;
0.158𝑉
Reverberation time (𝑡) =
𝛼𝑆

0.158𝑉 0.158 × 4500

𝑜𝑟, 𝛼𝑆 = =
𝑡 1.5
∴ Total absorbing power (𝛼𝑆) = 474
Since, area of sound absorbing surface (𝑆) = 1600 𝑚2
𝛼𝑆 474
∴ 𝛼= = = 0.296
𝑆 1600

3. What is the reverberation time for hall with

length 𝟏𝟐 𝒎, breadth 𝟏𝟏 𝒎 and height 𝟗 𝒎, If the

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 coefficient of absorption of walls, ceiling and floor are
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 respectively.
Solution:-
Volume of room (𝑉) = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ = 12 × 11 × 9 =
1188 𝑚3
Area of floor = Area of ceiling = (𝑙 ) × (𝑏) = 132 m2
Area of wall = 2ℎ(𝑙 + 𝑏) = 2 × 9(12 + 11) = 414 𝑚2
∴ Total absorption (𝛼𝑆)
= 414 × 0.02 + 132 × 0.04 + 132 × 0.08
= 24.12
0.158𝑉
∴ Reverberation time (𝑡) =
𝛼𝑆
0.158 × 1188
=
24.12
= 7.78 𝑠𝑒𝑐

4. The time of reverberation of an empty hall and with

𝟓𝟎𝟎 audience is 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄 and 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 respectevely. Find
the reverberation time with 𝟖𝟎𝟎 audience in the hall.
Solution:-
According to the question;

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 0.158𝑉
For empty hall, 1.5 = … … … . (𝑖)
𝛼𝑆
0.158𝑉
And with 500 audience, 1.4 = … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝛼𝑆 + 500
Dividing (i) by (ii);
1.5 𝛼𝑆 + 500
=
1.4 𝛼𝑆
1.5 𝛼𝑆 = 1.4 𝛼𝑆 + 700
𝑜𝑟, 0.1 𝛼𝑆 = 700
∴ 𝛼𝑆 = 7000
Now from equation (i);
1.5 × 𝛼𝑆
𝑉=
0.158
1.5 × 7000
=
0.158
= 66455.7 𝑚3
Now time of reverberation with 800 audience is;
0.158𝑉 0.158 × 66455.7
𝑇3 = =
𝛼𝑆 + 800 7000 + 800
∴ 𝑇3 = 1.346 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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 5. The time of reverberation of an empty hall and with
𝟓𝟎𝟎 audience is 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄 and 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄 respectevely. Find
the number of person in the hall if the reverberation
time falls to 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄.
Solution:-
According to the question;
0.158𝑉
For empty hall, 1.5 = … … … . (𝑖)
𝛼𝑆
0.158𝑉
And with 500 audience, 1.4 = … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝛼𝑆 + 500
0.158𝑉
Also 1.312 = … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝛼𝑆 + 𝑥
where x is number of person considered
From solving equation (i) and (ii) we get;
𝛼𝑆 = 7000
1.5 × 𝛼𝑆 1.5 × 7000
We have from (i), 𝑉 = =
0.158 0.158
∴ 𝑉 = 66455.7 𝑚3
Now, from equation (ii)we get;
0.158 × 66455.7
1.312 =
7000 + 𝑥
𝑥 = 1003.04
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∴ Number of person in the hall if the reverberation time falls to
1.312 sec is 1003.

6. A room has dimension of 𝟔𝒎 × 𝟒𝒎 × 𝟓𝒎. Find (i)

mean free path of sound wave in the room. And (ii) The
number of reflection made per second by the sound
wave. Given that velocity of sound is 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄.
Solution:-
Here, volume of room(𝑉) = 6 × 4 × 5 = 120 𝑚3
Total surface area (𝑆) = 2( 𝑙𝑏 + 𝑏ℎ + 𝑙ℎ) = 148 𝑚2
4𝑉 4 × 120
∴ Mean free path (𝜆) = = = 3.243 𝑚
𝑆 148
velocity of sound
∴ Total number of reflection (N) =
mean free path
350
= = 108
3.243

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Exercise:-
7. Give an account of bad acoustic properties of a hall and
discuss the method to improve these defects.
8. What is piezoelectric effect? Describe the construction of a
piezoelectric oscillator for the production of ultrasonic
waves.
9. What are the measures of good acoustic building? Show
that the reverberation time decreases with increase in
absorbing factor in a hall.
10. Write some features of acoustically good auditorium.
Derive Sabine’s formula.
11. Why is it important to study the reverberation time,
before the construction of the Cinema hall? Derive the
relation for the reverberation time based on absorption
coefficient, volume and surface area of the hall?
12. What is ultrasonic wave? Discuss a method for the
production of ultrasonic wave.
13. A lecture hall with a volume of 60,000 cu. Ft. is found
to have a reverberation time of 1.6 sec. What is total
absorbing power of the entire surface in the hall? If the
area of the sound absorbing surface is 9000 sq. ft.
Calculate average absorption coefficient.
14. The volume of room is 960 m3. The wall area of the
room is 160 m2, ceiling area 96 m2 and floor area 90 m2.
The average sound absorption coefficient (i) for wall is
0.03 (ii) for ceiling is 0.80 and (iii) for the floor is 0.06.

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 Calculate the average sound absorption coefficient and
reverberation time.
15. A lecture hall of volume 12 × 104 𝑚3 has a total
absorption of 13200 m2 of open window unit. Entry of
students in to the hall raises the absorption by another
13200 m2 of open window unit. Find the change in
reverberation time.
16. Calculate the reverberation time of small hall of 1500
m3 having seating capacity of 120 persons when i) The hall
is empty and ii) with full capacity of the audience for the
following data.
Surface Areas Coefficient of
absorption
2
Plastered wall 112 m 0.03
Wooden flower 130 m2 0.06
Plastered ceiling 170 m2 0.04
Wooden doors 20 m2 0.06
Cushioned chairs 120 0.5
Audience 120 0.44

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 Interference
The phenomenon of non uniform distribution of light energy in
the medium due to the superposition of two light waves is called
interference. There are two types of interference;
1. Constructive interference (Bright band):- When two
coherent waves superimpose which are in phase, the
resultant wave is formed with amplitude sum of the
amplitude of the individual wave. If two coherent waves
each with amplitude A superimpose, the amplitude of
resultant wave is;
Ar = A + A = 2A.
∴ Intensity of resultant wave Ir ∝ A2r = 4A2 i. e. maximum,
this type of interference is called constructive interference.

2. Destructive interference (Dark band):- When two

coherent waves superimpose, which are out of phase. The
amplitude of resultant wave is;
Ar = A + (−A) = 0.
∴ Intensity of resultant wave Ir ∝ A2r = 0 i. e. minimum,
this type of interference is called destructive interference.

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Analytical (mathematical) treatment of interference:-

Le the amplitude of the waves be 𝐴 and the phase difference

between two waves reaching the point 𝑃 be 𝛿. The displacement
from 𝑎 and 𝑏 are denoted by 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 . The displacement
equation can be written as;

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 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛿)
From the principle of superposition the resultant displacement
is;
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 + 𝛿)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 cos 𝛿 + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 sin 𝛿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 ) + 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 sin 𝛿
𝐿𝑒𝑡, 𝐴(1 + cos 𝛿) = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … … … (1)
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … . (2)
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin 𝑤𝑡 + 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos 𝑤𝑡
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃)
This implies the resultant wave is simple harmonic with an
amplitude 𝑅.
Squaring and adding equation (1) and (2) we get;
𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 + 𝐴2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 + 𝐴2 + 2𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 = 𝑅2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 2 𝐴2 + 2𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 2 𝐴2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)

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 2 2
𝛿 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 2 𝐴 × 2𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
𝛿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 4 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2
Since, the intensity at a point is given by the square of the
amplitude.
𝛿
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑅2 = 4 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2
When the phase difference 𝛿 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋 … … 𝑛(2𝜋),
Or path difference = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆 … … … . . 𝑛(𝜆),
Then, 𝐼 = 4𝐴2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
When the phase difference 𝛿 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, 7𝜋 … … (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋,
Or path difference = 0, 𝜆/2, 3𝜆/2, 5𝜆/2 … … … . . (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆/2,
Then, 𝐼 = 0 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Figure:- Intensity distribution in interference

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Young’s double slit experiment:-

Let A and B be two narrow slits illuminated by monochromatic

light from the source. Let the distance between A and B be ‘d’
which is very small as compared to the slit screen distance ‘D’ .
The Point O is equidistance from A and B will meet each other
on screen. Thus there will be central bright fringe at the center.
The intensity at any point P at a distance ‘y’ from the center on
the screen can be calculated by finding the path difference (BP-
AP). Joining AP and BP and draw AM perpendicular to BP.
Then,
𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝑀 … … … (𝑖)
From right angle triangle ABM,
𝐵𝑀 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 … … … (𝑖𝑖)

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If this path difference contained a whole number of wavelength,
then constructive interference will be observed.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
If path difference is odd number of half wavelength then the
destructive interference will be occur.
1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑛 + )𝜆 … … … (𝑖𝑣)
2
Where ‘n’ is called the order of interference fringes now
consider a case for constructive interference at P. Then,
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑛𝜆
sin 𝜃 = . … … … (𝑣)
𝑑
Let ‘y’ be distance at point P from center. We have from figure,
𝑦 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃 … … … (𝑣𝑖)
For small angles we can write,
𝑦 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃 = 𝐷 sin 𝜃
𝐷𝑛𝜆 𝑑𝑦
∴𝑦= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆 =
𝑑 𝐷𝑛
We define fringe width as the distance between constructive -
constructive (or destructive - destructive) Interference and is
denoted by 𝛽. Then
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
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 𝐷(𝑛 + 1)𝜆 𝐷𝑛𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝛽= −
𝑑 𝑑
𝐷𝜆
∴𝛽=
𝑑
Using this equation Young was able to determine the
wavelength of light used in experiment.

Interference in thin film:-

An optical medium is called a thin film, when its thickness is

about the order of one wavelength of light in visible region.
Thus a film of thickness in the range of 0.5µm to 10µm. A thin
film may be a thin sheet of transparent material such as glass,
mica, an air film enclosed between two transparent plates.
When light is incident on such a film, a small part of it gets
reflected from the top surface and major part is transmitted into
the film. Again a small part of the transmitted component is
reflected back in to the film by the bottom surface and rest of its

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emerge out of the film. When light encounter a medium that has
a higher refractive index, the reflected light or wave suffer a
phase change 𝜋.
Interference in plane parallel film due to reflected rays:-

Consider a transparent film of uniform thickness 𝑡 bounded by

two parallel surfaces as shown in figure. Let the refractive index
of the material be µ. The film is surrounded by air on the both
sides. Let us consider plane wave from a monochromatic source
falling on the film at an angle of incidence 𝑖. Part of a ray such
as AB is reflected along BC and part of it is transmitted in the
film along BD. The transmitted ray BD makes an angle 𝑟 with
normal to the surface at the point D. The ray partially reflected
back in to the film along DE, while a major part refracts into the
surrounding medium along DG. Part of the reflected ray DE is
transmitted at the upper surface and travel along EF.
Let EM be normal to BC, from point M and E onwards the rays
MC and EF travel equal path. The ray BM travel in air while the
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ray BE travels in the film of refractive index 𝜇 along the path
BD and DE.
The geometrical path difference between the two rays is;
(𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 ) − 𝐵𝑀
Therefore, the optical path difference (∆) = μ(𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 ) −
1(𝐵𝑀 ) … … … . (𝑖)
𝐷𝐿 𝑡
𝐼𝑛 ∆ 𝐵𝐷𝐿; 𝐵𝐷 = = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐷𝐿 = 𝑡)
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
2𝑡
∴ 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 = … … … (𝑖𝑖)
cos 𝑟
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐵𝐿 = 𝐷𝐿 tan 𝑟 = 𝑡 tan 𝑟
∴ 𝐵𝐸 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟
∴ 𝐵𝑀 = 𝐵𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑖 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
From Snell’s law;
sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∴ 𝐵𝑀 = 2𝑡 tan 𝑟. 𝜇 sin 𝑟 = 2𝜇𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑣)
cos 𝑟
Now, from equation (i), (ii) and (iv);
2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
∆ = (𝜇 × ) − (2𝜇𝑡 )
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟

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 2𝜇𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ∆= (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟
2𝜇𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ∆= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟)
cos 𝑟
∴ ∆ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟
This is the optical path difference and not the total true optical
path difference. Ray 1 and 2 travels in two different medium,
when light encounter a medium of higher refractive index, the
reflected waves suffers a phase change of 𝜋.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜆/2.
Therefore, the net optical path difference becomes;
𝜆
∆ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 +
2
Condition for maxima:-
The condition for constructive interference in the air film to
appear bright is;
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 −
2
𝜆
∴ 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … …
2

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Condition for minima (darkness):-
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
∴ 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … …

Interference in plane parallel films due to transmitted rays:-

Consider a thin transparent film of thickness 𝑡 and refractive

index µ. A ray AB after refraction goes along BC. At C it is
partially reflected along CD and partially refracted through CT.
The ray CD after reflection at D finally emerges along ET1. Here
at C and D reflection takes place at rare medium. Therefore, no
phase change occurs. Draw CQ normal to DE and EP normal to
CT. The optical path difference between ET1 and CT is;

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 ∆= 𝜇(𝐶𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 ) − 1(𝐶𝑃)
sin 𝑖 𝐶𝑃/𝐶𝐸 𝐶𝑃
Now, 𝜇 = = =
sin 𝑟 𝑄𝐸/𝐶𝐸 𝑄𝐸

𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜇 𝑄𝐸
In figure, < 𝐶𝑅𝐷 = 𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐷𝑅 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐷𝐸
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑅𝐸
∴ ∆ = 𝜇(𝑅𝐸 ) − 𝜇(𝑄𝐸)
= 𝜇(𝑅𝐸 − 𝑄𝐸)
∴ ∆ = 𝜇(𝑅𝑄 )
𝑅𝑄
In ∆ 𝐶𝑅𝑄, cos 𝑟 =
𝐶𝑅

𝑅𝑄 = 𝐶𝑅 cos 𝑟
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐶𝑅 = 2𝑡
∴ 𝑅𝑄 = 2𝑡 cos 𝑟
∴ ∆ = 𝜇 𝑅𝑄 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠;
∴ ∆ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟

Condition for maxima (Brightness):-

When the optical path difference 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆, then bright
fringe occurs.

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Condition for minima(Darkness):-
When the optical path difference 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆/2, then
dark fringe occurs.

Interference in wedge shape thin film:-

A thin film having zero thickness at one end and progressively
increasing to a particular thickness at the other end is called a
wedge. A thin wedge of air film can be formed by two glasses
slides on each other at one edge and separated by a thin spacer at
the opposite edge.

Let us suppose we are having two planes inclined at a small

angle 𝜃. The space between the planes is filled up by air so it
forms a wedge shape thin film of air. Now, if light is incident on

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this film then the interference will take place between reflected
rays. The condition for bright fringe will be;
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝜇 = 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑟=0
∴ cos 𝑟 = 1
𝜆
𝑠𝑜, 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
𝜆
∴ 𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)
4
And condition for dark fringe will be;
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For air medium and normal incidence;
𝑛𝜆
𝑡=
2
If the wedge shaped film has refractive index µ then the
𝜆
thickness of the film increases by in consecutive bright or
2µ
dark fringe.

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Newton’s ring:-

When a lens or curve glass surface is placed in contact with a

plane glass surface as in figure, a thin air film is formed. When
such film is exposed by mono-chromatic light, a series of
concentric ring appear called Newton’s ring. Therefore,
Newton’s rings are concentric ring formed when light falls on a
uniform wedges shaped film. These fringes are due to the
interference between rays reflected from top and bottom surface
of the air gap between the two pieces of glass.
Interference in Newton’s ring:-
When monochromatic light is allowed in the experimental setup
as shown in figure, Newton’s rings are observed. The path

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difference between the rays reflected on the upper and lower
surface of the film is;
𝜆
∆ = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 + … … … (𝑖)
2
For almost normal incidence of light in air film, 𝑟 ≅ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 =
1
So path difference will be;
𝜆
∆ = 2𝑡 + … … … (𝑖𝑖)
2
At a point of contact; 𝑡 = 0,
𝜆
So, path difference ∆ = ,
2

Hence, central spot is dark.

The condition for bright ring is;
𝜆
2𝑡 + = 𝑛𝜆
2
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4 … …
2
And the condition for minima is;
𝜆 𝜆
2𝑡 + = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
𝑜𝑟, 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 … … … (𝑖𝑣)

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 2R-t

L r Ll
t
O
Now, let’s find the diameter of Newton’s ring from the similar
triangle property;
𝑟 2𝑅 − 𝑡
=
𝑡 𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 2 = 2𝑅𝑡 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑜 𝑡 2 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑟2
∴𝑡= … … . . (𝑣)
2𝑅
Where, R is radius of curvature and r is radius of Newton’s ring.
Thus for a bright ring; from equation (iii) and (v),
𝑟2 𝜆
2 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2𝑅 2
𝜆𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 2 = (2𝑛 − 1) … … … (𝑣𝑖)
2
If 𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of the nth bright ring then;

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 𝐷𝑛2 𝜆𝑅
= (2𝑛 − 1)
4 2
∴ 𝐷𝑛 = √(2𝑛 − 1)2𝜆𝑅
Similarly, for a dark ring; from equation (iv) and (v),
𝑟2
2 = 𝑛𝜆
2𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 2 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅
If 𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of the nth dark ring then;
𝐷𝑛2
= 𝑛𝜆𝑅
4
∴ 𝐷𝑛 = 2√𝑛𝜆𝑅

Determination of wavelength of light:-

Let the diameter of nth dark ring is;
𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
Similarly, the diameter of (n+m)th dark ring is;
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 = 4(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜆𝑅
2
So, 𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2
∴ 𝜆=
4𝑚𝑅

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Determination of refractive index of liquid:-
/ /
Let 𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛+𝑚 be diameter of nth and (n+m)th Newton’s ring.
Here we can write the equation for normal incidence and with
film of refractive index µ as;
/2 /2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅/μ
Now using above relation;
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2
μ= /2 /2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛

Numerical Examples:-
1. In Newton’s ring experiment diameter of 15th ring was
found to be 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 𝒄𝒎 and that of 5th ring was
𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟔 𝒄𝒎. If the radius of the Plano-convex lens is
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
Solution:-
Diameter of 15th ring (D15 ) = 0.59 cm
Diameter of 5th ring (D5 ) = 0.336 cm
Radius of plano − convex lens (R) = 100 𝑐𝑚
Wavelength of light (λ) = ?

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 D2n+m − D2n 0.592 − 0.3362
We have; λ = =
4mR 4 × 10 × 100
= 5.9 × 10−5 cm
∴ 𝜆 = 5900 𝐴0

2. Newton’s ring formed by sodium light between a flat

glass plate and a convex lens are viewed normally, what
will be the order of the dark ring which will have
double the diameter of 40th ring?
Solutions:-
We have the relation about diameter of dark ring is;
D2n = 4nλR … … … . (i)
∴ D240 = 4 × 40 × λR … … … . (ii)
Dividing equation (i)by (ii)we gae;
D2n 𝑛
=
D240 40
According to the question; 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝐷40
4 × D240 𝑛
𝑜𝑟, =
D240 40
∴ 𝑛 = 4 × 40 = 160

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 3. In Newton’s ring experiment diameter of the 10 th dark
ring changes from𝟏. 𝟒 𝒄𝒎 to 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝒄𝒎. When a liquid is
introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate
refractive index of liquid.
Solution:-
For air medium; D2n = 4nλR … … … . (i)
/2
For liquid medium; Dn = 4nλR/μ … … … . (ii)
D2n 1.42
∴ 𝜇= = = 1.215
Dn
/2 1.272

4. In Newton’s ring experiment radius of the 4th and 12th

ring are 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 𝒄𝒎 and 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝒄𝒎 respectively. Find the
diameter of 24th dark ring.
Solution:-
𝑟4 = 0.26 𝑐𝑚 ∴ 𝐷4 = 0.52 𝑐𝑚
𝑟12 = 0.37 𝑐𝑚 ∴ 𝐷12 = 0.74 𝑐𝑚
2
D2n+m − D2n D12 − D24
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝜆 = =
4mR 4×8×R
0.5476 − 0.2704
∴ 𝜆𝑅 = = 8.663 × 10−3
32
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛; D2n = 4nλR
𝑜𝑟, D224 = 4 × 24 × 8.663 × 10−3 = 0.8316 cm2

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 ∴ 𝐷24 = 0.911 𝑐𝑚

5. A parallel beam of sodium light of wavelength 𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟎 ×

𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒄𝒎 is incident on a thin glass plate of refractive
index 𝟏. 𝟓 such that the angle of refraction in the plate
is 𝟔𝟎𝟎 . Calculate the smallest thickness of the plate
which will make it appear dark by reflection.
Solution:-
Wavelength (𝜆) = 5890 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚
Refractive index (μ) = 1.5,
Angle of refraction (r) = 600
Thickness (t) = ?
We know that to appear dark fringe by reflected is;
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆
For smallest thickness, 𝑛 = 1
2 × 1.5 × 𝑡 × cos 600 = 5890 × 10−8
5890 × 10−8
∴𝑡= = 3927 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚
1.5

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Exercise:-
6. In Newton’s ring experiment, “Central spot is dark in
reflected system” and “Fringes get closer as the number of
order increased” explain. Is it possible to make a central
spot bright in reflected system? If so how?
7. What are constructive and destructive interference? Prove
that the path difference for constructive interference is
integer multiple of λ and that for destructive interference is
odd integer multiple of λ/2.
8. Explain how interference fringes are formed by thin wedge
shaped film examined by normally reflected light. Derive a
relation for the fringe width on such system of interference
fringes.
9. Write down the condition for interference of light? Give
the necessary theory for the interference in thin film due to
reflected light.
10. Prove that interference in thin film of the reflected and
transmitted light are complementary to each other.
11. What happens to the energy when waves perfectly
cancel to each other in interference? Derive the relation for
thin film interference by reflected light.
12. What are Newton’s rings? How can you use these
rings to determine refractive index of a given liquid?
13. What is interference? Explain the intensity distribution
in interference with mathematical treatment.

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 14. What are Haidengers fringes? Describe the
interference phenomena in wedge shape thin film and
determine the relation of path difference.
15. Why Newton’s rings are circular? Discuss and derive
the necessary theory of Newton’s ring experiment for
transmitted light.
16. What are coherent source of light? How such sources
develop in lab? Show that the square of the nth dark ring by
the reflected light of Newton’s ring is directly proportional
to the natural number.
17. Explain the circular nature of the Newton’s
interference fringes. Show that square of radius of nth
bright fringe of Newton’s ring due to the reflected light is
proportional to 2n-1.
18. White light is incident in soap film at an angle
4
sin−1 ( ) and the reflected light on examination by
5
spectrometer shows dark bands. The consecutive dark
bands correspond to wavelength 6.1 × 10−5 cm and 6 ×
10−5 cm. if µ = 1.33 for the film, calculate the thickness.
19. In Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of curvature
of lens is 5 cm and the lens diameter is 20 mm. (a) How
many bright fringes are produced? Assume that λ = 589 nm
(b) How many bright rings are produced if the arrangement
were immersed in water ( µ = 1.33).

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 20. Light of wavelength 6000 A falls normally on a thin
wedge shape thin film of refractive index 1.4, forming
fringes that are 2 mm apart. Find the angle of the wedge.
21. Newton’s ring formed by sodium light viewed
normally. What is the order of the dark ring which will
have double the diameter of 50th ring?
22. A soap film 5 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 thick is viewed at an angle
of 35o to the normal. Find the wavelength of visible light
which will be absent from the reflected light.
23. A plano-convex lens of radius 300 cm is placed on an
optically flat glass plate and is illuminated by
monochromatic light. The diameter of the 8 th dark ring in
the transmitted system is 0.72 cm. Calculate the
wavelength of light used.
24. Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of
wavelength 5900 A. The diameter of the 10 th dark ring is
50 mm. Find the radius of curvature of lens and thickness
of the air film.

Diffraction
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 The phenomenon of spreading or bending of light wave when it
passes through a narrow opening is known as diffraction. The
intensity distribution of light on the screen is called the
diffraction pattern.

Difference between Interference and diffraction:-

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Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffraction:-
Diffraction pattern are usually classified into two categories
depending on where the source and screen are placed. When the
source and screen is near the obstacle the wave fronts are
spherical and the pattern is complex, this is called near field
diffraction or Fresnel diffraction.
If the source, obstacle and screen are far enough away, that all
lines from the source to the obstacle can be considered parallel.
The phenomenon is called far field diffraction or Frounhoffer
diffraction. The diffraction pattern in this type of diffraction is
simple to analyze.

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Frounhofer’s single slit diffraction:-

Figure shows plane parallel rays incident on a slit of width ‘d’.

Since, screen is assumed to be far away, the rays heading for any
point are essentially parallel. Consider rays that pass straight
through in which 𝜃 = 0.These rays are in phase, so there will be
central bright spot on the screen. Now, consider rays moving at
an angle of 𝜃. In such a way that 𝐵𝐷 = 𝜆. In this case the ray
passing through the centre of the slit will travel one half
wavelength of bottom of the slit. Therefore, these two rays will
be exactly out of phase with each other and will be destructively
interfere. So all the ray interferes in pairs and the screen will be
dark at this particular angle. So from figure path difference
between the rays from the top and centre of the slit is;

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 𝑑 𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
2 2
And condition for first dark pattern is;
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
By continuing this process of dividing the slit, we find that;
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛 𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … …
Note that 𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃 = 0, corresponds to the central
maxima not minima.
In addition to the central maxima at 𝜃 = 0, there are secondary
maxima on either side of centre maxima. These are situated in a
direction in which the path difference is an odd multiple of 𝜆/2.
Hence for secondary maxima;
𝜆
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2

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Intensity Distribution In Diffraction Pattern due to a single
slit:-
Bending of light from the edge of the obstacle and spreading
around the geometrical shadow is known as diffraction of light.
The total phase difference between the wavelets from the top
and bottom edge of the slit of width ‘a’ is 𝛼. As the wave front
is divided in to a large number of strips the resultant amplitude
due to all the individual strips can be obtained by the vector
polygon method.

Here, the amplitudes are small and the phase difference

increases by infinitesimally small amounts from strip to strip.

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Thus the variation polygon coincides with the circular arc OM.
OP gives the direction of the initial vector and NM the direction
of the final vector due to the secondary waves from A. Q is the
center of the circular arc.
< 𝑀𝑁𝑃 = 2𝛼 and < 𝑂𝑄𝑀 = 2𝛼
𝑂𝐿
In the ∆ 𝑂𝑄𝐿, sin 𝛼 = ; 𝑂𝐿 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑟

Where r is the radius of the circular arc.

∴ Chord OM = 2OL = 2r sin α … … … (1)
The length of the arc OM is proportional to the width of the slit.
∴ Length of the arc OM = Ka, where K is constant and a is the
width of the slit.
arc OM Ka 𝐾𝑎
Also, 2α = = ⇒ 2𝑟 =
radius r 𝛼

Substituting this value of 2r in equation (1)

Ka
Chord OM = sin α
α
But, Chord OM = A is the amplitude of resultant.
sinα sin 𝛼
A = (Ka) ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜
α 𝛼
The intensity I at the point is given by;

2
sin 𝛼 2
𝐼=𝐴 = 𝐴2𝑜 ( )
𝛼
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 sin 𝛼 2
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 ( )
𝛼
Frounhofer’s Double slit diffraction:-

Suppose there are two parallel rectangular slits of equal width.

The distance between the corresponding points of the two slits
will be (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑑, where a is transparent portion and b is
opaque. Let a monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆 is incident
on a double slits. Suppose each slit diffracts the beam in a
direction making an angle 𝜃 with the direction of incident beam.
The path difference between the rays from the corresponding
points A and C of the two slits.
𝐶𝐸 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 … … … (𝑖)

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If this path difference is equal to odd multiple of λ/2, 𝜃 gives the
direction of minima due to interference of the secondary waves
from the two slits.
𝜆
∴ 𝐶𝐸 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1) … … (𝑖𝑖)
2
Putting 𝑛 = 1,2,3, 𝑒𝑡𝑐, the values of 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐,
corresponding to the direction of minima can be obtained.
From equation (ii),
(2𝑛 + 1)𝜆
sin 𝜃𝑛 =
2(𝑎 + 𝑏)
On the other hand, If the path difference is equal to even
multiple of λ/2, 𝜃 gives the direction of maxima due to
interference of the secondary waves from the two slits.
𝜆
( )
∴ 𝐶𝐸 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃𝑛 = 2𝑛 … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2
Putting 𝑛 = 1,2,3, 𝑒𝑡𝑐, the values of 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐,
corresponding to the direction of maxima can be obtained.
From equation (iii),
𝑛𝜆
sin 𝜃𝑛 =
(𝑎 + 𝑏)

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Diffraction grating:-

A diffraction grating consists of thousands of very fine equally

spaced parallel slit. Gratings are made by ruling lines on a glass
plate with a diamond tip. A diffraction containing slit is called a
transmission grating. There is another type of grating called as
reflection grating. Reflection grating can be made by ruling the
lines on a metallic or glass surface from which light is reflected.
Gratings are extremely important in the analysis of light
emitted by atoms and molecules. The advantage of grating is
that the wavelength can be determined perfectly.
Let assume parallel ray of light is incident on the grating as
shown in figure. We should note that the light ray that passes
through each slit with deviation 𝜃 = 0, interfere constructively
and will produce a bright spot at the centre. When the path
difference between 1 and 2 in figure is λ, they interfere
constructively, same holds for 2 and 3 as shown in figure. Any
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path difference is equal to an integral multiple of wavelength
would lead to constructive interference. Hence the path
difference between the rays from adjacent slit is 𝑑 sin 𝜃 where d
is the slit separation. Therefore, the position of the principle
maxima is given by;
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … …

Dispersive power of a grating:-

Spreading the diffraction lines associated with various

wavelengths by the grating is called dispersion. Ratio of the
difference in the angle of diffraction of any two neighboring
lines to the difference in wavelength between the two spectral
𝑑𝜃
lines is called dispersive power. 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝜆

We have, 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Now, differentiating;

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 𝑛
cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜆
𝑑
𝑑𝜃 𝑛 𝑛
𝑜𝑟, = =
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑛
∴ =
𝑑𝜆 𝑑√𝑑2 − 𝑛2 𝜆2
Hence, the dispersive power of grating depends on the order,
nature of grating and nature of light.
Resolving power of grating:-

The ability of an optical instruments to produce distinctly

separated images of two objects located very close to each other
is called resolving power. The ratio of wavelength (λ) of any
spectral line to the smallest difference in wavelength (dλ)
between these lines is called resolving power (R).
𝜆
𝑖. 𝑒 resolving power (𝑅) =
𝑑𝜆
From figure above;
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 𝑑 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) … … … (1)
Also from Rayleigh’s criterion;
𝜆
𝑑 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑛𝜆 + … … … (2)
𝑁
From equation (1) and (2);
𝜆
𝑛𝜆 + = 𝑛(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)
𝑁
𝜆
∴ = 𝑛𝑁
𝑑𝜆
Therefore, resolving power (𝑅 ) = 𝑛𝑁
Where, n = number of order and N = number of lines.

Numerical Examples:-
1. A diffraction grating is 3 cm wide produces the second
order at 330 with light of wavelength 600 nm. What is
the total number of lines in the grating?
Solution:-
Given, θ = 330 , λ = 600 nm = 600 × 10−9 m
= 6 × 10−5 cm
We kanow that; 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

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 𝑛𝜆
𝑑=
sin 𝜃
1 𝑛𝜆
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑁 sin 𝜃
sin 33
𝑜𝑟, 𝑁 = = 4539 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑚
2 × 6 × 10−5
∴ Total numer of lines = N × width
= 4539 × 3 = 13616 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠

2. Plane diffraction grating has 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔/𝒄𝒎. How

many maxima can be observed, when a plane wave of
wavelength 𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝟎 is made to incident on it.
Solution:-
Given, N = 5000 lines/cm, λ = 5500 𝐴0
= 5500 × 10−8 cm
For maxima, sin 𝜃 = 1;
Now; 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
1
𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 × 5500 × 10−8
𝑁
1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑛 × 5500 × 10−8
5000
∴𝑛=4
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 3. Calculate the possible order of spectra with a plane
transmission grating having 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 /𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉. When
light of wavelength is 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝟎 .
Solution:-
Total number of lines(N) = 18000 lines/inch
2.54 2.54
∴𝑑= = = 1.41 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
𝑁 18000
The highest order occurs when, sin θ = 1
Wavelength (λ) = 4500 𝐴0 = 4500 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚
We have, d sin θ = nλ
1.41 × 10−4 × 1 = 𝑛 × 4500 × 10−8
∴ Number of order (n) = 3

4. Light is incident on a grating of total ruled width 𝟓 ×

𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 with 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 in all. Calculate the angular
separation and resolving power of two sodium lines in
the 1st order spectrum.(Given; 𝛌𝟏 = 𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟎 𝐀𝐨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛌𝟐 =
𝟓𝟖𝟗𝟔 𝐀𝐨 ).
Solution:-
𝑁 = 2500, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 5 × 10−3 𝑚, 𝑛 = 1

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 𝜆1 = 5890 × 10−10 𝑚, 𝜆2 = 5896 × 10−10 𝑚
2500
Total number of lines per meter(N) =
5 × 10−3
= 5 × 105
1 −6
∴𝑑= = 2 × 10 𝑚
5 × 105
For first order (n) = 1
λ1
Now, sin θ1 = = 0.2945
d
∴ 𝜃1 = 170 . 8𝐼
λ2
And, sin θ2 = = 0.2948
d
∴ 𝜃2 = 170 . 14𝐼
∴ Angular seperation(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) = 0.66
𝜆𝑎𝑣𝑔
The resolving power of grating (𝑅) =
𝑑𝜆
5893 × 10−10
=
6 × 10−10
𝜆
∴ = 982.16
𝑑𝜆
As the total number of lines on the grating is 2500 is
more than the 982. Therefore the lines can be resolved.

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Exercise:-
5. Explain the physical meaning of dispersive power and
resolving power of a grating. Two spectral lines of
wavelength λ and 𝜆 + ∆𝜆 respectively where ∆𝜆 ≪ 𝜆.
Show that there angular separation ∆𝜃 in a grating
∆𝜆
spectrometer is ∆𝜃 = , where d and m are grating
𝑑
√( )2 −𝜆2
𝑚

elements and no of order respectively.

6. What is diffraction of light? Explain the dispersive power
and resolving power of a grating. Derive the relation and
also relate between them.
7. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line
(540 nm) in a certain order superposed on the violet line
(405 nm) of the next higher order. How many lines per cm
are there in the grating if the angle of diffraction is 30 o.
8. A grating with 250 groves/ mm is used with an
incandescent light source. Assume visible spectrum to
range in wavelength from 400 to 700 nm. In how many
orders can one see the entire visible spectrum?
9. What is diffraction of light? Discuss the intensity
distribution with special reference to diffraction of light in
single slit.
10. In a Fraunhofer single slit diffraction, a convex length
of focal length 20 cm is placed just after the slit of width
0.6 nm. If a plane wave of wavelength 6000 Ao falls on slits

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 normally, calculate the separation between the second
minima on either side of central maxima.
11. Discuss the phenomenon of Fraunhofer diffraction at a
single slit. Show that the relative intensities of the
4 4
successive maxima are 1: ∶ ………
9𝜋2 25𝜋2
12. Show that the intensity of second primary maxima is
1.62 % of central maxima in Fraunhofer single slit
diffraction.
13. Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a
slit of width 0.1 mm. Calculate the intensity at 𝜃 = 0𝑜 .
14. Light is incident normally on a grating of total ruled
width 5 × 10−3 𝑚 with 2500 lines in all. Find the angular
separation of the sodium lines in the first order spectrum.
Wavelength of lenses are 589 × 10−9 𝑚 and 589.6 ×
10−9 𝑚. Can they be seen distinctly?
15. A screen containing two slits 0.1 mm apart is 1m from
the viewing screen. Light of wavelength 500 nm falls on
the slits from a distant source. Approximately how far apart
will the bright interference fringes be seen on the screen?
16. What is the highest order spectrum which may be seen
with monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm by means
of a diffraction grating with 4500 lines/cm.
17. A grating of width 2.8 cm has 6000 lines. What is the
minimum difference in wavelength that can be resolved in
second order at 550 nm?

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 18. In a double slit experiment, the distance between the
slit is 5mm and the slits are 1 m from the screen. Two
interference patterns can be seen on the screen; one due to
light of wavelength 480 nm and the other due to light of
wavelength 600 nm. What is the separation on the screen
between the third-order bright fringes of two interference
patterns?
19. What is plane diffraction grating? How it is used to
find the wavelength of a monochromatic light
experimentally?
20. Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are
arbitrary chosen as 430 nm and 680 nm. Calculate the no of
rulings per millimeter of a grating that will spread the first-
order spectrum through an angle of 20o.
21. In a grating the sodium doublet (5890 Ao, 5896 Ao) is
viewed in third order at 30o to the normal and is resolved.
Determine the grating element and the total width of the
rulings.

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 Polarization
Polarization of light is a phenomena due to which the vibration
of light are take place only in the particular plane, such a light is
called plane polarize light. The plane in which the vibration of
polarize light takes place is called the plane of vibration.

The material which polarized transverse wave is called

“Polaroid”. Calcite crystal, tourmaline crystal and Nichol prism
are some example of Polaroid.
Polarization by double refraction:-
The speed of light is same in all direction in isotropic
substances. However in some crystal the speed of light is
different in different direction. Such materials are known as
anisotropic substance. These substances are said to be double
refracting substances as they give raise to an unusual
phenomena.

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When a small object is viewed through a crystal of calcite
(CaCo3) or quartz (SiO2), there will be two refracted images.
This is because of an unusual two types of refraction or there are
two refracted rays. One refracted ray called a ordinary ray (0-
ray) passes normal way but the other ray extra ordinary ray (e-
ray) refracted with different angle. The o- ray obeys Snell’s law,
where as the e-ray does not. The e-ray and o-ray are found to be
plane polarized in mutual perpendicular direction. Sugar
solution, ice are other example of double refracting objects. In
some crystal the velocity of o-ray is greater than e-ray (𝜇𝑜 <
𝜇𝑒 ), such crystals are known as positive crystal, where as the
crystal in which velocity of e-ray is greater than o-ray (𝜇𝑒 <
𝜇𝑜 ), are known as negative crystal.

Nicol prism:-
Nicol prism is a simple optical device for producing and
analyzing the plane polarized light. It was invented by William
Nicol in 1826. It is based on the principle of double refraction.
The ordinary and extra ordinary rays are polarized and are
perpendicular to each other. A Nicol prism can separate the o-

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ray and e-ray from an un-polarized light. It is an optical device
made from a natural crystal of calcite. It is used in different
optical instrument to produce and analyze polarized light.

Nicol prism is made by cutting a calcite crystal along a diagonal

as shown in figure. They are cemented back together with a
layer of Canada balsam. It is a transparent medium such that
optically denser than calcite for e-ray and less denser for o-ray.
In other words calcite is negative crystal with 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝑒 and
Canada balsam has refractive index between 𝜇𝑜 and 𝜇𝑒 . When
an ordinary un-polarized light incident on the first calcite crystal
surface. It breaks in to o-ray and e-ray. The o-ray is totally
internally reflected whereas the e-ray passes into emerged
parallel to the incident ray as shown in figure. In this way
Nicol prism can transmit only plane polarized light from the un-
polarized light.

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Optical Activity:-

Consider a set of Nicol prism placed in such a way that there is

no emergent light coming out from the analyzer as shown in
figure. In this particular condition the e-ray in analyzer is totally
internally reflected. But if quartz plate is kept between prism in
such a way that the emergent ray from polarizer falls at an angle
90o, with the plate there is light emerging out from analyzer as
well which is as shown in figure below.
The plane of vibration of plane polarized light from polarizer
entering the quartz plate is gradually rotated, the amount of
rotation of the plane of vibration is depends on the thickness of
the quartz plate and wavelength of light. This property of
rotating the plane of vibration by crystal is known as optical
activity. E.g. sugar crystal, sugar solution in water, sodium
chloride, quartz crystal and turpentine etc.

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There are two types of optically active substances. In the first
type of substances the rotate the plane of vibration to the right or
clockwise direction such substances are known as dextrorotatory
substances. In the second type of substances they rotate the
plane of vibration to the left or anti-clockwise direction such
substances are known as laevorotatory substances.
Specific rotation:-
The specific rotation is the rotation produced by one decimeter
long solution containing one gram of optically active substance
in one cubic centimeter of the solution.
10𝜃
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑆 =
𝑙𝐶
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝐶 = 10𝜃
Where 𝜃 is angle of rotation, 𝑙 is length of solution in cm, 𝐶 is
concentration of active substances in gm/cm3 and S is specific
rotation at given temperature for given wavelength of light.

Mathematical treatment of linearly, circularly and

elliptically polarized light:-
Since, the light is made to incident normally on a crystal so the
e-ray and o-ray travel along the same direction with the different
velocity. Though e-ray and o-ray travel same direction but their
plane of vibration is perpendicular to each other. So, if we
resolve the amplitude ‘A’ of the incident wave. 𝐴 sin 𝜃 and
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𝐴 cos 𝜃 will represent the amplitude of o-ray and e-ray as shown
in figure.

Therefore amplitude of 𝑒 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃

And, amplitude of 𝑂 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃.
Since, both the vibration moves with different velocity in the
same direction. So, phase difference 𝛿 is introduced between e-
ray and o-ray. Therefore, the displacement of e-ray is;
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 sin(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛿 ) … … … (𝑖)
And the displacement of o-ray along the direction perpendicular
to e-ray is;
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 sin 𝑤𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
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Let, 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑏
From equation (i);
𝑥 = a sin(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛿 )
𝑥
𝑜𝑟, = sin 𝑤𝑡. cos 𝛿 + cos 𝑤𝑡. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑎
And from (ii);
𝑦 = b sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑦
𝑜𝑟, = sin 𝑤𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝑏
𝑦2
And cos 𝑤𝑡 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡 = √1 − … … … . (𝑣)
𝑏2

Putting value of sin 𝑤𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑤𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖𝑖𝑖);

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
= cos 𝛿 + √1 − 2 sin 𝛿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
𝑜𝑟, − cos 𝛿 = √1 − 2 sin 𝛿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

Squaring both sides;

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
( − cos 𝛿) = (1 − 2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

𝑥2 𝑥𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦 2
𝑜𝑟, 2
− 2. cos 𝛿 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
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 𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 2
+ 2
− 2. cos 𝛿 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 … … … (𝑣𝑖)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
Which is the equation of ellipse (oblique), so in general the
emergent light is elliptically polarized. The exact nature of
emergent light depends upon the value of 𝛿.

Case I:-
𝐼𝑓 𝛿 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋 … … .2𝑛𝜋 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝛿 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥𝑦
From equation (vi);
𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 − 2. 𝑎𝑏
=0
𝑥 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, ( − )2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, − =0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑥 … … … (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝑎

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Which is the equation of straight line. So the light is plane
polarized.
Case II:-
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑓 𝛿 = , , (
… … . 2𝑛 + 1 )
2 2 2 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝛿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 1
𝑥2 𝑦2
From equation (vi);
𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
=1

Which is the equation of ellipse. So, the emergent light is

elliptically polarized.
Case III:-
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑓 𝛿 = , , … … . (2𝑛 + 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑏,
2 2 2 2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝛿 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 1
𝑥2 𝑦2
From equation (vi); + =1
𝑎2 𝑎2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
Which is the equation of circle. So, the emergent light is
circularly polarized.

Phase difference between e-ray and o-ray:-

The two waves travel along the same direction in the crystal but
with different velocity. As a result the wave emerges from the
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crystal. An optical path difference would have developed
between them. The optical path difference can be calculated as;
Let ‘t’ be the thickness of the crystal. The optical path for e-ray
within the crystal = 𝜇𝑒 𝑡.
And optical path for o-ray within the crystal = 𝜇𝑜 𝑡.
Therefore the optical path difference between e-ray and o-ray is;
∆= (𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡
2𝜋
∴ phase difference (𝛿 ) = (𝜇 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡
𝜆 𝑒

Quarter wave plate:-

𝜆
If the path difference between e-ray and o-ray is equal to . Then
4
the plate is called quarter wave plate.
𝜆
𝑖. 𝑒. (𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (for + ve crystal)
4
𝜆
∴𝑡=
4(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇0 )
and for − ve crystal;
𝜆
𝑡=
4(𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )

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Half wave plate:-
𝜆
If the path difference between e-ray and o-ray is equal to . Then
2
the plate is called half wave plate.
𝜆
𝑖. 𝑒. (𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (for + ve crystal)
2
𝜆
∴𝑡=
2(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇0 )
and for − ve crystal;
𝜆
𝑡=
2(𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )

Numerical Examples:-
1. A 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 long tube containing 𝟒𝟖 𝒄𝒎𝟑 of sugar
solution produces an optical rotation 𝟏𝟏𝟎 when placed
in saccharimeter. If the specific rotation of sugar
solution is 𝟔𝟔𝟎 . Calculate the quantity of sugar
contained in the tube in the form of solution.
Solution:-
Length(𝑙 ) = 200 mm = 20 cm
Volume (V) = 48 𝑐𝑚3
Optical rotation (𝜃) = 110

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 Specific rotation (𝑆) = 660
We have, 𝑆𝑙𝐶 = 10𝜃
10𝜃 10 × 110 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = = = 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑙 660 × 20 12
1
∴ Quantity of sugar (m) = CV = × 48 = 4 𝑔𝑚
12

2. A sugar solution in a tube of length 𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎 produces an

optical rotation of 𝟏𝟑𝟎 . The solution is then diluted to
1/3 of its previous concentration. Find the optical
rotation produced by 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎 long tube containing the
diluted solution.
Solution:-
For first case;
𝑙1 = 20 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 130 , 𝐶1 = 𝐶, 𝑆1 = 𝑆
We have, 𝑆1 𝑙1 𝐶1 = 10𝜃1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑆𝑙1 𝐶 = 10𝜃1 … … … (𝑖)
For second case;
1
𝑙2 = 30 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 = ?, 𝐶2 = 𝐶, 𝑆2 = 𝑆
3
We have, 𝑆2 𝑙2 𝐶2 = 10𝜃2

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 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑆𝑙2 𝐶 = 10𝜃2 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
3
Dividing equation (ii) by (i);
1
𝑆𝑙2 𝐶 10𝜃2
∴ 3 =
𝑆𝑙1 𝐶 10𝜃1
1
30 ×
𝑜𝑟, 3 = 𝜃2
20 13
∴ 𝜃2 = 6. 50

3. Find the specific rotation of the sample of sugar

solution, if the plane of polarization is turned through
𝟒𝟔𝟎 . The length of the tube containing 𝟐𝟎 % solution is
𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎.
Solution:-
Optical rotation (θ) = 460
Length(𝑙 ) = 20 cm
Concentration (C) = 20 % = 0.20
Specific rotation (S) =?
We know that; S𝑙C = 10θ

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 10 𝜃 10 × 46
∴𝑆= = = 1150
𝑙𝐶 20 × 0.20

4. A length of 𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎 of solution containing 𝟓𝟎 𝒈𝒎 of

solute per liter causes the rotation of the plane of
polarization of light by 𝟓𝟎 . Find the rotation of plane of
polarization by length of 𝟕𝟓 𝒄𝒎 of a solution
containing 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈𝒎 of solute per liter.
Solution:-
For first case;
𝑙1 = 25 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 50 , 𝐶1 = 50 𝑔𝑚 /𝑙, 𝑆1 = 𝑆
We have, 𝑆1 𝑙1 𝐶1 = 10𝜃1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑆 × 25 × 50 = 10 × 5
∴ 𝑆 = 0.040
For second case;
𝑙2 = 75 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 = ?, 𝐶2 = 100 𝑔𝑚/𝑙, 𝑆2 = 𝑆
We have, 𝑆2 𝑙2 𝐶2 = 10𝜃2
𝑜𝑟, 0.04 × 75 × 100 = 10𝜃2
0.04 × 75 × 100
∴ 𝜃2 = = 300
10

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 5. A sugar solution produces an optical rotation of 𝟗. 𝟗𝟎
when placed in a tube of length of 𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎. If the specific
rotation of the solution is 𝟔𝟔𝟎 . Find the concentration
of the solution in gm/liter.
Solution:-
Specific rotation (S) = 660
Optical rotation (𝜃) = 9. 90
Length (𝑙 ) = 20 𝑐𝑚
Concentration (𝐶 ) =?
We have, 𝑆𝑙𝐶 = 10𝜃
10𝜃 10 × 9.90
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = = = 0.075 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐
𝑆𝑙 660 × 20
∴ 𝐶 = 0.075 × 1000 = 75 𝑔𝑚/𝑙

6. A beam of plane polarized light is converted into

circularly polarized light by passing it through a crystal
of thickness 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎. Calculate the difference in
refractive indices of two rays inside the crystal.
Wavelength of light is 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒎.
Solution:-
Thickness (t) = 3 × 10−5 𝑚

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 Wavelength (λ) = 600 𝑛𝑚 = 6 × 10−7 𝑚
Since quarter wave plate convert plane polarized light
into circularly polarized light. So we have;
λ
(μ0 − μe )t =
4
6 × 10−7
𝑜𝑟, (μ0 − μe ) =
4 × 3 × 10−5
∴ (μ0 − μe ) = 5 × 10−3

7. Plane polarized light is incident on a piece of quartz cut

parallel to the axis. Find the least thickness for which
the ordinary and extra ordinary rays combined to form
plane polarized light. ( Given:- 𝛍𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟐, 𝛍𝐞 =
𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛌 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎)
Solution:-
Here, μ0 = 1.5442, μe = 1.553 and λ = 5 × 10−7 𝑚
Since half wave plate combine O-ray and e-ray to form
plane polarized light.
λ
∴ (μe − μ0 )t =
2
5 × 10−7
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡 = = 2.75 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚
2( 1.5533 − 1.5442)

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Exercise:-
8. What is polarization? Describe how will you produce
linearly, circularly, and elliptically polarized light. Explain
with mathematical conclusion.
9. Define the polarization of light. Write its importance in
different optical instruments. Derive the relation for the
thickness of quarter wave plate and half wave plate.
10. What is double refraction? Explain how Nicol prism
can be used as polarizer and analyzer?
11. Give rise generally to an elliptically polarized wave
that can become linearly and circularly polarized wave
under special condition.
12. What are retardation plates? Find out an expression to
find the thickness of a retardation plate that produces
elliptically polarized light.
13. What is Nicol prism? How is it constructed? Discuss
some its applications.
14. Define the term “optical activity”. Derive a relation
for the specific rotation of any optically active substance.
Also write down its applications.
15. Light of wavelength 580 nm falls on a calcite crystal
of certain thickness. The emerging light is circularly
polarized. What must be thickness of such crystal?
16. A 30 cm long polarimeter tube containing 50 cm3 of
sugar solution produces an optical rotation 14.5 o when
placed on a polarimeter tube. If the specific rotation of the

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 sugar solution is 65o, calculate the quantity of sugar
contained in the tube.
17. Calculate the thickness of double refracting plate
capable of producing a path differences of λ/4 between
extraordinary and ordinary rays of wavelength 5890 A. (
Use µ0 = 1.53 and µe = 1.54)
18. If the plane of vibration of the incident beam makes an
angle of 30o with the optic axis, compare the intensities of
𝐼𝑒 𝐸 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
extraordinary and ordinary light. (Hint; = )
𝐼𝑜 𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
19. A beam of polarized light is sent in to a system of two
polarizing sheets, relative to a polarization direction of the
incident light. The polarizing directions of the sheets are at
angle 𝜃 for the first sheet and 90o for the second sheets. If
the 0.1 of the incident intensity is transmitted by the two
sheets, what is 𝜃?

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 Geometrical Optics
Refraction through Lens:-
A lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium bounded
by two spherical surfaces. A lens is built up from a series of
truncated prism, whose refracting angle change continuously.

Sign Convention:-
The following convention of the sign is adopted for obtaining
the relation between these quantities.
1. All the distances are measured from the optical center of
the lens.
2. The distances are positive and negative as shown in the
following figure.
3. The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a
concave lens.

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Refraction through a Lens (Lens Maker’s formula):-
A lens forms an image by refraction of light at its two bounding
surfaces. Each surface acts as an image forming component, and
contributes to the final image formed by the lens. If we know the
focal length of a lens and the position of an object, the position
of the image can be determined either by using ray diagram or
mathematical relation. It is not always convenient to draw a ray
diagram. We study here how the position of the image is
determined using mathematical equation.

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Consider a thin lens of material of refractive index 𝜇2 separates
a medium of refractive index 𝜇1 on its two sides. The radius of
curvature of the coaxial refracting surface is R1 and R2. Consider
a point object O, be kept on the principal axis at distance u from
the first refracting surface as shown in figure.

When light from the object O falls on the first refracting surface
of the lens the image I1 is formed at a distance v1 from the first
refracting surface. So from Gauss formula;
𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇2 − 𝜇1
− = … … … . (𝑖)
𝑣1 𝑢 𝑅1
This image I1 acts as virtual object in medium of refracting
index 𝜇2 of the second refracting surface and forms the final
image I at distance v from the second refracting surface in
medium of refracting index 𝜇1 . Again
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇1 − 𝜇2
− = … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑅2
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get
𝜇1 𝜇1 1 1
− = (𝜇2 − 𝜇1 ) ( − )
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 𝜇2 1 1
𝑜𝑟, − = ( − 1) ( − )
𝑣 𝑢 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
When the lens is in air,
1 1 1 1
− = (𝜇 − 1) ( − ) … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
Where 𝜇 is the refractive index of the material of the lens with
respect to air. The equation (iii) so obtained is lens maker

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formula. This relation holds true for paraxial rays for which the
angle made by the rays are small. However, the relation is true
for thin lenses where the thickness is negligibly small compared
to the object distance, image distance and radii of curvatures.
As explained earlier in case of a lens also, we can obtain the two
principal foci with focal lengths 𝑓2 and 𝑓1 as,
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
− = −(𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓1 𝑅1 𝑅2
For lens placed in air, it has air on both sides. In such case f1 = f2
but of opposite signs. The above relation is also called lens
makers formula.

Least possible distance between an object and its real image

in a convex lens:-

Consider a thin convex lens. Let the focal length of the lens be f,
O is the point object on the principal axis and after refraction the
image I is formed. Let the distance between O and I be d and

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distance of image from the lens be x. Here objective distance is
negative and image distance is positive. Thus;
𝑣=𝑥
𝑢 = −(𝑑 − 𝑥)
We know,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, − =
𝑥 −(𝑑 − 𝑥) 𝑓
𝑑−𝑥+𝑥 1
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑥(𝑑 − 𝑥) 𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥𝑑 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑓𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑑 + 𝑓𝑑 = 0
This is the quadratic equation and its solution is given by;
−𝑑 ± √𝑑2 − 4𝑓𝑑
𝑥=
2
For image to be real, the distance x should be real. This
condition is satisfied if
𝑑2 − 4𝑓𝑑 ≥ 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑2 ≥ 4𝑓𝑑
∴ 𝑑 ≥ 4𝑓
Thus d should be greater than 4f, or at least equal to 4f for the
image to be real. Therefore the minimum distance between the
real object and real image is 4f.

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Deviation by a thin lens:-
A lens may be considered to be made up of a large number of
prisms placed one above the other. As the action of the lens is to
deviated the incident rays of light, it is necessary to find the
deviation produced by a particular section of the lens. Let a ray
of monochromatic light parallel to the principal axis be incident
on a thin lens at a height ‘h’ above the axis and let ‘f’ be the
focal length of the lens.

The deviation suffered by the ray is given by;

ℎ
tan 𝑑 =
𝑓
In the paraxial region d being small, tan 𝑑 ≈ 𝑑
ℎ
∴𝑑=
𝑓
Next, consider a luminous point O and its corresponding image
I. The deviation suffered by the incident ray is given by;
𝑑= 𝛼+ 𝛽
ℎ ℎ 1 1 1
𝑑= + = ℎ( − ) = ℎ( )
−𝑢 +𝑣 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

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 ℎ
∴𝑑=
𝑓
This shows that the deviation produced by a lens is independent
of the position of the object.

Combination of two thin Lenses separated by a finite

distance:-
Consider two thin lenses L1 & L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2
respectively. These are placed coaxially and separated by a finite
distance d in air. 𝛿1 and 𝛿2 are the angle of deviation produced
by the first and second lens respectively. The phenomenon of
refraction is as shown in figure. The lens placed at H1P1 and
H2P2 is called equivalent lens and P 1F = P2F = f is called
equivalent focal length. The planes at H1P1 & H2P2 are the first
and second principal planes and the points P 1 and P2 on the
principal axis are the first and second principal points
respectively.

From figure, the total deviation produced by the lens system is

𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2

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For small δ, tan δ ≅ tan δ1 + tan δ2
h1 h1 h2
i. e. = + … … … . (i)
f f1 f2
Since, ∆ A L1 F1 and BL2 F1 are similar in figure (a),
A L1 BL2
i. e. =
L1 F1 L2 F1
h1 h2
or, = … … … (ii)
f1 (f1 − d)
(f1 − d)h1
or, h2 = … … … (iii)
f1
Now from equation (i) and (iii), we get
h1 h1 (f1 − d)h1
= +
f f1 f1 f2
1 1 1 d
= + −
f f1 f2 f1 f2
Therefore equivalent focal length is given by;
f1 f2
f=
f1 + f2 − d
−f1 f2
or, f=
∆
Where ∆= 𝑑 − (𝑓1 + 𝑓2 ) and is known as the optical interval
between the two lenses. It is numerically equal to the distance
between the second principal focus of the first lens and the first
principal focus of the second lens.
Further let the distance between the imaginary equivalent lens
and the second lens be β( P2 L2 ). Now from the similar ∆ H2P2F
and BL2F we get;
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 P2 F H2 P2
=
L2 F BL2
f h1
=
f−β h2
Sine distance 𝛽 is the left side of L2, following the sign
convention we can write;

f h1 h1 f1
= = (from equation iii)
f+β h2 (f1 − d)h1
f f1
or, =
f + β (f1 − d)
or, ff1 − fd = ff1 + f1 β
−fd
or, β= … … … . (iv)
f1
Further let the distance between the imaginary equivalent lens
and the first lens be α ( P1 L1 ). From similar triangles
H1 P1 F and CL1 F;
H1 P1 CL1
=
P1 F L1 F

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 h2 h1
or, = … … … (v)
f f−α
The other pairs of similar triangles BL2 F2 and CL1 F2 yields
BL2 CL1
=
L2 F2 L1 F2
h2 h1
or, = … … … (vi)
f2 f2 − d
Solving equation (v) and (vi) we get;
h1 f2 h1
=
𝑓(f2 − d) f − α
or, ff2 − f2 α = ff2 − fd
fd
or, α= … … … (vii)
f2
In case if the two lenses are in contact, distance between them d
= 0 which will provide the equivalent focal length of the lenses
in contact as;
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2

Power of a Lens:-
The power of a lens is the measure of its ability to produce
convergence of a parallel beam of light. A convex lens of large
focal length produces a small converging effect and a convex
lens of small focal length produces a large converging effect.
Due to this reason, the power of a convex lens is taken as
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positive and convex lens of small focal length has high power.
On the other hand, a concave lens produces divergence.
Therefore its power is taken as negative.
The unit in which the power of a lens is measured is called a
diopter (D).
1
Mathematically, Power =
Focal length in meters
The power of a pair of lenses, of focal lengths f1 and f2, placed
in contact is simply the sum of their individual powers.
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2
P = P1 + P2
Where 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the powers of the lenses and P is the
equivalent power.

Cardinal points:-
There are six major points in an optical system, which are two
principal foci, two principal points, and two nodal points called
as cardinal points. The planes passing through these points and
perpendicular to the principal axis are called cardinal planes.

1. Principal foci and focal planes:-

Consider an optical system consisting of a thick lens or
number of coaxial lenses either in contact or separated by a
finite distance. In case of converging or diverging system,
the points F1 and F2 are two principal foci and the planes
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 passing through them and perpendicular to the principal
axis are called focal planes.

2. Principal points and principal planes:-

Consider a thick lens or a co-axial refracting system having
its principal foci F1 and F2. The locus of points of
intersection of the incident ray and emergent ray when they
produced to each other are called principal planes. In the
figure, The points P and P I are first and second principal
points which are intersection of the planes HP and HIPI
respectively, on the principal axis.

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 3. Nodal points:-
Nodal points are defined as the pair of conjugates points on
the principal axis having unit positive angular
magnification. This means a ray of light directed towards
one of these points, after refracting through the optical
system, appears to produced from the second point in the
parallel direction.

Figure shows all the cardinal points. Also PF = -f1, and

PIFI= +f2. Implies that PN = PINI = (f1+f2). If the medium
on both sides of the system is optically similar, -f1 = f2.
Hence PN = PINI = 0 i.e. the nodal points are coincident
with principal points. The planes passing through N and NI
are nodal planes.

Chromatic Aberration:-
The refractive index of the material of a lens is different for
different wavelengths of light. Hence the focal length of a lens is
different for different wavelengths. Furthermore, as the
magnification of the image is dependent on the focal length of a

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lens, the size of the image is different for different wavelengths
(colors). The variation of the image distance from the lens with
refractive index measures axial or longitudinal chromatic
aberration and the variation in size of the image measures lateral
aberration. Thus, a single lens produces a colored image of an
object illuminated by white light and this defect is called
chromatic aberration.

Consider a chromatic object O in the principal axis of a lens as

shown in figure. The rays after refracting through the lens
disperse in to the constituent colors. Let Fr be the focus for red
and Fv be that for violet color with focal length fr and fv, 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣
is a measure of longitudinal chromatic aberration.
The focal length of a lens is given by;
1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, ( − ) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑓 (𝜇 − 1)

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Similarly
1 1 1
( )
= 𝜇𝑣 − 1 ( − )
𝑓𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 (𝜇𝑣 − 1)
= … … … (𝑖)
𝑓𝑣 𝑓 (𝜇 − 1)
And
1 1 1
( )
= 𝜇𝑟 − 1 ( − )
𝑓𝑟 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 (𝜇𝑟 − 1)
= … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑓𝑟 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)
1 1 (𝜇𝑣 − 1 − 𝜇𝑟 + 1)
− =
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)
𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 (𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟 )
=
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓 (𝜇 − 1)
Taking 𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓 2 (where 𝑓 is the mean focal length), we can
write
𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 (𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟 )
=
𝑓2 𝑓 (𝜇 − 1)
(𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟 )𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 =
(𝜇 − 1)
𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 = 𝜔𝑓 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Where, 𝜔
(𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟 )
= is known as the dispersive power of the material.
(𝜇 − 1)

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Circle of least chromatic aberration:-

Let us consider a point object illuminated by white light and

situated on the axis of a lens. Colored images are formed along
the axis. The violet image is nearest the lens and the red image is
the farthest. In between these two images, if a screen is placed at
the position XY, the image of least chromatic aberration is
formed.
Let u be the distance of the object point and vv and vr be the
distances of the violet and red images on the axis of the lens. If
fv and fr are the focal lengths for the violet and red rays of light,
then,
1 1 1
− = … … … (𝑖)
𝑣𝑣 𝑢 𝑓𝑣
And
1 1 1
− = … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑣𝑟 𝑢 𝑓𝑟
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get;

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 1 1 1 1
− = −
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟
𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣
=
𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣
Taking 𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣 2 and 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣 = 𝑓 2
𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣
=
𝑣2 𝑓2
But we have 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 = 𝜔𝑓
𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 𝜔
= =
𝑣2 𝑓2 𝑓
𝜔𝑣 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 = … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑓
It is clearly seen in this case that the longitudinal chromatic
aberration depends on the distance of the image and hence on
the distance of the object from the lens, in addition to its
dependence on the dispersive power and focal length of the lens.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to know the diameter of the
circle of least chromatic aberration. It can be calculated as
follows. Let O be the source of light on the axis. P is the image
for violet and Q that for red rays. AB is the diameter of the
circle of least chromatic aberration, d. Let LN be the aperture of
the lens, D and v be the mean distance of the image.
∆ LQN and AQB are similar;
𝐶𝑄 𝑀𝑄
= … … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝑁
And ∆ LNP and ABP are similar;

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 𝑃𝐶 𝑀𝑃
= … … … (𝑣)
𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝑁

Adding equation (iv) and (v), we get;

𝐶𝑄 𝑃𝐶 𝑀𝑄 𝑀𝑃
+ = +
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝑁 𝐿𝑁

𝑃𝑄 𝑀𝑄 + 𝑀𝑃
= … … … . (𝑣𝑖)
𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝑁
But 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑀𝑄 + 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑣
And substituting these values in equation (vi), we get;
𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 2𝑣
= (∵ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑 and 𝐿𝑁 = 𝐷)
𝑑 𝐷
𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
∴ 𝑑 = 𝐷.
2𝑣
𝜔𝑣 2
But we have from equation (iii), 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 =
𝑓
𝜔𝑣 2 1 𝑣
𝑑 = 𝐷. = 𝐷𝜔.
𝑓. 2𝑣 2 𝑓
If incident light is a parallel beam,
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣 = 𝑓
Then
1
𝑑 = 𝐷𝜔
2
In this case, diameter of the circle of least chromatic aberration
depends on the diameter of the lens aperture and the dispersive
power of the material, but is independent of the focal length of
the lens.

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Achromatism:-
A single lens produces a colored image of an object illuminated
by white light and this defect is called chromatic aberration.
Elimination of this defect in a system of lenses is called
achromatism. The lenses used for achromatism, in general, have
different indices of refraction. Normally one lens is converging
and other is diverging. In many cases they are cemented
together, such type of combination is called an achromatic
doublet or color corrected lens.

1. Condition for Achromatism of two lenses placed in

contact:-
An achromat is made by placing in contact, lenses of
different materials and suitable focal lengths, such that the
focal length of the combination is the same for both the
extreme colors. It means that the focal length of the
achromat is independent of the refractive index.

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 Let the lenses of the doublet have mean focal lengths f and
f ´ and mean refractive indices of their materials µ and µ´
respectively.
We know the Lens maker’s formula for a lens is;
1 1 1
( )
= 𝜇−1 ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

Differentiating above equation, we get

𝑑𝑓 1 1
− 2 = 𝑑𝜇 ( − )
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝜇
𝑜𝑟, − 2 =
𝑓 (𝜇 − 1)𝑓
If μv and μr are the refractive indices for the violet and red
rays, then 𝑑𝜇 is the change in refractive index (μv − μr ).
𝑑𝜇
Hence, dispersive power (𝜔) = (𝜇−1)
𝑑𝑓 𝜔
∴ − 2 =
𝑓 𝑓
When two lenses of focal lengths f and f ´ are placed in
contact to form an achromatic combination, then focal
length F of the combination is given by,
1 1 1
= + ´
𝐹 𝑓 𝑓
Upon differentiating,

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 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 ´
− 2 = − 2 − ´2
𝐹 𝑓 𝑓
To bring different colors in to focus at a point, dF, the
change in focal length of the combination should be zero.
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 ´
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝑓 2 𝑓 ´2
𝜔 𝜔´
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝑓 𝑓´
Where 𝜔 and 𝜔´ are the dispersive power of the materials
of the two lenses and are positive quantity. Which gives
condition for achromatism.
2. Condition for achromatism of two lenses separated by a
finite distance:-
If the two lenses are of the same material, their achromatic
combination is possible only if they are separated by a
finite distance.
Let f1 and f2 be the focal lengths of two lenses placed
coaxial and separated by a distance x. The mean focal
length F of the combination is given by
1 1 1 𝑥
= + − … … … . (𝑖)
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
Differentiating the above equation, we obtain
𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2 𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2
− 2 = − 2 − 2 − 𝑥 ( 2 − 2 ) … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓1
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 But for achromatism;
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝐹 = 0
Also for lenses of same materials;
𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2
− =− = 𝜔
𝑓1 𝑓2
Where, 𝜔 is the dispersie power of the lens material.
Now equation (ii) reduces to;
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
+ − 𝑥 (− − )=0
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 2𝑥
𝑜𝑟, + =
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥=
2
Thus, the condition for achromatism of two thin co-axial lenses
made of same material and separated by a distance is that the
distance between the two lenses must be equal to the mean focal
length of the two lenses.

Numerical Examples:-
1. Two thin convex lenses having focal lengths 10 cm and 4
cm are coaxially separated by a distance 5 cm, find the
equivalent focal length of the combination. Determine
also the position of the principal points.
Solution:-

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 Given: 𝑓1 = 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑓2 = 4 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 = 5 𝑐𝑚
We know,
1 1 1 𝑑
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 5
𝑜𝑟, = + −
𝑓 10 4 10 × 4
1 9
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑓 40
∴ 𝑓 = 4.4 𝑐𝑚
Again,
𝑑𝑓 5 × 4.4
𝛼= = = 5.5 𝑐𝑚
𝑓2 4
𝑑𝑓 5 × 4.4
𝛽= − =− = −2.2 𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 10
The first principal point is at 5.5 cm from first lens on its
right and second principal point is at 2.2 cm from second
lens on its left.
2. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 8 cm each are identical
and coaxially separated by 4 cm. Determine the
equivalent focal length of this lens combination and
illustrate the principal points in figure. If the image is
formed at infinity at a particular position of the object,
find the object distance.
Solution:-
Given: 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 8 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 = 4 𝑐𝑚
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 We know,
1 1 1 𝑑
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 4
𝑜𝑟, = + −
𝑓 8 8 8×8
64
∴𝑓= = 5.33 𝑐𝑚
12
And,
𝑑𝑓 4 × 5.33
𝛼= = = 2.67 𝑐𝑚
𝑓2 8
𝑑𝑓 4 × 5.33
𝛽= − =− = −2.67 𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 8
Again for the image to be formed at infinity, replace 𝑣 =
∞, 𝑢 =? and 𝑓 = 5.33 𝑐𝑚 in the following equation.
1 1 1
− =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
1 1
𝑜𝑟, − =
𝑢 5.33
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = 𝑢 = −5.33 𝑐𝑚
This is the distance of object from the first principal point
in the left side of the object is at 2.66 cm away on the left
side of first lens or, 5.33 cm on the left side of first
principal point.

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 3. Dispersive powers of two different glass types are
0.0163 and 0.0243 respectively. How can you design an
achromatic contact doublet of focal length 50 cm.
Solution:-
For achromatic doublet,
𝜔 𝜔´
=
𝑓 𝑓´
0.0163 0.0243
𝑜𝑟, + = 0 … … … (𝑖)
𝑓 𝑓´
Also,
1 1 1
= + ´
𝐹 𝑓 𝑓
1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, + ´= … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑓 𝑓 50

Solving these two equations, we get,

4000
𝑓= = 16.5 𝑐𝑚
243
´
4000
𝑓 = = −24.5 𝑐𝑚
−163
So we can form an achromat by cementing two lenses of
focal lengths 16.5 cm and 24.5 cm of those two materials.
Also one of the lenses will be a convex lens and other a
concave lens.

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 4. Two thin converging lenses of focal lengths 3 cm and 4
cm are placed coaxially in air separated by distance of 2
cm. An object is placed 4 cm in front of the first lens.
Find the position and nature of the images.
Solution:-

Given: 𝑓1 = 3 𝑐𝑚 𝑓2 = 4 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 = 2 𝑐𝑚
We know,
1 1 1 𝑑
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1 2
𝑜𝑟, = + −
𝑓 3 4 3×4
∴ 𝑓 = 2.4 𝑐𝑚
Distance of the first principal point from the first lens,
𝑑𝑓 2.4 × 2
𝛼= = = 1.2 𝑐𝑚; towards right
𝑓2 4
Distance of the first principal point from the first lens,
𝑑𝑓 4 × 5.33
𝛽= = = 1.2 𝑐𝑚 towards left
𝑓1 8
Object distance 𝑢 = −(4 + 1.2) = −5.2 𝑐𝑚
Using the formula,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
We have,
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 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 −5.2 2.4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = 4.46 𝑐𝑚
Distance of the image from the second lens = 4.46 – 1.6 =
2.86 cm. The image is real.
5. The object glass of a telescope is an achromat of focal
length 90 cm, If the magnitude of the dispersive power
of the two lenses are 0.024 and 0.036, Calculate their
focal lengths.
Solution:-
Here, 𝜔1 = 0.024, 𝜔2 = 0.036, 𝐹 = 90 𝑐𝑚
We have, for achromatism,
𝜔1 𝜔2
+ =0
𝑓1 𝑓2
1 𝜔1 0.024 2
𝑜𝑟, = − = − = −
𝑓2 𝜔2 𝑓1 0.036𝑓1 3𝑓1
Also,
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 2 1
𝑜𝑟, = − =
90 𝑓1 3𝑓1 3𝑓1
3𝑓1
∴ 𝑓1 = 30 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓2 = − = −45 𝑐𝑚
2

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 6. A converging achromat of 40 cm focal length is to be
constructed out of a thin crown glass lens and a thin
flint glass lens, The surface in contact having a common
radius of curvature of 25 cm. Calculate the radius of
curvature of second surface of each lens, given that the
values of the dispersive power and mean refractive
indices are 0.017 and 1.5 for crown glass, and 0.034 and
1.7 for flint glass.
Solution:-
Here, 𝜔1 = 0.017, 𝜔2 = 0.034, 𝐹 = 40 𝑐𝑚 𝜇1 = 1.5,
𝜇2 = 1.7
We have, for achromatism,
𝜔1 𝜔2
+ =0
𝑓1 𝑓2
1 𝜔1 1
𝑜𝑟, = − = −
𝑓2 𝜔2 𝑓1 2𝑓1
Also,
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = −
40 𝑓1 2𝑓1
∴ 𝑓1 = 20 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓2 = −2𝑓1 = −40 𝑐𝑚
For the crown glass lens,
1 1 1
= (μ1 − 1) ( − )
f1 R1 R 2
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 1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, ( )
= 1.5 − 1 ( − )
20 R1 25
50
∴ 𝑅1 = = 16.67 𝑐𝑚
3
For the flint glass lens,
1 1 1
= (μ2 − 1) ( − )
f2 R1 R 2
1 1 1
or, = (1.7 − 1) (− − )
40 25 R 2
∴ R 2 = −233.33 𝑐𝑚
For crown glass lens,
𝑅1 = 16.67 𝑐𝑚, R 2 = −25 𝑐𝑚
For flint glass lens,
𝑅`1 = −25 𝑐𝑚, R` 2 = −233.33 𝑐𝑚

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Exercise:-
7. Calculate the focal length of combination of two thin lenses
of focal length f1 and f2 separated by a distance ‘d’. Find
the position of two principal points.
8. What is chromatic aberration? Show that a single lens is
always accompanied with such aberration. Discuss in brief
how can we minimize chromatic aberration in the
combination of lenses.
9. Show that the diameter of circle of least confusion depends
on the diameter of the lens aperture and dispersive power of
the material of the lens but is independent of the focal
length of the lens.
10. What are cardinal points of an optical system?
Determine the equivalent focal length of a combination of
two thin lenses separated by a finite distance.
11. Prove that the condition for achromatism for the
combination of two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 having
dispersive power 𝜔1 and ω2 placed at a separate distance
𝜔1 𝜔2 𝑥
‘x’is + =( ) (𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ).
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
12. What is chromatic aberration? Show that longitudinal
chromatic aberration is equal to (i) 𝜔 × 𝑓, when object is
𝜔×𝑣 2
infinite and (ii) , when object is at finite. Where
𝑓
symbols have their usual meaning.
13. What are co-axial optical system and cardinal points?
State their properties and show their position in a diagram.

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 Illustrate the use of these points in the formation of an
image by a lens system.
14. Show that the least possible distance between an
object and its real image in a convex lens is four times the
focal length of the lens.
15. Two thin lenses of power P 1 and P2 are separated by a
distance d. Find an expression to show that equivalent
power of the combination is given as P = P 1 + P2 – dP1P2.
16. Define circle of least confusion and show that 𝑑 =
1
𝜔𝐷, where d is diameter if circle of least confusion, 𝜔 is
2
dispersive power and D is diameter of lens.
17. Two thin lenses of power P1 and P2 are separated by a
distance d. Find an expression to show that equivalent
power of the combination is given as P = P 1 + P2 – dP1P2.
18. Define circle of least confusion and show that 𝑑 =
1
𝜔𝐷, where d is diameter if circle of least confusion, 𝜔 is
2
dispersive power and D is diameter of lens.
19. Two thin converging lenses of focal lengths 30 cm and
40 cm respectively are placed co-axially in air separated by
a distance of 20 cm. An object is placed 40 cm in front of
the first lens. Find the position and nature of the image.
20. In Ramsden’s eyepiece a co-axially lens system is
used. There are two lenses in air and are of equal focal
length of separated by a distance 2f/3. Find position of the
cardinal points.

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 21. Two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 separated by
a distance having an equivalent focal length 50 cm. The
combination satisfies the condition for no chromatic
aberration and minimum spherical aberration. Find the
separation between the two lenses if both lenses are same
materials.
22. Two lenses of focal lengths 8 cm and 4 cm are placed
at a certain distance apart. Calculate the position of
principal points if they form an achromatic combination.
23. It is desire to make a converging achromatic lens of
mean focal length 30 cm by using two lenses of materials A
and B. If the dispersive power of A and B are in the ratio of
1:2, find the focal length of lens.
24. Two thin converging lenses of focal lengths 0.2 m and
0.3 m are placed co-axially 0.10 m apart in air. An object is
located 0.6 m in front of the lens of smaller focal length.
Find the position of two principal points and that of image.

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 LASER

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The

stimulated emission is used for amplifying light wave.

Characteristics of Laser light:-

 Laser light is coherent source.
 Laser light is highly mono chromatic.
 A laser beam is highly directional.
 Laser can produced a light in a very narrow wavelength
beam.

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  The laser light has brightness compare to an ordinary light.
Due to its high intensity it can also be used for welding,
cutting and drilling.
Spontaneous emission:-
An atom cannot stay in the excite state for a longer time. In a
time of about 10-8 second the atom returns to the lower energy
state by releasing a photon of energy E2 − E1 = hf. The
emission of a photon by an atom without any external impetus is
called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission:-
The atom in the excited state can be returned to original state
before spontaneous emission by the incident of an external
photon with the emission of both incident and stimulated
photon. This type of emission of radiation is called the
stimulated emission or induced emission.

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Optical pumping and population inversion:-
To achieve a high percentage of stimulated emission, a majority
of atoms should be at the higher energy level than lower level.
The establishment of situation in which the number of atoms in
the higher energy level is greater than that of lower energy level
is called population inversion.
The process carried out to achieve population inversion by
supplying energy to laser medium is called pumping. When the
pumping is done by light energy it is called optical pumping.

Meta-stable state:-
Normally the life time of an atom in excited state is very short
(10-8 sec). However the atoms of special elements can stay for
longer time in the higher energy state where the life time is
greater than 10-4 sec. Such higher state is called meta-stable
state.
Active medium:-
Atoms are generally characterized by a large no of energy
levels. However all types of are not suitable for laser operation.

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Even in a medium consisting of different species of atoms, only
a small fraction of atoms of a particular type have energy level
suitable for achieving population inversion such atoms can
produce more stimulated emission than spontaneous emission
and causes amplification of light. These atoms are called active
centers. The rest of the medium acts as host and supports active
center. The medium hosting the active center is called active
medium.

He-Ne Laser:-

The He-Ne laser consists of a long and narrow discharge tube.

The lasing material is the mixture of gases with a concentration
of about 15% He and 85% Neon. The electrodes in the discharge
tube are connected to a high voltage source of few KV DC. So
an electric discharge takes place within the gas. With this high

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voltage some of the helium atoms are rise to a meta-stable state
E1= 20.61eV above the ground state as shown in figure. It so
happens that Ne atoms has a meta-stable state at nearly the same
energy E3 = 20.66eV. The helium atoms do not quickly return to
the ground state by spontaneous emission rather it transfer the
energy to neon atom during collision.
With such collision the energy of excited helium atoms will be
transfer and it drops to ground state, however getting excess
energy neon atoms is excited to the state E3. The kinetic energy
of the helium atom provides the additional 0.05 eV required for
excitation of neon atoms. In this way the higher state E 3 of neon
becomes the meta-stable state. Hence, the lasing action takes
place by stimulated emission between E3 and E2 states of neon.
The laser light emitted is 632.8nm.

Uses of Laser:-
 Laser light is used to investigate the basic laws of
interaction of atoms and molecule with electromagnetic
wave. (Scientific uses)
 It is used for distance measurement.
 It can be used in different communication system.
 It can be used in wars to target missiles.
 It is highly intense. Therefore it can be used in drilling,
wielding, and cutting of material.

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  Laser light is used in eye surgery, treatment of dental
decay, destruction of tumor and for treatment of skin
diseases. (Medical uses)
 It can be used in scientific research. Such as in the study of
chemical and crystalline structure of various molecule, in
Raman spectroscopy, in astronomy.
 Laser light is used for automatic control for rockets and
satellite. It can also be used for detection and destroy of
aero planes, missiles and tanks.
 It can be used in laser induced fusion process, isotopes
separation and to measure the optical depth.

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Exercise:-
1. Differentiate between spontaneous and stimulated
emission of radiation. Explain the construction and
working of He-Ne laser with a suitable energy diagram.
2. What is population inversion? Explain why laser action
cannot occur without population inversion between
atomic levels?
3. What are active medium, population inversion and
optical pumping? Give the importance in the study of
laser. Write a method for getting He-Ne laser.
4. Explain the term stimulated emission, population
inversion, optical pumping and meta-stable state. Explain
working principles of He-Ne laser.
5. Differentiate between LASER and ordinary light.

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 Optical Fiber

An optical fiber is a transparent cylindrical system, as thin as

human hair, made up of glass or clear plastic, designed to guide
light wave along its length. An optical fiber works on the
principle of total internal reflection. The central part of the
system is known as core and the seal outside the core is known
as cladding. The refractive index of the core material is always
greater than that of the cladding. The coating outside the
cladding is known as buffer coating. In fact both core and
cladding both are made from glass material. The optical fibers
are strong wires and can be easily bent in rolls.

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Types of optical fiber:-
On the basis of modes of propagation there are two types of
optical fibers.

1. Single mode Optical fiber:-

In single mode optical fiber there is only one mode of
propagation. It is smaller core diameter. It is step index fiber.
2. Multimode Optical fiber:-
In multimode optical fiber there are two or more than two modes
of propagation, so it has larger core diameter.
On the basis of index profile, optical fibers are further
classified into two groups. a) Step index fiber and b) graded
index fiber.
The single mode fiber is usually of step index type but the
multimode optical fiber is of both step index and graded index
type.

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 1. Single mode step index Fiber:-
In single mode fiber, there is only one mode of
propagation. In this type of fiber, core has higher constant
refractive index (𝜇1 = 1.52) and cladding has lower
constant refractive index (𝜇2 = 1.48). So refractive index
changes abruptly at the core cladding interface. Therefore it
is called step index fiber. It has high transmission loss due
to abrupt change in refractive index. It is difficult to
manufacture and handle and therefore it is costly.

2. Multimode step index Fiber:-

In multimode fiber, there are multiple modes of
propagation. In this type of fiber, core has higher constant
refractive index (𝜇1 = 1.52) and cladding has lower
constant refractive index (𝜇2 = 1.42). So refractive index
changes abruptly at the core cladding interface. Therefore it
is called step index fiber. It has high transmission loss due
to abrupt change in refractive index. It is easy to
manufacture and is less costly.

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 3. Multimode Graded index Fiber:-
In multimode fiber, there are multiple modes of
propagation. The number of modes in graded index fiber is
about half of that in multimode step index fiber. So it has
lower dispersion than in multimode step index fiber. It has
low transmission loss because the continuous decrease in
the refractive index causes bending of light towards the
centre of the core. Its manufacture is more complex than
step index multimode fiber.

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Propagation of light wave in Optical Fiber:-

Consider a ray incident on an optical fiber, making an angle ‘i’

with axis from outside as shown in figure. The refractive index
of outside is µ0, that of core is µ1 and cladding is µ2 respectively.
From Snell’s law, for ray from air to core is;
𝜇1 sin 𝑖
=
𝜇0 sin 𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 𝜇0 sin 𝑖 = 𝜇1 sin 𝑟 … … … (1)
𝜇0
𝑜𝑟, sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟
𝜇1
𝜇0
𝑜𝑟, sin 𝑖 = sin(90 − ∅)
𝜇1
𝜇0
𝑜𝑟, sin 𝑖 = cos ∅
𝜇1
𝜇0
∴ cos ∅ = sin 𝑖 … … … (2)
𝜇1

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Now, the angle of incidence ‘i’ is critical angle ‘c’, when angle
of refraction is a right angle.
𝜇1 sin 𝑐 = 𝜇2 sin 90 … … … (3)
From equation (2) and (3), squaring and adding we get;
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑐 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐 = 1 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∅ = 𝑐)
𝜇22 𝜇02
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 = 1
𝜇1 𝜇1
𝜇12 − 𝜇22
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖 =
𝜇02

𝜇12 − 𝜇22
∴ sin 𝑖 = √
𝜇02

For air medium, 𝜇0 = 1, in such case sin 𝑖 can have a maximum

value;

𝑖. 𝑒. sin 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22

The quantity √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 is known as numerical aperture (NA)

of the optical fiber and it measure the light gathering power of
fiber.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22

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 1
= [(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )(𝜇1 + 𝜇2 )]2
𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝜇1 + 𝜇2 1
=[ . . 2𝜇1 ]2
𝜇1 2
𝜇1 + 𝜇2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜇1 ≅ 𝜇2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝜇1
2
𝜇1 − 𝜇2 1
=[ . 𝜇1 . 2𝜇1 ]2
𝜇1
1
2 2
= [∆. 2𝜇1 ]
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
∴ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜇1 √2∆ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆=
𝜇1
It is seen that NA only depends on the refractive indices of core
and cladding.
Normalized frequency (V-number):-
The V-number determines the number of modes that can
propagate through a fiber. It is an important parameter that
characterized an optical fiber.
Mathematically it is given by;
2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= √μ1 2 − μ2 2
𝜆
Where a is the radius of wire λ is the wavelength, µ1 and µ2 are
refractive indices of core and cladding.

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  For 𝑉 < 2.405, fiber can support only one mode and is
called single mode fiber.
 For 𝑉 > 2.405, fiber can support number of modes
simultaneously and is called multimode fiber.
Acceptance angle:-
It is a maximum value of angle of incidence ‘i’ for which light
ray can propagate through fiber. It is the angle made by
incidence ray with fiber axis.
Application of optical fiber:-
 Fiber optics essentially deals with the communication
including voice signal, video signal or digital data. This is
done by transmission of light through optical fiber.
 The fiber optics are used in the fabrication of fiber scope in
endoscopy in medical science. Such fiber scopes are used
in visualization of internal organ of human body.
 The fiber optics is also useful in industry. It can be used to
examine welds nozzle and combustion chamber inside
aircraft engine.
Advantages:-
Optical fiber has many advantages that are not found in
conducting wire.
 Cheaper:- Optical fiber are made from silica(SiO2), which
is one of the most easily available material on the earth.
 Optical fibers are light in weight and flexible.
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  Optical fiber transmit light wave not electrical so they are
not hazardous.
 Band width of light wave is greater than that of electrical
wave so greater amount of information carried over in
optical fiber.
 There is less interference of waves so the cross talk is
negligible in fiber communication.
 Optical fibers have longer life time.
 Low loss per unit length.

Numerical Examples:-
1. An optical fiber has fractional index difference of 𝟎. 𝟐
and cladding refractive index 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗. Determine the
acceptance angle for the fiber for water in which, have
refractive index of 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑.
Solution:-
Fractional index difference (∆) = 0.2
Cladding refractive index (μ2 ) = 1.59
Refractive index of water (μ0 ) = 1.33
Acceptance angle (i) = ?
We know that;
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
∆=
𝜇1
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 𝜇1 − 1.59
𝑜𝑟, 0.2 =
𝜇1
𝑜𝑟, 0.2𝜇1 − 𝜇1 = −1.59
𝑜𝑟, −0.8𝜇1 = −1.59
∴ 𝜇1 = 1.9875
Also for acceptance angle, we have;

𝜇12 − 𝜇22 (1.987)2 − (1.59)2

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = √ = √
𝜇02 (1.33)2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 0.88

∴ Acceptance angle (i) = 620

2. A glass clad fiber is made with core glass of refractive

index 𝟏. 𝟓 and cladding is doped to give a fractional
index difference of 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 . Determine (i) cladding
index (ii) critical angle (iii) acceptance angle, and (iv)
Numerical aperture.
Solution:-
Core refractive index (μ1 ) = 1.5
Fractional index difference (∆) = 5 × 10−4
Cladding index (μ2 ) = ?

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 Critical angle (C) = ?
Acceptance angle (imax ) =?
Numerical aperture (𝑁𝐴) =?
𝜇1 − 𝜇2
(i) We have ∆ =
𝜇1
1.5 − 𝜇2
𝑜𝑟, 5× 10−4 =
1.5
∴ cladding index (𝜇2 ) = 1.49925
μ2 1.49925
(ii) Critical angle; Sin C = =
μ1 1.5
∴ 𝐶 = 880

(iii) Sin imax = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 = √(1.5)2 − (1.49925)2

∴ imax = 2.790

(iv) NA = 𝜇1 √2∆ = 1.5 × √2 × 0.005 = 0.0474

3. The refractive index for core and cladding for a step

index fiber are 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 & 1.41 respectively. Calculate (i)
critical angle (ii) Numerical aperture, and (iii) The
maximum incidence angle.
Solution:-

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 Refractive index of core (μ1 ) = 1.52
Refractive index of cladding (μ2 ) = 1.41
μ2 1.41
(i) Critical angle; Sin C = =
μ1 1.52
∴ C = 68.068
μ1 − μ2 1.52 − 1.41
(ii)We have; ∆ = = = 0.072
μ1 1.52

∴ NA = μ1 √2∆ = 1.52 × √2 × 0.072 = 0.576

(iii) Sin imax = √μ12 − μ22 = √(1.52)2 − (1.41)2

∴ imax = 34.5910

Exercise:-
4. Trace the ray diagram that shows the propagation of light
through the step and graded index optical fiber. Write the
importance of self-focusing in an optical fiber.
5. What is optical fiber? Explain numerical aperture and
acceptance angle. Also compare the attenuation property
efficiency and cost of single mode and multimode optical
fibers.

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 6. Discuss the physical significance of numerical aperture
(NA). How does it depend on refractive index of core and
cladding?
7. What is an optical fiber? Show that Numerical aperture of
an optical fiber is given by the expression, NA = μ1 √2∆,
where the symbols carry their usual meanings.
8. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.22 and core
refractive index 1.62. Determine the acceptance angle for
the fiber in liquid which has a refractive index of 1.25.
Also, determine the refractive index change.
9. Calculate the refractive index of the core and materials of a
fiber from following data. Numerical Aperture (NA) = 0.22
and fractional refractive index change ∆ = 0.012.

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 Electrostatics

Electric Charge:-
When two bodies are rubbed, there is transference of electrons
in the outermost orbit from atoms of one body to another. The
body which gains the electron will be negatively charged and
which losses electron will be positively charged.
According to modern electron theory, the state of an atom after
loss or gain of electron is called the charged state. And the new
form of atom is called charge.
Its S.I unit is Coulomb.
Electric force (Coulomb’s law):-
The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is
directly proportional to the magnitude of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. If
distance between two charges q1 and q2 is r. then Coulomb’s law
states that;
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
∴𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑟

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Where k is proportionality constant known as Coulomb’s
constant. K depends upon the nature of the medium.
1
For air medium or vacuum; 𝑘 =
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
∴𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Where, 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚, is known as permittivity
of free space.
In CGS system (for air medium) k = 1
𝑞1 𝑞2
∴𝐹=
𝑟2
But if there is a medium of permittivity, then;
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
∴𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2
Electric field intensity:-
The electric field intensity at a point in an electric field is
defined as the force experienced by unit test charge at that point.

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 𝐹
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸⃗ =
𝑞0
1 𝑞𝑞0
We have, 𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑞
∴ 𝐸⃗ =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Electric flux(∅𝑬 ):-
The electric flux at a point in electric field is defined as the
number of electric lines of force passing per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of line of force.
Generally, the number of lines of Electric field is electric flux.
This means the Electric field at a point is given by electric flux
passing per unit area perpendicular to direction of lines of force
at that point.
𝑑∅
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸⃗ =
𝑑𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑∅ = 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴

∴ ∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴

Gauss law for electrostatics:-

It states that the total electric flux through a close surface
enclosing charge is equal to 1/𝜀0 times the charge enclosed by
that surface.

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 𝑞
𝑖. 𝑒. ∅ =
𝜀0
𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0

Application of Gauss law:-

1) Electric field due to non-conducting spherical
symmetric distribution (Electric field due to charged
sphere):-

Consider a spherical charge distribution of total charge ‘q’ and

radius ‘R’. For spherical charge distribution the charged density
‘ρ’ remains same for all the points lying at equal distance from
centre. To find an expression for electric field for points outside,
inside and on the surface of charge distribution we use Gauss
law.

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Electric field outside the sphere:-

For this we construct a Gaussian surface ‘r’ such that, 𝑟 > 𝑅,

since, all the charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface. So electric
flux;
𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
𝑞
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
This is the electric field intensity due to spherical charge
distribution of the total charge at any point on Gaussian surface.

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Electric field inside the sphere:-

In this case, Gaussian surface of radius ‘r,’ lies inside the charge
sphere. Such that, 𝑟 < 𝑅. In this case the part of charge lying
outside the Gaussian surface does not contribute to setup electric
field.
Let q1 represent a part of charge enclosed by Gaussian surface.
Then, using Gauss law;
𝑞1
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
𝑞1
∴ 𝐸= … … … (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Since charge density 𝜌 = 𝑞/𝑉 is uniform;
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 𝑞 𝑞1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜌 = =
4 3 4 3
𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑟
3 3
𝑞𝑟 3
1
∴ 𝑞 = 3 … … … (2)
𝑅
Now from equation (1) and (2)
𝑞 𝑟3
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑅 3
𝑞 𝑟
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
Which is required electric field inside the sphere in terms of,
total charge ‘q’.
Electric field on the surface of sphere:-
At surface of the sphere, r = R;
𝑞
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

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2) Electric field due to conducting spherical symmetric
distribution:-
Electric field outside the sphere:-

For this we construct a Gaussian surface ‘r’ such that 𝑟 > 𝑅.

since all the charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface. So electric
flux;
𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
𝑞
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

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This is the electric field intensity due to conducting spherical
charge distribution of the total charge at outside the sphere.
Electric field inside the sphere:-

In this case Gaussian surface does not enclosed any charges then
electric field becomes zero inside the conducting sphere.
Electric field due to cylindrical charge distribution or
electric field due to a line of charge:-

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Figure shows a cross section of an infinitely long cylindrical rod
made up of non-conducting material with linear charge density
𝜆. To find the electric field intensity at a point ‘p’ at distance ‘r’,
from the line charge. We consider a circular cylinder of radius
‘r’, and height ‘l’, as a Gaussian surface.
Now, Applying Gauss law;
𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 𝐴 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝜆𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0
𝜆
∴𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0
Electric field due to a ring of charge:-

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Consider a ring of radius a carrying uniformly distributed
positive charge q with linear charge density λ. The ring is
divided into elementary segments of each of length dl. Let the
electric field intensity dE due to this segment makes an angle 𝜃
with vertical. So, it can be resolved in to two components. If we
consider the effect of whole ring, 𝑑𝐸 sin 𝜃 components get
canceled out and resultant field is;
𝑑𝑞 𝜆𝑑𝑙
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃, 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝐸 = =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑑, cos 𝜃 =
√𝑎 2 + 𝑥 2
2𝜋𝑎
𝜆𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐸= 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙
2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑎 + 𝑥 )2 0

2𝜋𝜆𝑎𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑎 2 + 2
𝑥 )2
𝑞𝑥
∴𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2
𝑞
where, 𝑞 = 2𝜋𝜆𝑎 ∵ liner charge density (𝜆) =
2𝜋𝑎
𝑑𝐸
For maximum Electric field, =0
𝑑𝑥

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𝑑𝐸 𝑞 𝑑 𝑥 𝑞 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2
= ( 3 ) = 4𝜋𝜀 ( 3 )
𝑑𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑𝑥 0
(𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2 (𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝐸
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = 0 𝑜𝑟, 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
∴𝑥= ±
√2
𝑎
Hence, the electric field is maximum at ± .
√2

Electric field due to a circular disc:-

Consider a disc of radius R has uniform surface charge density

𝜎. To find the electric field at a point P along its central axis at z
distance from the center, we consider the disc as a set of
concentric rings. We calculate the electric field at P due to one
such ring. Let the radius of ring be r and thickness of the ring be

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dr. By symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the
central axis.
The ring of radius r and width dr has surface area 2πrdr.
So the charge on the ring of width dr is dq = 2πσrdr.
Now, the electric field at P due to this ring is
dqz
dE = 3
4πε0 (z 2 2
+ r )2
2πσzrdr σz rdr
= =
4πε0 (z 2 + r 2 )3/2 2ε0 (z 2 + r 2 )3/2
Total electric field at point P is given by;
𝑅
σz 𝑅 rdr
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫
0 2ε0 0 (z 2 + r 2 )3/2
Put r = z tan θ Then, dr = z sec 2 θ dθ
When r = 0, θ = 00 ,
R
and when r = R, θ = tan−1 ( )
Z
σz θ z tan θ . z sec 2 θ dθ σ θ tan θ . sec 2 θ dθ
E= ∫ = ∫
2ε0 0 (z 2 + z 2 tan2 θ)3/2 2ε0 0 (sec 2 θ)3/2

σ θ σ θ σ
= ∫ tan θ . cos θ dθ = ∫ sin θ dθ = [1 − cos θ]
2ε0 0 2ε0 0 2ε0

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 σ z
∴ E= [1 − ]
2ε0 √z2 +R2

Electric potential energy (U):-

The amount of work done required to bringing a unit positive
test charge (𝑞0 ) from infinity to any point in the electric field of
another charge q is called electric potential energy.
𝑖. 𝑒. Electric potential energy (𝑈) = −𝑊
𝑟

= − ∮ 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
∞
𝑟
−𝑞𝑞0
= ∮ 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0
∞
𝑞𝑞0
∴𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Electric potential (V):-
The electric potential energy per unit test charge (q0) at a point
inside an electric field is called electric potential.
𝑈
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 =
𝑞0
𝑞
∴𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

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Electric dipole:-

A set of two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance

is called an electric dipole. The separation between the two
charges is known as length of dipole and is denoted by ‘2a’. The
product of magnitude of one of the charge and separation of
charges in dipole is called dipole moment.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑃 = 2𝑞𝑎
Electric field along the axial line of dipole:-

Let EA and EB be the electric fields at axial line of dipole with

separation ‘2a’.

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Using the principle of superposition, the resultant electric field
at point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from centre of the dipole is

𝐸⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐴
𝑞 −𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= +
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 −(𝑟 − 𝑎 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎 )2
𝑞 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑎 + 𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑎 − 𝑎2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑞 4𝑟𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑃 𝑟
∴𝐸= . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 2𝑞𝑎
2𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
For short dipole 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 then we get;
𝑃
∴𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

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Electric field along the equatorial line of dipole (Across the
dipole):-

Let EA and EB be the electric fields due to -q and +q at a point

‘P’ on the equatorial line of dipole with separation ‘2a’. The
distance of point ‘P’ from the centre of dipole is ‘r’. The
distance of point ‘P’ from each charge is;

𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
The vertical component of EA and EB cancel each other and
the resultant electric field at point ‘P’ is due to the horizontal
components of EA and EB.
∴ 𝐸 = |𝐸𝐴 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + |𝐸𝐵 |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑞
Since, |𝐸𝐴 | = |𝐸𝐵 | =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )

∴ 𝐸 = 2|𝐸+ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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 2𝑞
= . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
2𝑞 𝑎
= .
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) √𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
𝑃
∴𝐸= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 2𝑞𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 )3/2
For short dipole, 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎;
𝑃
∴𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 r 3

Electric potential along the axial line of dipole (Electric

potential due to the dipole):-

Consider an electric dipole with separation ‘2a’. P is any point

at a distance ‘r’ from centre of dipole at which electric potential
is to be determined. Using the principle of superposition, the
resultant electric field at point ‘P’at a distance ‘r’ from centre of
the dipole is
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 ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉 𝑉− + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉+
−𝑞 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= +
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)
𝑞 −1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑟 − 𝑎
𝑞 −𝑟 + 𝑎 + 𝑟 + 𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2
𝑞 2𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2
1 𝑃
∴ 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )
In case of very short dipole, 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎;
𝑃
∴ 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

Electric Quadrupole:-

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 The arrangement of four equal and opposite charges or
arrangement of two dipoles is called quadrupole. The
quadrupole momentum is defined by the relation;
𝑄 = 2𝑞𝑑2
Where, q is magnitude of each charge in quadrupole and 2d is
quadrupole separation.
Electric field due to Quadrupole:-

Consider a linear quadrupole of separation 2a with magnitude of

each charge q as shown in figure. P is the point on the axial line
of quadrupole at distance ‘r’ from its centre.
According to principle of superposition, the net electric field at
point ‘P’ is the resultant of electric field due to all charges at A,
B and C.
𝑖. 𝑒 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 + 𝐸𝐶
𝑞 −2𝑞 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= + +
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2

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 𝑞 1 1 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ + − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 𝑟 2
𝑜𝑟,
𝑞 𝑟 2 (𝑟 − 𝑎 )2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 (𝑟 − 𝑎 )2 𝑟2
𝑞 6𝑟 2 𝑎 2 − 2𝑎4
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑞2𝑎2 3𝑟 2 − 𝑎2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑄 3𝑟 2 − 𝑎2
𝐸= [ 2 2 2 2
] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 = 2𝑞𝑎2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 (𝑟 − 𝑎 )
For a short Quadrupole; 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎
𝑄 3𝑟 2
𝐸= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟 4
3𝑄
∴ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4
Which is required electric field, due to Electric Quadrupole.
Electric potential due to linear Quadrupole:-

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Consider a linear quadrupole of separation 2a with magnitude of
each charge q as shown in figure. P is the point on the axial line
of quadrupole at distance ‘r’ from its centre.
According to principle of superposition, the net electric potential
at point ‘P’ is the resultant of electric potential due to all charges
at A, B and C.
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑞 𝑞 2𝑞
𝑉= + −
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑞 1 1 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ + − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑟
𝑞 𝑟(𝑟 − 𝑎) + 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑎) − 2(𝑟 2 − 𝑎 2 )
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑞 2𝑎2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑄 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄 = 2𝑞𝑎2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )
In case of very short quadrupole we have
𝑄
∴ 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Numerical Examples:-
1. Three charges 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐂𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐛, −𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐂𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐛
and 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐂𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐛 are placed at the three verticies
of an equilateral triangle of side 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎. Find the
minimum amount of work required to dismantle this
structure. Or what is the mutual potential energy of
system of the charges?
Solution:-
Mutual potential energy (U) = U12 + U23 + U31
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞3 𝑞1
= + +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1
= (−4 × 10−14 − 8 × 10−14 + 2 × 10−14 )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
−1 × 10−13
=
4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.1
∴ U = −8.99 × 10−3 J

2. 27 identical drops of mercury are charged

simultaneously to the same potential of 𝟏𝟎 𝐕. What will
be the potential if all the drops are made to combine to
form one large drop? Assume the drop to be spherical.
Solution:-

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 Let r be the radius of each small drops, R be the radius of
large drop and q be the charge on each drops. Then;
4 3 4
𝜋𝑅 = 27 × 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅 = 3𝑟
The electric potential of each small drop is;
𝑞
𝑉𝑠 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
And for large drop;
𝑞 𝑞
𝑉𝐿 = 27 = 27
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 3𝑟
9𝑞
= = 9𝑉𝑠 = 9 × 10
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
∴ 𝑉𝐿 = 90 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

3. A spherical drop of water carrying a charge of 𝟑𝟎 𝐏𝐂

has potential of 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬 at its surface. (i) What is the
radius of the drop? (ii) If two drops of same charge and
radius combined to form a single spherical drop, what
is the potential at the surface of new drop?
Solution:-
q = 30 PC = 30 × 10−12 C

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 V = 500 volts
q
(i)We have; V =
4πε0 r
30 × 10−12
or, r= × 9 × 109
500
∴ r = 5.4 × 10−4 m
4 3 4
(ii) Also from question, πR = 2 × πr 3
3 3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅3 = 2𝑟 3
∴ 𝑅 = 21/3 𝑟 = 6.8 × 10−4 m
2q 2 × 9 × 109 × 30 × 10−12
∴V= =
4πε0 R 6.8 × 10−4
= 794.12 Volts

4. Two small spheres of charge 𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝑪 and 𝟒𝟎 𝝁𝑪 are

placed 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 apart. Find the location of a point between
them where field strength is zero.
Solution:-
From question; E1 = E2
Consider the field strength is zero at x distance from first
charge then;

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 q1 q2
=
4πε0 x 2 4πε0 (5 − x)2
10 × 10−6 40 × 10−6
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑥2 (5 − x)2
1 4
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑥2 (5 − x)2
𝑜𝑟, 4𝑥 2 = (5 − x)2
𝑜𝑟, 2𝑥 = 5 − 𝑥
∴ 𝑥 = 1.67 𝑐𝑚
𝑖. 𝑒. The location of the point is 1.67 cm from first charge.

5. Assume that earth have surface charge density of 𝟏. 𝟔 ×

𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏/𝒎𝟐 . Calculate earth’s electric field
and potential on the earth surface. Given that radius of
earth is 𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎.
Solution:-
Surface charge density (σ) = 1.6 × 10−10 electron/m2
Radius of the earth (R) = 6.4 × 106 m
If q is charge on earth, the electric field on its surface is;
q 1 q 1 R. q σR
V= = × = × =
4πε0 R ε0 4πR ε0 4πR2 ε0

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 1.6 × 10−10 × 6.4 × 106
or, V =
8.85 × 10−12
∴ V = 0.1157 × 108 Volts

6. A charge of 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑪 is distributed between two

sphere. It is found that they repeal each other with a
force of 𝟏 𝑵. when their centers are 𝟐 𝒎 apart find the
charge on each sphere.
Solution:-
We have; q1 + q2 = 5 × 10−5 … … … . (i)
q1 q2
Now, F =
4πε0 r 2
or, q1 q2 = F × 4πε0 r 2
∴ q1 q2 = 4.44 × 10−10 … … … … (ii)
We have, (q1 − q2 ) = [(q1 + q2 )2 − 4q1 q2 ]1/2
𝑜𝑟, q1 − q2 = [(5 × 10−5 )2 − 4 × 4.44 × 10−10 ]1/2
∴ q1 − q2 = 2.69 × 10−5 … … … (iii)
Adding equation (i) and (iii) we get;
2q1 = 7.69 × 10−5
∴ q1 = 3.84 × 10−5 C

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 From equation (iii);
q2 = q1 − 2.69 × 10−5
∴ q2 = 1.15 × 10−5 𝐶

7. The electric potential 𝑽 varies with 𝒙 according to the

relation 𝑽 = 𝟓 + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 . Calculate the force experience by
a negative charge of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑪 located at 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎.
Solution:-
Potential (V) = 5 + 4𝑥 2
Charge (q) = −2 × 10−6 𝐶
Distance (x) = 0.5 𝑚
𝑑𝑉
𝐸= −
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 = −2 × 10−6 × (−8) × 0.5
∴ 𝐹 = 8 × 10−6 𝑁

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Exercise:-
8. What is electric dipole and dipole moment? Derive an
expression of the electric field intensity at a point due to
dipole at equatorial line?
9. What is electric quadrupole? Calculate potential for points
on the axis of the quadrupole.
10. What is electric field intensity? Show that electric
field for a short dipole drops inversely to cube of the
distance at any point from the dipole on the axial line.
11. Derive an expression for the electric potential at a
point P at an axial distance x from center of the ring of
radius a and linear charge density λ. Hence develop the
expression for electric field intensity at the same point.
12. Prove that the electric field due to a short dipole at a
point on axial line is twice that on the equatorial line.
13. Derive the relation for the potential at any point due to
an electric dipole and show that no work is done in
bringing a charge from infinity to dipole along the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole.
14. Determine the electric field at a distance z on the
central axis from the center of a charged ring. Also find the
maximum value of electric field.
15. A thin ring made of plastic of radius R is uniformly
charged with linear charge density λ. Calculate the electric
field intensity at any point at an axial distance y from the

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 center. If electron is constrained to be in axial line of the
same ring, show that the motion of electron is SHM.
16. A particle of charge –q and mass m is placed midway
between two equal positive charges qo of separation d. If
the negative charge –q is displaced in perpendicular
direction to the line joining them and released. Show that
𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝜋3 𝑑 3
the particle describes a SHM with a period 𝑇 = √ .
𝑞𝑞𝑜
17. Calculate electric field at any point in axial distance
due to a dipole and a quadrupole. What conclusion you can
draw from your results.
18. Charges are uniformly distributed throughout the
volume of an infinitely larger cylinder of radius a. Show
that the electric field at a distance r from the cylinder axis r
𝜌𝑟
< a is given by 𝐸 = . Where ρ is the volume charge
2𝜀𝑜
density.
19. Write an expression for the electric field at any point
in the axial line of a charged ring. Using this equation,
calculate the electric field at any point in the axial line of a
charged disk.
20. For a given short electric dipole, Show that the electric
𝑃 cos 𝜃
potential at any point at a distance r is 𝑉 = , where 𝜃
𝑟2
is the angle made by r to the dipole moment. Using above
relation fin an expression for resultant electric intensity at
that point.

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 21. Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged
rod of length l at a point along its long axis at a distance ‘a’
from its nearest end.
22. Define electric flux. Determine electric field due to an
infinite line of charge.
23. To similar balls each of mass m are hung from silk
threads of length l and carry similar charges q. Assume
that the angle made by each thread with vertical, 𝜃 is
𝑞2 𝑙
small. Show that 𝑥 = ( )1/3 , where x is separation
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑔
between the balls. Also calculate the charge q on the hung
mass if 𝑙 = 1.2 m, m = 20 gm and x = 3 cm.
24. Two equal and opposite charge of magnitude 2 ×
10−7 C are 15 cm apart (i) what are the magnitude and
direction of E at a point mid way between the charges? (ii)
What force would act on an electron placed there?
25. The electric potential V due to a charge in the
surrounding space at any point x meters from the charge is
given by the relation, V = 8x + 3x 2 volts. Find the electric
field intensity at a point 1.5 m from the charge. Consider
the medium is air.
26. Differentiate between polar and non-polar dielectrics.
Using Gauss law in dielectric establish a relation of electric
field with displacement vector and polarization vector and
obtain the relation for free and induced charge in the
dielectric.

Capacitor
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A capacitor is a device that stores electric potential energy or
electric charge. Two conducting plates inclosing an insulating
material form a capacitor.
Capacitance:-
The ratio of the charge on each conducting plate to the potential
difference is a constant quantity called the capacitance.
q charge
i. e. Capacitance(C) = =
V potential difference
It is also defined as the ability of a capacitor to store electric
potential energy.

General method for calculating the capacitance:-

 Assume a charge ‘q’ on the plate under consideration.
 Calculate the electric field ‘E’ between the plates in terms
of charge using Gauss law;
q
E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
i. e. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ dA =
ε0
 Knowing ‘E’ calculate the potential difference between the
plates. Now, potential difference between the plates of
capacitor is given by;
r

E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
V = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ dr
∞

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 q
 Now capacitance (C) =
V

Types of capacitor:-
1. Parallel plate capacitor:-

The arrangement of two parallel conducting plates with area ‘A’

separated by a small distance ‘d’ form a parallel plate capacitor.
We draw a Gaussian surface that encloses the charge ‘q’ on the
positive plate.
∴ From Gauss law;
q q q
E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ dA = , ⇒ EA = , ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴, ∴ E =
ε 0 ε 0 ε A 0

d
q
Now, V = ∮ E. dr, ⇒ V = E. d, ∴V= .d
ε0 A
0

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 q
Now, Capacitance (C) =
V
ε0 A
∴C=
d
∴ Capacitance depends only on the geometry of the capacitor.
𝑖. 𝑒. area of the plates and distance between them.

2. Cylindrical capacitor:-

Two cylinders of radii ‘a’ and ‘b’ placed co-axially each of

length ′𝑙′ separated by small distance form a cylindrical
capacitor. As a Gaussian surface we chose a cylinder of length 𝑙
and radius ‘r’ that enclose a charge ‘q’ on the positive inner
cylinder. From Gauss law;
𝑞 𝑞
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = , ⇒ 𝐸𝐴 = , ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴, ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝜖0 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝜀 0 𝜀 0

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 𝑞
∴𝐸=
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝑏 𝑏
𝑞
Now, 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟, ⇒ 𝑉 = ∫ . 𝑑𝑟
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝑎 𝑎
𝑞
or, 𝑉 = [𝑙𝑛𝑟]𝑏𝑎
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑙
𝑞
= [𝑙𝑛𝑏 − 𝑙𝑛𝑎]
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑙
𝑞 𝑏
∴𝑉= 𝑙𝑛( )
𝜀0 2𝜋𝑙 𝑎
𝑞
Now, capacitance (𝐶 ) =
𝑉

2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
∴ 𝐶=
𝑏
𝑙𝑛( )
𝑎
Therefore, capacitance depends only upon geometrical factor
i. e. 𝑙, b and a.

3. Spherical capacitor:-

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Two concentric spheres of radii ‘a’ and ‘b’, such that 𝑏 > 𝑎,
insulated from each other form a spherical capacitor. The inner
conductor is solid sphere of radius ‘a’ and the outer conductor is
hollow sphere of radius ‘b’. As a Gaussian surface we draw a
sphere of radius ‘r’ concentric with two spheres, such that 𝑎 <
𝑟 < 𝑏.
From Gauss law;
q q q
E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ dA = , ⇒ EA = , ⇒ q = ε0 EA, ⇒E=
ε0 ε0 ε0 A
q
∴ E=
4πε0 r 2
b b
q dr q 1b
Now, V = ∫ E. dr, ⇒ V = ∫ ,⇒ V = [− ]a
4πϵ0 r 2 4πϵ0 r
a a

q 1 1 q 1 1
or, V = [− + ] , ⇒ V = [ − ]
4πϵ0 b a 4πϵ0 a b

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 q b−a
∴V= ( )
4πϵ0 ab
q ab
∴ Capacitance (C) = = 4πϵ0 ( )
V b−a
Hence, the capacitance of spherical capacitor depends only on
geometrical factor i. e. a and b.

Energy Stored in an electric field:-

The energy stored in the electric field between the plates of a
capacitor can be visualized as the total amount of the work done
to charge a capacitor. Suppose at any instant a charge 𝑑𝑞 is
transferred from one plate to another. The applied potential
difference at that instant be 𝑉. Then the amount of work done
required is;
dw = Vdq
The total work done to store charge is;
q q
q 1 q2 q
W = ∫ Vdq, ⇒ W = ∫ dq, ⇒ W = [ ]0
C C 2
0 0

q2
∴W=
2C
C2 V 2 1
or, W= = CV 2
2C 2
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 1
∴ Electric potential energy (U) = W = CV 2
2

Energy Density:-
In a parallel plate capacitor the electric field has nearly the same
value at all the points between the plates.
Thus, the energy density 𝑖. 𝑒. the potential energy per unit
volume between the plates should be uniform.
Energy(U)
∴ Energy density (μ) =
Volume
U
or, μ=
A×d
CV 2
or, μ=
2Ad
ε0 A V 2
or, μ= .
d 2Ad
1ε0 V 2
or, μ= ( )
2 d2
1
∴ μ = ε0 E2
2
Although, we derived this result for the special case of the
parallel plate capacitor, it holds good for every type of capacitor,
whatever may be the source of electric field.

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Dielectric and Gauss law:-

Consider a parallel plate capacitor of plate area ‘A’ having

charge ‘q’ on each plate. Now, draw a Gaussian surface that just
encloses the charge ‘q’ on the positive plate. Let E0 be the
magnitude of the field and 𝜀0 be the permittivity of air between
two plates then from Gauss law;
q
E0 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ dA =
ε0
q
E0 A =
ε0

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 q
∴ E0 = … … … (1)
Aε0
When the dielectric is inserted as in figure (b), the induced
charge ‘q’ on the top plate is ‘qI’which is distributed on the top
face of the dielectric. Take the same Gaussian surface, the net
charge enclosed by it is 𝑞 − 𝑞𝐼 . Now, using Gauss law;
q − qI
E. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ dA =
ε0
q − qI
∴E= … … … . (2)
Aε0
Where, E is the electric field across capacitor with dielectric.
Since, the effect of dielectric in capacitor is to decrease electric
1
field by a factor of . So ;
𝐾

E0
E=
K
q − qI q 1
= .
Aε0 Aε0 K
q
∴ q − qI =
K
Where, K is dielectric constant, now we can write the Gaussian
law as;
q − qI 1 q
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ E. dA = = .
ε0 ε0 K
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 q
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮ KE. dA = … … … (3)
ε0
This is the Gauss law with dielectric of dielectric constant ‘K’.

Relation Between ⃗𝐃
⃗ ,𝐄
⃗ , 𝐚𝐧𝐝⃗⃗⃗𝐏:-

From equation (2);

q − qI 1 q qI
E= = ( − )
Aε0 ε0 A A
q
The quantity is called electric displacement vector ⃗D
⃗ , which is
A
𝑞𝐼
also equivalent to free surface charge density and the quantity
𝐴
is called polarization vector ⃗⃗⃗𝑃. It represents the capacity of
dipole formation due to applied field. It is equivalent to induced
surface charge density.
1
∴ ⃗E = ⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗P)
(D
ε0

or, ⃗D
⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗P = ε0 ⃗E

⃗⃗ = ε0 E
∴D ⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗P

Which is required Relation between ⃗D

⃗ , ⃗E, and⃗⃗⃗P.

Charging and discharging of capacitor:-

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Let a capacitor having capacitance C is connected in an electric
circuit with resistance R, Ammeter A, battery with potential V
and switch S. When the switch is on, the positive and negative
charge appears on the plates. As the charge accumulate the
potential difference between the plate increases and the charging
current falls to zero. Now, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law;
V = Vc + VR
q
or, + IR = V
C
q dq
or, + R=V
C dt
dq q VC − q q0 − q
or, R =V− = =
dt C C C
Where, q0 = VC is the maximum charge stored in the capacitor.
dq dt
or, =
q0 − q RC
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
Now, integrating both sides;
q t
dq 1
∫ = ∫ dt
q0 − q RC
0 0

q t
or, −[ln(q0 − q)]0 =
RC
t
or, ln(q0 − q) − lnq0 = −
RC
q0 − q t
or, ln ( )=−
q0 RC
or, q0 − q = q0 e−t/RC
∴ q = q0 (1 − e−t/RC ) … … … (1)
Which is charging equation for capacitor in terms of charge.
Differentiating this equation w.r.to t, the current during the
charging is;
dq 1
I= = −q0 (− ) e−t/RC
dt RC
q0 −t/RC
or, I= e
RC
VC −t/RC
or, I= e
RC
∴ I = I0 e−t/RC … … … (2)

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Where, 𝐼0 = 𝑉/𝑅 is the maximum current, this is the charging
equation in terms of current. The term RC in equation (1) and
(2) is called capacitive time constant of circuit. It has dimension
of time.
When, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶, from equation (1);
q = q0 (1 − e−1 ) = q0 (1 − 0.37 ) = 0.63q0
⇒ q = 63% of q0
Hence, the time constant τ of a charging circuit is defined as the
time in which capacitor charges by about 63% of its maximum
charge.
The potential across the capacitor is;
q q0
VC = = (1 − e−t/RC )
C C
∴ VC = V(1 − e−t/RC ) … … … (3)
And potential across resistor is;
VR = IR = Ve−t/RC … … … … (4)

Discharging of Capacitor:-
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
When capacitor is fully charged and switch is off. Discharging
occurs in the capacitor through resistor. Now, using Kirchhoff’s
voltage law;
0 = Vc + VR
q
or, + IR = 0
C
q dq
or, + R=0
C dt
dq q
or, R =−
dt C
dq dt
or, =−
q RC

Now, integrating both sides;

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 q t
dq 1
∫ =− ∫ dt
q RC
q0 0

q t
or, [ln q]q0 = −
RC
t
or, ln q − lnq0 = −
RC
q t
or, ln ( ) = −
q0 RC
q
or, = e−t/RC
q0

∴ q = q0 (e−t/RC ) … … … (5)
Which is discharging equation for capacitor in terms of charge.
Differentiating this equation w.r.to t, the current during the
charging is;
dq 1
I= = q0 (− ) e−t/RC
dt RC
−q0 −t/RC
or, I= e
RC
−VC −t/RC
or, I= e
RC
∴ I = −I0 e−t/RC … … … (6)

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Equation (5) and (6) are called discharging equation in terms of
charge and current. Here, -ve sign indicates discharging current.
The term RC in equation (5) and (6) is called capacitive time
constant of circuit. It has dimension of time.
When, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶, from equation (5);
q = q0 (e−1 ) = q0 (0.37 ) = 0.37q0
⇒ q = 37% of q0
Hence, the time constant 𝜏 of a discharging circuit is defined as
the time in which capacitor discharges by about 37% of its
initial value.

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Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
Numerical Examples:-
1. Two capacitors 𝟐 𝛍𝐅 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟒𝛍𝐅 are connected in parallel
across 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐕 potential difference. Calculate the total
energy in the system.
Solution:-
Total capacitance (C) = C1 + C1 = 2 μF + 4μF = 6 μF
= 6 × 10−6 F
Potential difference (V) = 300 V
1 2
∴ Energy stored in capacitor (U) = CV
2
1
= × 6 × 10−6 × 3002
2
= 0.27 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒

2. An air filled parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance

of 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭. The separation between the plate is double
and wax is inserted between them which increases the
capacitance to 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭. Calculate the dielectric
constant of wax.
Solution:-
C1 = 10−12 F d1 = d, A1 = A, and ε1 = ε0

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 ε1 A1 ε0 A
C1 = = … … … . (i)
d1 d
When separation is double and wax is inserted then;
C2 = 2 × 10−12 F d2 = 2d, A2 = A, and ε2 = ε
ε2 A2 εA kε0 A
C2 = = = … … … . (ii)
d2 2d 2d
C2 𝑘
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, =
C1 2
2 × 2 × 10−12
∴ 𝑘= =4
10−12

3. A parallel plate capacitor has capacitance of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝝁𝝁𝑭.

A plate area of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐 and mica as dielectric
material, with 𝟓𝟎 𝑽 potential difference. Calculate (i)
Electric field in mica. (ii) The free charge on the plates
and (iii) The induced surface charge (𝒒𝑰 ). Given 𝐤 =
𝟓. 𝟒 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐚.

Solution:-
C = 100 μμF = 100 × 10−6 × 10−6 F
V = 50 V
(ii) q = CV = 100 × 10−12 × 50 = 5 × 10−9 𝐶
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 1
(iii)The induced surface charge (qI ) = q(1 − )
k
1
= 5 × 10−9 (1 − )
5.4
= 4.1 × 10−9 𝐶
q
(i) Electric field in mica (E) =
kε0 A
5 × 10−9
=
5.4 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 10−2
= 1.05 × 104 𝑉/𝑚

4. A capacitor of capacitance C is discharge through a

resistor of resistance R. After how many time constant
is the stored energy becomes 1/4th of initial value?
Solution:-
1 2 q2
We have, energy stored by capacitor (U) = CV =
2 2C
q20 e−2t/RC
or, U = = U0 e−2t/RC
2C
U0
According to question; U =
4
U0
∴ = U0 e−2t/RC
4
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 or, e2t/RC = 4
2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = ln 4
𝑅𝐶
𝑙𝑛4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡= × 𝑅𝐶
2
∴ 𝑡 = 0.693 𝜏

5. A capacitor of capacitance C is charged through a

resistor R. Calculate the time at which potential across
the resistor is equal to the potential across the capacitor.
Solution:-
Accroding to the question; VR = VC
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑅 =
𝐶
q0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅. I0 e−t/RC = (1 − e−t/RC )
C
𝑜𝑟, e−t/RC = 1 − e−t/RC
𝑜𝑟, 2e−t/RC = 1
𝑜𝑟, et/RC = 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = ln(2) 𝑅𝐶
∴ 𝑡 = 0.693 𝑅𝐶

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 6. If n drops each of capacitance C combine to form a
single big drop. Find the capacitance of big drop.
Solution:-
4 3
The mass of the small drop (M1 ) = πr × ρ
3
4 3
The mass of the large drop = πR × ρ
3
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, M2 = nM1
4 3 4
or, πr × ρ = n πR3 × ρ
3 3
∴ 𝑅 = 𝑛1/3 𝑟
∴ Capacitance of big drop = 4πε0 R
= 4πε0 𝑛1/3 𝑟
= 𝐶. 𝑛1/3

7. A parallel plate capacitor has circular plate of

𝟖. 𝟐 𝐜𝐦 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟏. 𝟑 𝐦𝐦 separation in air. (i)
Calculate the capacitance and (ii) What charge will
appear on the plates, if potential difference of 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐕 is
applied.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Solution:-
ε0 A
(i)Capacitance (C) =
d
8.85 × 10−12 × 𝜋 × (0.082)2
=
1.3 × 10−3
= 1.497 × 10−10 F
(ii) Charge (q) = CV = 1.497 × 10−10 × 120
= 1.725 × 10−8 C

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Exercise:-
8. Explain how electric energy is stored in a capacitor and
derive an expression for energy density of electric field.
9. Define the three electric vectors, E, P, D and develop the
relation between them.
10. A cylindrical capacitor has radii ‘a’ and ‘b’. Show that
half the energy stored lies within the cylinder whose radius
is r = √ab.
11. Derive the relation for rise and fall of current in
charging and discharging of capacitor through resistor. Plot
graphs between current and time and explain the figure.
12. Write the general methods to calculate the capacitance
of a capacitor and hence determine the capacitance of the
cylindrical capacitor of inner and outer radii ‘a’ and ‘b’
respectively.
13. Write the general methods to calculate the capacitance
of a capacitor and hence determine the capacitance of the
spherical capacitor.
14. A capacitor of capacitance C is discharging through a
resistor of resistance R. After how many times constant is
the stored energy 1/8 of its initial value?
15. A capacitor of capacitance C is discharging through a
resistor of resistance R. After how many time constant is
the stored energy becomes one fourth of its initial value?
16. Prove that the capacitance per unit length of a
capacitor various inversely with logarithm of ratio of

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 external and internal radii. Obtain an expression for energy
stored per unit volume in a parallel plate capacitor.
17. If a parallel plate capacitor is to be designed to operate
in an environment of fluctuating temperature, prove that the
rate of change of capacitance with temperature T is given
𝑑𝐶 1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑋
by = 𝐶[ − ], where symbols carry its usual
𝑑𝑇 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇
meaning.
18. Prove that the capacitance of a concentric spherical
b2
capacitor of radii ‘a’ and ‘b’ is 𝐶 = 4πϵ0 ( ) . If outer
b−a
plate is positively charged and inner plate is earthed.
19. The space between two concentric conducting
spherical shells of radii b = 1.70 cm and a = 1.20 cm is
filled with a substance of dielectric constant k = 23.5. A
potential difference V = 73 V is applied across the inner
and outer shells. Determine (a) The capacitance of the
device (b) the free charge q on the inner shell.
20. A parallel plate capacitor whose capacitance C is 13.5
pF is charged by a battery to a potential difference V = 12.5
V between its plates. The charging battery disconnected
and a porcelain slab ( k = 6.50) is supplied between the
plates. (a) What is the potential energy of the capacitor
before the slab is inserted (b) what is the potential energy
of the capacitor-slab device after the slab is inserted?
21. The parallel plates in a capacitor, with a plate area 8.5
cm2 and air filled separation of 3 mm are charged by 6 V
batteries. They are then disconnected from the battery and
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 pulled apart to a separation of 8 mm. Neglecting fringing;
find (a) the potential difference between the plates (b) the
initial energy stored and (c) final energy stored.
22. A capacitor discharge through a resistor R. (a) after
how many time constants does its charge fall to one half of
its original value? (b) After how many time constants does
the stored energy drops to half of its initial value?
23. A spherical drop of water carrying a charge of 30 pC
has a potential of 500 V at its surface. (a) What is the radius
of the drop? (b) If two such drops of the same charge and
radius combine to form a single spherical drop, what is the
potential at the surface of the new drop?
24. What is the force per unit area with which plates of
parallel plate capacitor attract each other if they are
separated by 1 mm and maintain at 100 V potential
difference and electric constant of the medium in unity.
25. A long cylindrical conductor 1 m and is surround by a
co-axial cylindrical conducting shell with inner radius
double that of long cylindrical conductor. Calculate the
capacitance of this capacitor assuming that there is vacuum
in space between cylinders.
26. A parallel plate capacitor each of area 100 cm2 has a
potential difference of 500 V and capacitance of 100 ×
10−6 𝜇𝐹. If a mica of dielectric constant 5.4 is inserted
between plates find the magnitude of (a) Electric field in
mica (b) Displacement vector (c) mobility of electrons.

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 Direct current

Current:-
The time rate of change of electric charge is called current.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼 = 𝑞/𝑡.
Current density:-
The current density is equal to the current per unit area.
𝐼
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐽 =
𝐴
Drift speed:-
When a conductor does not have a current through it, its
conduction electron move randomly, since, there is no net flow
of charge so, there is no current. When a potential difference is
applied across it, the free electron tends to move in the direction
opposite to that of applied electric field with a speed called drift
speed (𝑣𝑑 ).

Relation between drift speed and current:-

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Consider a section of a conductor of length 𝐿 and cross-sectional
area 𝐴. Let 𝑛 be the number of electrons per unit volume of
conductor and e be the charge of each electron.
Then, volume of conductor = 𝐴. 𝐿
Total number of electron in this volume = 𝑛𝐴𝐿
∴ Total charge in this volume = 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
When the electric field is applied across the conductor, the
charges flow through it. Let all the charge carrier move with
same drift speed 𝑣𝑑 , then the time in which all the charge cross
the given length of conductor is given by;
𝐿
𝑡=
𝑣𝑑
Charge 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
∴ current (𝐼) = =
time 𝐿
𝑣𝑑
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝐴
𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝐴
∴ Current density (𝐽) = = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛
𝐴

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Ohm’s Law:-

Ohm’s law states that; 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 … … … (1)

Equation (1) can be expressed in terms of electric field, current
density and resistivity as;
𝐸 = 𝐽𝜌
𝐸
𝐽 = = 𝜎𝐸
𝜌
∴ 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

Relation Between Resistivity And Resistance:-

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Consider a wire of uniform cross-section area 𝐴 and length 𝑙,
then the potential difference 𝑉 due to the electric field 𝐸 across
the conductor is given by;
𝑉 𝐼
𝐸= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽 =
𝑙 𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐼 1𝑉
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐴 𝜌𝑙
𝑉 𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 𝜌= =
𝐼 𝑙 𝑙
𝑅𝐴
∴𝜌=
𝑙
Which is the relation between resistivity and resistance.

Microscopic view of Ohm’s law (Atomic view):-

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In metal the conduction electrons are free to move throughout.
When an electric field is applied the electrons tends to drift
along the electric field. The random motion of electron is
average to zero and make no contribution to drift speed. Thus
the drift speed is only due to effect of electric field on the
electrons.
Let an electron of mass 𝑚 and charge 𝑒 placed in electric
field 𝐸. The electric force experienced by it is
𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸
Also from Newton’s second law;
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑒𝐸
∴𝑎=
𝑚
The average drift speed of electron is 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎. 𝜏
Where, 𝜏 is the average time between collisions.
𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = .𝜏
𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐽 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛
𝑒𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐽= . 𝜏. 𝑒. 𝑛
𝑚
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 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
∴𝐽= .𝐸
𝑚
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝑜𝑟, . 𝐸 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
∴ 𝜎=
𝑚
𝑚
∴𝜌=
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
This relation shows that, resistivity and conductivity are
independent of applied field and depends upon nature of
material.
The average time between collision 𝜏 and the average distance
between collisions 𝜆 are related as;
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 =
𝜏
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏=
𝑣𝑑
𝑚
∴𝜌=
𝜆
𝑛𝑒 2
𝑣𝑑

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑚𝑣𝑑 𝑚𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑 𝑚𝑣𝑑2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜌= = =
𝜆𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆𝑛𝑒 2 𝑣𝑑 𝜆𝑛𝑒 2 𝑣𝑑
3𝐾𝑇 1 2
3
∴ 𝜌= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑣 = 𝐾𝑇
𝜆𝑛𝑒 2 𝑣𝑑 2 2

Numerical Examples:-
1. A uniform copper wire of 𝟏 𝒎 and cross-section area of
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐 carries a current of 𝟏 𝑨 assuming that
there are 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 free electrons per meter cube in
copper. How long will an electron take to drift from
one end of wire to other end?
Solution:-
Length (𝑙 ) = 1 𝑚
Cross-section area (𝐴) = 5 × 10−7 𝑚2
Current (𝐼) = 1 𝐴
Then, we have;
𝐼 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝐴
𝐼 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 = =
𝑛𝑒𝐴 8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 5 × 10−7
∴ 𝑣𝑑 = 1.56 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
And time period is;

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 𝑙 1
𝑡= =
𝑣𝑑 1.56 × 10−4
∴ 𝑡 = 6400 𝑠𝑒𝑐

2. A copper wire of length 𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎 and area of cross-

section 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎𝟐 carries a current of 𝟏 𝑨. If the
resistivity of copper is 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎, calculate the
electric field across the wire?
Solution:-
Length (𝑙 ) = 50 𝑐𝑚 = 0.5 𝑚
Area (𝐴) = 10−6 𝑚2
Current (𝐼) = 1 𝐴
Resistivity (𝜌) = 1.8 × 10−8 𝛺𝑚
We have;
𝐼𝜌𝑙
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 =
𝐴
𝑉 𝐼𝜌
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐸= =
𝑙 𝐴
1 × 1.8 × 10−8
=
10−6
∴ 𝐸 = 0.018 𝑁/𝐶

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 3. A copper wire is stretched to make it 𝟎. 𝟐 % longer.
What is the percentage change in resistance?
Solution:-
Given;
𝑙2 = 𝑙1 + 0.2% 𝑜𝑓 𝑙1 = 1.002 𝑙1
We know that;
𝜌𝑙1 𝜌𝑙2
𝑅1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑅2 𝑙2 𝐴1
∴ =
𝑅1 𝑙2 𝐴2
But volume of wire remains unchanged so;
𝐴1 𝑙1 = 𝐴2 𝑙2
𝐴1 𝑙1
𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝐴 2 𝑙2
𝑅2 𝑙22
∴ = 2 = (1.002)2
𝑅1 𝑙1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = (1.002)2 𝑅1
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
∴ percentage change in resistance = × 100 %
𝑅1

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 (1.002)2 𝑅1 − 𝑅1
= × 100 %
𝑅1
= 0.4 %

4. A copper wire (Resistivity 𝝆𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎 and

density (𝒅𝟏 ) = 𝟖𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 ) and aluminum wire
(Resistivity𝝆𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎 and density (𝒅𝟐 ) =
𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑) have the same mass per unit length, find
the ratio of the resistance per unit length of aluminum
and copper wire.
Solution:-
𝜌1 𝑙1 𝜌2 𝑙2
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝑅1 𝜌1 𝑅2 𝜌2
𝑜𝑟, = … … (𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑, = … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑙1 𝐴1 𝑙2 𝐴2

Dividing (i) by (ii);

𝑅1 𝜌1
𝑙1 𝐴1 𝜌1 𝐴2
= 𝜌 =
𝑅2 2 𝜌2 𝐴1
𝑙2 𝐴 2

𝑅2
⁄𝑙 𝜌2 𝐴1
2
𝑖. 𝑒. = … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑅1 𝜌 𝐴
⁄𝑙 1 2
1

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 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚) = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑚
𝑖. 𝑒. = 𝑑1 𝐴1 = 𝑑2 𝐴2
𝑙
𝐴1 𝑑2
∴ = … … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐴2 𝑑1
Now from equation (iii) and (iv) we get;
𝑅2
⁄𝑙 𝜌2 𝑑2
2
=
𝑅1 𝜌1 𝑑1
⁄𝑙
1

2.8 × 10−8 × 2700

=
1.7 × 10−8 × 8900
= 0.499

5. The area of cross-section, length and density of a piece

of metal of atomic weight 𝟔𝟎 𝒈𝒎 are 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎𝟐 , 𝟏 𝒎
and 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑 respectively, If every atom
contributes one free electrons. Find drift velocity of
electrons in metal, when a current of 𝟏𝟔 𝑨 is passes
through it. (Given; Avogadro number 𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 /𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆).
Solution:-

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴
𝑛= =𝑚
𝑉 ⁄𝜌
𝜌𝑁𝐴
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑛 =
𝑚
5 × 10−3 × 6 × 1023
=
60 × 10−3
∴ 𝑛 = 5 × 1022 𝑚3
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒; 𝐼 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝐴
𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒𝐴
16
=
5 × 1022 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10−6
∴ 𝑣𝑑 = 2 × 103 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Exercise:-
6. Derive a relation of resistivity of conductor using
microscopic view. From your result, explain why
resistivity of a conductor increases with necessary with
increasing temperature.

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 7. What are the current density and mobility? Explain the
m
atomic view of resistivity and show that ρ = 2 , where
ne τ
symbols have their usual meanings.
8. Derive an equation J = σ E ⃗ . Explain why resistivity of a
conductor increases with increasing temperature ploat a
graph between R θ (Resistance in any temperature) and
temperature.
9. What will be the conductivity of sodium metal having
electron density 2.5 × 1028 m−3 and relaxation time 3 ×
10−14 sec?
10. Calculate the drift speed of electrons when 20 A
current is supplied through a copper wire of cross-sectional
area 1mm2 and electron density 1028 m−3 .
11. The current density in a cylindrical wire of radius R =
2 mm and uniform cross-sectional area is given by J = 2 ×
105 Am2 . What is the current through the outer portion of
the wire between radial distance R/2 and R?
12. A cylindrical resistor of radius 6 mm and length 2.5
cm is made of material that has a resistivity of 4 ×
10−5 𝛺𝑚. What are (i) The magnitude of current density
and (ii) The potential difference between the energy
dissipation rate in the resistor is 2 watt?
13. Calculate the (a) mean free time and (b) mean free
path between collision for the conduction electron in
copper having electron density 8.4 × 1022 cm−3 and
resistivity 1.7 × 10−8 𝛺𝑚. Charge of electron 1.6 ×

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 10−19 C, mass of electron 9.1 × 10−31 Kg, effective speed
of electron 1.6 × 106 m/s.
14. A copper wire of cross-sectional area 3 × 10−6 m2
carries a steady current of 60 A , assuming one electron per
atom. Calculate (i) free electron density and (ii) average
drift velocity. Given, density of Cu = 8.9 × 103 kg/m3 ,
molar mass of Cu = 64 and Avogadro′ snumber =
6.02 × 1023 /mole.
15. Two conductors are made of the same material and
have the same length. Conductor A is a solid wire of
diameter 1 mm. Conductor B is a hollow tube of outside
diameter 2 mm and inside diameter 1 mm. What is the
resistance ratio RA/RB measured between their ends?
16. Calculate the relaxation time for the electrons of
sodium atom. The number of atoms per cm3 in sodium is
2.5 × 1022 , and the electrical conductivity is 1.9 ×
107 s/m.
17. What is the average time between collision of free
electrons in a copper wire? (At. Wt. = 63 g/mol, density =
9 gm/cc and resistivity = 1.7 × 10−4 Ωm, NA = 6.02 ×
1023 mol−1 )
18. A current of 1.2 × 10−10 A exist in a copper wire (At.
Wt. = 63 g/mol, density = 9 gm/cc). Whose diameter is 2.5
mm. Assuming current to be uniform, calculate (a) current
density, (b) Electrical conductivity and (c) mobility of
electrons.

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 Semiconductor and Superconductor

Semiconductors:-
Semiconductors are materials having four valance electrons and
whose electric conductivity lies between the conductivity of
good conductors and insulator. E.g. silicon, Germanium etc.
At absolute zero, a semiconductor acts as an insulator, when
temperature increases some of the valence electron are able to
cross the small forbidden gap and reach the conduction band.
Hence conductivity increases as temperature increases.
Therefore it has negative temperature coefficient of resistance
[R decreases with T]. The forbidden band gap does not exist in
metal, it is narrow in semiconductor and wide in insulator.

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Currents in Semiconductor:-
Current in semiconductor is due to motion of both electron in
conduction band and motion of holes in valance band.
1. Electron current:-
At room temperature conduction electrons are present in
semiconductor. They move in random manner. Under the
action of external field these electron acquire an additional
force in the direction of electric field, and move towards
anode thus forming the electron current. The electron
current is same as that in pure conductor.

2. Hole current:-
When a semiconductor is at normal temperature, some of
the electrons in valence band jump to conduction band and
create hole in valence band, when an external field is
applied, the valence electron move from the end of negative
potential to the end of positive potential. The electron jump
forward to the succeeding hole by creating a hole behind.
Again the later electron jump to succeeding hole by
creating a hole behind. In this way there occurs a
movement of electron from one hole to another. It seems as
a movement of hole in the direction opposite to that of
electron. This movement of hole constitutes a current called
hole current.

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Types of semiconductor:-
1. Intrinsic semiconductor:-

A pure semiconductor is called an intrinsic semiconductor. In

any intrinsic semiconductor the thermally generated electrons
and holes are so few, that we can’t get any useful current. So its
conductivity is poor. The thermally generated electrons and
holes are so few that it can be consider as an insulator.
2. Extrinsic semiconductor:-
The conductivity of semiconductors rises when some impurities
are added on it. The addition of impurity causes to increase
either electron concentration or hole concentration. Such
semiconductors which are doped with some impurity and having
higher conductivity is called extrinsic semiconductor. There are
two types of extrinsic semiconductor;

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 I. N-type semiconductor:-
When a pentavalent impurities like arsenic (As), phosphorous
(P) and antimony (Sb) is added to pure semiconductor, a N-type
semiconductor is formed. The four electrons out of five valance
electron of these impurities make a covalent bond with four
valance electron of Si or Ge. So one electron remains free on
every add of impurity. Since, the concentration of electron
increases in this semiconductor, so it is called N-type
semiconductor.
II. P-type semiconductor:-
When a trivalent impurities such as boron (B), Aluminum (Al)
or Gallium (G) is added to pure Silicon or Germanium, a P-type
semiconductor is formed. The three valance electron of these
impurities make a covalent bond with four valance electron of Si
or Ge. So there is deficiency of one electron to form fourth
bond. So one hole is created on every add of trivalent impurity.

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In this way the concentration of hole can be raise to desired level
without increasing the concentration of electron.

P-N junction:-
When one P-type semiconductor and one N-type semiconductor
are placed in contact as shown in figure below, the resulting
semiconductor device is called P-N junction diode and the plane
of contact is called junction of diode.
When P-type and N-type crystal are placed in contact the
recombination of electron and holes take place at the junction.
This continues till a potential barrier is developed at the junction
of the diode. This region of potential barrier is called depletion
layer.

Mobility:-
The magnitude of drift velocity per unit applied electric field is
called mobility of electron.
𝑣𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇 = … … … (1)
𝐸
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 Since, 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
And, 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 = 𝜎𝐸
𝑣𝑑 𝜎
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐸 𝑛𝑒
𝜎
∴𝜇=
𝑛𝑒
𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒𝜇 … … … (2)
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Also, 𝜎 = … … … (3)
𝑚

From equation (2) and (3)

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝑛𝑒𝜇 =
𝑚
𝑒𝜏
∴ 𝜇= … … … . (4)
𝑚
Where, 𝜏 is called average time between collision (relaxation-
time).
Conductivity of Semiconductor:-
In case of semiconductor, the current is due to flow of both
electrons and holes. If σe and σh are conductivity of a
semiconductor due to electrons and holes respectively, the total
conductivity is given by;
σ = σe + σh
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We know that; σ = neμ
∴ For electron; σe = ne eμe , where, ne is number of electrons
per unit volume and μe is mobility of electron.
And for holes; σh = nh eμh , where, nh is number of holes per
unit volume and μh is mobility of holes.
∴ σ = (ne eμe + nh eμh )
or, σ = e(ne μe + nh μh )
∴ Resistivity is given by;
1
σ= = e(ne μe + nh μh )
ρ
For an intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = n (say)
∴ σ = ne(μe + μh )
According this equation, conductivity increases with ‘n’. As
temperature increases the free charge carriers increase in
semiconductor. So conductivity of semiconductor increases with
temperature.
Electrical conduction in metals, insulators and
semiconductor according to bond theory of solids:-
The electrical conduction properties of different elements and
compounds can be explained in terms of number of electron
present in conduction band. The electrons lying in the valence
band no part in the conduction process.

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 a. Conductor (metals):-
Metals are those in which large numbers of electrons are
available for electrical conduction. Therefore metals are
excellent conductors. In terms of energy bands, conductors
are those which have overlapping valence and conduction
bands or no forbidden band. Due to the absence of
forbidden energy gap, there is no possibility of establish
holes. The total current is simply a flow of electrons.
b. Insulators:-
An insulator has wide forbidden energy gap. The valence
band is completely filled with electrons and the conduction
band is completely empty. The valence electrons are bound
very tightly to their parent atom. For conduction to take
place, electrons must be given sufficient energy to jump
from the valence band to conduction band. Increase in
temperature enables some electrons to go to conduction
band which accounts for the negative coefficient of
resistance of insulators.

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 c. Semiconductors:-
The electrical conductivity of semiconductor lies in
between those of insulators and conductors. At room
temperature, they have partially field conduction band and
partially filled valence band. The valence band is very
narrow in the order of nearly 1eV. At absolute zero, there
are no electrons in conduction band and valence band is
completely filled. With increase in temperature, width of
forbidden gap decreases so that some of the electrons are
liberated in to the conduction band. This means the
conductivity of semiconductor increases with temperature.
So they have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Superconductors:-
The electrical resistance of metal and alloys decreases as the
temperature is lower. If we study the variation of resistance with
temperature, the resistance becomes immeasurable. The
resistivity of mercury becomes zero below the temperature of 4
Kelvin. This property of material being of zero resistivity below
certain temperature is called superconductivity. Such materials
are called superconductor and this temperature is called critical
temperature. Below the critical temperature the material is in
superconducting state and above the critical temperature the
material is in normal state.
In perfect conductors, the interior magnetic field must remain
fixed but can have a zero or nonzero value. In real
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superconductors, all magnetic flux is expelled during the phase
transition to superconductivity, and the magnetic field is always
zero within the bulk of superconductor.

Properties of superconductor:-
1. Critical magnetic field:-
A sufficiently strong magnetic field can destroy
superconductivity. The critical value of applied magnetic
field which can destroy superconductivity is called critical
magnetic field Hc(T).
At critical temperature, the critical field is zero,
i. e. Hc (T) = 0. The variation of critical field with
temperature is as shown in figure. The nature of curve is
parabolic and can be represented by the relation.
T2
Hc (T) = Hc (0) (1 − 2 ),
Tc
where Hc (0) is critical field at 0 K.

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 2. Meissner Effect:-
The Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field
from a superconductor during its transition to the
superconducting state when it is cooled below the critical
temperature.

Meissner in 1935, found that if a superconductor is cooled

in a magnetic field down to critical temperature, the lines of
induction of magnetic field (B) are pushed out. This
phenomenon is called meissner effect. This means
superconductor shows perfect diamagnetic effect i.e
magnetic field inside the superconductor is zero i.e. B = 0.

Classification of Superconductors:-
On the basis of magnetizing behavior, superconductors can
be classified as type – I (or soft) and type –II (or hard)
superconductors.

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 Type - I superconductor:-
This type of superconductor obeys complete Meissner’s
effect up to critical field. They are completely diamagnetic.
The magnetization curve for type-I material is as shown in
figure. At, the critical magnetizing field, the magnetization
decreases abruptly and the material becomes normal state.
Type - II superconductor:-
This type of superconductor looses magnetization gradually
as shown in figure. For applied field below the critical

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 magnetic field, the material is diamagnetic and hence the
field is completely excluded.
Here Hc1 is called the lower critical field. Above Hc1, the
field starts penetrating in to the material until the upper
critical field HC2 is reached. Between the two critical
magnetic field HC2 and HC1, the material is said to be in
mixed state or vortex state. Above the magnetic field HC2,
the material becomes conductor.
Uses of Superconductor:-
1. It is used in supercomputer.
2. It is used in generation and transmission of electric power.
3. It is used in medical diagnosis (Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI) in strong magnetic fields).

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Exercise:-
1. Explain superconductivity and its types with examples.
Write the difference between superconductor and perfect
conductor.
2. What is superconductor? Explain critical magnetic field.
Describe the characteristics of superconductor.
3. Differentiate between semiconductors and
superconductors. Discuss about critical magnetic field in
superconductors. Also prove that superconductors are
diamagnetic in nature.
4. What are superconductors? How they differ from the
perfect conductors? Give basic properties and uses of
superconductors.

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 Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field(B):-
The space around a magnet around which its effect is felt is
called magnetic field(B).
Magnetic Flux(∅𝐵 ):-
The total number of magnetic lines of force spreading from a
magnet is called magnetic flux(∅𝐵 ).
Magnetic force:-

Magnetic force is due to the motion of electric charges.

Experimentally it is found that;
1. The magnitude of magnetic force (F) exerted is directly
proportional to the amount of charge (q).
2. The magnetic force depends upon the magnetic field (B).
3. The velocity of moving charge particle (v).

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 4. The magnetic force is proportional to sin of angle between
particle velocity and magnetic field. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 ∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ Magnetic force is given by;
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣 sin 𝜃
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 𝑞( 𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗)

Lorentz Force:-
When a charge particle move through a region where both
electric and magnetic fields are present. Then the total force is
called Lorentz force.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐸 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐵

𝑜𝑟, ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞( 𝑣 × 𝐵

⃗)

∴ ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 𝑞[𝐸⃗ + ( 𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗ )]

Gauss law for magnetism:-

In electrostatics Gauss law states that “the total flux through a
closed surface is 1/ε0 times the charge enclosed by that surface.
𝑞
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
Similarly, for magnetism the total magnetic flux is proportional
to the total magnetic charge but magnetic monopole does not
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exist as a charge in electrostatics. Thus Gauss law for
magnetism can be expressed as;

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝐴 = 0

Hence, Gauss law in magnetism states that “the total magnetic

flux through a closed surface is zero”.

Hall Effect:-
I

d t
If a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic
field, a potential is developed in the conductor in the direction
perpendicular to both current and magnetic field, this
phenomena is known as Hall Effect.
Consider a rectangular strip of width ‘d’, thickness ‘t’, cross
section area ‘A’ carrying current ‘I’ as shown in figure. Since,

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current is flowing in downward direction. So, movement of
electron is in upward direction with drift velocity ‘vd’.
At equilibrium condition, the force due to magnetic field and
force due to electric field are in balance. The electric field and
potential difference at this condition is called hall field (E H) and
hall voltage (VH).
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣𝑑 … … … . (1)
Since, 𝐽 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛
𝐽
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒
From equation (1),
𝐵𝑒𝐽
𝑒𝐸𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝐻 1
=
𝐽𝐵 𝑛𝑒
𝐸𝐻
Here the term is called hall coefficient (RH).
𝐽𝐵

𝐸𝐻 1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = = … … … (2)
𝐽𝐵 𝑛𝑒
Again from equation (1) 𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝑉𝐻
Since, 𝐸𝐻 =
𝑑

And 𝐼 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝐴

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 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒𝐴
Therefore equation (1) becomes;
𝑉𝐻 𝐼
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑒
𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝐵𝐼. 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝐵𝐼. 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒. 𝑑. 𝑡
𝐵𝐼
∴ Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) = … … … (3)
𝑛𝑒𝑡
The mobility (µ) of charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity
per unit applied electric field.
𝑣𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇 =
𝐸
Since, 𝐽 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝑛
𝐽
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑒
𝐽
∴ 𝜇=
𝑛𝑒𝐸
Also, 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝜎 𝑅𝐻
∴ 𝜇= = 𝜎𝑅𝐻 = … … … (4)
𝑛𝑒 𝜌

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Now from equation (3);
𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝐵
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐵
∴ Hall resistance (𝑅) = … … … (5)
𝑛𝑒𝑡
From this relation it is expected to increase Hall resistance
linearly with magnetic field ‘B’. However Von Klitzing showed
that the Hall resistance increases with ‘B’. Such effect is known
as quantum Hall effect.

Biot and Savart’s Law:-

They derived the equation that gives the magnetic field
produced due to a current carrying segment.
Magnetic field of moving point charge:-

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Experimentally it is found that the magnetic field ‘B’ at a point
at distance ‘r’ from the moving point charge ‘q’ with velocity
‘v’ is
1. Directly proportional to the amount of charge ‘q’.
2. Directly proportional to the velocity of charge ‘v’.
3. Directly proportional to the sine of angle between ‘v’ and
‘r’.
4. Inversely proportional to the square of distance of point
from moving point charge.
𝑞𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝐵 ∝
𝑟2
𝜇0 𝑞𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0
Where is constant. 𝜇0 is permeability of free space.
4𝜋

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚

Magnetic field due to small current carrying element:-

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Consider a short segment ‘dl’ of a current carrying conductor.
The volume of the segment is 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙, where A is the cross
sectional area of conductor. Suppose there are ‘n’ charge particle
per unit volume. Each of charge ‘q’ then the total charge in the
segment is;
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑑𝑙
Assuming all the moving charge in this segment as an equivalent
single charge of velocity ‘v’, we have;
𝜇0 𝑞𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝑑𝑞𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑑𝑙𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
Which is required magnetic field due to small current element.

Application of Biot and Savert law:-

1) Magnetic field due to a long straight current carrying
conductor:-

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Consider a long straight conductor carrying current ‘I’. ‘dl’ is
the small element on this at a distance ‘r’ from point ‘P’, Where
the magnetic field due to conductor is to be determined. The
point ‘P’ is at a distance ‘x’ from the mid-point of conductor.
Then from Biot-Savart law;
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
The total magnetic field ‘B’ at point ‘P’ due to both lower and
upper half part of the conductor is;
∞ ∞
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐵 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ 2 . 𝑑𝑙
2𝜋 𝑟
0 0

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From figure; 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑙 2
𝑥 𝑥
And 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑟 √𝑥 2 +𝑙 2
∞
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑥 1
∴𝐵= ∫ . 𝑑𝑙
2𝜋 √𝑥 2 + 𝑙 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑙 2 )
0
∞
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵= ∫ 2 . 𝑑𝑙
2𝜋 (𝑥 + 𝑙 2 )3/2
0

Let 𝑙 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

When, 𝑙 = 0, 𝜃 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙 = ∞, 𝜃 = 𝜋/2
𝜋/2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑥 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝐵= ∫ . 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃)3/2
0
𝜋/2
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑥2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵= ∫ 3 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 x sec θ
0
𝜋/2
𝜇0 𝐼 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑥 secθ
0
𝜋/2
𝜇0 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑥
0

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 𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵= [[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]02 ]
2𝜋𝑥
𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑥

2) Magnetic field due to a current in a circular loop:-

Consider a circular conductor with radius ‘a’ carrying current ‘I’

let us take an element ‘dl’ of the conductor. From figure the
angle between ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and r is 90o. therefore, magnitude of magnetic
field due to element ‘dl’ at point ‘P’ at distance ‘r’ from the
element is given by;
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
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 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
If we consider another element ‘dlI’ at opposite to the ‘dl’ the
cosine components of magnetic fields due to them cancel each
other. By considering such elements all round the circumference
we see that the cosine component of magnetic field cancel out
and only the sine components of magnetic field due to all
elements constitute the total magnetic field.
2𝜋𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
∴ 𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∫ 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4𝜋 x + a2
0
2𝜋𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑎
= ∫ .
4𝜋 (x 2 + a2 ) (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )1/2
0
2𝜋𝑎
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑎𝑑𝑙
= ∫
4𝜋 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
0

𝜇0 𝐼𝑎
= 2 2 3/2
. [𝑙]2𝜋𝑎
0
4𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑎 )
𝜇0 𝐼𝑎
= . 2𝜋𝑎
4𝜋(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2

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 𝜇0 𝐼𝑎2
∴𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
If the coil consists ‘N’ loop having same radius then;
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
∴𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
The magnetic field at x = 0, i.e. at the centre of the coil is
maximum and is given by;
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑎
3) Magnetic field due to a current in a circular arc of wire
(curved wire segment):-

Figure shows a circular arc of wire with central angle′𝜃′, radius

‘r’ and centre ‘O’ carrying current ‘I’ as shown in figure. At ‘O’
each current element of the wire produces a magnetic field given
by;
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2

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The angle between vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and ‘r’ is 900 as shown in figure.
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
∴ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
Here, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜇0 𝐼𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝑟
The total magnetic field due to arc with central angle 𝜃 is;
𝜃 𝜃
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝜃
𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫
0 0 4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇0 𝐼
∴𝐵= .𝜃
4𝜋𝑟
This is the expression for magnetic field due to the circular arc
at its centre. The magnetic field due to full circle of current is;
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= . 2𝜋
4𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼
∴𝐵=
2𝑟
If there are N number of circle,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑟

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Ampere’s theorem:-

Ampere’s law is used to find the magnetic field due to

symmetric current distribution for which line integral of B can
be determined. The magnetic field due to straight current
carrying conductor at point ‘P’ at distance ‘R’ from the
conductor is;
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑅
This value of magnetic field is same for all the points at distance
‘R’ in the circle of radius ‘R’. The direction of magnetic field at
any point on the circle is given by the tangent drawn at that
point. This means the magnetic field ‘B’ and the line element
‘dl’ are along the same direction at that point. Therefore angle
between ‘B” and ‘dl’ is zero.

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 2𝜋𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = . 2𝜋𝑅
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
0

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

Application of Ampere’s theorem:-

Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying
conductor:-
1. Outside the straight conductor:-

Figure shows a cross-section of long straight wire carrying

current ‘I’. The magnitude of ‘B’ has same value on the
Amperion loop of radius ‘r’. The Amperion loop can be drawn
such that it contains the point where magnetic field is to be
determined.
From Ampere’s theorem;

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 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝑜𝑟, ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜇0 𝐼

The tangent drawn at ‘dl’ gives the direction of ‘B’ and has
same direction as ‘dl’.
2𝜋𝑟
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟
0

∴ 𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

2. Inside the straight conductor:-

In this case the radius of Amperion loop ‘r’ is smaller than that
of wire. Let the current enclosed by Amperion loop be ‘I1’.
From Ampere’s theorem;

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐼

𝑜𝑟, ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐼

The tangent drawn at ‘dl’ gives the direction of ‘B’ and has
same direction as ‘dl’.
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 2𝜋𝑟
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟
0

∴ 𝐵. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
𝜇0 𝐼𝐼
∴ 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
Since, the current density is same inside Amperion loop and
outside of Amperion loop.
𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝑖. 𝑒. =
𝜋𝑅 2 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟2
𝐼𝐼 = 2.𝐼
𝑅
𝜇0 𝑟 2
∴ 𝐵= .𝐼
2𝜋𝑟 𝑅2
𝜇0 𝑟
∴ 𝐵= .𝐼
2𝜋 𝑅2
This shows that magnetic field is zero at the centre and
maximum at the surface where r = R.
𝜇0 𝐼
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑅

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Magnetic field due to a solenoid:-
A solenoid is a long coil of wire made of many loops, each
producing a magnetic field. Inside the solenoid, the magnetic
field is parallel to the axis. Outside the solenoid, the magnetic
field is zero.

Figure:- (i) Magnetic field lines for a solenoid of finite length and (ii) application
of Ampere’s law in a section of a solenoid.

At a point outside the solenoid, the magnetic fields due to

neighboring loops oppose each other and at a point inside the
solenoid, the magnetic fields are in the same direction. As a
result of it the effective magnetic field outside the solenoid
becomes zero, where as the magnetic field inside the solenoid
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becomes strong and uniform and acting along the axis of
solenoid.
⃗ over the closed path 𝑝𝑞𝑟𝑠
The line integral of magnetic field 𝐵
is;
𝑞 𝑟 𝑠 𝑝

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 + ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑠
𝑞 𝑟 𝑠
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 cos 0 + ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 cos 90 + ∮ 0. 𝑑𝑙
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
𝑝

+ ∮ 𝐵𝑑𝑙 cos 90
𝑠

The first integral on the right of above equation is 𝐵𝑙, where 𝐵 is

the magnitude of the uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid
and 𝑙 is the length of segment from 𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑞. The second and
fourth integrals are zero because for every element 𝑑𝑙 of these
segments, 𝐵 ⃗ either is perpendicular to 𝑑𝑙 or is zero. And thus the
product 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is zero. The third integral, which is taken along a
segment that lies outside the solenoid, is zero because 𝐵 = 0 at
all external points.

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝐵𝑙

Total current through the rectangle 𝑝𝑞𝑟𝑠 is;

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 𝛴𝐼 = number of turns in rectangle × current
𝛴𝐼 = 𝑛𝑙𝐼
From Ampere’s circuital law;

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝛴𝐼

𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑙𝐼
∴ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵=
𝑙
Which is required magnetic field due to solenoid.

Cyclotron:-
The cyclotron is a particle accelerator which is consists of two
large dipole magnets designed to produce a semicircular region
of uniform magnetic field, directed uniformly downward.

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Two Dee’s are placed back- to back with their straight sides
parallel but slightly separated. Now, in order to produce an
electric field across this gap we apply an oscillating voltage.
Particles, which are injected in to the magnetic field region of D,
trace out the semicircular path until they reach the gap.
However, as the particles pass across the gap they are
accelerated by the applied electric field. After gaining energy,
these particles follow a semicircular path in the next D with
larger radius.
The cyclotron uses electric and magnetic fields and the whole
accelerator remains in a uniform magnetic field. Here the
Lorentz force due to the magnetic field provides the centripetal
force for the circular motion with radius R. It means for a
charged particle of charge q and mass m circulating with
mv2
velocity v is, Bqv = .
R

mv qBR
∴R= , or, v =
Bq m
The time period of motion is;
2πR 2π mv 2πm
T= = . =
v v qB qB
Now, the frequency of the cyclotron is given by;
qB
f=
2πm
The kinetic energy of the charged particle is;
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 1 2
1 qBR 2
E = mv = m( )
2 2 m
B2 q2 R2
∴E=
2m
Also,
1 1
E= mv 2 = m(Rω)2
2 2
1
= mR2 4π2 f 2 (∵ ω = 2πf)
2
∴ E = 2mR2 π2 f 2
So, E ∝ R2 , E ∝ B2 and E ∝ f 2
It is clear from this expression that, for obtaining high energy,
the strength of the magnetic field should be large and radius of
machine also be as large as possible.
Limitation:-
We have,
2πm qB
T= and f =
qB 2πm
The cyclotron fails to operate at high energies because one of its
assumptions that the frequency of rotation of an ion circulating
in a magnetic field is independent of its speed is true only for
speeds much less than that of light. As the particle speed

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increases, we must use the relativistic mass ‘m’ in above
equation.
2
v
qB√1 − 2
c
𝑓=
2πm0
a) If frequency varies with field variation then the
cyclotron is called synchrocyclotron.
b) If frequency remains constant with field variation then
the cyclotron is called Synchrotron.
v2
Because product of B and √1 − always remains
c2
constant.

Numerical Examples:-
1.In a hall experiment a current of 𝟑𝑨 is sent length wise
through a conductor 𝟏 𝒄𝒎 width 𝟒 𝒄𝒎 long and 𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝒎
thick produces a transverse hall voltage of 𝟏𝟎 𝝁𝑽. When a
magnetic field of 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑻𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂 is passed perpendicularly
through the thickness of conductor. From these data find
(i) The drift velocity of charge carrier and (ii) number
density of charge carrier.
Solution:-
Current (𝐼) = 3𝐴

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 Length (𝐿) = 4 𝑐𝑚 = 0.04𝑚
Width (𝑑) = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚
Thickness (𝑡 ) = 10 𝜇𝑚 = 10 × 10−6 𝑚
Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) = 10 𝜇𝑉 = 10 × 10−6 𝑉
Magnetic field (𝐵) = 1.5 𝑇
(i) We have, 𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐸𝐻 𝑉𝐻 10 × 10−6
𝑣𝑑 = = =
𝐵 𝑑. 𝐵 0.01 × 1.5
∴ drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ) = 6.67 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐵. 𝐼
(ii) hall voltage (VH ) =
𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐵. 𝐼 1.5 × 3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =
𝑉𝐻 𝑒𝑡 10 × 10−6 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 10−6
∴ 𝑛 = 2.8 × 1029 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚3

2. A copper strip 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 wide and 𝟏 𝒎𝒎 thick is placed in a

magnetic field of 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑻. If a current of 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑨 is set up in
the strip, Calculate (i) hall voltage and (ii) hall mobility, if
the number of electron per unit volume is 8.4×1028/m3 and
resistivity 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝜴𝒎.
Solution:-

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 Width (𝑑) = 2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.02 𝑚
Thickness (𝑡 ) = 1𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚
Magnetic field (𝐵) = 1.5 𝑇
Current (𝐼) = 200 𝐴
Number of electron per unit volume(n) = 8.4×1028/m3
Resistivity (𝜌) = 1.72 × 10−8 𝛺𝑚
𝐵𝐼
We have, hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) =
𝑛𝑒𝑡
1.5 × 200
=
8.4 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1 × 10−3
= 2.23 × 10−5 𝑉
𝜎 1
Now, hall mobility (𝜇) = =
𝑛𝑒 𝜌𝑛𝑒
1
=
1.72 × 10−8 × 8.4 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19
= 4.32 × 10−3 𝛺−1 𝑚2 𝐶

3.The magnetic field on the axis of a current carrying

circular loop of radius 𝑹, at distance 𝒙 ≫ 𝑹 from centre of
the loop is 𝑩. If the radius of loop is double, keeping the
current unchanged. Find the magnetic field at a point at
𝒙 ≫ 𝑹.
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Solution:-
We have magnetic field at distance 𝑥 from centre of the
coil is;
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 )3/2
According to the question 𝑥 ≫ 𝑅,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
∴𝐵=
2𝑥 3
When 𝑅 𝐼 = 2𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼(2𝑅)2 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
∴ 𝐵𝐼 = =4
2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3
∴ 𝐵𝐼 = 4𝐵

4. In the hydrogen atom the electron moves around the

proton with a speed of 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄. In a circular orbit
of radius 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎. What is the strength of magnetic
field at the centre of the orbit?
Solution:-
Velocity (𝑣) = 2 × 106 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Radius (𝑟 ) = 5 × 10−11 𝑚
The time period of electron in the circular orbit is;

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 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 × 5 × 10−11
𝑇= = 6
= 1.57 × 10−16 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 2 × 10
𝑒 1.6 × 10−19
∴ current (𝐼) = =
𝑇 1.57 × 10−16
∴ Magnetic field at the centre of the orbit is;
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 1.6 × 10−19
𝐵= =
2𝑟 2 × 5 × 10−11 × 1.57 × 10−16
∴ 𝐵 = 12.8 𝑇

5. A coil of 𝟓𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 and 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 diameter is made out of

wire of resistivity 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝜴𝒄𝒎. The coil is connected to
a source of 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝟏𝟎 𝑽 and negligible internal resistance. (i)
Find the current through the coil. (ii) What must be the
current and potential difference in the coil, when 𝑩 =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑻 at the centre of the coil?
Solution:-
Number of turns (𝑁) = 50 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
Diameter (𝑑) = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚
∴ Radius (𝑟 ) = 0.05 𝑚
Resistivity (𝜌) = 2 × 10−6 𝛺𝑐𝑚 = 2 × 10−8 𝛺𝑚
𝜌𝑙
∴ Resistance of coil (𝑅) =
𝐴

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 𝜌 × 2𝜋𝑟. 𝑁 2 × 2 × 10−6 × 50
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅= =
𝜋𝑟 2 (0.05)2
= 4 × 10−5 𝛺
𝑉 10
(i) current (𝐼) = = −5 = 2.5 × 105 𝐴
𝑅 4 × 10

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
(ii) Magnetic field (𝐵) =
2𝑟
2𝐵𝑟 2 × 0.314 × 10−4 × 0.05
∴𝐼= = −7 = 5 × 10−2 𝐴
𝜇0 𝑁 4𝜋 × 10 × 50
The potential difference across the coil is;
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
= 5 × 10−2 × 4 × 10−5
∴ 𝑉 = 2 × 10−6 𝑉

6. A long coil consisting of 𝟓𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 with diameter 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎

carries a current of 𝟏𝟎 𝑨. (i) Find a magnetic field at a
point along the axis 𝟗𝟎 𝒄𝒎 from the centre. (ii) At what
𝟏
distance from the centre along the axis the field is ( )𝒕𝒉 as
𝟖
the centre.
Solution:-

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 Number of turns (𝑁) = 50
Radius (𝑅) = 0.6 𝑚
Current (𝐼) = 10 𝐴
Distance (𝑥) = 90 𝑐𝑚 = 0.9 𝑚
(i) We know that;
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 )3/2
4𝜋 × 10−7 × 50 × 10 × (0.62 )
=
2(0.92 + 0.62 )3/2
∴ 𝐵 = 8.93 × 10−5 𝑇

(ii) Magnetic field at centre;

𝐼
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑅2
𝐵 = =
2𝑅 2𝑅3
Let at a distance 𝑥 from the centre of coil, the field is one
eighth as the centre.
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑅2 1 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑅 2
=
2
2(𝑥 + 𝑅 )2 3/2 8 2𝑅3
3
𝑜𝑟, (𝑥 2 + 2
𝑅 )2 = 8𝑅3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 = (8𝑅3 )2/3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 = 2𝑅2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 = 3𝑅2
∴ 𝑥 = 3 × (0.6)2 = 1.039 𝑚

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7. A solenoid is 𝟏 𝒎 long and 𝟑 𝒄𝒎 in diameter. It has 𝟓
layer of winding of 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔, carries a current of 𝟓 𝑨. (i)
Find magnetic field at its centre. (ii) Calculate the
magnetic flux for a cross section of solenoid at its centre.
Solution:-
(i) Magnetic field at its centre is;
𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝑙
−7
= 4𝜋 × 10 × 5 × 850 × 5
∴ 𝐵 = 0.02669 𝑇

(ii) Magnetic flux of solenoid is;

∅𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝐴
= 0.02669 × 𝜋𝑟 2
= 0.02669 × 3.14 × (1.5)2
∴ ∅𝐵 = 1.88 × 10−5 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟

8. A solenoid 𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎 long and 𝟐. 𝟔 𝒄𝒎 in diameter, carries a

current of 𝟏𝟖 𝑨. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is
𝟐𝟑 𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒊 𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒍𝒂. Find the length of the wire forming the
solenoid.
Solution:-
Length (𝑙 ) = 1.3 𝑚
Diameter (𝑑) = 2.6 𝑐𝑚 = 0.026 𝑚
Radius (𝑟 ) = 0.013 𝑚
Current (𝐼) = 18 𝐴
Magnetic field (𝐵) = 23 𝑚𝑇 = 23 × 10−3 𝑇
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 Now magnetic field for solenoid is;
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝐵 23 × 10−3
𝑛= =
𝜇0 𝐼 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 18
∴ 𝑛 = 1016.82
Total number of turns is;
𝑁 =𝑛×𝑙
= 1016.82 × 1.3
∴ 𝑁 = 1322
Length of wire is;
𝐿 = 1322 × 2𝜋𝑟
= 1322 × 2 × 3.14 × 0.013
∴ lenth of wire = 108 m

Exercise:-
1. What is Hall Effect? Write its importance. Show that the
−1
coefficient 𝑅𝐻 = , Where the symbols have their own
𝑛𝑒
meanings.
2. What type of particles can be accelerated by a cyclotron?
Explain the working of cyclotron and synchrotron with
their differences.
3. Using Ampere’s law, calculate the magnetic field inside,
outside and on the surface of a long current carrying

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 conductor and hence plot a graph Between magnetic
field versus distance from the center of the conductor.
4. Explain Biot-Savart law. Show that a current carrying
circular coil behaves as a magnetic dipole for a large
distance.
5. Derive an expression for Hall voltage. How do you
differentiate the type of charge carrier from the result of
Hall experiment? What is Hall resistance?
6. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for the Hall
coefficient and established the relation between mobility
of charge carrier and conductivity of material of wire.
7. What is Ampere’s law? Derive the expression for
magnetic flux density outside and inside a long straight
conductor carrying current I.
8. Obtain an expression for magnetic field intensity due to a
circular coil carrying current at its axial point.
9. Explain Hall Effect. Derive a relation for Hall resistance.
From this relation explain the meaning of quantization of
hall resistance.
10. Consider a circular coil of radius R carrying current I.
Find the magnetic field at any point on the axis of the
loop at a distance z from the center of the loop. Show
that the circular current coil behaves as a magnetic
dipole for large distance.
11. Compare the methods of Biot- Savart law and
Ampere’s law to calculate magnetic fields due to current
carrying conductor. Calculate magnetic field at an axial
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 distance ‘x’ from the center of the circular coil carrying
current.
12. Describe the principle and working of cyclotron. Show
that the time taken by the ion in a Dee to travel a
semicircle is exactly same whatever be its radius and
velocity.
13. Deuterons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius
0.32 m just before emerging from Dees. The frequency
of the applied emf is 10 MHz. Find the flux density of
the magnetic field and energy of the deuterons emerging
out of the cyclotron. ( mass of deuterons = 3.32 ×
10−27 kg.)s
14. A copper strip 3 cm wide and 2 mm thick is placed in
a magnetic field of 1.75 T. If a current of 150 A is set up
in the strip, Calculate (i) hall voltage and (ii) hall
mobility, if the number of electron per unit volume is
8.4 × 1028 electrons/m3 and resistivity1.72 ×
10−8 Ωm.
15. In a Hall Effect experiment, a current of 3.2 A
lengthwise in a conductor 1.2 cm wide, 4.0 cm long and
9.5 µm thick produces a transverse hall voltage (across
the width) of 40 µV when a magnetic field of 1.4 T is
passed perpendicularly through the thin conductor. From
these data, find (a) The drift velocity of the charge
carriers and (b) the number density of charge carriers.
16. In a Hall experiment a current of 25 A is passed
through a long foil of silver, which is 0.1 mm thick and 3
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 m long. Calculate the Hall voltage produces across the
width by a flux of 1.4 Wb/m2. If the conduction of silver
is 6.8 × 107 mho/m, estimate the mobility of electron in
silver.
17. A long circuit coil consisting of 50 turns with diameter
1.2 m carries a current of 10 A. (a) Find the magnetic
field at a point along the axis 90 cm from the center. (b)
At what distance from the center, along the axis, the field
is 1/8 greater as at the center.
18. A copper strip 150 µm thick is placed in a magnetic
field of strength 0.65 T perpendicular to the plane of the
strip and current of 23 A is set up in the strip. Calculate
(i) The Hall voltage (ii) Hall coefficient and (iii) Hall
mobility, if the number of electron per unit volume is is
8.4 × 1028 electrons/m3 and resistivity1.72 ×
10−8 Ωm.

Electromagnetic Induction
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The phenomenon of generation of induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in a coil due to
change in magnetic flux is called electromagnetic induction. For
example, an electric generator produces a current because of
electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s Law of Induction:-

1. First law:-
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil
changes an induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is developed in the circuit. The
induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 last as long as the change in magnetic flux
continues.

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 2. Second law:-
The magnitude of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 induced in a conducting loop is equal to
the rate of change of magnetic flux through that loop with time.
𝑑∅𝐵
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓(𝜖) = −
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑∅𝐵
∴ ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

Induced Electric Field:-

Consider a cupper ring of radius ‘r’ is placed in uniform
magnetic field ‘B’. If we increase the strength of this field at
steady state rate, then by Faraday’s law an induced current and
an induced emf appear in the ring.
𝑑∅𝐵
𝑖. 𝑒. induced emf(𝜖) = − … … … (𝑖)
𝑑𝑡

If there is a current in the ring, an electric field must be present

along the ring. This electric field is called induced electric field.

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This is real as that produced by a static charge. A changing
magnetic field would still create an electric field in the free
space in the absence of conducting loop.
Consider a moving charge qo around a circular path of figure as
shown. The work done on it by induced emf is.
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑉 = 𝑞𝑜 𝜖 (𝜖 is induced emf)
Also,

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝑞𝑜 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙

∴ 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙

∴ 𝑞𝑜 𝜖 = 𝑞𝑜 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 , ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 is induced electric field

𝑆𝑜, 𝜖 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 … … … (2)

From equation (1) and (2) we can Rewrite Faraday’s law as

−𝑑∅𝐵
∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡
This equation says that changing magnetic field induces an
electric field.

Lenz’s Law:-

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Lenz law is used to determine the direction of induced current in
a loop, which states that “the induced current flow always in
such a direction that it opposes the change in magnetic field”.

When magnet north pole approaches the loop, it increases the

magnetic flux in loop. The induced current flows in the loop,
such that the magnetic field produced by it tend to decrease the
applied field ‘B’. Therefore the induced current is in
anticlockwise direction.
Similarly the movement of magnet is in opposite direction. It
decreases the magnetic flux through the loop. So the magnetic
field produced by induced current must have same direction as
that of applied field. Therefore, the induced current is in
clockwise direction.

Self induction:-
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The phenomenon in which the induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is produced as a
result of change in current flowing through the same coil is
known as self induction and thus produced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is called self
induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓.
Let a coil consists of ‘N’ turns with flux in each turn (∅𝐵 ).
Then According to Henry the total flux through coil (𝑁∅𝐵 ) is
directly proportional to current flowing through it.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁∅𝐵 ∝ 𝐼
𝑜𝑟 𝑁∅𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼
𝑁∅𝐵
∴ 𝐿=
𝐼
Where, L is a constant, called self inductance of coil.
According to Faraday’s law of induction;
𝑑∅𝐵 −𝑑(𝐿𝐼 ) 𝑑𝐼
Induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 (𝜖) = − = = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑𝐼
∴ 𝜖 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Thus in any inductor a self induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 appear when the
current changes with time.

Mutual Induction:-

The phenomenon in which the induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is produced as a

result of change in current flowing through another coil is
known as mutual induction. Thus produced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is called
mutual induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓.

Inductance of a Solenoid:-
Consider a solenoid of length ‘l’ cross section area ‘A’ and
having ‘n’ turns per unit length.

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Therefore, total number of turns (𝑁) = 𝑛𝑙
Therefore, the flux linkage in length ‘l’ of solenoid is;
∴ 𝑁∅𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 = 𝑛𝑙𝐵𝐴
The magnetic field due to solenoid is;
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
∴ 𝑁∅𝐵 = 𝑛𝑙𝐴𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
= 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙𝐼
𝑁∅𝐵 𝜇0 2
∴ Inductance of solenoid (𝐿) = = 𝑛 𝐴𝑙𝐼
𝐼 𝐼
∴ 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
𝐿
Inductance per unit length ( ) = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴
𝑙

Hence, self inductance depends upon the length, area, and

number of turns. i.e. geometry of the solenoid.

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Self inductance of toroid:-
A toroid is a solenoid bent in to the shape of a hollow doughnut.
Consider a toroid having rectangular cross sectional area A
carrying current I . ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the internal and external radii
of toroid. ‘h’ be the width of cross section of toroid.
Let us take a small strip of length ‘dr’ at a distance ‘r’ from
centre. Since ‘h’ be the width of the strip, therefore its area is
h. dr.

The magnetic flux through toroid is;

b
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅B = ∫ B dA = ∫ B. hdr
a
µ0 NI
The magnetic field due to toroid is, B = , where N is the
2πr
total number of turns in toroid.
b
μ0 NIh dr μ0 NIh
∴ ∅B = ∫ = ln b/a
2π r 2π
a

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 N∅B μ0 N2 h
∴ Inductance of toroid, L = = ln b/a
I 2π

L-R Circuit:-

Figure:- LR circuit
Let a resistor ‘R’ inductor ‘L’ are connected in series with a
battery of 𝑒𝑚𝑓 ‘V’ as shown in figure. When the switch is
closed, the current in resistor start to raise. If the inductor were
not present it would rise to steady value V/R. Because of
inductor, a self induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 appear in circuit, so current in the
circuit will be less than V/R.
Now close the switch, the current flow in anticlockwise
direction in above circuit. Now, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law;
𝑑𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑉 𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = + 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑉
Here, = 𝐼0 is maximum current and
𝑅

𝐿
= 𝜏 is inductive time constant.
𝑅
𝑑𝐼
∴ 𝐼0 = 𝜏 + 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏 = 𝐼0 − 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐼0 − 𝐼 𝜏
Now, integrating both sides we get;
𝐼 𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
∫ = ∫
𝐼0 − 𝐼 𝜏
0 0

𝑜𝑟, −[ln( I0 − I)]I0 = 𝑡/𝜏

𝑜𝑟, ln( I0 − I) − ln(I0 ) = −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0 − 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 = −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0
𝐼0 − 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼0 − 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
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 𝑡
−
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏 ) … … … (1)

This shows that the current growth is exponential in L-R circuit.

When, 𝑡 = 𝜏 then;
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.63𝐼0
Thus the time constant 𝜏 is the time required to current to reach
about 63% of its maximum value.
Now the decay of current starts due to absence of battery. Now
using Kirchhoff’s voltage law;
𝑑𝐼
0 = 𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑅 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼= −
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = −
𝐼 𝜏
Now, integrating both sides we get;
𝐼 𝑡
𝑑𝐼 −𝑑𝑡
∫ = ∫
𝐼 𝜏
𝐼0 0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, ln( ) = −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0
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 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0
𝑡
−
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝜏 ) … … … (2)

This shows that the decay of current L-R circuit is also

exponential in L-R circuit.
When, 𝑡 = 𝜏 then;
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 −1 ) = 0.37𝐼0
Thus the time constant 𝜏 is the time for which current decrease
to 37% of its initial value.

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Energy stored in Magnetic field:-

Consider a resistor ‘R’ inductor ‘L’ is connected in series with a

battery of 𝑒𝑚𝑓‘V’ as shown in figure.
Then, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law;
𝑑𝐼
𝑉=𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑑𝑡
Multiplying both sides by I;
𝑑𝐼
𝑉𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼 + 𝐼2 𝑅 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡
The term 𝐼2 𝑅 represents the rate at which energy appears as
thermal energy in the resistor. The term 𝑉𝐼 represents rate of
𝑑𝐼
energy supplied by battery. Therefore the term 𝐿𝐼 must
𝑑𝑡

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represent the rate at which energy is stored in magnetic field or
in inductor.
𝑑𝑈𝐵 𝑑𝐼
Thus, = 𝐿𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼

Integrating;
𝑈𝐵 𝐼

∫ 𝑑𝑈𝐵 = ∫ 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼
0 0

𝐿𝐼 2
∴ 𝑈𝐵 =
2

Which represents the energy stored by an inductor of inductance

‘L’, carrying current ‘I’.

Energy Density of magnetic field:-

Consider a solenoid having length ‘l’ and cross-section area ‘A’
carrying current ‘I’. The volume associated with this length is
equal to Al.
Thus, the magnetic energy stored per unit volume of this field is;
𝑈𝐵 𝐿𝐼2
𝜇𝐵 = =
𝐴𝑙 2𝐴𝑙
Thus, the inductance ‘L’ of solenoid is given by;

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 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙𝐼2 1 2 2
1 2 2 2
∴ 𝜇𝐵 = = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 = 𝜇 𝑛 𝐼
2𝐴𝑙 2 2𝜇0 0
𝐵2
∴ 𝜇𝐵 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
2𝜇0
This is the expression for the magnetic energy density. Though
it is derived for solenoid. It holds good for all magnetic field, no
matter how they are generated. Above result shows that
magnetic energy density 𝜇𝐵 ∝ 𝐵2 , i.e. square of magnetic field.

Numerical Examples:-
1. An inductor of self inductance 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝑯, and resistor of
resistance 𝟓𝟎 𝜴 are connected to a 𝟐 𝑽 battery.
Calculate the time required for the current to fall to
half of its steady state value.
Solution:-
Inductance (L) = 100 mH = 100 × 10−3 H
Resistance (R) = 50 Ω
Potential (V) = 2 V
V 2
Now, I0 = = = 0.04 A
R 50

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 𝐿 100 × 10−3
𝜏= = = 2 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑅 50
∴ fall current (I) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏
𝐼0 𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (∵ 𝐼 = )
2 2
1 −3
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝑡/2×10
2
1 𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
2 2 × 10−3
∴ 𝑡 = 1.38 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐

2. A solenoid of inductance L and resistor R is connected

to a battery. After how many time constant the
magnetic energy fall to 1/4th of its maximum value?
Solution:-
U0
Given; UB =
4
For the condition of decay current (I) = I0 e−t/τ
𝐿𝐼2
We have; UB =
2
1 𝐿(I0 e−t/τ )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈 =
4 0 2

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈0 = 𝑈0 e−2t/τ
4
1 −2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ln =
4 𝜏
∴ t = 0.693 τ Sec

3. A 𝟒𝟓 𝑽 of potential difference is suddenly applied to a

coil with 𝑳 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝑯 and 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝜴. At what rate is
the current increasing after 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐢 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝.
Solution:-
Inductance (L) = 50 mH = 50 × 10−3 H
Resistance (R) = 180 Ω
Potential (V) = 45 V
Time (t) = 1.2 mili second = 1.2 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
t
−
We have, for growth current (I) = I0 (1 − e τ )
𝑑𝐼 1 −t
𝑜𝑟, = I0 (0 + e τ )
𝑑𝑡 τ
𝑑𝐼 𝐼0 −𝑡/𝜏 𝑉 𝑅 −𝑡𝑅/𝐿
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑅𝐿
45 1.2×10−3 ×180
= −3
. 𝑒 50×10−3
50 × 10

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑑𝐼
∴ = 11.97 𝐴/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

4. An ideal inductor of self inductance 𝟓 𝑯 and a

resistance of 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝜴 is suddenly connected in series to a
battery of 𝟔 𝑽. Calculate (i) The steady current in the
circuit. (ii) The maximum rate of increase of current.
(iii) The time constant.
Solution:-
Inductance (L) = 5 H
Resistance (R) = 100 Ω
Potential (V) = 6 V
V 6
(i) I0 = = = 0.06 A
R 100
dI
(ii)We have, V = L
dt
dI 𝑉 6
∴ = = = 1.2 𝐴/𝑠𝑒𝑐
dt 𝐿 5
L 5
(iii) Also, τ = = = 0.05 sec
R 100

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 5. A Circular loop of wire 5 cm in radius carries a
current of 5 A. What is the energy density at the centre
of the loop?
Solution:
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
We have, 𝐵 =
2(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )3/2
Here 𝑁 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0
𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵=
2𝑅
𝐵2 1 𝜇02 𝐼 2
∴ Energy density, 𝜇𝐵 = = .
2𝜇0 2𝜇0 4𝑅2

𝜇02 𝐼2 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 52
= 2
= 2
= 1.58 × 10−3 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/𝑚3
8𝑅 8 × (0.05)

6. What is the magnetic energy density at the centre of a

circulating electron in the hydrogen atom. Assume that
the electron circulate around the nucleus in a path of
radius 𝟓. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 at a frequency of 𝟔. 𝟖 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒔/𝒔𝒆𝒄.
Solution:
Here, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑅 = 5.1 × 10−11 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒,
𝑓 = 6.8 × 1015 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
We have,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑎2
𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 )3/2

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 Here 𝑁 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0
𝑞
𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝑇)
( 𝜇0 𝑒𝑓
𝐵= = =
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅
Magnetic energy density,
𝐵2
𝜇𝐵 =
2𝜇0
1 𝜇02 𝑒 2 𝑓 2 𝜇02 𝑒 2 𝑓 2
= . =
2𝜇0 4𝑅2 8𝑅2
4𝜋 × 10−7 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2 × (6.8 × 1015 )2
=
8 × (5.1 × 10−11 )2
∴ 𝜇𝐵 = 7.15 × 107 𝐽/𝑚3

7. Flux ϕ (in weber) in a closed circuit of resistance 10 Ω

varies with time t (in second) According to the
equation ∅ = 𝟔𝒕𝟐 − 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟐. Calculate the magnitude of
induced current in the circuit at t = 0.25 sec.
Solution:-
Here, ∅ = 6𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 2
𝑑∅
= 12𝑡 − 5
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅𝐵
( )
Induced emf 𝜖 = − = −12𝑡 + 5
𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0.25 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝜖 = −12 × 0.25 + 5 = 2𝑉
𝜖 2
Induced current, 𝐼 = = = 0.2 𝐴
𝑅 10

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Exercise:-
8. Derive inductance of solenoid and toroid. Then show that
inductance is the property of the coil.
9. Determine the energy stored in an inductor. Also,
determine the energy density in magnetic field.
10. Differentiate between electromagnetic induction and
self induction. Develop an expression for self induction
for toroid.
11. Explain meaning of self induction. Calculate
inductance for a solenoid and toroid.
12. Derive the relation for rise and fall of current in LR
circuit. Plot a graph between current and time and explain
the figure.
13. Determine the energy stored in an inductor. Hence
prove that the energy density in magnetic field is directly
proportional to square of magnetic field.
14. What is self inductance? Define inductance of a coil.
Show by calculation inductance of a coil depends on
permeability of a medium and the geometry of the coil.
15. Show that the energy per unit volume in electric field
and magnetic field are proportional to the square of their
fields.
16. A toroid has number of turns 1250, internal radius 52
mm, external radius 95 mm and thickness of the ring
13mm calculate the inductance.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 17. A solenoid having an inductance of 6.3 µH is
connected in series with a 1.2 kΩ resistance. (a) If a 14 V
battery is connected across the pair, how long it will take
for the current through the resistor to reach 80 % of its
initial value? (b) What is the current through the resistor at
time 𝑡 = 𝜏𝐿 .
18. An inductance L is connected to a battery of emf E
through a resistance. Show that the potential difference
−Rt
across the inductance after time t is VL = ε e . At whatL

time is the potential difference across the inductance equal

i0
to that across the resistance such that i = .
2
19. A solenoid is 1.3 m long and 2.6 cm in diameter
carries a current of 18 A. The magnetic field inside the
solenoid is 23 mT. Find the length of the wire forming the
solenoid. Also calculate the inductance of solenoid.
20. What must be the magnitude of a uniform electric
field have the same energy density that passed by a 0.50 T
magnetic field?

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell’s Equations (Integral Form):-

Maxwell discovered that the basic principle of
electromagnetism can be expressed in term of four equations,
though he developed a concept of displacement current.
Maxwell did not discover all of these equation himself but he
put them together and recognize their significance particularly in
predicting the existence of electromagnetic wave. These
equations are called Maxwell equations which are described
below.
1. Gauss’s law for electrostatics:-
It States that “The total flux through a closed surface inclosing
1
a charge q is equal to times the magnitude of charge enclosed.
𝜀0

𝑞
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0

This relates the electric field and charge distribution. It conform

the existence of single charge.
2. Gauss’s law for magnetism:-
It states that “The total magnetic flux through a closed surface
is zero”.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ 𝐵.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

It conforms that the magnetic monopole doesn’t exist.
3. Faraday’s law of induction:-
It states that “The induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 in the circuit is equal to the
rate of change of magnetic field.”
−𝑑∅𝐵
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

it says that changing magnetic field with time produces an

electric field.

4. Ampere Maxwell law:-

It is the modification of Ampere’s law by Maxwell. It describe
the there are at least two ways of setting a magnetic field:
i).By means of steady current (from Ampere’s law):-

𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

ii).By means of changing electric field (from Maxwell law of

induction):-
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
The combined form of these two equations is Ampere Maxwell
law.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑑∅𝐸
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝜀0 )
𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑑 )

𝑑∅𝐸
Where 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 is called displacement current.
𝑑𝑡

Maxwell’s equation in differential Form:-

1. Maxwell’s first equation:-
From gauss law of electrostatic we have
𝑞
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜀0
1 𝑞
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 (∵ 𝜌 = )
𝜀0 𝑑𝑉

Now using Gauss- Divergence theorem

1
∮(∇. 𝐸⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝜀0
𝜌
∴ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝜀0

Where 𝜌 is charge density.

2. Maxwell’s second equation:-
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
From Gauss law of magnetism we have

𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = 0

Now using Gauss- Divergence theorem

⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = 0
∮(∇. 𝐵

∴ ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 0
3. Maxwell’s third equation:-
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction we
have;
−𝑑∅𝐵
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
Now using Curl Stokes theorem;
−𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∮(∇ × 𝐸⃗ )𝑑𝐴 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
⃗
−𝑑𝐵
∴ ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡

4. Maxwell’s fourth equation:-

According to Ampere Maxwell law we have

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑑 )

𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑
Where displacement current 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

And real current 𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐴
𝑑
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 + 𝜀0 𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜀0
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 [∮(𝐽 )] . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
Now using Curl Stokes theorem;

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ )𝑑𝐴
∮(∇ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ + 𝜀0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 [∮(𝐽 )] . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 [𝐽 + 𝜀0 ]
∴ (∇ × 𝐵
𝑑𝑡

Electromagnetic wave equation in free space:-

In free space the charge density ρ and current density J are zero.
Therefore the Maxwell’s equation becomes

∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = 0 … … … (1)

∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 0 … … … (2)

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 −𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝜀0
(∇ × 𝐵 … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡
Taking the curl of equation (3)
⃗)
−𝑑(∇ × 𝐵
∇ × ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝐸⃗
∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ (∇. ∇) = − (𝜇 𝜀 )
𝑑𝑡 0 0 𝑑𝑡

2⃗
𝑑2 𝐸⃗
0 − ∇ 𝐸 = −𝜇0 𝜀0 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 ⃗
2𝐸
∇ 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 … … … (5)
2
𝑑𝑡
Similarly taking the curl of equation (4) and proceeding in
similar ways, we get;
⃗
𝑑2 𝐵
⃗
∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 2 … … … (6)
𝑑𝑡
Equation (5) and (6) are the equation of electromagnetic wave
.now comparing this equation with general wave equation
⃗
1 𝑑2 𝑌
⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∇2 𝑌 = 2 2
𝑣 𝑑𝑡

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 1
∴𝑣=
√𝜇0 𝜀0
∴ 𝑣 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
This is the same as the velocity of light in vacuum.

Electromagnetic wave equation in non- conducting

(dielectric) medium:-
In non-conducting medium the charge density ρ and current
density J are zero. If the medium have permittivity ε and
permeability µ then the Maxwell’s equation becomes

∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = 0 … … … (1)
⃗⃗⃗ = 0 … … … (2)
∇. 𝐵

−𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ ) = 𝜇𝜀
(∇ × 𝐵 … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡
Taking the curl of equation (3)
⃗)
−𝑑(∇ × 𝐵
∇ × ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑑 𝑑𝐸⃗
∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ (∇. ∇) = − (𝜇𝜀 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2⃗
𝑑2 𝐸⃗
0 − ∇ 𝐸 = −𝜇𝜀 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝐸⃗
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝜀 2 … … … (5)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly taking the curl of equation (4) and proceeding in
similar ways, we get;
⃗
𝑑2 𝐵
⃗
∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇𝜀 2 … … … (6)
𝑑𝑡
Equation (5) and (6) are the equation of electromagnetic wave.
Now comparing this equation with general wave equation
⃗
1 𝑑2 𝑌
2⃗
𝑖. 𝑒. ∇ 𝑌 = 2 2
𝑣 𝑑𝑡
1
∴𝑣=
√𝜇𝜀
This is required relation for velocity of wave in non- conducting
medium.

Electromagnetic wave equation in conducting (isotropic)

medium:-

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

For a conducting medium the charge density ρ and current
density J, the Maxwell’s equation becomes

𝜌
∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = … … … (1)
𝜀
∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 0 … … … (2)

−𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ ) = 𝜇(𝐽⃗ + 𝜀 ) … … … (4)
(∇ × 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
Taking the curl of equation (3)
⃗)
−𝑑(∇ × 𝐵
∇ × ∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) − 𝐸⃗ (∇. ∇) = − ⃗)
(∇ × 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = − ⃗)
(∇ × 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
For the medium of constant charge density ∇(∇. 𝐸⃗ ) = 0
𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸
∴ 0 − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = − [ 𝜇( J⃗ + 𝜀 )]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, ∇2 𝐸⃗ = ⃗ + 𝜀
[ 𝜇( σE )] ⃗
Where, 𝐽 = σE
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐸 𝑑2 𝐸⃗
2⃗
∴ ∇ 𝐸 = 𝜇σ + 𝜇𝜀 2 … … … (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Similarly taking the curl of equation (4) and proceeding in
similar ways, we get;
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 𝑑 2⃗
𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇σ
∴ ∇2 𝐵 + 𝜇𝜀 2 … … … (6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation (5) and (6) are electromagnetic waves in conducting
medium.

Displacement current:-
The Ampere Maxwell law is
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡

If we compare the two terms on right side of this equation it is

𝑑∅𝐸
seen that the product 𝜀0 must have the dimension of current.
𝑑𝑡
This product is considered as fictitious current associated with
changing electric field E between the plates of capacitor is called
the displacement current (Id).
We can now rewrite Ampere- Maxwell law as;

𝐵. ⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑑 ) … … … (2)

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑑∅𝐸
where, 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
The charge stored in parallel plate capacitor is 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = . 𝑉 where, 𝐶 =
𝑑 𝑑
Where, A is the area of each plate and d is the distance between
them.
𝑉
∴ 𝑞 = 𝜀0 𝐴. = 𝜀0 𝐴𝐸
𝑑
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐸
∴ real current (𝐼) = = 𝜀0 𝐴 … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Here displacement current is;
𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑
𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 (𝐸𝐴)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
∴ 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐴 … … … (4)
𝑑𝑡
From equation (3) and (4), it is seen that, the real current I
during charging and discharging of the capacitor is equal to
displacement current Id between plates.
So we can consider the fictitious displacement current simply to
be a continuation of the real current through the capacitor.

Energy transport and Poynting vector (S):-

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 The magnitude of poynting vector is defined as the rate of
energy transport per unit area in plane electromagnetic wave.
1 𝑑𝑈
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑆 =
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
Consider a propagation of electromagnetic wave in a box of area
𝐴 and thickness 𝑑𝑥 at any instant; the energy stored in box is
given by;
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑈𝐸 + 𝑑𝑈𝐵
= 𝜇𝐸 𝐴𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇𝐵 𝐴𝑑𝑥
1
Where, 𝜇𝐸 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 is the energy density in electric field and
2
1 𝐵2
𝜇𝐵 = is the energy density in magnetic field.
2 𝜇0

∴ 𝑑𝑈 = (𝜇𝐸 + 𝜇𝐵 )𝐴𝑑𝑥
1 2
1 𝐵2
𝑑𝑈 = ( 𝜀0 𝐸 + )𝐴𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝜇0
1 2
1 𝐸2
= ( 𝜀0 𝐸 + )𝐴𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝐶 2 𝜇0
1 2
1 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐸 2
= ( 𝜀0 𝐸 + )𝐴𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝜇0
∴ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 𝐴𝑑𝑥
dx
∴ 𝑆 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2
dt
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 ∴ 𝑆 = 𝐶𝜀0 𝐸 2 … … … (1)
𝑆 = 𝐶𝜀0 𝐸. 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐 2 𝜖0 𝐸. 𝐵
1
𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = 𝜀 𝐸. 𝐵
𝜇0 𝜀0 0
𝐸. 𝐵
∴𝑆=
𝜇0

In vestor form above relation can be written as, ⃗S

⃗ ×B
= (E ⃗ )/μ0

The intensity of electromagnetic wave is defined as the average

of Poynting vector.
𝐸0 𝐵0
∴𝐼=
2𝜇0

Radiation pressure (𝑃𝑟 ):-

Electromagnetic waves have linear momentum as well as
energy. This means electromagnetic waves can exert a pressure
when incident on an object. The force per unit area on an object
due to electromagnetic radiation is called radiation pressure.
Let a beam of electromagnetic radiation of intensity I is incident
on an object of area 𝐴 perpendicular to the path of the radiation.
The object is free to move and the energy (∆𝑈) of radiation is

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entirely absorb by the object in time interval(∆𝑡). The energy
absorb by area A is;
∆𝑈 = 𝐼𝐴∆𝑡
The change in momentum (∆𝑃) of the object related to the
change in energy (∆𝑈) is given by;
∆𝑈 𝐼𝐴∆𝑡
∆𝑃 = =
𝐶 𝐶
Also from Newton’s second law a change in momentum is
related to a force as;
∆𝑃 𝐼𝐴
𝐹= =
∆𝑡 𝐶
𝐹 𝐼
∴ =
𝐴 𝐶
𝐼
Therefore radiation pressure (𝑃𝑟 ) =
𝐶

Instead of being absorbed if the radiation is entirely reflected

back along its original path, the change in momentum is given
by;
2∆𝑈
∆𝑃 =
𝐶
Proceeding in similar way, the radiation pressure in this case can
be calculated as;
2𝐼
(𝑃𝑟 ) =
𝐶
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If the radiation is partially reflected and partially absorbed, the
𝐼 2𝐼
radiation pressure is in between the value of and .
𝐶 𝐶

𝑬𝟎
Relation between E0 and B0 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑪 = :-
𝑩𝟎

We have third Maxwell equation as;

−𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡
In one dimension it can be expressed as

𝑑𝐸⃗ −𝑑𝐵⃗
= … … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
Science, 𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡)
Now differentiating this equation with respect to x
𝑑𝐸
= 𝐸0 𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 ) … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
And, 𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡)
Now differentiating this equation with respect to t
𝑑𝐵
= (−𝑤)𝐵0 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 ) … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡
Now from equation (1), (2) and (3);

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 𝐸0 𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 ) = 𝑤𝐵0 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 )
𝐸0 𝑤
∴ = =𝐶
𝐵0 𝑘

Charge conservation theorem (Continuity- equation):-

𝒅𝝆
𝐨𝐫, 𝛁. ⃗𝑱 + = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕

We have fourth Maxwell equation as;

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 [𝐽 + 𝜀0
(∇ × 𝐵 ]
𝑑𝑡
Taking divergence on both sides;

𝑑(∇. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸)
⃗ ) = 𝜇0 [∇. 𝐽 + 𝜀0
∇. (∇ × 𝐵 ]
𝑑𝑡
Since divergence of curl of any vector is zero
⃗)=0
𝑖. 𝑒. ∇. (∇ × 𝐵
𝜌
and we have; ∇. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 =
𝜀0

𝜌
𝑑
𝜀
𝑠𝑜, 0 = ∇. 𝐽 + ε0 0
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑𝜌
∴ ∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝑑𝑡
Numerical Examples:-
1. Calculate the magnitude of the Poynting vector and
the amplitude of the electric and magnetic fields at a
distance of 10 cm from a radio station which is
radiating power of 105 watt uniformly over a
hemisphere with radio station as center.
Solution:-
Power of the source (P) = 105 watt
Radius of the hemisphere (r) = 10 cm = 0.01 m
Magnitude of Poynting vector ( S) = ? , E0 =? and B0 =?
P 105 107
I= 2 = 2 = W/m2
2πr 2 × π × 0.1 2π
E02
We have, I =
2μ0 C
107
∴ E0 = √2 × 4π × 10−7 ×3× 108 ×
2π
= 3.5 × 104 V/m
E0 3.5 × 104
Similary, B0 = = 8 = 1.2 × 10−4 T = 120 μT
C 3 × 10

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 E0 Bo
And, magnetude of Poynting vector (S) =
μ0
3.5 × 104 × 1.2 × 10−4
=
4π × 10−7
= 3.34 × 106 W/m2

2. Using the Pyonting vector calculate the maximum

electric and magnetic fields for sun-light if the solar
constant is 1.4 KW/m2.
Solution:-
Given ; I = 1.4 KW/m2 = 1400W/m2

E0 Bo E0
we have, I = and B0 =
μ0 C
CB02
∴I=
2μ0

2Iμ0 2 × 1400 × 4π × 10−7

or, B0 = √ = √
C 3 × 108
∴ , B0 = 3.4 × 10−6 T = 3.4 μT
And, E0 = CB0 = 3 × 108 × 3.4 × 10−6
= 1020 𝑉/𝑚

3. Calculate the displacement current between the

square plates of capacitor having one side 1 cm if the
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 electric field between the plate is changing at the rate
of 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 V/meter-sec.
Solution:-
Here length of one side of plate (a) = 1 cm
∴ Area of the plate (A) = a2 = 1 cm2 = 1 × 10−4 m2
dE
And = 3 × 106 V/ms
dt

𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑 dE
We have, Id = 𝜀0 = 𝜀0 (𝐸𝐴) = ε0 A
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 dt
= 8.85 × 10−12 × 1 × 10−4 × 3 × 106
∴ Id = 2.655 × 10−9 A

4. A parallel plate capacitor has capacitance 20 µF. At

what rate the potential difference between the plates
must be changed to produce a displacement current
of 1.5 A?
Solution:-
Here, 𝐶 = 20 μ𝐹 = 20 × 10−6 𝐹
Id = 1.5 A
dE
=?
dt
We have,
dE d V ε0 A dV
𝐼𝑑 = ε0 A = ε0 A ( ) =
dt dt d d dt

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 dV
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑑 = C
dt
dV 𝐼𝑑 1.5
∴ = = −6
= 7.4 × 104 Volts/sec
dt C 20 × 10

5. What is the displacement current for a capacitor

having radius 5 cm with variable electric field 𝟖. 𝟗 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔/𝒎𝒔?
Solution:
𝑑𝐸
Here, 𝑟 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 5 × 10−2 𝑚, = 8.9 × 1012 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠/𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑡
dE dE
We have, 𝐼𝑑 = ε0 A = ε0 πr 2
dt dt
−12
𝐼𝑑 = 8.85 × 10 × 𝜋 × (5 × 10−2 )2 × 8.9 × 1012
= 0.62 𝐴

6. An observer is 1.8 m from an isotropic point light

source whose power is 250 watt. Calculate the rms
values of the electric and magnetic fields due to the
source at the position of observer.
Solution:
Here, 𝑟 = 1.8 𝑚, 𝑃 = 250 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡, 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 =? , 𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 =?
𝑃
We have, Intensity, 𝐼 =
𝐴
𝐸0 𝐵0
Also for e.m. wave, 𝐼 =
2𝜇0
𝐸0 𝐵0 𝑃
=
2𝜇0 4𝜋𝑟 2
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 𝐶𝐵02 𝑃
=
2𝜇0 4𝜋𝑟 2

2𝜇0 𝑃 2 × 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 250

𝐵0 = √ 2
=√
4𝜋𝑟 𝐶 4𝜋 × 1.82 × 3 × 108
= 2.27 × 10−7 𝑇
𝐸0 = 𝐶𝐵0 = 3 × 108 × 2.27 × 10−7 = 68.04 𝑉/𝑚
𝐸0
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 48.11 𝑉/𝑚
√2

𝐵0
𝐵𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 1.61 × 10−7 𝑇
√2

7. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of 10

cm radius is charged producing uniform
displacement current of magnitude 20 A/m2.
Calculate (i) Calculate the curl of magnetic flux
density between the plates (ii) Calculate the rate of
change of electric field in this region.
Solution:
Here, 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑟) = 10 𝑐𝑚 ⇒ 𝑟 = 0.1 𝑚
Current density (𝐽𝑑 ) = 20 𝐴/𝑚2
∴ Displacement urrent (𝐼𝑑 ) = 𝐽𝑑 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 0.62 𝐴
𝑑𝐸⃗
(𝑖)We have, (∇ × 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡

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 𝜇0 𝑑𝐸⃗ 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑
⃗ =
∇×𝐵 𝐴𝜀0 = = 𝜇0 𝐽𝑑
𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝐴
= 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 20
= 2.512 × 10−5 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
dE
(𝑖𝑖) 𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐼𝑑 = ε0 A
dt
dE Id Jd 20
= = = −12
= 2.26 × 1012 V/ms
dt εo A εo 8.85 × 10

8. Calculate the radiation pressure at the surface of the

earth and sun assuming the solar constant has value
of 2 cal/min cm2 at the surface of the earth. Given,
radius of sun is 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 and the average distance
between earth and sun is 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝒎.
Solution:-
𝐼1
[ 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡; 𝑖) 𝑃1 = = 4.67 × 10−6 N/m2
𝐶
𝐼1 𝑟22
And 𝑖𝑖) = 2 gives 𝐼2
𝐼2 𝑟1
Then we can get, 𝑃2 = 0.214 𝑁/𝑚2
Where, r1 = 1.5 × 1011 m and r2 = 7 × 108 ]

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Exercise:-
1. What are Maxwell’s equations? Using Maxwell’s equations
derive electromagnetic wave equation in dielectric medium.
Prove that em wave travels with velocity less than velocity
of light in such medium.
2. Write Maxwell’s equation in differential form in free space.
Derive electromagnetic equations in vacuum. Find their
plane wave solution.
3. Define Poynting vector. Prove that ⃗S = (E⃗ × ⃗B)/μ0 , where
the symbols have their usual meaning.
4. State Maxwell’s equation in integral form. Convert them in
to differential form. Explain each of these equations.
5. Write and explain Ampere’s law in magnetism. How
Maxwell modified it. Based on this modified equation,
explain the term displacement current. Prove displacement
current is equal to conduction current.
6. Write Maxwell’s equation in free space and dielectric
medium. With the help of Maxwell’s equations, Derive
charge conservation theorem.
7. Obtain an expression for energy transfer rate by
2 .
electromagnetic wave, from your result show that I ∝ Erms
Where I is the intensity of em wave and Erms is root mean
square value of electric field.
8. What is Poynting vector? Show that the intensity of an
electromagnetic wave equals the average magnetic energy
density times the speed of light.

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 9. Define Poynting vector and develop an expression of it in
terms of electric and magnetic fields.
10. The maximum electric field 10 m from an isotropic
point source of light is 2 V/m. What are (a) the maximum
value of the magnetic field and (b) the average intensity of
light there? (c) What is the power of the source?
11. A certain plane electromagnetic wave emitted by a
microwave antenna has a wavelength of 3 cm and a
maximum magnitude of electric field of 2 × 10−4 𝑉/𝑐𝑚. i)
What is frequency ii) What is the maximum magnetic field
and iii) What is the Poynting vector?
12. The sun delivers about 103 W/m2 of energy of the
earth’s surface through EM radiation calculate a) The total
power incident on a roof of dimension 8m × 20m, b)
radiation pressure and force exerted on the roof , assuming
roof is perfect absorber.
13. A radio wave transmits 25 W/ m2 of power per unit
area. The flat surface area is perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of wave. Calculate the radiation pressure on
it and maximum electric and magnetic field associated with
the wave.
14. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of 20
cm radius is charged producing uniform displacement
current of magnitude 20 A/m2. Calculate (i) dE/dt in the
region (ii) displacement current density and (iii) Induced
magnetic field.

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 15. Calculate the displacement current between the
capacitor plates of area 1.5 × 10−2 m2 and rate of electric
field change is 1.5 × 10−12 V/ms. Also calculate
displacement current density.
16. If a parallel plate capacitor with circular plate be
charged, prove that the induced magnetic field at a distance
r in the region between the plates be B =
1 dE 1 μ0 ϵ0 R2 dE
μ ϵ r for r ≤ R and B = for r ≥ R.
2 0 0 dt 2 2r dt

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 Electromagnetic oscillation

A Coupled Oscillation of the electric field and the magnetic field

that constitute a single electromagnetic field is called
electromagnetic oscillation. Electromagnetic oscillation
propagates as electromagnetic wave consists of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields. Electric and magnetic fields
oscillate perpendicular to each other and propagate in the
direction perpendicular to both.

L-C oscillation (Free Oscillation):-

The electric current and the charge on the capacitor in the circuit
undergo electrical LC oscillations when a charged capacitor is
connected to an inductor. The electrical energy stored in the
capacitor is its initial charge which is maximum.

The inductor contains zero energy. When the switch is turned

on, the current in the circuit starts increases and the charge on
the capacitor keeps decreasing. The current induced in the
circuit produces a magnetic field in the inductor.
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The total energy at that instant in an oscillating L-C circuit is the
sum of electric and magnetic energy.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐

𝑞2 𝐿𝐼2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑈 = + … … … (1)
2𝐶 2
Since, the circuit has no resistance which indicate, there is no
energy loss and the total energy is constant with time.
𝑑𝑈
∴ = 0 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑞2 𝐿𝐼2
𝑜𝑟, ( + )= 0
𝑑𝑡 2𝐶 2
2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 2𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, + =0
2𝐶 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, . 𝐼 + 𝐿𝐼 = 0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, +𝐿 =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑 𝑑𝑞
𝑜𝑟, +𝐿 ( )=0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑2 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, +𝐿 2 =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 2
+ = 0 … … … (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
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This is the differential equation that, describes the oscillation of
resistance less L-C circuit. The solution of this equation is;
𝑞 = 𝑞0 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
Now, comparing this equation with standard differential
equation of SHM;
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑖. 𝑒. 2 + 𝑤2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
1
∴𝑤=
√𝐿𝐶
1
∴𝑓= … … … . (4)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Hence an LC circuits oscillate with constant frequency given by,
above equation.

Oscillation of Electric and magnetic energy in an LC

circuit:-
The energy stored as the electric field in the capacitor at any
time t is;
𝑞2 [𝑞0 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)]2 𝑞02
𝑈𝐸 = = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
2𝐶 2𝐶 2𝐶
𝑞02
(𝑈𝐸 ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = … … … . (5)
2𝐶

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Similarly, the energy store as magnetic field in the inductor at
the same instant is,
𝐿𝐼2 1 𝑑𝑞 2 𝐿
𝑈𝐵 = = 𝐿( ) = [𝑤𝑞0 cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)]2
2 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑞02 2 2(
𝑞02 1
𝑈𝐵 = . 𝐿. 𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 + ∅) = . 𝐿. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
2 2 𝐿𝐶
𝑞02
𝑈𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
2𝐶
𝑞02
(𝑈𝐵 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = … … … . (6)
2𝐶
From equation (5) and (6) we can say that maximum value of
electric and magnetic energy stored in LC circuit is equal and at
any instant the sum of electric and magnetic energy is equal to
𝑞02
a constant.
2𝐶

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L-C oscillation with resistance (Damped oscillation):-

Consider a circuit consists of an inductor with inductance ‘L’, a

capacitance with capacitor ‘C’ and resistor of resistance ‘R’ as
shown in figure. Consider a capacitor is given a charge Q o
initially, due to the presence of resistance a part of energy is
converted in to a thermal energy. Because of this loss of energy
the oscillation of charge, current and potential difference
continuously decreases in amplitude. Such oscillations are called
damped oscillation.
Now, Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law;
𝑑𝐼 𝑄
𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅 + = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 ( )+ 𝑅 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 2+ 𝑅 + = 0 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
This is the differential equation for damped LCR oscillation.

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Comparing this equation with differential equation for
mechanical damped harmonic oscillator equation;
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2+ 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We get;
𝑚 = 𝐿, 𝑏 = 𝑅, 𝐾 = 1/𝐶
Therefore, the angular frequency of damped oscillation will be

𝐾 𝑏2 1 𝑅2
𝑤= √ − 2 = √ − 2 … … … (3)
𝑚 4𝑚 𝐿𝐶 4𝐿

The solution of equation (2) is

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡/2𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
Therefore the solution of equation (1) is given by
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) … … … (4)
Therefore, oscillation of damped (LCR) oscillation is a
sinusoidal oscillation with an exponentially decaying amplitude
𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 .
Equation (3) shows that the angular frequency of the damped
oscillation is always less than the angular frequency of un-
damped oscillation.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

From equation (3),
1 𝑅2
1. When > , 𝑤 is positive, the discharge of capacitor
𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2
is oscillatory (under damped).
1 𝑅2
2. When = , 𝑤 is zero, the discharge is non-
𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2
oscillatory (critically damped).
1 𝑅2
3. When < , 𝑤 is negative, the discharge is non-
𝐿𝐶 4𝐿2
oscillatory (over damped).

Forced Electromagnetic oscillation:-

Since, there is always some resistance present in an electric

circuit. So some energy is converted in to heat energy causing
damped oscillation. Therefore, the periodic input of power is
given to bring it to behave as an oscillatory circuit. Such
oscillations are called forced electromagnetic oscillation. Figure

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

sows LCR series circuit with an AC frequency generator of
𝑒𝑚𝑓.
𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
Now, Using KVL;
𝑑𝐼 𝑄
𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅 + = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 ( )+𝑅 + = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑2 𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 2 +𝑅 + = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
This is the differential equation for forced LCR oscillation.
Comparing this equation with differential equation of force
mechanical oscillation;
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝐾𝑥 = 𝐹0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 … … … (2)𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑚 = 𝐿, 𝑏 = 𝑅, 𝐾= , 𝐹0 = 𝑉0
𝐶
The solution of equation (2) is;
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
Then, solution of equation (1) becomes;
𝑄 = 𝑄0 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) … … … (3)

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝐹0 /𝑚
Since, 𝐴 =
√(𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 )2 + (𝑏𝑤 )2
𝑚
𝑉0 /𝐿
∴ 𝑄0 =
√(𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 )2 + (𝑅𝑤)2
𝐿
Differentiating equation (3) w.r.t. time. Current is given by
𝑑𝑄
𝐼= = 𝑄0 𝑤 cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
𝑑𝑡
This can be written as, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
𝑉0
Where, 𝐼0 = 𝑄0 𝑤 = … … … (4)
𝑍

Here, 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 is the impedance of LCR circuit.

The inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 and the capacitive
1 1
reactance, 𝑋𝐶 = = .
𝐶𝑤 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Resonance:-

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

When the applied frequency is equal to natural frequency the
amplitude of current in the circuit becomes maximum. Such
condition is called resonance. The frequency at which amplitude
of current becomes maximum is called resonance frequency.
From equation (4) it is seen that, the current in the circuit will be
maximum when Z is minimum, and Z is minimum when 𝑋𝐿 =
𝑋𝐶 .
1
⇒ 𝑤𝐿 =
𝑤𝐶
1 1
⇒𝑤= ∴ 2𝜋𝑓 =
√𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
1
Hence, Resonance frequency, 𝑓 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

1
At resonance, 𝑤 = 𝑤0 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
∴ 𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Quality Factor:-
It is defined as the ratio of the voltage drop across inductor (L)
or across capacitor (C) to the voltage drop across resistor (R) at
resonance.
𝑉𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑐
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄 =
𝑉𝑅

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

It is also defined as the ratio of the energy in the inductor or
capacitor to the energy dissipated across the resistance.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
The quality factor is also defined in terms of lower and upper
half part of frequencies f1 and f2 these frequencies lying below
and above the resonance frequency. Where, the power
dissipation is half of that at resonance frequency. At these
𝐼𝑟
frequencies current in the circuit is where Ir is current at
√2
resonance frequency.
2𝜋𝑓𝑟
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑄 =
𝑓2 − 𝑓1

Numerical Examples:-
1. A radio tuner has a frequency range from
𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐊𝐇𝐳 𝐭𝐨 𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳. If its LC circuit has an effective
inductance of 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝛍𝐇. What is the range of its variable
capacitor?
Solution:-
𝐹1 = 500 KHz = 500 × 103 𝐻𝑧
𝐹2 = 5 MHz = 5 × 106 𝐻𝑧
𝐿 = 400 𝜇𝐻 = 400 × 10−6 𝐻

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 𝐶 =?
1
We have; F1 =
2π√LC
1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = =
4𝜋𝐿𝐹12 4𝜋 × 400 × 10−6 × (500 × 103 )2
∴ 𝐶 = 2.535 × 10−10 𝐹
1
Also; F2 =
2π√LC
1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = =
4𝜋 2 𝐿𝐹22 4𝜋 2 × 400 × 10−6 × (5 × 106 )2
∴ 𝐶 = 2.535 × 10−12 𝐹
∴ Range of variable capacitor is 2.535 ×
10−12 𝐹 𝑡𝑜 2.535 × 10−10 𝐹.

2. A circuit has 𝐋 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐇 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐂 = 𝟏𝟎 𝛍𝐅.

How much resistance should be added to circuit so that
frequency of oscillation will be 𝟏 % less than that of LC
oscillation?
Solution:-
L = 10 mH = 10 × 10−3 H
C = 10 μF = 10 × 10−6 F

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 1 1
We have; F0 = =
2π√LC 2𝜋√10 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−6
= 503.29 𝐻𝑧
From question; F = F0 − 1% of F0
503.29
= 503.29 − = 498.51 𝐻𝑧
100
Then, F = F0 − 1% of F0

1 1 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, √ − ( )2 = 498.51
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 2𝐿

1 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, √ − ( )2 = 3130.64
𝐿𝐶 2𝐿

1 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, − ( )2 = 9800924.341
𝐿𝐶 2𝐿
1
𝑜𝑟, − 9800924.341
10 × 10−3 × 10 × 10−6
𝑅2
=
4 × (10 × 10−3 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 79.63
∴ 𝑅 = 8.92 𝛺

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 3. If 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐇 inductor and two capacitor of 𝟓 𝛍𝐅 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟐 𝛍𝐅
are given. Find the two resonance frequencies that can
be obtained by connecting these elements in different
ways.
Solution:-
L = 10 mH = 10 × 10−3 H
C1 = 5 μF = 5 × 10−6 F
C2 = 2 μF = 2 × 10−6 F
For series combination;
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1
= + = 700000
5 × 10−6 2 × 10−6
∴ 𝐶𝑠 = 1.42 × 10−6 𝐹
1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛; Fr = =
2π√LC 2𝜋√10 × 10−3 × 1.42 × 10−6
∴ Fr = 1335.599 Hz
For parallel combination;
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 5 × 10−6 + 2 × 10−6 = 7 × 10−6 𝐹
1 1
Then; Fr = =
2π√LC 2𝜋√10 × 10−3 × 7 × 10−6

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 ∴ Fr = 601.55 Hz

4. In an oscillating LC circuit, what value of charge

expressed in terms of maximum charge is present on
the capacitor when the energy is shared equally
between the electric and magnetic fields? At what time
will this condition occur, assuming the capacitor is fully
charged initially? Assume that 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑯 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑪 =
𝟏 𝝁𝑭.
Solution:-
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 10 𝑚𝐻 = 1 × 10−3 𝐻, 𝐶 = 1𝜇𝐹 = 1 × 10−6 𝐹
According to question, 𝑈𝐸 = 𝑈𝐵
Since, 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝑈𝐸 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
𝑈𝐸 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
2
𝑞 1 𝑞0 2
=
2𝐶 2 2𝐶
𝑞0
∴𝑞=
√2
Also from question, at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 ⇒ ∅ = 0
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡
𝑞0 1 𝜋
= 𝑞0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡 ⇒ sin 𝑤𝑡 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
√2 √2 4

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 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑤𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑡 = =
4 4𝑤 4
3.14 × √1 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−6
𝑡=
4
∴ 𝑡 = 2.5 × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

5. What resistance ‘R’ should be connected in series with

an inductance 220 mH and capacitance 12 µF for the
maximum charge on the capacitor to decay to 99% of its
initial value in 50 Cycles.
Solution:-
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 220 × 10−3 𝐻, 𝐶 = 12 × 10−6 𝐹
2𝜋
𝑡 = 50𝑇 = 50 ( ) = 100𝜋√𝐿𝐶 = 0.5104 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑤0
We have, 𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄0
𝑒 𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 =
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝐿 𝑄0
𝑅= ln( )
𝑡 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥
From question, 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 99% 𝑜𝑓 𝑄0 = 0.99𝑄0
2 × 220 × 10−3 𝑄0
∴𝑅= ln( )
0.5104 0.99𝑄0
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 = 8.66 × 10−3 𝛺

6. A series LCR circuit has inductance 12 mH, Capacitance

1.6 µF and resistance 1.5 Ω i) At what time the amplitude
of charge oscillation will be 50 % of its initial value ii) To
how many periods of oscillation does this happen.
Solution:-
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = 12 × 10−3 𝐻, 𝐶 = 1.6 × 10−6 𝐹, 𝑅 = 1.5𝛺
i) We have for damped LCR circuit,
𝑄 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)
∴ Amplitude of charge osillation, 𝑄𝑚 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿
𝑄0
From question, 𝑄𝑚 = 50%𝑜𝑓𝑄0 =
2
𝑄0
∴ = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑅𝑡/2𝐿 = 2
2
2𝐿 2 × 12 × 10−3 × ln(2)
𝑡= ln(2) =
𝑅 1.5
∴ 𝑡 = 0.011 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋
ii) Since, 𝑇 = = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑤

= 2 × 3.14√12 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−6

= 8.7 × 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.011
∴ Number of periods = = 13
8.7 × 10−4

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Exercise:-
7. Define LC oscillation qualitatively by using necessary
circuit and graph.
8. What is LC oscillation? Derive the differential equation of
free oscillation and compare its solution with mass spring
system.
9. Prove that LC circuit is an analogy of spring mass system.
Hence prove that maximum energy stored in the capacitor
is equal to maximum energy stored in inductor.
10. Define sharpness of resonance. Derive the relation for
current amplitude of forced e-m oscillation.
11. Compare the damped and forced LCR oscillation.
Derive the differential equation of forced e-m oscillation
and compare it with driven mechanical oscillation.
12. What is resonance? Formulate the differential equation
of forced e-m oscillation. Then determine the expression
for resonant frequency.
13. Derive the differential equation of the forced
oscillation of LCR circuit with an AC source and find the
expression for the current amplitude. Hence explain the
condition of current resonance in such circuit.
14. LC oscillations are called e-m oscillations, why?
Derive the differential equation for damped
electromagnetic oscillations and find the amplitude and
frequency of that oscillation.

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 15. Discuss about the damped electromagnetic oscillation.
Find the expression for damped frequency. Also discuss
about over damping, critical damping and under damping
condition.
16. Derive a relation for current flopping in the circuit
containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor in series
with a sinusoidal varying emf. Find the condition for
current response.
17. Obtain an expression for current in a driven LCR
circuit and discuss how the current leads or lags the applied
voltage in phase; (a) when the net reactance in circuit is
inductive and (b) when the reactance in circuit is equal to
resistance. Illustrate it with the help of a figure.
18. A 2 µF capacitor is charged up to 50 V. The battery is
disconnected and 50 mH coil is connected across the
capacitor so that LC oscillation to occur. Calculate the
maximum value of current in the circuit.
19. A circuit has L = 1.2 mH, C = 1.6 µF and R = 1.5 Ω.
(a) After what time t will the amplitude of the charge
oscillation drop to one half of its initial value. (b) To how
many periods does this correspond?
20. What should be the capacitance of a capacitor in a
tuned circuit of frequency 10 MHz having an inductance of
0.01 mH? The resistance of the circuit is negligible?
21. A 20 mH inductor and 600 µF capacitor form an
oscillating circuit. What is the peak value of current if the
initial charge is 60 µC?
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 22. A circuit has L = 5 mH and C = 2 µF. How much
resistance must be inserted in the circuit to reduce the
resonance frequency by 5 %.
23. Calculate the resonating frequency and quality
factor of a circuit having 0.02 µF capacitance, 8 mH
inductance and 0.25 Ω resistance.

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 Photon and Matter Waves

Quantization of Energy:-
In black body radiation it was considered that the radiation was
emitted continuously. In 1902 Planck had shown that the energy
from the body was emitted in separate packets of energy. The
energy of each packet is equal to hf, called a quantum energy.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 Where, h = 6.67×10-34 JS is the Planck’s constant.
And f is the frequency of radiation. This theory is called
Planck’s quantum theory.
In general for n number of photons the total energy is;
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓 Where, n =0,1,2,3,…
This means energy is emitted in the form of discrete amount. i.e.
Energy is multiple of fundamental energy ‘ℎ𝑓’. So energy is
quantized.

De- Broglie Equation:-

De-Broglie suggested his hypothesis that there is “wave particle
dualism” i.e. particle nature of electrons and wave nature of
electrons.
To show the wave particle dualism he used Planck’s theory of
quantum radiation and Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
According to Planck’s theory of quantum radiation energy of
photon is given by;
ℎ𝐶
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = … … … (𝑖)
𝜆
Again, According to Einstein mass energy relationship, energy
of photon is given by;
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐶 2 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
From equations (i) and (ii)
ℎ𝐶
= 𝑚𝐶 2
𝜆
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝐶 𝑝
Therefore according to De- Broglie, the wavelength of the wave
associated with the moving particle having momentum 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
ℎ
is given by; 𝜆 = .
𝑚𝑣

The de-Broglie Electron wave:-

According to de-Broglie if an electron is accelerated to various
velocities at various potential, different waves having different
wave length are produced.
For de-Broglie matter wave we have,
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = … … … … (1)
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
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If an electron of mass ‘m’ is accelerated through the potential
‘V’ and velocity v then,

1 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉 ⇒ 𝑣 = √ … … … . (2)
2 𝑚

ℎ ℎ
∴𝜆= =
2𝑒𝑉 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑚√
𝑚
ℎ
∴ Wave length of electron wave, 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Wave and group Velocity:-

According to de-Broglie, each particle of matter in motion is
associated with a group of wave or wave packet. The velocity of
this group of wave which is quantitatively equal to mechanical
velocity of the particle is called group velocity. It is given by
𝑑𝑤
𝑣=
𝑑𝑘
This group of wave consist of different component waves. The
velocity with each component of the wave propagates is called
phase or wave velocity. It is given by 𝑢 = 𝑓𝜆.
Relation between group velocity and Phase velocity:-
2𝜋
We know wave vector 𝑘 =
𝜆
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
 𝑑𝑘 2𝜋
=− 2
𝑑𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋𝑢
And, 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝜆

𝑑𝑤 2𝜋𝑢 2𝜋 𝑑𝑢
=− 2 +
𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤/𝑑𝜆
∴ Group velocity, 𝑣 = =
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘/𝑑𝜆
−𝜆2 −2𝜋𝑢 2𝜋 𝑑𝑢
= ( 2 + )
2𝜋 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝑢
𝑣 =𝑢−𝜆
𝑑𝜆
This shows the relation between wave velocity (u) and group
velocity (v). This shows that wave velocity is always greater
than group velocity.

Wave Function and its significance:-

A simple harmonic wave is represented by the equation; 𝑦 =
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥). In such type of wave motion there is only the
transfer of energy but in case of matter wave there is transfer of
momentum in addition to the energy. The suitable function to
represented wave function for matter wave is;
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑖(𝑤𝑡−𝑘𝑥) … … … . (𝑖)

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Science 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 2𝜋ħ𝑓 = 𝑤ħ
𝐸
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑤 =
ħ
ℎ 2𝜋ħ
We have, 𝑃 = = = 𝑘ħ
𝜆 𝜆

𝑃
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑘 =
ħ
Therefore equation (i) can be represented as;
𝑖
− (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑒 ħ … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
The wave function ψ has no physical meaning itself, when it is
operated by Schrodinger wave equation; it describes the motion
of the particle associated with it as done by second law of
motion in classic mechanics.
The only quantity having physical meaning is the square of its
magnitude.
P = ψψ̽ = |ψ|2 where ψ̽ is complex conjugate of ψ. The quantity P
= |ψ|2 evaluated at a particular point at particular time is
proportional to the probability of finding the particle at that
time.

Schrodinger time independent wave equation :-

Schrodinger wave equations describe a motion of quantum
mechanical particle as Newton’s second law in classic
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mechanics. The wave function for quantum mechanical particle
is given by;
𝑖
− (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑒 ħ … … … (1)
Now differentiating this equation with respect to x,
𝑑𝜓 𝑖𝑃 − 𝑖 (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)
= 𝐴𝑒 ħ
𝑑𝑥 ħ
ħ 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓
𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝜓 = = −𝑖ħ
𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝜓
∴ 𝑃𝜓 = −𝑖ħ … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
Similarly, differentiating equation (1) two times w. r. t. x we get;
𝑑2 𝜓
∴ 𝑃2𝜓 = −ħ2 … … … . (3)
𝑑𝑥 2
Consider a particle of mass m and potential energy V moving
with velocity v, then total energy is given by;
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉
2
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2
𝐸= + 𝑉
2 𝑚
𝑃2
𝐸= + 𝑉
2𝑚
Now multiplying this equation by ψ

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 𝑃2𝜓
𝐸𝜓 = + 𝑉𝜓 … … … (4)
2𝑚
Now from equation (3) and (4)
ħ2 𝑑2 𝜓
𝐸𝜓 = − + 𝑉𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
ħ2 𝑑2 𝜓
∴ + (𝐸 − 𝑉)𝜓 = 0
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 2𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
𝑜𝑟 + 𝜓=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2

This is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation in one

dimension. In three dimensions above equation can be written
as;
2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0
ħ2

Schrodinger time dependent wave equation:-

The wave function for quantum mechanical particle is given by;
𝑖
− (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥)
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑒 ħ … … … (1)
Now differentiating this equation with respect to t,
𝑑𝜓 −𝑖𝐸 − 𝑖 (𝐸𝑡−𝑃𝑥) −𝑖𝐸
= 𝐴𝑒 ħ = 𝜓
𝑑𝑡 ħ ħ

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

 ħ 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝜓 = − = 𝑖ħ
𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜓
∴ 𝐸𝜓 = 𝑖ħ … … … (2)
𝑑𝑡
Consider a particle of mass m and potential energy 𝑉 moving
with velocity 𝑣, then total energy is given by;
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉
2
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2
𝐸= + 𝑉
2 𝑚
𝑃2
∴𝐸= + 𝑉
2𝑚
Now multiplying this equation by ψ
𝑃2𝜓
𝐸𝜓 = + 𝑉𝜓
2𝑚
𝑑𝜓 ħ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
∴ 𝑖ħ =− + 𝑉𝜓
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

ħ2 𝑑 2 𝜓 𝑑𝜓
+ 𝑖ħ − 𝑉𝜓 = 0
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑡

This is required time dependent Schrodinger wave equation in

one dimension. In three dimensions above equation can be
written as,
ħ2 𝑑𝜓
∇2 𝜓 + 𝑖ħ − 𝑉𝜓 = 0 .
2𝑚 𝑑𝑡

Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali

Applications of Schrodinger wave equation:-
A particle in an one dimensional infinitely deep potential
well:-

Consider a particle restricted to move along 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑙.

The potential energy (V) of the particle is zero inside the box but
raise to ∞ on the outside.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑙
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝑙
In such case the particle is said to be moving in an infinitely
deep potential well. The Schrodinger wave equation for the
particle within the box is;
𝑑 2𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝜓 = 0 … … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2

𝑑 2𝜓 2𝑚𝐸𝜓
+ = 0 … … … (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2

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 2𝑚𝐸
Let, 𝑘 2 = … … … (3)
ħ2

𝑑2 𝜓
∴ 2
+ 𝑘 2 𝜓 = 0 … … … (4)
𝑑𝑥
The solution of above equation is
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 … … … (5)
Where A and B are constants to be determine using Boundary
condition. Science the particle cannot exist outside the box.
Therefore the wave function ψ must be zero, outside the box and
at the walls;
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑙
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0
𝜓(𝑥) = 0
∴ 0 =0+𝐵
∴𝐵=0
Similarly, for 𝑥 = 𝑙
𝜓(𝑥) = 0
∴ 0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = sin 𝑛𝜋
𝑜𝑟, 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋
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 𝑛𝜋
𝑘= … … … (6)
𝑙
From equations (3) and (6)
2𝑚𝐸
𝑘2 =
ħ2
𝑛2 𝜋 2 2𝑚𝐸
𝑜𝑟, = 2
𝑙2 ħ
𝑛2 𝜋 2 ħ2
∴𝐸=
2𝑚𝑙 2
This means the energy of the particle in potential well is
quantized. Each value of energy given by above relation is
called Eigen value and corresponding function is called Eigen
function.
𝑛𝜋
Now substituting, 𝐵 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = in equation (5), the
𝑙
allowed solutions of Schrodinger equation are;
nπx
ψn (x) = A sin ( )
𝑙
The coefficient A is called Normalizing constant and can be
determined using Normalizing condition.
𝑙

∫ 𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0

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 𝑙
2
𝑛𝜋𝑥 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝑙
0
𝑙
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 )𝑑𝑥 = 1
2 𝑙
0
𝑙 𝑙
1 1 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 [ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑑𝑥 ] = 1
2 2 𝑙
0 0

𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 . = 1
2

2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = √
𝑙

∴ The normalized wave functions of the particles are therefore

2 nπx
ψn (x) = √ sin ( )
𝑙 𝑙

The first three Eigen functions, ψ1, ψ2, ψ3 and Eigen values are
shown in figure below.

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Barrier Tunneling:-

Tunneling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon when a

particle is able to penetrate through a potential
energy barrier that is higher in energy than the particle's kinetic
energy. The probability of finding the particle in third region by
penetrating the barrier is known as barrier tunneling. Consider a
barrier of potential V having width L. When a moving particle
Prepared by Gunanidhi Gyanwali
of energy 𝐸 < 𝑉 be incident on the barrier from the left of
region I, classically region II and III are forbidden to particle.
But for quantum mechanics all region are accessible to the
particle. This is because for relatively narrow barrier, in short
time, the particle can allow to cross it. This effect of quantum
mechanical particle is called barrier tunneling.
The potential function for barrier tunneling can be expressed as;
V(x) = 0, for x < 0
= V0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 and
= 0 for x > 𝐿
The Schrodinger wave equation in region I, II and III are
d 2 ψI 2mEψI 𝑑 2 𝜓𝐼
+ = 0 or, + 𝛽 2 𝜓𝐼 = 0
dx 2 ħ2 𝑑𝑥 2

2mE
where β2 =
ħ2

d2 ψII 2m(E−V0 )ψII 𝑑2 𝜓𝐼𝐼

+ = 0 or, + 𝛼 2 𝜓𝐼𝐼 = 0
dx 2 ħ2 𝑑𝑥 2

2m(E−V0 )
where α2 =
ħ2

d2 ψIII 2mEψIII 𝑑2 𝜓𝐼𝐼𝐼

+ = 0 or, + 𝛽2 𝜓𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0
dx 2 ħ2 𝑑𝑥 2

2mE
where β2 =
ħ2

The wave functions in these regions are;

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ψI = Aeiβx + Be−iβx , where A is the amplitude of the incident
wave and B is the amplitude of the reflected wave.
ψII = Ce−αx + Deαx , where C is the amplitude of the incident
wave and D is the amplitude of the reflected wave.
And ψIII = Feiβx where F is the amplitude of the transmitted
wave.
The transmission coefficient represents the probability that the
particle penetrates to the other side of the barrier. It is
|F|2 16E(V0 − E) −2k L
T= 2 = 2 e 2
|A| V0

2m(V0 − E)
where, k2 = √
ħ2

Numerical Examples:-
1. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron
subjected to a potential difference of 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝐊𝐕.
Solution:-
1
We have; mv 2 = eV
2

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 2𝑒𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = √
𝑚

h h
Now; λ = =
mv √2meV
6.62 × 10−34
=
√2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.25 × 103
∴ 𝜆 = 0.347 𝐴0

2. Find the energy of the neutron in units of eV. Which

de-Broglie wavelength is 𝟏 𝑨𝟎 . Given mass of neutron =
𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝑲𝒈.
Solution:-
wavelength (λ) = 1 A0 = 1 × 10−10 m
Mass of neutron = 1.67 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔
h
We know that; λ =
mv
h 6.62 × 10−34
∴v= =
mλ 1.67 × 10−27 × 1 × 10−10
= 3964.07 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 1
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 = 1.67 × 10−27 × (3964.07)2
2
2 2
= 1.31 × 10−20 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
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 = 8.13 × 10−2 𝑒𝑉

3. What voltage must be applied to an electron

microscope to produce electron of wavelength 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝑨𝟎 .
Solution:-
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19
Wavelength (λ) = 0.50 A0 = 0.50 × 10−10 m
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔
1
We have; mv 2 = eV
2
1 h
𝑜𝑟, eV = m( )2
2 mλ
1 (6.62 × 10−34 )2
= ×
2 9.1 × 10−31 × (0.50 × 10−10 )2
∴ V = 597.89 volts

4. An electron is confined to an infinite height box of size

𝟎. 𝟏 𝒏𝒎. Calculate the ground state energy of the
electron. How this electron can be put to the third
energy level?
Solution:-

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 Width (𝑙 ) = 0.1 nm = 0.1 × 10−9 m
𝑛2 𝜋 2 ħ2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
We have; Energy (𝐸 ) = =
2𝑚𝑙 2 8𝑚𝑙 2
𝑛2 (6.62 × 10−34 )2
=
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 0.1 × 10−9
= 6.05 × 10−18 𝑛2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
= 37.7 𝑛2 𝑒𝑉
In ground state; n = 1, 𝐸1 = 37.7 𝑒𝑉
In third energy state; n = 3, 𝐸3 = 37.7 × 32 𝑒𝑉
= 37.7 × 9 𝑒𝑉
∴ 𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = (9 − 1) × 37.7 = 301.5 𝑒𝑉
Hence to put the electron to third energy level an extra
energy of 301.5 eV is to be given.

5. The wave function of a particle confined in a box of

𝟐 𝝅𝒙
length 𝒍 is 𝛙(𝐱) = √ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 . Calculate the probability
𝒍 𝒍
𝒍
of finding the particle in length 𝟎 𝐭𝐨 .
𝟐

Solution:-
𝑙
The probability of finding the particle in length 0 to is;
2

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 𝑙
2

𝑃 = ∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑙/2 𝑙/2
2 2
𝜋𝑥 2 2𝜋𝑥
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
0 0

2 𝑙 1
∴𝑃= . = = 50 %
𝑙 4 2

6. Calculate the probability of transmission of α particle

through the rectangular barrier indicated below.
Height of the barrier (𝑽) = 𝟐 𝒆𝑽, energy of α particle
(𝑬) = 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 barrier width (𝑳) = 𝟏 𝑨𝟎 , mass of α particle
(𝒎) = 𝟔. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈.
Solution:-
h 6.62 × 10−34
ħ= = = 1.0557 × 10−34 J sec
2π 2π

2𝑚(𝑉 − 𝐸)
𝐾2 = √
ħ2

2 × 6.4 × 10−27 (2 − 1) × 1.16 × 10−19

= √
(1.0557 × 10−34 )2

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 ∴ 𝐾2 = 4.2867 × 1011
16𝐸(𝑉 − 𝐸 )
𝐴𝑛𝑑,
𝑉2
16 × 1 × 1.16 × 10−19 (2 − 1) × 1.16 × 10−19
=
(2 × 1.16 × 10−19 )2
=4
16𝐸(𝑉 − 𝐸) −2𝐾 𝐿
∴ Transmission coefficient (T) = 2
.𝑒 2
𝑉
11 ×1×10−10
= 4 × 𝑒 −2×4.2867×10
= 1.47 × 10−37

Exercise:-
7. What are the significance of wave function? Using the
wave function derive and expression for the dependent
Schrodinger wave equation.
8. Write down Schrodinger time dependent and time
independent wave equations. Prove that the energy levels
are quantized when the electron is confined in an infinite
potential well of width ‘a’.
9. A free particle is confined in a box of width L. Using
Schrodinger wave equation find an expression for the
energy Eigen value.

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 10. Derive Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
A particle is moving in one dimensional potential well of
infinite height and width ‘a’. Find the expression for
energy of the particle.
11. Determine the total energy of a particle using
Schrodinger equation, when the potential energy has value
V = 0 for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎.
12. What is barrier tunneling? Discuss and write the
Schrodinger wave equation in each region. Also write the
formula of transmission coefficient, T in this case.
13. Prove that the energy level are quantized , when the
electron is confined in an infinite potential well of width
‘a’
14. A beam of electrons having energy of each 3eV is
incident on a potential barrier of height 4eV. If the width
of the barrier is 20A0, calculate the transmission coefficient
of the beam through the barrier.
15. A non relativistic particle is moving three times as fast
as an electron. The ratio of the de- Broglie wavelength of
the particle to that of the electron is 1.813 × 10−4 .
Calculate the mass of the particle.
16. Using the uncertainty principle, calculate the
minimum uncertainty in velocity when an electron is
confined to a length ∆𝑥 = 1𝑛𝑚. Given, m = 9.1 ×
10−31 Kg, h = 6.6 × 10−34 Js.(Formula:- ∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≥
ℎ
, where ∆x is uncertainty in position
4𝜋

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 and ∆p is uncertainty of momentum)
17. An electron is confined in an one dimensional infinite
potential well of width a, the potential energy is V =
0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝑎 and V = ∞ for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 𝑎. Find the
nπx
Eigen functions ψn (x) = A sin ( ) and energy Eigen
𝑎
n2 π 2 ħ 2
values En = .
2m𝑎2
18. Calculate the permitted energy levels of an electron in
one dimensional potential well of width 0.2 nm.

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