[ ] Soils are highly acidic and poor in nutrients.

The rapid
Major Biomes of the World nutrient recycling in these forests leaves the soil almost
sterile. Thus, the nutrients are either held in the organisms
or leached by the year-long rainfall. --> "wet deserts"
A biome is a large natural ecosystem, where all biotic life
have minimum common features and more or less uniform
Tropical Deciduous Forests (Am):
environmental and climatic conditions. There are five major
biomes in the world: forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and [ ] In the monsoon areas of 27°C annual temperature and
attitudinal biomes. A forest biome is the final vegetation 200-75 cm rainfall. They are most widespread in India and
type in the process of succession on land areas, unless local divided into: □ Moist deciduous (200-100 cm rainfall) forests
climatic, soil or biotic factors arrest development. Two main along the eastern slopes of Western Ghats, in the north
types of trees: 1) evergreen, which always have leaves, and eastern parts of Peni plateau, in the NE states and along the
2) deciduous, which shed all their leaves totally usually in Himalayan foothills. □ Dry deciduous (100-70 cm) forests in
winter or dry season to conserve water and energy. Most the rainier parts of Peni plateau and plains of Bihar and UP.
deciduous trees have broad leaves susceptible to damage
during cold dry weather, and so they shed their leaves in the [ ] Trees are deciduous due to the marked dry period, more
season to prevent excessive loss of water through open and less rich with fewer spicies. Moist deciduous: teak,
transpiration. Before doing so, the trees reabsorb valuable sal, sandalwood, mulberry. Dry deciduous areas have pepal,
nutrients from their leaves and store them for later use in neem, Palash, tendu (తతతతతత), ippa (mahwa or Iluppai)
their roots. As part of the process, Chlorophyll is broken and bamboo, apart from those in the moist deciduous areas.
down and in result, other colors in the leaves are then
[ ] These forests are commercially most important and most
visible, giving a colorful look to the autumn forest.
exploited. Large tracks of these forests have been cleared for
Tropical Evergreen Rainforest (Af): cultivation and have also suffered from over-cutting,
overgrazing, fires, etc.
[ ] In the areas of year-long high temperature (20-25°C) and
high rainfall (220°cm) on either side of the equator - in South Temperate Broad-leaved Deciduous forests:
America, Central and West Africa and the Indo-Malayan
[ ] Found in the areas of moderate temperature (10-20°C)
Peninsula and Southeast Asia. In India, the evergreen forests
and rainfall (150-75 cm), these forests cover most of the
-- in the rainy slopes of Western Ghats, plains of WB and
temperate areas of Europe, eastern North America, eastern
Orissa, the NE region and the A&N islands. In the less rainy
Asia and small parts of Australia.
parts of these areas are found the the semi-evergreen ones.
[ ] "Moderately dense broad leaved trees" (oak, chestnut,
[ ] Hot and wet climate with little seasonality means year-
maple, etc) shed their leaves in autumn and new leaves grow
long growing period to support dense and diverse evergreen
in spring. Animals range from very small to large bodied ones
forests with multistoried structure. Brazilian forests have
like elephants, lions, rinhos, etc. Hibernation (winter sleep)
300 species of trees in a 200 sq km area.
is a common feature of animals in these forests.
[ ] Under the climate conditions, severe completion for
[ ] In India, they mainly occur in the western Himas b/w
survival leads to narrow ecological niches. In trying to reach
1500-2400 m altitudes. But the trees in the Hima region are
the light, the trees become very tall upto 60 m, or adopt a
evergreen. They show peak leaf fall during summer but
climbing habit or live as epyphites (any plant that grows
never become leafless.
upon another plant or object merely for physical support).
[ ] Because this biome has fertile soil and a long (5-6 month)
[ ] Animals: the multistoried structure supports several tree-
growing season, many of these forests have been converted
dwelling animals. Some have the ability to glide in the air like
into agricultural regions.
fox, langurs, squirrels. Some mammals have large and study
bodies to push tree away.
Temperate Evergreen Rainforests (Df):
[ ] Timber is hard, durable, fine gained and of high economic
[ ] Also called "coniferous/boreal/Taiga forests", they occur
value. The timber trees -- Ebony, mahogany, rosewood.
in cool temperate continental/sub-Arctic/Siberian climate,
Plantation: rubber and oil palms (Malaysia and Indonesia),
they are in a continuous belt south of Arctic circle in North
sugar and coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, coconuts, cocoa,
America and Eurasia, and in the Himalayas b/w 1500-3000
cinchona, bamboo, banana, pineapple and spices.
m altitudes. Absent in the SH as there is no land.
[ ] Annual temperature range (-40 to 25°C) is greatest and [ ] the African Savanna has greatest number and variety of
precipitation (100-40 cm) mostly falls as snow. The long grazing vertebrate mammals in the world. But South
bitterly cold, dry winters and the short cool and moist American and Australian Savanna don't have so many
summers provide only a 3-4 month growing period. grazing animals but great variety of birds.

[ ] The conifers, which take or release little moisture, are [ ] Soils are ferralsolic and often include near-surface laterite
best suited in such conditions. They grow needle-like leaves crusts, creating an impermeable layer in which phosphates
to check excessive transpiration and are conical in shape to and nitrates are lacking.
protect from snow accumulation and strong winds. Known
as "conifers" as they have cones/naked seeds (not flowers). Temperate Grasslands:

[ ] Little undergrowth due to poor soils and little sunlight. [ ] surrounding the deserts of continental interiors: Prairies
The podzolized soils are excessively leached and highly of North America, Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay,
acidic. Little leaf fall, low decomposition, absence of direct steppes of Eurasia, Velds of South Africa, Downs of Australia
sunlight and short summers are other reasons. and Canterbury grasslands of New Zealand. Also found in
the Himalayas between 2200 and 3000 m altitudes.
[ ] Coniferous forests are world's largest land biome (29% of
its forest cover) and richest sources of softwood used for [ ] Due to their extreme continentality, they experience
building construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp, extremely high annual thermal range (-15 to 20°C). But in
dyes, paints & other chemically processed articles. the SH they have more moderate climate -- winters above
0°C -- due to marine influence.
[ ] Limited in variety: pine, fir, spruce, larch and in Western
Himalayas, deodar. They occur in homogeneous groups and [ ] Compered to the Savanna, the temperate grasslands get
not mixed as in the tropical forests. Their presence in pure lower precipitation (25-75 cm) and are almost treeless and
sands and in moderate density also make the forests more the grass is much shorter and wiry. Where rainfall is
accessible and commercially valuable. moderate, it is tall and fresh (long prairie grass). In addition
they supports few species of big mammals like buffalo,
[ ] Animals: invertebrates are dominant herbivores; Wolf,
antelopes & horses.
lynx and black bears are dominant cornivores.
[ ] Grass requires less moisture than trees, and changes its
Tropical Savanna Grasslands (Aw): color with seasons – green with flowers due to light rainfall
in spring, yellow and brown due to high heat or evaporation
[ ] Grasslands (20% of the Earth’s land) occur in both tropical
in summer, lies dormant with roots alive in the long snowy
and temperate regions where rainfall (120-50 cm) is not
winter and comes back to life when it gets warm in spring.
enough for the tree growth.
[ ] Tree occur only on steep slopes or near water. Poleward,
[ ] The tropical grasslands are found in Guinea-Sudan belt
more precipitation results in a transitional zone of wooded
and around Cango basin covering nearly half of Africa, Lianos
steppes and conifers. Equatorward, the grass becomes
of Orinico basin and Campos of Brazilian Highlands in South
shorter and merges into thorny shrubs of the deserts.
America, and northern Australia south of its monsoon strip.
Most of peninsular India except coromandel and malabar [ ] Soils are deep, most fertile and rich in humus and bases
coasts become grassland due to human interference. (Chernozems, Chestnuts and Prairies).

[ ] Savanna climate is transitional (5-20°N and S) between Desert Biomes:

equatorial rain forests and hot deserts, and experiences
distinct hot rainy summers and cool dry winters. Due to high [ ] Found in the arid regions, which may be hot in the tropics
temperature (22-32°C) with a marked seasonal drought the like Sahara, Australian, Arabian, Iranian, Thar, Californian or
land is dominated by tall grass and short scattered trees. Mexican or Mohave, Namibia, Kalahari, Atacama. They may
also be cool in temperate plateaux like Turkestan, Gobi and
[ ] Trees are deciduous with xerophytic features. They are
Patagonian deserts.
umbrella-shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong
wind. The grass is tall (6-12 feet), coarse and has long roots [ ] Annual precipitation of < 25 cm and high thermal range
to reach water. It looks greenish in rainy season, but turns (25 to 35°C; -5 to 26°C) do not support plant growth. Trees
yellow and lies dormant in the dry period. are rare except where there is abundant ground water to
support date palms. The vegetation is more discontinuous Montane Forests:
but more diverse than the tundra - "accidental vegetation"
The vegetation in the mountains is greatly influenced by the
[ ] Most of desert flora are annual or ephemeral species, fall in temperature with increasing height, and are broadly
which complete their life cycles within a few weeks after any classified into two major categories: those in Himalayas and
rain. Most vegetation is xerophytic or drought-resistant those in the peninsular plateaus and hill ranges.
shrub: long roots, few or no leaves (cacti) and thick succulent
stems to conserve water; seeds with thick and tough skins; In the Himalayas, one can notice a succession of natural
vegetation belts from tropical to tundra types. Initially, the
[ ] Animals are fewer. Adaptations: fewer sweat glands, moist deciduous forests along the foothills are succeeded by
concentrated urine, nocturnal in habit, and long legs to keep temperate evergreen broad-leaved trees like oak chestnut
the body away from hot ground. Lizards can live without b/w 1000 m and 2000 m altitudes. B/w 1500 m and 3000 m,
water for several days. the coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and
cedar are found. B/w 2200 and 3000, temperate grasslands
[ ] Soils are unleached and highly saline (with hard salt crust)
are common. At altitudes above 3600 m in the Himalayas,
due to intense evaporation, and very deficient in humus due
there is a transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Trees like
to little moisture, vegetation and decomposition. They are
silver fir, pine, juniper, birch, rhododendrons, etc occur
grey in temperate regions and red in hot deserts.
between 3000-4000 m. The forests merge into alpine
[ ] In India, thorny trees and bushes are found where rainfall grasslands at higher altitudes and these pastures are
is less than 50 cm and annual thermal range is b/w 25°C and extensively used by the nomadic tribes Gujjars, Bakarwals,
30°C – the semi arid areas of the northwestern, and on the Bhotiyas and gaddis who practice transhumance. Mosses
leeward side of Western Ghats covering large areas. and lichens are also found at higher altitudes.

Tundra Biomes: In peninsular India, the mountain forests are found in the
three distinct areas – Western Ghats, Vindhyas and Nilgiris.
[ ] Tundra ("barren land") biomes are found in two types: 1) As they are closer to the tropics, just above 1,500 m altitude
Arctic tundra in a continuous belt b/w polar ice caps and vegetation is temperate and below the level It’s subtropical.
tree line outside Arctic Circle and Antarctic tundra is very The temperate forests which include both broadleaved and
small. 2) Alpine tundra: at mountains above tree line (above coniferous trees are called Sholas in TN and described as a
3600 m). Found at all latitudes Alpine tundra shows diurnal climatic climax vegetation – magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
temperature changes. wattle. Now the tea plantations have been developed and
the former bare areas today have vegetal cover.
[ ] Biggest problem is deficiency in heat. With warmest
month never exceeding 10°C (tree-survival line), there are Aquatic Biomes:
no trees but only mosses, lichens, etc. In more favourable
coastal lowlands, the hardy grasses and the reindeer moss [ ] Life forms in water depends on the amount of sunlight
support reindeers. In the brief summer, when the snow entering the water, temperature, pressure, salt content, etc.
melts and days are warmer and longer, berry-bearing bushes Water biomes with lots of light have greater diversity and
and Arctic flowers bloom. the growth of plankton (algae, diatoms and protozoan) is
more. Fresh water biomes have low concentration of salts
[ ] At altitudes above 3600 m in the Himalayas, there is a and the animals are adjusted to this.
transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Trees like silver fir,
pine, juniper, birch, rhododendrons, etc occur between [ ] Marine biomes have much greater biodiversity as well as
3000-4000 m. The forests merge into alpine grasslands at biomass than land biomes. Maximum diversity of marine
higher altitudes and these pastures are extensively used by biomes is seen in the tidal zone near the shore. Different
the nomadic tribes Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiyas and gaddis kinds of organisms live at different depths of sea, and the
who practice transhumance. Mosses and lichens are also animals in the deeper layers are adapted to high pressure.
found at higher altitudes.
[ ] Diatoms, algae and protozoan are light-weight floating life
[ ] Most of the animals have large body covered with fur and forms. Seals, dolphins and whales are swimming life forms
small tail and ear to conserve heat. Insects complete their whose body is laterally compressed. Starfish, corals and
short life cycles in the favorable warmer period. Mammals sponges are bottom dwellers. Deep sea forms emit light –
like wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings live in bioluminescence.
tundra regions. Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
Wetlands: Ramsar Convention:

These are transitional ecotones b/w terrestrial and aquatic The Ramsar Convention -- Convention on Wetlands of
systems where water table is near the soil surface and land International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat --
is permanently or periodically covered by shallow water. The is an international treaty for the conservation and
Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as "areas of marsh, sustainable use of all wetlands through local, regional and
swamp, fen or other peatlands, weather natural or artificial, national actions and international cooperation.
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh or brackish, including areas of marine water whose The inclusion of a wetland in the List embodies the govt’s
depth at low tide does not exceed 6 metres". Mangroves, commitment to take the steps necessary to ensure that its
corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plans, sea grasses, ecological character is maintained. The Convention has
lakes, etc., are covered under this definition. various measures to protect the ecological character of
Sites.
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area of brackish
water where riverine fresh water is mixed with sea water. A Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting
lagoon is a stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a Parties commit to: □ promote the wise use of all their
sandbank or coral reef. It differs from the estuary in that it is wetlands; □ designate suitable wetlands for the “Ramsar
shallow with sluggish water flow and largely without any List” of Wetlands of International Importance), □ cooperate
fresh water source. A marsh is a nutrient-rich wetland that internationally on the transboundary wetlands, shared
is constantly flooded by runoff or rain and dominated by wetland systems and shared species.
varous reeds and grasses. A swamp is also a nutrient-rich
The world’s first site was the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia,
waterlogged wetland but it supports woody plants and trees
sinse 1974. The largest Sites are Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe in
too. A bog is a largely rain-fed, nutrient-poor, highly peaty
the Democratic Republic of Congo and Queen Maud Gulf in
and acidic wetland, whereas a fen is a groundwater-fed, less
Canada; The UK has the highest number of Sites -170, and
peaty and less acidic wetland that has more nutrients and
Bolivia has the greatest area of listed wetlands.
supports more plant life.
Montreux Record:
Wetlands in India are grouped into eight categories, viz. (i)
the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau including lagoons and It is a special list of Ramsar sites facing immediate challenges
other wetlands of west coast; (ii) vast saline expanses of Guj, of conservation and technical assistance is to be provided.
Raj; (iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs of Guj, Raj and MP; Sites may be added to and removed from the Record only
(iv) delta wetlands and lagoons of east coast (Chilika Lake); with the approval of Contracting Parties in which they lie.
(v) freshwater marshes of Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains
of Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the NE and the As part of the Ramsar List of Wetlands, it is the principal tool
Himalayan foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of Kashmir and of convention for highlighting those sites where an adverse
Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove forest and other wetlands of change in their ecological character has occurred, is
the A&N. Two sites — Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo occurring, or is likely to occur, and which are therefore in
National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl need of priority conservation attention
habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International
Importance (Ramsar Convention).

Wetlands are essential ecological features with almost all

benefits of forests except productive functions. They are
habitats for hundreds of species of waterfowl, birds, fish,
mammals. Wetlands filter and recharge the water that later
comes out downstream, act like giant sponges reducing the
impact of flooding, prevent soil erosion, and act as large
carbon sinks, slowing the onset of global warming. Apart
from being of educational and scientific interest they
provide durable timber, fodder for cattle, edible fruits,
vegetables and traditional medicines.