THEORI

ESOFLI
TERATURE:

(
Lit
erat
urel
esson
not
es)
FORM THREE
2022
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BYSI
R;
DASTANMWESI
GECLEMENCE,
CHRI
STTHEKI
NGNYANTAKUBWAGI
RLSSECONDARYSCHOOL,
P.
O.BOX04,
SENGEREMA.
MWANZA-
TANZANI
A.
(
LITERATUREDEPARTMENT)
Dast
ancl
emence4@gmai
l
.com

PROVERB23:13
“
Wit
hhol
dnotcor
rect
ionf
rom t
hechi
ld:f
ori
fthoubeat
esthi
m wi
tht
her
od,
heshal
lnotdi
e”

1
TOPI
C1:I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOLI
TERATURE
01. THEOVERVI
EW OFTHETERM LI
TERATURE

a)Meani
ngofl
i
ter
atur
e

Ther
eisnosi
ngl
edef
ini
ti
onoft
hatsui
tst
hemeani
ngofl
i
ter
atur
e.Asar
esul
t,t
her
e
hav
ebeenv
ari
ousat
tempt
stodef
inet
het
erml
i
ter
atur
e.Someoft
heseat
tempt
sar
e;

 Li
ter
atur
eisawor
kofar
tthatusest
hel
anguagecr
eat
ivel
yto por
trayt
he
messaget
othei
ntendedaudi
ence.

 Li
ter
atur
eisawor
kofar
tthatusest
hel
anguagecr
eat
ivel
ytoexpr
esshuman
r
eal
i
tiest
othesoci
ety
.

 Li
ter
atur
eisani
magi
nat
ivewor
kofar
tthatusesl
anguaget
oref
lectsoci
al
r
eal
i
ties.

Ther
efor
e,t
hedef
ini
ti
onofl
i
ter
atur
eshoul
dincl
udesomei
mpor
tantt
ermsasf
oll
ows;
“
Lit
erat
urei
sani
magi
nat
ivewor
kofar
tthatusesl
anguagecr
eat
ivel
yandi
magi
nat
ivel
y
t
opor
traysoci
alr
eal
i
ties(
soci
ety
)”.

b)Keyt
erms/
concept
susedi
nli
ter
atur
e

Thedef
ini
ti
onofl
i
ter
atur
eisi
ncompl
eteunl
essi
tinv
olv
est
heseconcept
s;

i
. Ar
t–r
efer
stot
hewayofdoi
ngt
hings.I
tincl
udescr
eat
ivi
ty,decor
ati
on,beaut
y,
pai
nti
ng,col
ori
ng,t
hreadi
ng,beaut
if
icat
ion,embr
oider
y.I
tis cr
eat
ivi
tyt
hat
compr
isest
heuseofat
tent
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Ar
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo(
2)t
ypes
whi
char
e;

 Per
for
mingar
t:i
tisanar
tthatusesmov
ementofbodi
esandv
oicest
oconv
eya

2
 pat
ri
sti
cexpr
essi
on.Per
for
mingar
tincl
udesdance,
musi
candact
ing.

 Fi
near
t:i
t’
sanar
tthatar
ecr
eat
edf
oraest
het
icori
ntel
l
ect
ualpur
pose.I
t
i
ncl
udesf
urni
tur
emaki
ng,
pai
nti
ng,
scul
ptur
ing,
drawi
ng,
pot
ter
yet
c.

i
i
. Language–i
sthesy
stem ofar
bit
rar
yvocalsy
mbol
susedf
ori
nter
act
ionand
communi
cat
ion,exchangi
ngandshar
ingofi
deas.Languagei
ssoani
mpor
tant
t
ooli
ncommuni
cat
ioni
ndel
i
ver
ingt
hei
ntendedmessage.Nol
i
ter
atur
ecanexi
st
wi
thoutal
anguage.

i
i
i. Cr
eat
ivi
ty/
imagi
nat
ive– i
t’
sasi
tuat
ionofappl
yi
ngski
l
ls,decor
ati
on,pai
nti
ng,
desi
gni
nganobj
ectandmaki
ngi
tuni
quef
rom ot
her
s.

i
v. Soci
ety–i
tist
hepeopl
e,f
olkori
nhabi
tant
sofacer
tai
nar
eaorl
ocat
ion,who
makeupt
hesoci
ety
.

v
. Ar
ti
st–i
saper
sonwhodeal
swi
thar
t,danci
ng,
drawi
ng,
pai
nti
ngandper
for
ming.
Anar
ti
stcanbeanor
ator
,per
for
mer
,dr
amat
ist
,nov
eli
storapai
nter
.

02. LI
TERATUREASANART

Li
ter
atur
eissai
dtobeanar
tduet
othef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nt;

a)Languageuse;t
hel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hel
anguageof
ev
ery
dayuse.Li
ter
atur
eusesf
igur
esofspeech,
andwor
dsar
eassi
gnedanext
ra
meani
ngt
hanwhatt
heyor
dinar
il
yimpl
y.Somewor
dscar
ryl
i
ter
almeani
ngand
ot
her
shav
esy
mbol
i
cmeani
ng.Ther
efor
e,y
ouneedt
odi
gabi
tdeeperbef
ore
y
ouset
tl
eandsayt
hisi
swhati
tmeans.

b)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion;l
i
ter
atur
eusesr
ealpeopl
eorot
herchar
act
ers
t
hatr
epr
esentr
ealpeopl
eint
he out
side wor
ld.I
nani
mat
e bei
ngs may
be
per
soni
fi
edi
nawayt
hatt
heyr
epr
esenthumanqual
i
tiesandactaccor
dingl
y.
Thi
saddsar
ti
sti
cef
fectt
othel
i
ter
arywor
k.

c)Choi
ceandpr
esent
ati
onofi
nci
dences;l
i
ter
atur
eisnotj
ustacol
l
ect
ionoff
act
s

3
 andst
ori
est
ober
epor
ted.I
nci
dent
sinl
i
ter
atur
ear
epr
esent
edi
nar
ti
sti
cway
t
hatmakest
heaudi
encest
hinkt
hatt
heyar
eact
ual
l
yhappeni
ng.Ther
eist
heuse
ofski
l
lfulnar
rat
ivet
echni
quesl
i
ke poi
ntofv
iew,f
lashback,f
oreshadowi
ng,
suspenseet
cal
lthesehel
pther
eadert
ovi
sual
i
zet
heev
ent
sast
hought
heyar
e
j
ustunf
oldi
ngbef
oret
hei
rey
es.

d)Sel
ect
ionofset
ti
ng;wr
it
erssel
ectaset
ti
ngt
hatgoest
oget
herwi
tht
hecont
ent
oft
hei
rwor
ks.Forexampl
e,somei
ssuesl
i
kepov
ert
y,i
gnor
ance,
classes,
misuse
ofpoweret
car
ecommoni
nAf
ri
cancont
ext
.

e)Sel
ect
ionoft
it
le;l
i
ter
arywor
ksl
i
kepl
ays,nov
elsandpoemshav
eti
l
ethatgoes
t
oget
herwi
tht
het
arget e,TheTr
edmessage.Forexampl ial
sofBr
otherJer
o
l
i
nkedt
het
it
lewi
tht
hecont
entpr
esent
edbyusi
ngt
hemai
nchar
act
erBr
other
Jer
o.

f
) Li
ter
atur
eisi
magi
nat
iveandsy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure;
thel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
eis
usual
l
yimagi
nat
ive.Ther
efor
e,l
i
ter
atur
ejustuses l
anguage i
magi
nat
ivel
y
r
epr
esent
edsoci
alr
eal
i
ties.

03. FUNCTI
ONSOFLI
TERATURE

Si
ncel
i
ter
atur
edoesnotdev
elopf
rom av
acuum,butf
rom t
hesoci
etyi
nwhi
chi
t
emanat
es,
ithasgotdi
ff
erentr
olest
opl
ayi
nthesoci
ety
.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
he
mosti
mpor
tantr
olesofl
i
ter
atur
eint
hesoci
ety
;

a)Li
ter
atur
eeducat
espeopl
eint
hesoci
ety
.

Li
ter
arywor
ksar
eusedt
oimpar
tknowl
edget
othemember
soft
hesoci
ety
.Itcr
eat
es
awar
enesson di
ff
erentsoci
al-pol
i
ticaland economi
cmat
ter
staki
ng pl
acei
nthe
soci
ety
.Iteducat
es t
he y
oung peopl
e on how t
hey ar
e expect
ed t
o behav
ein
accor
dancewi
tht
hedemandsoft
hei
rsoci
eti
esandt
her
olest
heyar
erequi
redt
oful
fi
ll
.

b)Li
ter
atur
eexpr
essespeopl
e’
scul
tur
e.

4
Si
ncel
i
ter
atur
edev
elopsf
rom t
hesoci
ety
,itaut
omat
ical
l
yexpr
essest
hecul
tur
eofi
ts
peopl
e.Al
lcul
tur
alaspect
sli
ket
radi
ti
ons,
bel
i
efs,
cust
oms,
nor
mset
car
eexpr
essedso
t
hatt
hesoci
etymaycher
isht
hegoodonesandcar
ryt
hem ov
ert
othenextgener
ati
ons
andmodi
fyordi
scar
dtheout
dat
edones.

c)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oent
ert
ainpeopl
e

Mostl
i
ter
arywor
ksappealt
oemot
ions.Byr
eadi
ng,l
i
steni
ngandwat
chi
ngl
i
ter
ary
wor
kswegetent
ert
ained.Poemsanddr
amascr
eat
eanenj
oymentt
otheaudi
ence
di
ff
erentf
rom onewegetwhenwear
eeat
ingf
oods.Li
ter
aryenj
oymenti
scal
l
ed
aest
het
icpl
easur
e;f
orexampl
e,comedi
esandmel
odr
ama.

d)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oinf
luencepeopl
eint
hesoci
ety
.

Mor
eof
tent
hannotpeopl
ewhoar
eint
erest
edi
nwat
chi
ng,
li
steni
ngandr
eadi
ngl
i
ter
ary
wor
ksar
etempt
edt
oactl
i
ket
hosechar
act
ersi
nther
espect
ivel
i
ter
arywor
k.Dur
ingt
he
st
ruggl
efori
ndependencef
orexampl
e,l
i
ter
arywor
kswer
eusedt
oinst
il
lrev
olut
ionar
y
i
deast
otheoppr
essedt
otakeupar
msagai
nstt
heoppr
essor
.Consi hepoem Your
dert
Pai
nbyAr
mandoGuebuza.

e)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
odev
elopl
anguage

Byr
eadi
ng,l
i
steni
ngandwat
chi
ngl
i
ter
arywor
ks,peopl
eimpr
ovet
hei
rlanguageski
l
ls
such as l
i
steni
ng,speaki
ng,r
eadi
ng and wr
it
ing.Peopl
e may al
so i
mpr
ovet
hei
r
v
ocabul
aryst
ocksi
ncet
heywi
l
lnotonl
ycomeacr
ossanumberofnewwor
dsbutal
so
knowhowt
heyar
eusedi
nreal
cont
ext
.Aut
hor
sdoal
socomewi
thnewwor
ds,
phr
ases,
i
dioms,
figur
esofspeecht
hathel
ptodev
elopt
hel
anguage.

f
) Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oli
ber
atepeopl
ement
all
yandphy
sical
l
y.

Li
ter
arywor
kspr
esentt
hemessaget
hathel
pst
oli
ber
atet
hesoci
etyment
all
yasa
r
esul
ttheyl
i
ber
atet
hemsel
vesphy
sical
l
y.I
tconcer
ti
zest
hesoci
etyaboutt
heexi
stence
ofoppr
essi
vesy
stemsandsuggest
sway
stogetr
idoft
hosesy
stems.Exampl
e,uni
ted
west
and,
div
idedwef
all
.

g)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
ocr
it
ici
zet
hesoci
ety
.

5
Li
ter
atur
emaybeusedt
ocr
it
ici
zet
hesoci
etyi
nasenset
hati
tpoi
ntsoutt
hebur
ning
i
ssuesandr
equest
sthesoci
etyt
oresol
vet
hem.Mor
eof
tent
hannotl
i
ter
aryar
ti
sts
poi
ntsoutt
heev
il
sdonebyt
het
radi
ti
onalsoci
ety
.Exampl
e,per
pet
uat
ingt
heout
dat
ed
cust
omsl
i
keFGM,wi
dow i
nher
it
ance,f
orcedmar
ri
age,et
candaskt
hesoci
etyt
o
di
scar
dthem.Theymayal
sopoi
ntt
hewr
ongsdonebyt
her
uli
ngcl
assandsuggestt
he
way
stogetr
idoft
hesel
eader
s.

04. I
MPORTANCEOFSTUDYI
NGLI
TERATURE

a)Li
ter
atur
ehel
psusgr
owbot
hper
sonal
l
yandi
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
y.I
topensdoor
sforus.
I
tst
ret
chesourmi
nd,
dev
elopsouri
magi
nat
ion,
incr
easesourunder
standi
ngand
enl
argesourpowerofsy
mpat
hy.I
thel
psusseebeaut
yint
hewor
ldar
oundus.

b)I
tli
nksuswi
tht
hecul
tur
al,phi
l
osophi
calandr
eli
giouswor
ldofwhi
chwear
ea
par
t.

c)I
tenabl
esust
orecogni
zehumandr
eamsandst
ruggl
esi
ndi
ff
erentpl
acesand
t
imes.

d)I
tmakesushuman.Li
ter
atur
eexci
sesouremot
ionst
hroughi
nter
est
,concer
n,
sy
mpat
hy,
tensi
on,
exci
tement
,regr
et,
fear
,laught
erandhope.

e)I
tident
if
iest
hesoci
ety
.

f
)Itbr
oadenspeopl
e’
sthi
nki
ng.

g)I
tpr
eser
vesandt
ransmi
tspeopl
e’
scul
tur
e.

h)I
tuni
tespeopl
e.

i
)Itencour
agespeopl
e.

j
)Itcr
eat
esempl
oymentt
opeopl
e.

6
05. CONTEXTI
NWHI
CHLI
TERATUREI
SAPPLI
EDI
NTHESOCI
ETY

Cont
exti
sasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chsomet
hinghappensandt
hathel
psy
out
ounder
standi
t.
I
tisal
soknownasenv
ironmentorci
rcumst
anceorbackgr
ound.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erent
cont
ext
sinoursoci
eti
esi
nwhi
chl
i
ter
atur
eisappl
i
ed.Theseenv
ironment
sincl
udet
he
f
oll
owi
ng;

a)Educat
ioncont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisusedi
nschool
s,col
l
egesanduni
ver
sit
iesasoneoft
hef
iel
dofst
udy
.
Thr
ough st
udy
ing l
i
ter
atur
e,we getpr
ofessi
onalorexper
tsl
i
ke anal
yst
,nov
eli
st,
pl
aywr
ight
s,poetorpoet
ess,t
eacher
s,aut
hor
s,andpr
ofessor
sofl
i
ter
atur
e.Musi
cians
ar
eal
soexper
tsofl
i
ter
atur
e.Theyuset
hei
rknowl
edget
oent
ert
ainandeducat
ethe
memberoft
hesoci
etyt
hrought
hei
rsongs.

b)Rel
i
giouscont
ext

I
ndi
ff
erentr
eli
giousdomi
nat
ions,l
i
ter
atur
eisapar
tandpar
celoft
hei
rwor
shi
p.The
chur
chchoi
rsappl
ytheknowl
edgeofl
i
ter
atur
etocomposesongs,pr
act
iceandsi
ng
t
hem.Thewayt
heysi
ng,
prai
seandwor
shi
pingsongsaswel
lashy
mnsandl
yri
csongs
empl
oysl
i
ter
aryt
echni
ques.Thel
anguageusedatchur
chesi
schar
act
eri
zedbypoet
ic
l
anguagef
orexampl
eint
heHol
yBi
blet
her
ear
ebookssuchast
hebookofpr
over
bs
andpsal
m.Al
so,t
hedr
amat
izat
ionofbi
bli
calev
ent
ssuchasofNoahi
sthewor
kof
l
i
ter
atur
e.

c)Economi
ccont
ext

Fr
om t
hehi
stor
yofmanl
i
ter
atur
ehasbeenused f
ordi
ff
erentpur
pose.Thus,
l
i
ter
atur
ecannotbei
sol
atedwi
tht
heor
igi
nofmant
hroughl
aborpr
ocessassoci
ated
wi
tht
he maki
ng and usi
ng t
ool
s.Human bei
ngs had t
o use l
anguage t
o
communi
cat
edi
ff
erenti
ssuesr
elat
edt
olabordi
ff
erent
iat
ion.Pr
imar
il
y,l
i
ter
atur
e
wasi
nor
alf
ormssuchassongs(
laborsongs)
,my
ths,f
orkt
alesai
medatwar
ning,
encour
agi
nghar
dwor
king,cr
it
ici
zi
ngev
ilandmai
ntai
ningsoci
alv
aluesorpeopl
e
composeddi
ff
erentsongst
hataccompani
edt
hem dur
ingt
hei
reconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es
andaf
teri
t.Exampl
eofsongs/
poemsi
ncl
udesTheLazyManbyYor
uba.

7
d)Pol
i
tical
cont
ext

Li
ter
atur
epl
aysabi
grol
einpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.Fr
om t
hehi
stor
yofpol
i
ticalst
ruggl
e
f
ori
ndependence,i
thasbeenobser
vedt
hatpol
i
ticall
eader
sandot
hermember
s
usedl
i
ter
atur
easat
oolofcommuni
cat
ion.Theycomposeddi
ff
erentsongst
o
mobi
l
izepeopl
etouni
teandst
ruggl
eforf
reedom.Forexampl
e,t
hepoem ofYour
Pai
nwasmeantt
ohel
ppeopl
eofMozambi
quet
ohav
esel
f-
awar
enessont
he
i
mpactofcol
oni
ali
sm.Thi
ssong i
nspi
red and mot
ivat
ed t
hem t
o uni
te hence
st
ruggl
efort
hei
rfr
eedom.Li
ter
atur
eis appl
i
ed dur
ing pol
i
ticalcampai
gn t
o
i
nfl
uencepeopl
etov
otef
orapar
ti
cul
arpol
i
tical
par
tyl
i
keCCM orCHADEMA.

e)Mar
ri
agecont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisal
soappl
i
eddur
ingmar
ri
agecer
emonywher
ebydi
ff
erentsongsar
e
sungf
orenj
oyment
,war
ningandeducat
ingt
hecoupl
es.Forexampl
e,weddi
ng
songsar
emai
nlysungbyt
her
elat
iveoft
hebr
idet
oshow appr
eci
ati
onf
ort
he
cer
emonyandf
ort
hesuccessf
ulmar
ri
age.

f
) Funer
alcont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisappl
i
edt
hroughi
tswor
kssuchassongs,pr
over
bs,poemst
oconsol
e
t
her
elat
ivesanddi
ff
erentf
ri
endsoft
hedi
seasedper
son.I
nHehet
ri
bemencr
yin
poet
icf
orm bynami
ngt
henamesoft
hei
rrel
ati
veswhopassedl
ongt
imeago.They
cal
litKuy
eyel
a.Thesongssungdur
ingt
hef
uner
alar
ecal
l
eddi
rges.Di
rgesar
e
songssungorper
for
medatf
uner
aloratmemor
ialser
viceswher
ebyt
hesi
nger
s
mour
nthedeadper
sont
hrought
hesong.Theyconv
eydeepf
eel
i
ngandsadness.

g)Soci
alcont
ext

I
nthi
scont
ext
,li
ter
atur
eappl
i
edaccor
dingt
othepur
poseoft
hesoci
algat
her
ing.
Li
ter
arywor
kssuchassongs,
comedi
es,
idi
oms,
prov
erbsandshor
tst
ori
esar
eused
orper
for
medt
oeducat
e,cr
it
ici
ze,war
nandent
ert
ainpeopl
e.Theai
mist
omakea

8
 per
sonr
efor
msandbehav
einasoci
all
yaccept
abl
eway
.Comedyper
for
medt
o
ent
ert
ainpeopl
e.

h)Fami
l
ycont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eappl
i
edi
nfami
l
ylev
elwher
ebypar
ent
s,guar
dians,adul
ts,nei
ghbor
sand
y
out
husel
i
ter
arywor
kst
ocommuni
cat
ethei
remot
ionsandf
eel
i
ngsi
ndi
ff
erent
way
s.Member
soft
hef
ami
l
ysuchasel
der
soradul
tsaswel
lasy
out
hnar
rat
e
di
ff
erentst
ori
essuchasf
abl
e,anecdot
e,andf
orkt
aleandsi
ngdi
ff
erentsongsl
i
ke
chi
l
dbi
rt
handchi
l
dnami
ngsongs,
lul
l
abi
est
oeducat
e,ent
ert
ainandwar
nthey
oung
gener
ati
on.

06. FORMSOFLI
TERATURE

Ther
ear
etwomaj
ort
ypes/
for
msofl
i
ter
atur
enamel
y;

a)Or
all
i
ter
atur
e;t
hisi
sat
ypeofl
i
ter
atur
ethatpr
esent
sthemessaget
hrough
wor
dsofmout
h.I
tist
heol
destf
orm ofl
i
ter
atur
esi
ncei
twaspr
act
icedbef
ore
t
hei
nvent
ionofwr
it
ings.Exampl
e,my
ths,
par
abl
e,l
egendset
c.

b)Wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e;t
hisi
saf
orml
i
ter
atur
ethatpr
esent
sthemessaget
hrough
wr
it
tenf
orm.I
tbeganwi
tht
hei
nvent
ionofwr
it
ings.I
thast
womaj
orf
orms,
whi
char
efi
cti
onandnon-
fi
cti
on.Exampl
esofwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eincl
udebi
ogr
aphy
,
aut
obi
ogr
aphy
,nov
els,
play
s,shor
tst
ori
es,
essay
set
c.

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenor
alandwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e

a)Bot
hpor
trayonsoci
alr
eal
i
ties.

b)Bot
husel
anguageasi
tsmedi
um ofcommuni
cat
ion.

c)Bot
hconsi
stoft
woel
ement
sthatar
efor
m andcont
ent
.

d)Bot
hper
for
m si
mil
arf
unct
ionsl
i
keeducat
ing,dev
elopi
ngl
anguageanduni
ti
ng
peopl
e.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenor
alandwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e

9
 a)Or
all
i
ter
atur
epr
esent
edor
all
ywhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
epr
esent
edt
hroughwr
it
ings

b)Or
all
i
ter
atur
epr
eser
vedi
nmemor
ywhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
epr
eser
vedi
nwr
it
ings
l
i
kenov
elsandshor
tst
ori
es.

c)Or
all
i
ter
atur
einv
olv
esper
for
mancewhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
edoesnoti
nvol
ve
per
for
mancer
athert
hanr
eadi
ng.

d)Or
all
i
ter
atur
e adopt
simmedi
ate changes whi
l
e,wr
it
ten l
i
ter
atur
e does not
adher
etoi
mmedi
atechanges.

e)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisr
ichi
nty
peswhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
ehasf
ewt
ypes.

f
) Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisr
ichi
nchar
act
erswhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisl
i
mit
edt
ohuman
char
act
ers.

g)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisownedbyt
hewhol
ecommuni
tywhi
l
e;wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisowned
byt
heaut
hor
.

h)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisol
dinagewhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisy
oungi
nage.

07. LANGUAGEANDLI
TERATURE

Languageact
sast
hebr
idgewher
ewegetmessages.

a)Feat
uresofl
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
e

i
. I
tisi
magi
nat
ivei
nnat
ure

Thel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
ecr
eat
esment
alpi
ctur
eint
her
eader
s’mi
nd.When
t
her
eaderr
eads,
heorshecanhav
eapi
ctur
eofsomet
hing.Thi
sisdonebyf
igur
es
ofspeechsuchasexagger
ati
onandmet
aphor
.

i
i
. I
tdoesnotf
oll
owt
hest
andar
dri
desofgr
ammar

Thi
smeanst
hatanywr
it
eroff
ict
ionorl
i
ter
arywor
kisf
reet
ovi
olat
ether
idesof
gr
ammart
oconv
eyacer
tai
nint
ent
ion.

i
i
i. I
tissy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure

10
I
nli
ter
atur
ewor
dsar
eusedt
opr
esent
sacer
tai
nideaorsomet
hing.Exampl
e,i
n
YOURPAI
N,t d‘
hewor bl
ood’
symbol
i
zessacr
if
ice.

b)Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenl
i
ter
atur
eandl
anguage

i
. Li
ter
atur
eusesl
anguageasamedi
um t
opr
esentt
hei
ntendedmessage.

Thear
ti
stsmustpossessawi
der
angeofv
ocabul
ari
esandagoalcommandov
er
appr
opr
iat
eoccasi
onandr
ightt
hatexpr
esst
hemeani
ngi
ntended.

i
i
. Languagei
susedt
oinf
luenceot
herpeopl
es’
mind.

Thef
unct
ionsoft
hespokenwor
dsar
enotonl
yconv
eyi
ngmeani
ngs,butal
so
i
nfl
uencepeopl
es’mi
nds.I
tmakest
hem al
ertwi
tht
heai
m ofbr
ingi
ngt
hechanges
i
nthesoci
etyf
ort
hebet
ter
mentoft
hepeopl
e.

i
i
i. Languagei
susedt
oar
ouseemot
ions.

I
tcanbef
orpl
easur
eandenj
oymentt
oconv
ince,per
suade,andar
ouseemot
ions
suchaspi
ty,
ter
rorandsor
row.Thr
oughl
anguage(
wor
ds)peopl
ecanenj
oyorbei
ng
sad.

i
v. Languagei
sapar
tofl
i
ter
atur
e.

Wecannothav
eli
ter
atur
ewi
thoutl
anguage.I
tist
her
efor
e,necessar
yforpeopl
ewho
composel
i
ter
arywor
kst
ousel
anguageoft
hesoci
etyt
oconv
eyt
hei
ntended
messaget
otheaudi
ence.Forexampl
e,i
fthear
ti
stwant
stocommuni
cat
ethe
messaget
oTanzani
a,t
heyar
efor
cedt
ouseKi
swahi
l
ithati
sunder
stoodbymaj
ori
ty.

v
. Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
odev
elopl
anguage.

Thi
sist
hroughr
eadi
ng,
li
steni
ng,
speaki
ngandwr
it
ing.

v
i. Languagemakesl
i
ter
atur
eawor
kofar
t.

Whenl
anguagei
susedar
ti
sti
cal
l
yiscal
l
edl
i
ter
atur
e.Thel
anguageofl
i
ter
atur
eis
cr
eat
ive,
imagi
nat
ive,
andsy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure.

11
 v
ii
. Li
ter
atur
eisbot
hst
oredi
nei
therwr
it
tenwor
dsandpr
esent
edi
nreadi
ng
whi
l
est
ored i
nhumanmemor
y.Al
so,pr
esent
ed t
hrought
hewor
d of
mout
h.Thr
oughal
anguage,
theaudi
enceunder
stood.

c)Di
ff
erencesbet
weenor
dinar
yandl
i
ter
aryl
anguage

i
. Or
dinar
ylanguagei
sthemostcommon,ev
erydayusageoft
hel
anguage
amongpeopl
e.I
tisusedondai
l
ybasi
samongt
hepeopl
ewhi
l
e;l
i
ter
ary
l
anguagei
sthef
igur
ati
vef
orm ofl
anguaget
hati
sof
tenusedi
nli
ter
atur
e.I
t
i
susedonl
yinl
i
ter
arycont
ext
s.

i
i
. Or
dinar
ylanguage f
oll
ows t
he nor
malwor
d or
der(
synt
ax)
.Iti
sfor
mal
st
andar
d sy
ntax whi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguage wor
d or
dermay be changed
accor
dingt
othewr
it
er’
sst
ylet
osui
tthel
i
ter
aryef
fect
.

i
i
i. Or
dinar
ylanguagemayormaynothav
efi
gur
esofspeechwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
ary
l
anguagei
sri
chi
nfi
gur
eofspeecht
hatmakei
tfi
gur
ati
ve.

i
v. Or
dinar
ylanguage i
s st
rai
ght
for
war
d and t
hus easy t
o under
stand t
he
meani
ngconv
eyedwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguagei
sdi
ff
icul
tfort
heor
dinar
yman
whodoesnotknow t
hel
i
ter
aryt
echni
quest
ounder
standt
hemeani
ng.I
t
mayhav
etwoormor
elay
ersofmeani
ng.

v
. Or
dinar
ylanguage,
itswor
dshav
ethei
ror
igi
nalmeani
ng.I
tsmeani
ngi
scl
ear
t
husnoambi
gui
tyi
sexper
iencedwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguage,i
tswor
dsacqui
re
newmeani
ngs.Al
i
ter
arywor
kcanber
eadundermul
ti
plei
nter
pret
ati
ons.

d)Fact
orsf
orusi
ngf
orei
gnl
anguagesi
nAf
ri
canl
i
ter
atur
e

i
. Under
dev
elopmentandun-
dev
elopmentofAf
ri
canl
anguages

Wr
it
erscannotwr
it
einl
anguagest
hathav
enotbeendev
elopedt
ohav
eawr
it
tenf
orm
orl
anguagest
hathav
enotbeendev
elopedt
othel
evelatwhi
cht
heycoul
dbeusedi
n
l
i
ter
atur
e.

i
i
. Absenceofgov
ernmentl
anguagepol
i
cies.

12
I
nAf
ri
ca,t
her
ear
enogov
ernmentpol
i
ciest
hatcoul
dencour
aget
heuseofAf
ri
can
l
anguagesi
nli
ter
atur
e.

i
i
i. Lackofpr
omot
ionofAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nempl
oymentandeducat
ionsy
stem.

Ther
eisnoAf
ri
cancount
rywher
eacr
edi
tpassi
nanAf
ri
canl
anguagei
sacr
it
eri
onf
or
pr
omot
ioni
ntheci
vi
lser
vice,
admi
ssi
ont
ouni
ver
sit
yorempl
oyment
.

i
v. Thei
ssueofmul
ti
li
ngual
i
sm i
nAf
ri
ca.

I
tisest
imat
edt
hatt
her
ear
e2035Af
ri
canl
anguagesatpr
esent
.Thi
ssi
tuat
ioni
s
possi
blyr
esponsi
blef
ort
hel
ackofgov
ernmentpol
i
ciest
hatcoul
dencour
aget
heuse
ofAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nli
ter
atur
e.

v
. Thecostofdev
elopi
ngAf
ri
canl
anguages

Todev
elopal
anguagei
scapi
tali
ntensi
ve.I
tist
her
efor
edi
ff
icul
ttodev
elopal
lthe
l
anguagesofAf
ri
cat
obeusedi
nli
ter
atur
e.

v
i. Lackofmar
ketf
orl
i
ter
arywor
kswr
it
teni
nAf
ri
canl
anguages.

I
not
herwor
ds,i
tishar
dtoputmostAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nwr
it
tenf
orm.Thi
sisamaj
or
f
act
ort
hataf
fect
sthecommer
cial
val
uesoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
kswr
it
teni
nthel
anguages.

v
ii
. Thepr
obl
em ofpubl
i
cat
ion

Mostpubl
i
sher
sar
enotwi
l
li
ngt
opubl
i
shwor
kswr
it
teni
nAf
ri
canl
anguages.Publ
i
sher
s
ofl
i
ter
arywor
ksi
nAf
ri
canl
anguagesar
eabi
ggestchal
l
enge.Mostpubl
i
shi
nghouses
ar
erel
uct
antt
opubl
i
sht
hesewor
ksbecauset
heyhav
enoexper
tsi
nthesel
anguages.

e)I
mpor
tanceofl
anguagei
nli
ter
atur
e

Languagei
simpor
tanti
nli
ter
atur
eduet
othef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

i
. Languagei
sthemedi
um ofl
i
ter
atur
e.I
tist
her
oad,car
ri
erorv
ehi
cle
t
hroughwhi
chl
i
ter
atur
eisconv
eyedei
therasor
alorwr
it
tenone.

i
i
. Li
ter
atur
eiscr
eat
edbyl
anguage.Thi
smeanst
her
ewoul
dbenol
i
ter
atur
e

13
 i
fther
ewasnol
anguage.Whent
het
extusesl
anguagei
nanar
ti
sti
cor
pecul
i
arway
,iti
scal
l
edl
i
ter
atur
eorl
i
ter
aryt
ext
.

i
i
i. Li
ter
atur
etr
ansf
ormsandi
ntensi
fi
esor
dinar
ylanguagei
ntocr
eat
iveone.
I
ndoi
ngso,l
i
ter
atur
edev
iat
essy
stemat
ical
l
yfr
om ev
ery
dayspeecht
o
f
igur
ati
vel
anguage.

i
v. Languagei
simpr
ovedwhenr
eadi
ngl
i
ter
atur
e.So,r
eadi
ngi
sanai
dfor
l
anguagedev
elopment
.Wer
eaddi
ff
erentl
i
ter
aryt
extt
oimpr
ovel
anguage.

v
. Languagehel
psst
udent
sto dev
elop t
ext
ualanal
ysi
sski
l
lsofv
ari
ous
l
i
ter
arywor
ks.

v
i. Languagei
nli
ter
atur
ehel
pst
oexposest
udent
stosampl
esofr
eal
-l
if
e
set
ti
ngi
nvar
iousl
i
ter
arywor
ks.

08. LI
TERARYDEVI
CES

Al
i
ter
arydev
icer
efer
stoar
ti
sti
clanguagest
ruct
uresusedbywr
it
erst
ogi
veadeeper
meani
ngandf
lav
ort
othei
rli
ter
arywor
ks.Theyi
ncl
udef
igur
esofspeechandmusi
cal
or
soundt
echni
quesl
i
ker
hymi
ngscheme,
all
i
ter
ati
onet
c.

Af
igur
eofspeechi
sanexpr
essi
onoft
hingst
hatdev
iat
edf
rom or
dinar
ylanguage.
Fi
gur
esofspeechmakel
i
ter
arywor
ksappearcol
orf
ulandat
tr
act
ivet
oread.

Rol
esofl
i
ter
arydev
icesi
nli
ter
atur
e

i
. Theysakef
orcompar
ison.Exampl
e,met
aphorandsi
mil
e.

i
i
. Theysakef
oremphasi
s.Exampl
e,r
eit
erat
ionorr
epet
it
ion.

i
i
i. Theysakef
orcl
ari
ty

i
v. Theysakef
orf
reshness

v
. Theydi
ff
erent
iat
eli
ter
arywor
ksf
rom ot
herwor
ks

v
i. Theysakef
orbeaut
y

14
Themostcommonl
i
ter
arydev
icesusedi
nli
ter
atur
e

a)Met
aphor

I
tisaf
igur
eofspeecht
hatmakesadi
rectcompar
isonbet
weent
wounl
i
ket
hings
wi
thoutusi
ngt ds“
hewor li
keoras”
.Itsuggest
sthatonet
hingi
sanot
hert
hingori
s
equal
toanot
hert
hing.Exampl
e;

i
. Hewasal
i
on

i
i
. Thel
ordi
smyshepher
d

b)Si
mil
e

I
tisaf
igur
eofspeecht
hatmakesacompar
isonbet
weent
wounl
i
ket
hingsbyusi
ngt
he
wor
ds“
li
ke”
,“as”
,“t
han”or“
resembl
es”
.Exampl
e;

i
. Aswhi
teassnow

i
i
. Li
fei
sjustl
i
kei
ce-
cream,
enj
oyi
tbef
orei
tmel
ts

c)I
rony

I
stheuseofwor
dsi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hei
ntendedmeani
ngi
scompl
etel
yopposi
tet
o
t
hei
rli
ter
almeani
ng.I
tcanhappenorusedi
ntent
ional
l
yoruni
ntent
ional
l
ytomaket
he
audi
encet
hinkaboutwhathasj
ustbeensai
dort
oemphasi
zeacer
tai
nidea.Exampl
e;

i
. Br
eadi
ssof
tasast
one

i
i
. Abankl
endsy
oumoneypr
ovi
dedy
oushowt
hati
tisnotneeded.

Ty
pesofi
rony

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofi
roni
es;

i
. Ver
bal
irony

I
sthet
ypeofi
ronyi
nwhi
chwor
dsar
eusedt
osuggestt
heopposi
teoft
hei
rusual

15
meani
ng.I
toccur
swhent
hei
ntendedmeani
ngoft
hest
atementorwor
ksi
sdi
ff
erent
(
oft
ent
heopposi
teof
)whatt
hest
atementorwor
kli
ter
arysay
s.Forexampl
e,I
bsen’
s
AnEnemyoft
hePeopl
eisi
roni
cal
l
yusedsi
nceDr
.St
ockmanwhoi
sthedecl
aredan
enemy
,isi
nreal
l
ysenseandi
saf
ri
endoft
hepeopl
e.Exampl t
e;‘hebr
eadi
ssof
tasa
st
one’
.

i
i
. Dr
amat
ici
rony

I
saf
ail
ureofachar
act
ert
oseeorunder
standwhati
sobv
ioust
otheaudi
ence.Al
so,
r
efer
stoacont
radi
cti
oni
napl
aybet
weenwhatachar
act
ert
hinksandwhatt
her
eader
oraudi
enceknowst
obet
rue.Dr
amat
ici
ronyi
sthemomentwhent
henar
rat
orandt
he
audi
enceshar
etheknowl
edgeorexper
iencet
hatachar
act
eri
signor
antofi
t.Exampl
e,
‘
i
nOedi
pust
heKi
ngbySophocl
eswher
eOedi
pusf
ail
stor
eal
i
zewhatt
heaudi
ence
knowst
hathemar
ri
eshi
smot
her
’.

i
i
i. Si
tuat
ioni
rony

I
toccur
swhenwhathappensi
scont
rar
ytowhati
sexpect
ed;
ort
heact
ual
out
comeofa
si
tuat
ioni
stheopposi
teofwhati
sexpect
ed.Exampl
e;

 Thesonoft
heEngl
i
sht
eacherf
ail
sEngl
i
shexam.

 Thedaught
erofar
ichmer
chanti
sexpel
l
edf
rom schoolf
orl
ackofschoolf
ees
of20,
000shs

d)Sat
ir
e

I
sal
i
ter
aryt
echni
quewhi
chpr
inci
pal
l
yri
dicul
esi
tssubj
ectwhi
chi
ncl
udesi
ndi
vi
dual
s,
or
gani
zat
ion,
orst
atesof
tenasani
ntendedmeansofpr
ovoki
ngorpr
event
ingchanges.
I
tisapi
eceofwr
it
ingt
hatusesdev
icessuchasi
rony
.

e)Sar
casm

I
sabi
tt
ercut
ti
ngspeechi
ntendedt
owoundsomeone’
sfeel
i
ngs.I
tisi
ntendedbya
speakert
ogi
vepai
ntoaper
sonaddr
essed.Exampl
e,

16
STUDENT:Idon’
tunder
stand
TEACHER:Wel
lIwoul
dn’
texpecty
out
oo
f
) Per
soni
fi
cat
ion

I
sther
epr
esent
ati
onofi
nani
mat
eobj
ect
sorabst
racti
deasasl
i
vingbei
ngs.I
tconnect
s
r
eader
swi
tht
heobj
ectt
hati
sper
soni
fed.Exampl
i e;Themount
ainscr
ied,t
hev
all
eys
wept
,andhi
l
lswai
tedal
lmour
ningt
hedeat
hofNy
erer
e.

g)Apost
rophe

I
sadi
rectaddr
esst
othedeadorani
nani
mat
eobj
ectcr
eat
inganemot
ionalsur
ge.
Exampl
e;

 Ny
erer
e,onl
yify
ouwer
eal
i
ve

 Ohear
tofman-
madeGod

h)Rhet
ori
cal
quest
ion

I
stheactofaski
ngquest
ionsnott
ogai
ninf
ormat
ionbutj
ustf
oremphasi
s.Noanswer
i
nfacti
sexpect
edbyt
hespeaker
.Exampl
e;

 Di
dyouhel
pmewhenIneededhel
p?
 Di
dyouonceof
fert
oint
ercedei
nmybehal
f?
 Di
dyoudoany
thi
ngt
oli
stenmyl
ord?
i
) Hy
per
bol
e/ov
erst
atement

I
saf
igur
eofspeechi
nwhi
cht
het
rut
hisexagger
atedf
oremphasi
sorf
orhumor
ous
ef
fect
.Exampl
e;
 Iam sohungr
ythatIcaneatawhol
ecow.

17
  Sheweptandweptunt
ilt
her
ewasaseaoft
ear
s.
j
) Li
tot
es/
under
stat
ement
I
stheuseofanegat
iveorweakst
atementt
oemphasi
zeaposi
ti
vemeani
ng.Ori
sa
f
igur
eofspeecht
hatusesanunder
stat
edst
atementofanaf
fi
rmat
ivebyusi
nga
negat
ivedescr
ipt
ion.Exampl
e;

 Iwasnotf
eel
i
ngunhappy–Iwashappy

 Iam notunmi
ndf
ul–Imi
nd

k)Euphemi
sm

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chav
oidst
heuseoft
abooorunpl
easantwor
ds.Exampl
e;

 Restr
oom f
ort
oil
et

 Passawayf
ordi
e

 Hol
eforv
irgi
n

 1,
200f
orpeni
s

l
) Met
ony
my

I
sthesubst
it
uti
onofawor
dwi
thanot
herwor
dthati
scl
oser
elat
edt
oit
.Iti
saf
igur
eof
speecht
hatassoci
atest
henameofonet
hingwi
tht
hatofsomet
hingwi
tht
hatof
somet
hingel
se.Exampl
e;

 Cr
ownf
orki
ng/
gov
ernmentr
uledbyaki
ng

 Wewai
tedhopel
essl
yfort
wosunset
s.Sunset
simpl
i
est
woday
s

 Hehasgoodname.Namer
efer
stor
eput
ati
on

m)Sy
necdoche

I
saf
igur
eofspeechi
nwhi
cht
hewhol
eisr
epr
esent
edbyapar
torapar
tbyt
hewhol
e.
Exampl
e;

18
  Hehassev
eralmout
hst
ofeed.Mout
hsr
epr
esentpeopl
e

 Thebestbr
ainsi
nthecount
ry.Br
ainsr
epr
esenti
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ybr
il
li
antper
sons

 50headofcat
tl
e.Headr
epr
esent
swhol
eani
mal

n)Onomat
opoei
a

I
stheuseofwor
dswhi
chi
mit
atet
henat
ural
soundsofobj
ect
sort
hings.Exampl
e;

 Thehummi
ngbee

 Thecackl
i
nghen

 Thewhi
zzi
ngar
row

 Thebuzzi
ngsaw

 Thehi
ssi
ngsnake

 Thespl
ashi
ngwat
er

 Thebangofadoor

o)Cl
i
max

I
sthe ar
rangementofi
deasi
n an i
ncr
easi
ng or
deroft
hei
rimpor
tance.I
tist
he
ar
rangementofwor
ds,
clausesorsent
encesi
ntheor
deroft
hei
rimpor
tance.Exampl
e;

 Hecame,
hesaw,
heconquer
edherv
il
lage,
herst
ate,
hernat
ionwer
eherpr
ide

 Eat
,dr
inkandsl
eep

p)I
mager
y

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chcr
eat
esment
alpi
ctur
est
hatappealt
oreader
s’f
ivesenses.
Wr
it
ersusesensor
ydet
ail
stomaker
eader
simagi
nehowt
hingsl
ook/
feel
/smel
l
/sound
andt
est
.

Ty
pesofi
mager
y

19
 i
. Vi
sual
image:
thi
smeansani
mageofsi
ght
.Exampl
e,

 gr
eat
ert
hant
her
if
t-
val
l
ey

i
i
. Or
gani
cimage:
thi
sisani
mageoff
eel
i
ng.Exampl
e,

 Mor
epai
nfult
hant
hey
ell
.

i
i
i. Audi
tor
yimage:
thi
sisani
mageofsound.Exampl
e,

 Ipl
eadt
hecr
yoft
henat
ion.

 Thescr
eam ofaman.

i
v. Ki
nest
het
ici
mage.Thi
sisani
mageofmot
ion.Exampl
e,

 I
tisf
ast
ert
hancamer
afi
l
m.

v
. Tact
il
eimage:
thi
sisani
mageoft
ouch.Exampl
e,

 St
andi
nghar
dandr
eady

v
i. Ol
fact
oryi
mage:
thi
sisani
mageofsmel
l
.Exampl
e,

 Ast
inki
ngr
oom.

v
ii
. Gust
ator
yimage:
thi
sisani
mageoft
ast
e.Exampl
e,

 I
nsear
chofsweet
ness.

q)Anadi
plosi
s

I
sther
epet
it
ioni
nwhi
cht
hel
astexpr
essi
onofonest
atementbecomest
hef
ir
st
expr
essi
oni
nthef
oll
owi
ngst
atement
.Exampl
e,asi
nthepoem “
AFRI
CA”byDav
idDi
op,

Thebl
oodofy
oursweat
,

Thesweatofy
ourwor
k,

Thewor
kofy
oursl
aver
y,

20
 Thesl
aver
yofy
ourchi
l
dren.

r
) Sy
mbol
i
sm

I
sal
i
ter
arydev
icet
hatusesoneobj
ectt
o st
andf
orsomet
hingel
seort
o mean
somet
hingel
se.Exampl
e;

 Washi
nghands;
toi
ndi
cat
enon-
env
ironment

 Cr
own;
tomeansuper
ior
it
y

 Sunr
ise;
tosy
mbol
i
zet
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hest
ruggl
e

s)Pun

I
tisahumor
ouspl
ayont
woormor
emeani
ngoft
hesamewor
doront
wodi
ff
erent
wor
dswi
tht
hesamesound.Exampl
e;

“
Whenmyl
oveswear
sthatshei
smadeoft
rut
h”.Hesay
s;t
her
efor
e,Il
i
ewi
thher
andshewi
thme”

t
) Al
l
egor
y

I
saf
orm ofext
endedmet
aphori
nwhi
chobj
ect
s,per
sonsandact
ionsi
nanar
rat
ivear
e
equat
edwi
tht
hemeani
ngst
hatl
i
eout
sidet
henar
rat
ivei
tsel
f.Thus,anal
l
egor
yisa
st
orywi
tht
wol
evel
sofmeani
ngs;
ali
ter
almeani
ngandasy
mbol
i
cmeani
ng.Exampl
e,

Geor
geOr
wel
l
’sANI
MALFARM whi
chont
hesur
facel
eveli
saboutagr
oupof
ani
mal
swhi
cht
akeov
ert
hei
rfar
m butont
hedeeperl
eveli
sanal
l
egor
yoft
he
Russi
anr
evol
uti
onandt
heshor
tcomi
ngsoft
hecommuni
sms.

u)Anast
rophe/
inv
ersi
on

I
sasent
enceorapoet
icexpr
essi
onwhi
chr
ever
sesorchangest
heor
derofwor
dsf
or
gr
eat
eremphasi
s.Exampl
e,

 Tent
housandsawIatagl
ance–Isawt
ent
housandatagl
ance.

21
  Andawayt
heygo–andt
heygoaway
.

v
)Anaphor
a

Thi
sist
her
epet
it
ionoft
hewor
datt
hebegi
nni
ngofconsecut
ivel
i
nes,v
ersesor
sent
ences.Exampl
e,

 Thewor
d“Af
ri
ca”i
nthef
ir
stt
hreel
i
nesoft
hepoem AFRI
CAbyDav
idDi
op;

Af
ri
camyAf
ri
ca

Af
ri
caofpr
oudwar
ri
orsi
nancest
ralsav
annahs

Af
ri
caofwhom mygr
andmot
hersi
ngs.

w)Oxy
mor
on

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chi
ncl
udeswor
ds/
phr
ases/
ideasopposi
tei
nmeani
ngpl
aced
one af
tert
he ot
her
.These ar
e wor
ds whi
ch cont
radi
cti
tsel
f.I
tcombi
nes t
wo
cont
radi
ctor
ywor
ds.Exampl
e,

 Tr
uel
i
e

 Si
l
entnoi
se

 Li
ghtdar
kness

x)Par
adox

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chi
ncl
udesast
atementorsent
encewhi
chcont
radi
cti
tsel
f.
Exampl
e,

22
  Theyhav
ebeenbur
ninguswi
thacol
dfi
re

 Lookatt
hosewal
ki
ngcor
pses

y
)Suspense

I
sal
ackofcer
tai
ntyont
hepar
tofaconcer
nedr
eader
/audi
enceaboutwhati
sgoi
ngt
o
happent
ochar
act
erwi
thwhi
cht
her
eaderhasest
abl
i
shedabondofsy
mpat
hy.I
tisa
f
eel
i
ngofwor
ryorexci
tementt
haty
ouhav
ewheny
ouf
eelt
hatsomet
hingi
sgoi
ngt
o
happen.

z)Taboowor
ds

Thesear
ewor
dswhi
chhav
epr
ohi
bit
edt
obeusedi
nnor
malorpubl
i
cspeech.I
tisal
so
knownasdy
sphemi
sm.Exampl
e,

 Unci
rcumci
sedbaboon

 Peni
s/v
agi
na

 Rot
tenpeni
s

aa)
All
usi
on

I
sar
efer
encemadebyawr
it
eri
nal
i
ter
arywor
ktoaper
son,pl
aceorbookwi
thout
expl
i
citi
dent
if
icat
ion.Exampl
e,

 Ref
erencef
rom hol
ybooks

Ty
pesofal
l
usi
on

 Hi
stor
ical
all
usi
on

 Bi
bli
cal
all
usi
on

ab)
Ant
it
hesi
s

I
sal
i
ter
aryt
echni
quei
nwhi
cht
heopposi
teorcont
rast
ingst
atement
sar
ebal
ancedf
or
emphasi
s.Exampl
e;

23
  Manpr
oposes,
Goddi
sposes

 Speechi
ssi
l
ver
,butsi
l
encei
sgol
den

09. ELEMENTSOFLI
TERATURE

Anyl
i
ter
arywor
kismadeoft
woel
ement
snamel
y;

a)For
m

b)Cont
ent

A)FORM

For
mref
erst
othesuper
str
uct
ureofal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tist
hepr
inci
plet
hatdet
ermi
nes
how al
i
ter
arywor
kisar
rangedandor
gani
zed.For
m consi
stsoff
iveel
ement
sor
subpar
tswhi
char
e;

a)Pl
ot

b)St
yle(
techni
que)

c)Set
ti
ng

d)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion

e)Di
cti
on(
languageuse)

f
) Poi
ntofv
iew

a)Pl
ot

Pl
oti
sthear
rangementofev
ent
sinal
i
ter
arywor
kint
ermsofcauseand
ef
fect
.Ist
hewayev
ent
sandact
ionsi
nal
i
ter
arywor
khasbeenr
ender
ed
andor
der
edt
owar
dachi
evi
ngpar
ti
cul
arar
ti
sti
candemot
ional
eff
ect
s.

Ty
pesofpl
ot

24
  Chr
onol
ogi
calpl
ot:t
hisi
sast
rai
ghtf
orwar
dpl
oti
nwhi
chev
ent
s
mov
efr
om t
hebegi
nni
ngt
otheend.

 Non-
chr
onol
ogi
cal
/fl
ashbackpl
ot:t
hisi
sapl
oti
nwhi
chev
ent
sar
e
notsequent
ial
l
yar
ranged.Ev
ent
smayst
artatend,mi
ddl
eandt
hen
f
ini
shwi
tht
hebegi
nni
ng.

Par
ts(
element
s)ofpl
ot

 Exposi
ti
on:i
tist
he f
oundat
ion oft
he st
oryi
n whi
ch set
ti
ngs,
char
act
ersandbasi
csi
tuat
ionsar
eint
roduced.

 Ri
singact
ion:i
tist
hesecondpar
toft
hepl
otwher
esuspensegr
ows
amongt
hechar
act
ersast
hecompl
i
cat
ionsoft
heconf
li
ctst
art
s.

 Cl
i
max:i
tist
hehi
ghestpoi
nti
nwhi
cht
heconf
li
ctr
eachesi
tspeak.I
t
i
sthepar
twhi
chcr
eat
esi
nter
estorsuspenset
other
eader
sor
audi
ence.I
tist
hemomentofgr
eat
estdangerordeci
si
onmaki
ngf
or
t
hepr
otagoni
st.I
not ds,cl
herwor i
maxi
sthemostexci
ti
ngmoment
i
nthest
ory
.

 Fal
l
ingact
ion:i
tisapar
tofpl
otwhi
chshowswhathappenst
othe
char
act
eraf
tert
he cl
i
max.Nor
mal
l
y one si
de among t
he t
wo
conf
li
cti
ngpar
tsl
osespowerandhencet
ensi
onsdecr
eases.

 Resol
uti
on(
denouement
):i
tist
hef
inalpar
toft
hest
oryasconf
li
cts
ar
eresol
vedandsomemy
ster
iesar
eunr
avel
ed.

25
 Fr
eyt
agpy
rami
dofpl
ot

Par
tsofpl
otcanbesummar
izedusi
ngFr
eyt
agpy
rami
dasf
oll
ows;

CLI
MAX

RI
SINGACTI
ON FALLI
NGACTI
ON

PLOT
EXPOSI
TION RESOLUTI
ON

b)St
yle(
techni
que)

St
yle/
techni
quer
efer
stot
hequal
i
tyt
hatdi
sti
ngui
shesanaut
hor
’swor
k
f
rom t
he wor
k ofanot
heraut
hor
.Iti
ncl
udes t
he wr
it
er’
s choi
ce and
empl
oymentoff
igur
esofspeechi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.

I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
echni
quer
efer
stot
hewaya l
i
ter
arywor
khasbeen
const
ruct
edandbr
oughtt
other
eader
.Inmostcases,l
i
ter
arywor
ksar
e
pr
esent
edi
n;

26
  Di
alogueor

 Monol
ogue(
sol
i
loquy
)

Ther
ear
eav
ari
etyofst
ylesusedbydi
ff
erentar
ti
stsi
nli
ter
atur
e,butt
he
mosti
mpor
tantt
echni
quei
snar
rat
ivet
echni
que.

Ty
pesofnar
rat
ivet
echni
ques

i
. Or
alt
radi
ti
onalnar
rat
ivet
echni
que:i
tisast
ylewhi
chr
efer
stot
he
r
etel
l
ingofast
oryt
hatr
esembl
est
het
radi
ti
onalwayoft
ell
i
ngt
hat
hav
ebegi
nni
ngst
ylesl
i
keonceuponat
ime…,al
ongt
imeago…,
manyy
ear
sago…et
c.

i
i
. St
rai
ghtf
orwar
dnar
rat
ivest
yle:i
tisanar
rat
ionofast
oryt
hat
r
elat
est
owhati
staki
ngpl
acei
nthest
oryf
rom t
hebegi
nni
ngt
o
t
heendofst
ory
.Iti
scommoni
nmanynov
els.

i
i
i. Fl
ashback:i
tisanar
rat
ivest
ylei
nwhi
cht
heendormi
ddl
eoft
he
st
oryi
sfoundatt
hebegi
nni
ngandv
icev
ersa.

i
v. For
eshadowi
ng:i
tisanar
rat
ivest
ylei
nwhi
chacer
tai
nchar
act
er
makest
hepr
edi
cti
onsoft
het
hingst
hatr
eal
l
yhappenl
ateri
nthe
book’
sev
ent
.

c)Set
ti
ng

Set
ti
ngr
efer
stot
het
imeandpl
acewher
eandwhenev
ent
stake
pl
acei
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.Basi
cal
l
y,set
ti
ngi
sthel
ocal
e,hi
stor
icalt
ime
andsoci
alci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
cht
heact
ionsoft
hewor
kofar
t
occur
.Exampl
e,one can wr
it
ethe set
tng as “
i in Tanzani
a af
ter
i
ndependence”

27
 Ty
pesofset
ti
ng

i
)Realset
ti
ng:i
stheset
ti
ngoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
ktoar
eal
placeknownt
o
peopl
e.I
tmakesal
i
ter
arywor
kmor
ereal
i
sti e,“
c.Exampl TheLi
on
andt
heJeweli
sseti
nNi
ger
ia.

i
i
) I
magi
nar
yset
ti
ng:i
tisaset
ti
ngoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
ktounr
eal
pl
aceswhi
char
eunknownt
opeopl
e.

El
ement
sofset
ti
ng

i
. Geogr
aphi
calset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sthepl
aceset
ti
ng.Exampl
e,Tanzani
a,
Ni
ger
ia,
Keny
a,et
c.

i
i
. Tempor
alset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sthe t
ime set
ti
ng.I
t can be pr
e-
i
ndependence,
dur
ingcol
oni
ali
sm,
oraf
teri
ndependence.

i
i
i. Soci
alset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sasi
tuat
ionalorenv
ironment
alset
ti
ng.I
t
deal
s wi
th conf
li
cts.Exampl
e,expl
oit
ati
ve env
ironment
,the
conf
li
ctbet
weent
hepoorandt
her
ich,
educat
edandeducat
ed.

NOTE:t
heel
ement
sofset
ti
ngcanbeal
sot
ypesofset
ti
ngwher
e
geogr
aphi
calset
ti
ngi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntor
ealandi
magi
nar
yset
ti
ng.

d)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion

Char
act
eri
sanypar
ti
cipanti
ntheact
ionofal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tcanbehuman
bei
ngori
nani
mat
e.

Ty
pesofchar
act
ers

i
. Mai
n/maj
or/
cent
ralchar
act
ers:t
hesear
echar
act
erst
hatpl
ayan
28
 i
mpor
tantr
olei
nast
ory
.Theyar
ethedr
iver
soft
hest
oryi
nwhi
ch
t
hepl
otandr
esol
uti
onofconf
li
ctsr
esol
vear
oundt
hem.

i
i
. Mi
norchar
act
ers:t
hese ar
e char
act
erst
hatdo notpl
ay an
i
mpor
tantr
olei
nast
ory
.Thesear
echar
act
erst
hatt
akesmal
lpar
t
buthel
pthemai
nchar
act
erst
odev
elopev
ent
s.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofchar
act
ers

a)Pr
otagoni
st:i
sthecent
ralchar
act
eri
nast
oryandi
sof
tenr
efer
redt
o
ast
hest
ory
’smai
nchar
act
er.He/
shei
sfacedwi
thaconf
li
ctt
hat
mustber
esol
ved.I
sachar
act
erwi
thposi
ti
vet
rai
tsandt
heaudi
ence
l
ovedhi
m/her
.

b)Ant
agoni
st:i
sachar
act
erwhoopposest
hepr
otagoni
st.He/
shei
s
t
he one who makes t
he st
oryt
o mov
e on.I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
he
ant
agoni
sti
sanobst
acl
ethatt
hepr
otagoni
stmustov
ercomeatt
he
f
inal
stageoft
hest
ory
.

c)Dy
nami
c/dev
elopi
ngchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatchangesov
ert
ime,
usual
l
yasar
esul
tofr
esol
vi
ngacent
ral
conf
li
ctormaj
orcr
isi
s.

d)St
ati
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatdoesnotchangeov
ert
ime.
Hi
s/herper
sonal
i
tydoesnott
ransf
orm orev
olv
eorchange.Ther
eis
notmucht
olear
nfr
om aboutsuchchar
act
er.

e)Roundchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hathascompl
exper
sonal
i
ty.He/
she
i
sof
tenpor
tray
edasaconf
li
ctedandcont
radi
ctor
yper
son.

f
)Foi
lchar
act
er:i
s a char
act
erusual
l
ythe ant
agoni
stt
hatshows
cont
rastagai
nstt
hepr
otagoni
st.He/
shei
susual
l
yami
norchar
act
er

29
 t
hathast
rai
tsi
onav
ersi
ont
othemai
nchar
act
erandf
rust
rat
est
he
mai
nchar
act
er.

g)Fl
atchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
erwhoseper
sonal
i
tiesar
enotcompl
ex.
He/
shei
spr
esent
edonl
yinanout
li
newi
thoutmuchi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zed
det
ail
s.

h)St
ock/
ster
eot
ypechar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatoccur
srepeat
edl
yina
par
ti
cul
arl
i
ter
arygenr
e,andsoar
erecogni
zabl
easpar
toft
hef
orm.
I
not
herwor
ds,st
ockchar
act
eri
sachar
act
erbor
rowedf
rom ot
her
l
i
ter
arywor
ksr
ecogni
zedbyr
eader
s.

i
)Exposi
tor
ychar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hati
sdescr
ibedordi
scussed
ei
therbyt
heaut
hororbyanot
herchar
act
er.

j
)Dr
amat
icchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
eri
nact
ion.Fr
om hi
s/herspeechand
r
ecor
dedsounds,wemakededi
cat
ionsabouthi
sorherper
sonal
i
ty,
at
ti
tudeandr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thot
herchar
act
ers.

k)Sy
mbol
i
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
erwhosepr
esencei
nthewor
kofar
t
st
andsf
orani
deasuchascor
rupt
ion,di
ctat
orshi
p,gr
eedet
c.i
nthe
soci
ety
.

l
)Real
i
sti
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatf
eat
urest
ruehumant
rai
ts.
Theyar
eimagi
nar
ychar
act
ersbutt
heyr
esembl
etr
uehumanbei
ngs
i
nthei
rbehav
ior
s.Usi
ngt
hesechar
act
ersmakeawor
kofar
tto
r
efl
ectr
eal
i
ty.

Non-
m) real
i
sti
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatdoesnotf
eat
uret
rue
humant
rai
ts.

30
Char
act
eri
zat
ion:i
sthepr
ocessofdescr
ibi
ngachar
act
eri
nawor
kofar
t.I
t
i
nvol
vest
hepr
ocessofassi
gni
ngacer
tai
ndut
ytochar
act
eri
nor
dert
o
achi
eveapar
ti
cul
arpur
posebyawr
it
erornar
rat
or.

Ty
pesofchar
act
eri
zat
ion

 Di
rectchar
act
eri
zat
ion:her
eawr
it
ert
ell
sthechar
act
er’
str
ait
sli
ke
br
ave,
cor
rupt
,weaket
c.

I
ndi
rectchar
act
eri
zat
ion:her
ea wr
it
erdependsont
her
eadert
o
dr
awconcl
usi
onorj
udgment
saboutt
hechar
act
er’
str
ait
susi
ngt
he
ev
idencet
hewr
it
ergi
vest
hroughdi
ff
erentmet Asexpl
hods.( aini
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngsubt
opi
c).

Met
hodsofdescr
ibi
ngori
dent
if
yingachar
act
er

I
nli
ter
arywor
k,achar
act
ercanbei
dent
if
iedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s;

 Thr
oughwhatt
heyt
hink

 Thr
oughwhatt
heysay

 Thr
oughwhatt
heydo

 Thewayt
heybehav
etowar
dsot
her
s

 Thr
oughwhatot
herchar
act
erssayaboutt
hem

 Thr
oughwhatt
heaut
horsay
saboutt
hem

e)Di
cti
on(
languageuse)

31
Di
cti
onr
efer
stot
hechoi
ceandar
rangementofwor
dsi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
t
i
sthechoi
ceanduseofwor
dsf
orar
ti
sti
cef
fecti
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tal
so,
r
efer
stohow l
anguagehasbeenused/
empl
oyedi
nawor
kofar
t.I
nany
l
i
ter
arywor
k,l
anguagei
scomment
edassi
mpl
ethoughi
not
herwayi
tcan
becompl
ex.

f
)Poi
ntofv
iew

Ref
erst
oanangl
eorposi
ti
onf
rom whi
chal
i
ter
arywor
kisnar
rat
ed.I
tis
al
sor
efer
stowhot
ell
sthest
ory
.Ther
efor
e,i
tist
hespeaker
,voi
ce,
nar
rat
or
orper
sonaofawor
kofar
tfr
om wher
ewegett
hest
ory
.

Ty
pesofpoi
ntofv
iews

 Fi
rstper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sat
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
nar
rat
ori
soneoft
hechar
act
ersi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.Thepr
onoun“
I”i
s
empl
oyedi
nnar
rat
ingt
hest
ory
.Thi
snar
rat
ort
ell
sushi
sorher
ex
per
iences. Ther
efor
e,t
he r
eader sees ev
ery
thi
ng f
rom t
hat
char
act
er’
sey
esandex
per
iences.

 Secondper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sat
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
pr
onoun“
you”i
sempl
oyedi
nnar
rat
ingt
hest
ory
.Iti
srar
elyusedi
n
wor
ksofl
i
ter
atur
e.

 Thi
rdper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sthet
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
nar
rat
ori
sout
sidet
hest
ory
.Thi
sisv
erycommonpoi
ntofv
iew.The
nar
rat
orusest
hepr
onounssuchashe,
sheort
hey
.Thus,
thenar
rat
or
i
snotachar
act
eri
nthest
ory
,butanout
sideobser
ver
.Iti
sgr
ouped
i
ntot
wogr
oups,
namel
y;

 Thi
rdper
sonl
i
mit
edpoi
ntofv
iew:i
tisapoi
ntofv
iewi
nwhi
ch

32
 t
henar
rat
ort
ell
sast
orybyusi
ngonl
yonechar
act
eri
nthe
whol
ewor
kofar
t.

 Thi
rdper
sonomni
sci
entpoi
ntofv
iew:i
tisapoi
ntofv
iew i
n
whi
cht
henar
rat
orr
epor
tsonwhatsev
eralormanychar
act
ers
ar
ethi
nki
ngandf
eel
i
ng.Thenar
rat
orseemst
oknowev
ery
thi
ng
aboutt
hechar
act
ersoft
hest
ory
.Thi
sty
pei
sal
soknownas
ALL KNOWI
NG POI
NT OF VI
EW and t
he nar
rat
ori
san al
l
-
knowi
ngbei
ng.

I
mpor
tanceofpoi
ntofv
iew

 Theyar
ecr
uci
alf
oundat
ionf
oranypi
eceofwr
it
ing.

 Theypr
ovi
det
hecont
extandback-
stor
yyouneedf
ort
heaudi
encet
o
under
standt
hescene.

 Theyhel
ptheaudi
encebestseet
hewr
it
er’
schar
act
ersandi
nter
pret
t
hemat
eri
ali
nthewayt
hewr
it
eri
ntends.

 Fi
rstper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew br
ingsi
nspi
rat
ionf
orcr
eat
ingdr
amaand
emot
ion.

B)CONTENT

Cont
entr
efer
stowhati
sbei
ngsai
dorconv
eyedi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tal
so
r
efer
stowhati
sbei
ngdescr
ibedi
nthel
i
ter
arywor
k.I
nli
ter
atur
e,cont
ent
i
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
s;

a)Theme

At
hemei
sacent
ralordomi
nanti
deaorpur
posei
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tis
usual
l
yst
atedi
nast
atementf
orm.I
tist
heabst
ractconceptt
hati
smade
33
concr
etet
hroughi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
oni
naper
son,act
ionandi
magei
nthe
wor
kofar
t.Thecommont
hemesi
nAf
ri
canl
i
ter
atur
eincl
udebet
ray
al,
Af
ri
can t
radi
ti
ons,col
oni
ali
sm,posi
ti
on ofwomen,cor
rupt
ion,cl
asses,
r
aci
alsegr
egat
ion,
prot
est
,neo-
col
oni
ali
sm et
c.