1.

0 Introduction

1.1 Definition of Piping

Pipe is a pressure tight cylinder used to convey a fluid or to transmit a fluid

pressure, ordinarily designated pipe in applicable material specifications.
Materials designated tube or tubing in the specifications are treated as pipe when
intended for pressure service.

Piping is an assembly of piping components used to convey, distribute, mix,

separate, discharge, meter, control or snub fluid flows. Piping also includes pipe-
supporting elements but does not include support structures, such as building
frames, bents, foundations, or any equipment excluded from Code definitions.

Piping components are mechanical elements suitable for joining or

assembly into pressure-tight fluid-containing piping systems. Components
include pipe, tubing, fittings, flanges, gaskets, bolting, valves and devices
such as expansion joints, flexible joints, pressure hoses, traps, strainers,
in-line portions of instruments and separators.

Piping is typically round.

1.2 Piping Nomenclature, Components

Graphic of piping system illustrating

Header

Branch connection

Valve

Flange

Expansion joint

Expansion loop

Pipe support

Reducer

Elbow
Pipe system essentials:

Header Main run of piping

Take off Branch run
Stub in Branch fitting connection made to header
by direct attachment of branch

Branch Material added in the vicinity of a branch

reinforcem opening to restore the mechanical integrity of the
ent pipe
NPS Nominal pipe size
Pipe Support elements which serve to
support maintain the structural integrity of the piping
system, these are typically non-linear elements
Spring Support provided by an element
support composed of a spring assembly, these are linear
support elements
Snubber Support provided by an element
composed of a non-linear, damping element

Category Within reference of B31.3, a service

D classification
Category Within reference of B31.3, a service
M classification
Expansible Any vapour or gaseous substance, any
fluid liquid under such pressure and temperature
such that when pressure is reduced to
atmospheric, will change to a gas
Hydro test Test pressure = 1.5 x MAWP (some of
the time)
MAWP Maximum allowable working pressure
MDMT Minimum design metal temperature
Fracture Typically measured by CVN (Charpy V
toughness Number) at MDMT
1.3 Regulatory Acts, Codes & Standards

Codes

Codes are rules for the design of prescribed systems which are given the
force of law through provincial, state and federal legislation. In Canada,
provincial governments have the responsibility for public safety that
includes these facilities, among others:

Pressure piping

Pressure vessels

Boilers

Pipelines

Plumbing systems

Gas piping

Alberta Safety Codes Acts and Codes of Practice

The following are applicable to the first four facilities listed above.

Boilers and Pressure Vessels Regulation

Prescribes requirements for registration of pressure vessels,

boilers, pressure piping and fittings

Design, Construction and Installation of Boilers and Pressure Vessels

Regulations

Cites the codes and “bodies of rules” that form part of the
regulations

CSA B51 Boiler, Pressure Vessel and Pressure Piping Code

CSA B52 Mechanical Refrigeration Code

CAN/CSA Z184 Gas Pipeline Systems

ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code

ASME B31 Pressure Piping Codes

 B31.1 Power Piping

B31.3 Process Piping

B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid

Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia and Alcohols

B31.5 Refrigeration Piping

ANSI K61.1 Safety Requirements for the Storage and Handling of

Anhydrous Ammonia

NFPA 58 Standard for the Storage and Handling of Liquefied

Petroleum Gases

DOT Regulations of the Department of Transportation Governing

the Transportation of Hazardous Materials in Tank Motor Vehicles

MSS Standard Practice SP 25 Standard Marking System for

Valves, Fittings, Flanges and Unions

TEMA Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association

Pipeline Act

Cites the “minimum requirements for the design, construction, testing,

operation, maintenance and repair of pipelines”:

CAN/CSA Z183 Oil Pipeline Systems

CAN/CSA Z184 Gas Pipeline Systems

CSA Z169 Aluminum Pipe and Pressure Piping Systems

Canadian Petroleum Association Recommended Practice for

Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Leak Prevention and Detection in the Province
of Alberta

Currently, CSA Z662 Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems

(This standard supercedes Z183 & Z184)

In the US:
 As in Canada, some facilities are governed by federal regulations.
Interstate pipeline facilities are defined by the:

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 49

Part 192 Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline –

Minimum Federal Safety Standards

Part 193 Liquefied Natural Gas Facilities

Part 195 Transportation of Hazardous Liquids by Pipeline

Other pipeline pressure piping codes include:

ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid

Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids

ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems

1.4 Line Designation Tables

The Province of Alberta Safety Codes Act "Design, Construction and

Installation of Boilers & Pressure Vessels Regulations" par 7(2) requires
that construction of a pressure piping system must include submission of
drawings, specifications and other information and include:

(a) Flow or line diagrams showing the general arrangement of all boilers,
pressure vessels, pressure piping systems and fittings (2 copies)

(b) Pipeline identification lists showing the maximum pressures and

temperatures for each pressure piping system (2 copies)

(c) A list of pressure relief devices, including the set pressure (2 copies)

(d) Material specifications, size, schedule and primary service rating of all
pressure piping and fittings (2 copies)

(e) The welding procedure registration number

(f) The pressure pipe test procedure outlining the type, method, test media
, test pressure, test temperature, duration and safety precautions (1 copy)

(g) A form, provided by the Administrator, completed by the engineering

designer or contractor which relates to the general engineering
requirements for design and field construction of pressure piping systems
(AB 96)
 (h) Such other information as is necessary for a safety codes officer to
survey the design and determine whether it is suitable for approval and
registration

Problem Set 1

1 Which Act governs the design of plant pressure piping

systems in Alberta?

2 Are process plant water lines considered pressure piping

systems?

3 For what fluid service category may a hydro test be waived

per B31.3?

4 What is the difference between a pipe elbow and a bend?

2.0 Codes and Standards

The following codes are used for the design, construction and inspection
of piping systems in North America.

2.1 The ASME B31 Piping Codes

Piping codes developed by the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers:

B31.1 Power Piping

Piping typically found in electric power generating stations, in industrial

and institutional plants, geothermal heating systems and central and
district heating and cooling plants.

B31.3 Process Piping

Piping typically found in petroleum refineries, chemical, pharmaceutical,

textile, per, semiconductor and cryogenic plants and related processing
plants and terminals.

B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and

Other Liquids

Piping transporting products which are predominately quid between plants

and terminals and within terminals, pumping, regulating, and metering
stations.

B31.5 Refrigeration Piping

Piping for refrigerants and secondary coolants.

B31.8 Gas Transportation and Distribution Piping Systems

Piping transporting products which are predominately gas between

sources and terminals including compressor, regulating and metering
stations, gas gathering pipelines.

B31.9 Building Services Piping

 Piping typically found in industrial, institutional, commercial and public
buildings and in multi-unit residences which does not require the range of
sizes, pressures and temperatures covered in B311.1

B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems

Piping transporting aqueous slurries between plants and terminals within

terminals, pumping and regulating stations.

The following codes are used to specify the geometric, material and strength of
piping and components:

ASME B16 Dimensional Codes

The ASME B16 Piping Component Standards

Piping component standard developed by the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers or the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

B16.1 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

B16.3 Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings, Class 150 and 300

B16.4 Cast Iron Threaded Fittings, Classes 125 and 250

B16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

B16.9 Factory Made Wrought Steel Butt welding Fittings

B16.10 Face to Face and End to End Dimensions of Valves

B16.11 Forged Fittings, Socket Welding and Threaded

B16.12 Cast Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings

B16.14 Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe

Threads

B16.15 Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings Class 125 and 250

B16.18 Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings

B16.20 Ring Joint Gaskets and Grooves for Steel Pipe Flanges

B16.21 Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges

B16.22 Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure
Fittings

B16.23 Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings – DWV

B16.24 Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

Class 150, 300, 400,600, 900, 1500 and 2500

B16.25 Butt welding Ends

B16.26 Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes

B16.28 Wrought Steel Butt welding Short Radius Elbows and

Returns

B16.29 Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint

Drainage Fittings – DWV

B16.32 Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Fittings for Sovent

Drainage Systems

B16.33 Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in Gas

Piping systems Up to 125 psig (sizes ½ through 2)

B16.34 Valves – Flanged, Threaded and Welding End

B16.36 Orifice Flanges

B16.37 Hydrostatic Testing of Control Valves

B16.38 Large Metallic Valves for Gas Distribution (Manually

Operated, NPS 2 ½ to 12, 125 psig maximum)

B16.39 Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions, Classes 1150, 250

and 300

B16.40 Manually Operated Thermoplastic Gs Shutoffs and Valves

in Gas Distribution Systems

B16.42 Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Class 150
and 300

B16.47 Large Diameter Steel Flanges (NPS 26 through NPS 60)

ASME B36 Piping Component Standards

Piping standards developed by the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers / American National Standards Institute:

B36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe

B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe

Other ASME or ANSI

B73.1 Horizontal, End Suction Centrifugal Pumps

B73.2 Vertical In-line Centrifugal Pumps

B133.2 Basic Gas Turbine

2.2 NEPA Codes

National Electrical Protection Association

Piping covering fire protection systems using water, carbon dioxide, halon,
foam, dry chemical and wet chemicals.

NFC - NFPA Codes

National Fire Code / National Fire Protection Association

NFPA 99 Health Care Facilities

Piping for medical and laboratory gas systems.

2.3 CSA Standards

Canadian Standards Association

CSA Z662 - 94 Oil & Gas Pipeline Systems

This standard supercedes these standards:

CAN/CSA Z183 Oil Pipeline Systems

CAN/CSA Z184 Gas Pipeline Systems

CAN/CSA Z187 Offshore Pipelines

Other CSA Piping and Component Codes:

B 51 Boilers and Pressure Vessels

B 53 Identification of Piping Systems

B 52 Mechanical Refrigeration Code

B 63 Welded and Seamless Steel Pipes

B 137.3 Rigid Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipe

B 137.4 Polyethylene Piping Systems for Gas Service

W 48.1 Mild Steel Covered Arc-Welding Electrodes

W 48.3 Low-Alloy Steel Arc-Welding Electrodes

Z 245.1 Steel Line Pipe

Z 245.11 Steel Fittings

Z 245.12 Steel Flanges

Z 245.15 Steel Valves

Z 245.20 External Fusion Bond Epoxy Coating for Steel Pipe

Z 245.21 External Polyethylene Coating for Pipe

 Z 276 LNG - Production, Storage and Handling

2.4 MSS Standard Practices

Piping and related component standards developed by the Manufacturer’s

Standardization Society. The MSS standards are directed at general
industrial applications. The pipeline industry makes extensive use of
these piping component and quality acceptance standards.

SP-6 Standard Finishes for Contact Faces Pipe Flanges and

Connecting End Flanges of Valves and Fittings

SP-25 Standard Marking System for Valves, Fittings, Flanges

and Union

SP-44 Steel Pipeline Flanges

SP-53 Quality Standards for Steel Castings and Forgings for

Valves, Flanges and Fittings and Other Piping Components - Magnetic
Particle

SP-54 Quality Standards for Steel Castings and for Valves,

Flanges and Fittings and Other Piping Components - Radiographic

SP-55 Quality Standards for Steel Castings and for Valves,

Flanges and Fittings and Other Piping Components - Visual

SP-58 Pipe Hangers and Supports - Material, Design and

manufacture

SP-61 Pressure Testing of Steel Valves

SP-69 Pipe Hangers and Supports - Selection and Application

SP-75 High Test Wrought Butt Welding Fittings

SP-82 Valve Pressure Testing Methods

SP-89 Pipe Hangers and Supports - Fabrication and Installation

Practices
2.5 API

American Petroleum Institute

The API standards are focused on oil production, refinery and product
distribution services. Equipment specified to these standards are typically
more robust than general industrial applications.

Spec. 5L Line Pipe

Spec. 6D Pipeline Valves

Spec. 6FA Fire Test for Valves

Spec. 12D Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids

Spec. 12F Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids

Spec. 12J Oil and Gas Separators

Spec. 12K Indirect Type Oil Field Heaters

Std. 594 Wafer and Wafer-Lug Check Valves

Std. 598 Valve Inspection and Testing

Std. 599 Metal Plug Valves - Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends

Std. 600 Steel Gate Valves-Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends

Std. 602 Compact Steel Gate Valves-Flanged Threaded, Welding,

and Extended-Body Ends

Std. 603 Class 150, Cast, Corrosion-Resistant, Flanged-End Gate

Valves

Std. 607 Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter-Turn Valves

Std. 608 Metal Ball Valves-Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends

Std. 609 Lug-and Wafer-Type Butterfly Valves

Std. 610 Centrifugal Pumps For Petroleum, Heavy Duty Chemical
and Gas Industry Services

Std. 611 General Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services

Std. 612 Special Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services

Std. 613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Refinery Services

Std. 614 Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing and Control Oil Systems for

Special Purpose Application

Std. 615 Sound Control of Mechanical Equipment for Refinery

Services

Std. 616 Gas Turbines for Refinery Services

Std. 617 Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery Services

Std. 618 Reciprocating Compressors for General Refinery Services

Std. 619 Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressors for

General Refinery Services

Std. 620 Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low Pressure

Storage Tanks

Std. 630 Tube and Header Dimensions for Fired Heaters for
Refinery Service

Std. 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

Std. 660 Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service

Std. 661 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service

Std. 670 Vibrations, Axial Position, and Bearing-Temperature

Monitoring Systems

Std. 671 Special Purpose Couplings for Refinery Service

Std. 674 Positive Displacement Pumps-Reciprocating

Std. 675 Positive Displacement Pumps-Controlled Volume

Std. 676 Positive Displacement Pumps-Rotary

Std. 677 General Purpose Gear Units for Refineries Services

Std. 678 Accelerometer-Base Vibration Monitoring System

Std. 1104 Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities

Std. 2000 Venting Atmospheric and low-Pressure Storage Tanks -

Non-Refrigerated and Refrigerated

RP 530 Calculation for Heater Tube Thickness in Petroleum

Refineries

RP 560 Fired Heater for General Refinery Services

RP 682 Shaft Sealing System for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps

RP 1110 Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines

Publ. 941 Steel for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperature and

Pressures in Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants

Publ. 2009 Safe Welding and Cutting Practices in Refineries

Publ. 2015 Safe Entry and Cleaning of Petroleum Storage Tanks

2.6 ASTM

There are numerous American Society for Testing and Materials

designations cover the specification of wrought materials, forgings and
castings used for plate, fittings, pipe and valves. The ASTM standards
are directed to dimensional standards, materials and strength
considerations.

Some of the more material standards referenced are:

A 36 Specification for Structural Steel

A 53 Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot –Dipped, Zinc

Coated Welded and Seamless

A 105 Specification for Forgings, Carbon Steel, for Piping

Components

A 106 Specification for Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High

Temperature Service

A 181 Specification for Forgings, Carbon Steel for General

Purpose Piping

A 182 Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy Steel Pipe

Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High Temperature
Service

A 193 Specification for Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting

Materials for High Temperature Service

A 194 Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for
High Pressure and High Temperature Service

A 234 Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel

and Alloy Steel for Moderate and Elevated Temperatures

A 333 Specification for Seamless and Welded Steel Pipe for Low
Temperature Service

A 350 Specification for Forgings, Carbon and Low Alloy Steel

Requiring Notch Toughness Testing for Piping Components
 A 352 Specification for Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic for
Pressure Containing Parts Suitable for Low Temperature Service

A 420 Specification for Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel

and Alloy Steel for Low Temperature Service

A 694 Specification for Forgings, carbon and Alloy Steel for Pipe
Flanges, Fittings, Valves and Parts for High Pressure Transmission
Service

A 707 Specifications for Flanges, Forged, Carbon and Alloy Steel

for Low Temperature Service

Problem Set 2

1. A project award has been made. At the kick off meeting, the PM
advises that piping design will be to B31.4. The facility is steam piping in
a refinery extending from the boiler to the tank farm. What do you do or
say and why?

2. A liquid pipeline is to be built to Z184. You raise an issue. Why?

3. What flange specification would you expect to reference for a gas

pipeline facility?

Show the development of your answers.

Section 1 – References

Due to copyright laws, the following figures have not been published here.
We leave as an exercise for the user to retrieve these for reference.

Fig 100.1.2(B) of ASME B31.1

Fig 300.1.1 of ASME B31.3 1996

Fig 300.1.1 of ASME B31.3 1999

Fig 400.1.1 of ASME B31.4

Fig 400.1.2 of ASME B31.4

Fig 1.1 of CSA Z 662

Fig 1.2 of CSA Z 662

Table of Contents CSA Z 662

3.0 Supplemental Documents

3.1 Owner’s Specifications & Documents

Many of the Owners in the industries we service are technically

sophisticated and will often have supplementary specifications, standards
or practices. It is the intent of these documents to clarify and provide
interpretation of the legislated Codes and industry-accepted standards
specific to the Owner’s facilities.

These specifications typically go beyond the requirements of Codes and

without exception do not contravene a Code requirement.

3.2 Contractor’s Specifications & Documents

Engineering contractors may be called upon to provide the engineering

specifications for a project if an Owner does not have his own standards or if
required by terms of the contract.

Problem Set 3

1 What is the typical precedence of documents for

engineering standards?

2 Can the Owner’s engineering standard override a Code

provision?

3 Under what conditions can the Owner’s standard override a

Code provision?

4 How would you deviate from an Owner’s engineering

specification?
4.0 Piping Design

Piping design deals with the:

Analytical design

Material selection

Geometric layout

Fabrication

Inspection specification

Component specification

of piping and piping components.

4.1 Failure Mechanisms

Piping and piping components may fail if inadequately designed, by a number of

different mechanisms. These failures, in the majority of cases are either load
controlled or displacement controlled failures.

Pipe rupture due to overpressure

Bending failure in pipe span

Elbow cracking after 10 years of service, 5000 cycles of heat up to

500 F

on heat up, a line comes into contact with adjacent header which is
at ambient temperature

during startup on a cold winter day in Grande Prairie, an outdoor

gas line located above grade and constructed to Z662 is suddenly
subjected to full line pressure and ruptures.

a 12” Sch.40 header, bottom supported, 40 feet long runs vertically

up a tower and connects to a nozzle. On steam out of the vessel, a 1’
deflection is observed in the pipe and remains after the steam out
procedure is completed and the pipe returns to ambient temperature.

a header of a reciprocating compressor has been stressed

checked; during operation vibration is observed in the line. During the
unit turnaround, cracking is found at midspan in the wrought piping
material.

A stress check determines that a hot, high alloy line does not pass
the flexibility requirements per B31.3. Twenty-five cycles are expected
over the lifetime of the line.
4.2 Code Considerations for Design

Design of piping systems is governed by Codes. All codes have a

common theme; they are intended to set forth engineering requirements
deemed necessary for safe design and construction of piping installations.

The Codes are not intended to apply to the operation, examination,

inspection, testing, maintenance or repair of piping that has been placed in
service. The Codes do not prevent the User from applying the provisions
of the Codes for those purposes.

Engineering requirements of the Codes, while considered necessary and

adequate for safe design, generally use a simplified approach. A designer
capable of applying a more rigorous analysis shall have the latitude to do
so, but must be able to demonstrate the validity of such analysis.

Design Conditions

Design conditions refer to the operating and design temperature and pressure
that the piping system will operate at over the course of its design life.
Code Design Temperature & Design Pressure

Code Design Temperature Design Pressure

B31.1 The piping shall be designed for a metal The internal design pressure shall be not
temperature representing the maximum less than the maximum sustained
sustained condition expected. The design operating pressure (MSOP) within the
temperature shall be assumed to be the same piping system including the effects of
as the fluid temperature unless calculations or static head.
tests support the use of other data, in which
case the design temperature shall not be less
than the average of the fluid temperature and
the outside wall temperature.
B31.3 The design temperature of each component in The design pressure of each component
a piping system is the temperature at which, in a piping system shall be not less than
under the coincident pressure, the greatest the pressure at the most severe
thickness or highest component rating is condition of coincident internal or
required in accordance with par. 301.2 external pressure and temperature
expected during service, except as
provided in par. 302.2.4.
B31.4 The design temperature is the metal The piping component at any point in the
temperature expected in normal operation. It is piping system shall be designed for an
not necessary to vary the design stress for internal design pressure which shall not
metal temperatures between –20 F and 250 be less than the maximum steady state
F. operating pressure at that point, or less
than the static head pressure at that
point with the line in a static condition.
The maximum steady state operating
pressure shall be the sum of the static
head pressure, pressure required to
overcome friction losses and any
required back pressure.
B31.8 No design temperature. The Code mentions Design pressure is the maximum
only ambient temperature and ground operating pressure permitted by the
temperature. (1975) Code, as determined by the design
procedures applicable to the materials
and locations involved.
Z662 For restrained piping, the temperature The design pressure at any specific
differential shall be the difference between the location shall be specified by the
maximum flowing fluid temperature and the designer, shall not be less than the
metal temperature at the time of restraint. intended maximum operating pressure at
any location, and shall include static
For unrestrained piping, the thermal expansion head, pressure required to overcome
range to be used in the flexibility analysis shall friction loss and any required back
be the difference between the maximum and pressure.
minimum operating temperatures.
Design of Piping – B31.1

B31.1 essentially limits the pressure design consideration to three items:

Minimum thickness for pressure:

tmin = + A , or

t=

The limit is based on the limit stress being less than the basic allowable
stress at temperature. This limit is based on the static yield strength of the
material.

Maximum longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings (SL ):

SL Sh ; stress due to sustained loadings shall be less than the basic

allowable stress at temperature. Sustained loadings are those due to
pressure, self weight of contents & piping and other sustained loadings
particular to the situation. The limit is based on the static yield strength of
the material.

Slp=

The computed displacement stress range SE :

SE SA = f(1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh). SE stresses arise from the constraint of the

thermal strain displacements associated with the expansion of pipe due to
temperature. The limit is based on fatigue considerations.

Where the sum of the longitudinal stresses is less than Sh, the difference
may be used as an additional thermal expansion allowance.

SE =
B31.1 (cont’d)

The computed displacement stress range SE:

The factor “f” is a stress range reduction factor:

Cycles, N Factor, f

7,000 and less 1.0

> 7,000 to 14,000 0.9
>14,000 to 22,000 0.8
> 22,000 to 45,000 0.7
> 45,000 to 100,000 0.6
> 100,000 to 200,000 0.5
> 200,000 to 700,000 0.4
> 700,000 to 2,000,000 0.3
Design of Piping – B31.3

B31.3 essentially limits the pressure design consideration to three items:

Minimum thickness for pressure:

t= or t = or t = (Lam Equation)

The limit is based on the limit stress being less than the basic allowable
stress at temperature. This limit is based on the static yield strength of the
material.

Maximum longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings (SL ):

SL Sh ; stress due to sustained loadings shall be less than the basic

allowable stress at temperature. Sustained loadings are those due to
pressure, self weight of contents & piping and other sustained loadings
particular to the situation. The limit is based on the static yield strength of
the material.

The computed displacement stress range SE :

SE SA = f(1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh). SE stresses arise from the constraint of

the thermal strain displacements associated with the expansion of pipe
due to temperature. The limit is based on fatigue considerations.

Where the sum of the longitudinal stresses is less than Sh, the difference
may be used as an additional thermal expansion allowance.
Design of Piping – B31.4

B31.4 essentially limits the pressure design consideration to three items:

Minimum thickness for pressure:

t=

The limit is based on the limit stress being less than the basic allowable
stress at temperature. This limit is based on the static yield strength of the
material.

where SMYS is the specified minimum yield strength of the material

Maximum longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings (SL ):

SL 0.75 SA

where SA =

SL, the stress due to sustained loadings shall be less than 0.75 x the
allowable stress range, SA at temperature. Sustained loadings are those
due to pressure, self weight of contents & piping and other sustained
loadings particular to the situation.

The computed displacement stress range SE :

For restrained lines:

SL =

For unrestrained lines:

SE SA
Design of Piping – B31.8

B31.8 (1975) essentially limits the pressure design consideration to three

items:

Design pressure:

P= F E T

F = design factor for construction type (includes a location factor)

E = longitudinal joint factor

T = temperature derating factor

where SMYS is the specified minimum yield strength of the material

Total combined stress:

The total of the following shall not exceed S:

a) Combined stress due to expansion

b) Longitudinal pressure stress

c) Longitudinal bending stress due to internal + external loads

Further,

The sum of (b) + (c) 0.75 S F T

The computed displacement stress range SE :

B31.8 applies itself to the above ground piping in discussing expansion

and flexibility to a temperature of 450 F.

For these “unrestrained” lines:

SE 0.72 S
Design of Piping – CSA Z662

Z662 essentially limits the pressure design consideration to three items:

Pressure Design:

P= ; units are metric

F = design factor = 0.8

L = location factor per Table 4.1 (appear to be safety factors)

J = longitudinal joint factor

T = temperature derating factor

S = Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS)

Maximum longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings (SL ):

For restrained lines (below ground):

Sh - SL + SB 0.90 S T ; where, SL = (below

ground)

* note conservatism with respect to definition of T, Code

requires use of temperature at time of restraint

Sh - SL + SB S T ; (above ground, freely spanning segments)

The computed displacement stress range SE :

For unrestrained lines (above ground):

SE 0.72 S T
Design of Piping

The Design Effort Continuum

Code
Code
+

Calculation Method

Simple

Complex

Answer Quality

Conservative
Accurate

Effort

Least
Most
Design Loads

The Codes prescribe minimum rules for stress conditions and alert the
designer explicitly to some of the loadings likely to act on a system. In
addition to the previous listing, most of the Codes specify design rules for:

Occasional loads such as wind & earthquake

External pressure

The Codes caution the designer to consider the effect of other loadings
and their impact on the stress state of the system:

Impact events (hydraulic shock, liquid & solid slugging,

flashing, transients)

auto- refrigeration, seasonal temperature variations

Vibration

Discharge reactions

Temperature gradients

bi-metallic connections

effects of support & restraint movements

Cyclic effects

The Codes do not explicitly alert the designer to other loadings which may
cause failure in the piping system, including:

buckling (shell & column)

Nozzle loadings on attached equipment, such as

pumps, compressors, engines

Pressure vessels

Steam generating equipment

fired heaters
 Heat exchangers

Loadings on in-line equipment such as flanges, valves,

filters, strainers
4.3 Material Selection

Key Considerations

Material specification

Chemical Composition

Mechanical Properties

Brittle fracture toughness

Carbon equivalent

Inspection

Repair Welding Procedure

Let’s discuss a couple of these considerations at this time.

Material Selection – Common Specifications for Carbon Steel Systems

Commodity B31.1 B31.3 B31.4

Pipe ASTM A 106 ASTM A 53 ASTM A 53

API 5L API 5L

API 5LU
Pipe – Low Temp ASTM A 333 Gr.6 ASTM A 333 Gr.6 ASTM A 333 Gr.6
Pipe – High Temp ASTM A 106 ASTM A 106 ASTM A 106
Bolting ASTM A 193 B7 ASTM A 193 B7 ASTM A 193 B7

ASTM A 320 ASTM A 320

Nut ASTM A 194 2H ASTM A 194 2H ASTM A 194 2H
Fittings ASTM A 234 WPB ASTM A 234 WPB
Fittings – Low Temp ASTM A 420 WPL6 ASTM A 420 WPL6 ASTM A 420 WPL6
Fittings – High Temp ASTM A 234 WPB ASTM A 234 WPB ASTM A 234 WPB

ASTM A 216 WCB ASTM A 216 WCB

Flanges ASTM A 105 ASTM A 105 ASTM A 105

ASTM A 181 ASTM A 181 ASTM A 181

ASME B16.5 ASME B16.5 ASME B16.5

Flanges – Low Temp ASTM A 350 LF2 ASTM A 350 LF2 ASTM A 350 LF2

ASTM A 352 LCB ASTM A 352 LCB

Flanges – High ASTM A 105 ASTM A 105 ASTM A 105
Temp
ASTM A 181 ASTM A 181 ASTM A 216 WCB

ASTM A 216 WCB ASTM A 216 WCB

Valves ASTM A 105 ASTM A 105 API 6D

ASME B16.34 API 600 API 600

Valves – Low Temp ASTM A 350 LF2 ASTM A 350 LF2

ASTM A 352 LCB ASTM A 352 LCB

Valves – High Temp ASTM A 216 WCB ASTM A 216 WCB

As can be seen from the Table, material selection can be made from
available national standards such as ASTM and API.
Material Selection – Common Specifications for Carbon Steel Systems (cont’d)

Commodity B31.8 CSA Z662

Pipe ASTM A 53 CSA Z 245.1

API 5L
Pipe – Low Temp ASTM A 333 Gr.6 CSA Z 245.1
Pipe – High Temp ASTM A 106
Bolting ASTM A 193 B7 CSA Z 245.

ASTM A 354

ASTM A 449
Nut ASTM A 194 2H
Fittings MSS SP-75 CSA Z 245.11
Fittings – Low Temp CSA Z 245.11
Fittings – High
Temp
Flanges ASTM A 105 CSA Z 245.12

ASTM A 372

MSS SP-44
Flanges – Low CSA Z 245.12
Temp
Flanges – High
Temp
Valves ASTM A 105 CSA Z 245.15

API 6D

ASME B16.34

ASME B16.38
Valves – Low Temp CSA Z 245.15
Valves – High Temp
 Brittle Fracture

Brittle fracture refers to the often catastrophic failure of materials when

subjected to stresses at a lower temperature which the materially would
normally be able to withstand at higher temperatures.

A “transition temperature” can be defined at the 13.5, 20, 27 J (10, 15, 20

ft-lb) energy level.

Charpy test results for steel plate obtained from failures of Liberty ships
revealed that plate failure never occurred at temperatures greater than the
20-J (15 ft-lb) transition temperature.

This transition temperature varies with the material and is not used as a
criterion.

Transition Temperatures

The transition temperature establishes the temperature at which a material

“goes brittle”. It’s major shortcoming is it’s imprecision and non-
repeatability.

Charpy Testing

Impact testing provides a repeatable means to establish the impact

toughness capability of a material under temperature. The more common
method is the Charpy drop test measurement which determines the
energy absorbing capacity of a standard specimen.

Minimum Required Charpy V Notch Impact Values (B31.3-1999)

Joules

Ft-lbf

Joules

Ft-lbf

(a) Carbon & Low Alloy Steels

Average for 3 specimens

Minimum for 1 specimen

SMTS 65 ksi
 18

16

13

10

14

10

10

65 ksi  SMTS 75 ksi

20

16

15

12

18

14

13

10

75 ksi  SMTS  95 ksi

27

20

20

15

…
 …

Lateral Expansion
96 ksi  SMTS

Minimum for 3 specimen

0.015 in

(b) Steels in P-Nos. 6, 7, 8

Minimum for 3 specimen

0.015 in
Impact Testing Exemption Temperatures – B31.3

Refer to Figure 323.2.2 in the Code.

This figure provides a correlation between material group, reference

thickness and exemption temperature.

Material group is defined in Table A-1. For example, SA 106 B is given a

Min Temp rating of “B”. Entering Figure 323.2.2A, this material is impact
testing exempt up to a thickness of 0.5” down to a minimum temperature
of –20 F. Curve B rises to a minimum temperature of 75 F for a material
thickness of 3”.

Minimum Required Charpy V Notch Impact Values (CSA Z 662-1999)

Table 5.1 provides a toughness category matrix. This matrix is somewhat

cumbersome to apply as it requires cross referencing to CSA Z 245 and
makes use of toughness categories I, II & III. It is not intuitively obvious
what these categories represent.

This Table also inherently provides for a risk based approach by bringing
in service fluid, test fluid and pipe design operating stress parameters.

Case Study:

On the next page, the Material Requisition Form has certain boxes
marked off to indicate inspection needs. Not all marked boxes are
appropriate! Do you know which?
 4.4 Fabricated Tees & Area Reinforcement

Paragraph 304.3.2 of the Code provides explicit direction on the proper

design of branch connections.

In summary, this paragraph states that branch connections must be made

using fittings that are inherently reinforced such those listed in Table 326.1
or fabricated and sufficiently reinforced using design criteria based on
area reinforcement principles. This presumes that a branch connection
opening weakens the pipe wall and requires reinforcement by replacement
of the removed area to the extent it is in excess to that required for
pressure containment. The Code is fully detailed in the necessary
calculations. These calculations can be very tedious, time consuming
prone to error if done by hand. A computer program is advised for
productivity; a spreadsheet based program is more than adequate.

No calculation is required for branch connections made by welding a

threaded or socket weld coupling or half coupling if the branch does not
exceed 2 NPS nor ¼ the nominal size of the run line. The coupling cannot
be rated for less than 2000 CWP.

Multiple openings are addressed by the Code.

The area reinforcement rule can be at times, be overly conservative; in

other instances, this approach can be deficient even within the limits of
applicability defined in the Code. Code users must be aware of the limits
of applicability of the Code rules which are given in paragraph 304.3.1.
Jurisdictions such as the Alberta Boiler Safety Association (ABSA) have
defined additional limits. WRC publications also have guidance on this
issue.

4.5 Flexibility Analysis

Stress Analysis Criteria:

This stress analysis criteria establishes the procedure, lists critical lines
and piping stress/design liaison flow sheet to be followed.

Lines to be analyzed:

all lines attached to pumps, compressors, turbines and other

rotating equipment

all lines attached to reciprocating compressors

 all pressure relief valve piping

all category m piping

all lines on racks (with discretion)

all lines which the piping designer is uncomfortable with

all vacuum lines

all jacketed piping

all tie-ins to existing piping

all non metallic piping

all steam out, decoking and regeneration lines

all lines 16” and larger

all lines 6” and larger over 500 F

all lines over 750 F

all lines specifically requested by the stress department.

all lines specifically requested by the client.

The above list is actually very conservative and discretion is required in

applying these rules to ensure economical approach to piping analysis.

Paragraph 319.4.1 lists the conditions under which flexibility analysis may
be waived.

If formal analysis is deemed necessary, follow the requirements of

paragraph 319.4.2.

The other Codes will have similar provisions.