The Unification of Italy

Introduction
The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento ‘Resurgence’ was the 19 th-century political and
social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into a
single state in 1861, the Kingdom of Italy. Inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the
outcome of the Congress of Vienna, the unification process was accelerated by the Revolutions of 1848,
and reached completion in 1871 after the Capture of Rome and its designation as the capital of the
Kingdom of Italy.

Historical Context:
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD until the mid-19 th century, Italy was a patchwork of
different states with varying degrees of power and influence. The lack of a unified Italian state made it
vulnerable to external threats and conquest. Throughout history, various foreign powers sought to
control parts of the Italian peninsula, leading to invasions and occupations.

However, the period of French invasion and occupation (1796) coupled ideas of enlightenment and
liberalism and emergence of nationalism brought about significant changes in its social, political and
territorial landscape.

The period of French invasion and occupation overthrew the old established ruling orders and
undermined the last vestiges of feudalism, and led to the growing popularity of modern ideas such as
republicanism and nationalism coupled with liberal and democratic conceptions. Based on a sense of
cultural and linguistic unity, many activists began advocating for Italian unification, thus, sowing the
seeds of Italian nationalism throughout most parts of the northern and central Italian peninsula.

However, after Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the pre-Napoleonic or
conservative order in Europe.

The land was again divided into several smaller states and partly occupied by Austria. The Kingdom of
Piedmont-Sardinia (whose main territory was in fact the region of Piedmont) was the only Italian state
that was a liberal constitutional monarchy since 1848. The regions of Lombardy and Veneto were
annexed by Austria following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. In North-Central Italy, there were three
duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany. They were ruled by branches of Habsburg and Bourbon
dynasties and were closely allied with Austria. Most of Central Italy belonged to the Papal State ruled by
the Pope of the Catholic Church. Southern Italy formed a single state known as the Kingdom of Two
Sicilies. Apart from Piedmont-Sardinia, all those states were absolute monarchies with no constitutions.

Although the Italian peninsula remained fragmented through the mid-1800s, the concept of a united
Italy began to take root. Secret societies formed to oppose the conservative regimes. Several of these
societies also promoted Italian nationalism and the idea of a unified Italian political state.

The revolutions of 1848 further ignited nationalist sentiment throughout the Italian peninsula. There
were widespread uprisings against Austrian rule in several Italian cities that year, mostly by the
professional classes (such as doctors, lawyers, shopkeepers) as well as students.
Although, the uprisings were unsuccessful and by 1849 the old regimes were once again in place. Yet,
the idea of the Risorgimento continued to gain adherents after 1848. The final push for Italian unification
came in 1859, led by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (then the wealthiest and most liberal of the
Italian states), and orchestrated by Piedmont-Sardinia’s Prime Minister, Count Camillo di Cavour.

Impacts of 1848 Revolution:

The 1848 revolution in Italy played a pivotal role in igniting the flames of nationalism and demanding
liberal reforms. While the revolution itself did not achieve unification, it set the stage for further
developments in the following years. The spirit of 1848 continued to inspire Italians in their quest for a
unified nation, and its impact on Italian identity and politics persisted for years to come. The 1848
revolution brought a strong sense of nationalism to the forefront of Italian politics. People began to
identify themselves more as Italians rather than as citizens of individual states. This shared sense of
identity and common purpose laid the foundation for the unification movement.

The revolutionary uprisings in various Italian states were fueled by demands for political and social
reforms. The revolutionaries sought liberal constitutions, greater political representation, and more civil
rights. These demands for reform played a significant role in shaping the political landscape and
furthering the cause of unification.

Obstacles to the Unification

Regionalism and Division: Italy was not a unified nation but rather a collection of separate states and
territories, each with its own government, laws, and cultural identity. The Italian peninsula was divided
into several powerful states, including the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Papal States, the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, and various duchies and principalities. These regional differences and divisions made
it challenging to create a sense of national unity.

Cultural and Linguistic Differences: Italy’s diverse cultural and linguistic heritage posed challenges to
forging a common national identity. Different regions had their own dialects and traditions, making it
difficult to establish a shared sense of Italian identity and pride.

Foreign Control and Intervention: Several Italian states were under foreign control. For example, the
Austrian Empire had significant influence over parts of Northern Italy, while the Papal States were
directly ruled by the Pope. Foreign powers had vested interests in maintaining the status quo and
opposed the idea of a unified Italy, often intervening militarily to suppress nationalist uprisings.

Opposition from Conservative Forces: The conservative elements within Italian states and foreign
powers viewed nationalism and the idea of a unified Italy as a threat to their interests, and disturbance
for balance of power. These conservative forces sought to maintain the existing order and resisted any
efforts towards unification.

Lack of Strong Leadership: Before the emergence of key figures like Count Camillo di Cavour and
Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italy lacked strong and centralized leadership to spearhead the unification
movement. The absence of a unifying leader or institution made it challenging to coordinate efforts and
formulate a coherent strategy.

Economic Disparities: Economic disparities existed between different regions of Italy. The industrialized
and economically prosperous North contrasted with the agricultural and economically disadvantaged
South. These disparities added to the challenges of creating a unified nation with shared economic
interests.

Cavour and the Unification:

Count Camillo di Cavour was one of the key architects of the Italian unification and played a crucial role
in the Risorgimento. As the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, he pursued strategic
and pragmatic approach, skillfully using diplomacy and alliances to further the cause of Italian
unification. Here are the main aspects of Cavour’s role in the unification of Italy:

Advocacy of Liberal Reforms in Piedmont-Sardinia: Cavour became Prime Minister of the Kingdom of
Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852. He immediately set out to implement a series of liberal reforms, including
modernizing the economy, improving infrastructure, and introducing civil liberties. These reforms aimed
to strengthen Piedmont-Sardinia’s position and create a more progressive and prosperous state.

Diplomatic Alliances: Recognizing the importance of foreign support, Cavour sought to build diplomatic
alliances. In 1858, he negotiated a secret agreement with Emperor Napoleon III of France, known as the
Treaty of Plombières, in which France agreed to support Piedmont-Sardinia militarily in a war against
Austria, with the aim of liberating Northern Italy from Austrian control.

Following the Treaty of Plombières, Cavour provoked a conflict with Austria in 1859, which resulted in
the Austro-Sardinian War. French intervention on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia led to a victory over
Austria in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. Although the war did not result in immediate unification,
it weakened Austrian control over parts of Italy.

Annexations and the Kingdom of Italy: After the Austro-Sardinian War, Cavour worked to expand
Piedmont-Sardinia’s territory through diplomatic means. In 1860, he orchestrated a series of
annexations, including Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Romagna, which were later followed by plebiscites
confirming the regions’ desire to join the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Furthermore, Cavour supported
Giuseppe Garibaldi’s expeditions, particularly the famous “Expedition of the Thousand” in 1860.
Garibaldi’s Redshirts, with covert support from Cavour’s government, conquered Sicily and Naples,
contributing to the unification process. These additions, along with the Papal States and the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies, laid the foundation for a united Italy.

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy: On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was officially
proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia becoming the first king of a united Italy. This
marked the culmination of Cavour’s efforts and political strategies to unify Italy.

Rome as Capital (1871): In 1870, taking advantage of the fact that France (the country responsible at the
time for guarding the Papal States) was distracted by involvement in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71),
the Italian army entered Rome. That year, Rome and the Papal States were incorporated into Italy and
the Risorgimento completed. During the summer of 1871, the Italian capital moved to Rome from
Florence (it was moved from Turin to Florence in 1865).

Cavour’s astute diplomacy, political leadership, and strategic alliances were instrumental in achieving the
unification of Italy. His vision for a unified and modern Italy, coupled with his pragmatic approach to
diplomacy and nation-building, laid the foundation for the creation of the Italian nation-state. His
contributions to Italian history have earned him the legacy of a founding father of modern Italy.
 Process of Italian Unification
Annexation of Lombardy (1859)
The Kingdom of Lombardy was a constituent land (crown land) of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to
1866. It was established in 1815 following the defeat of Napoleon at the Congress of Vienna, which
redrew the map of Europe and reshaped various territories.

Later on, when the ideas of unification of Italy started taking roots in Italian peninsula, Cavour, along
with other nationalist leaders and revolutionaries, believed that Lombardy-Venetia and other Italian
territories under foreign control should be liberated and integrated into a united Italian state.

Consequently, in 1858, Cavour __using his diplomatic tactics__ negotiated a secret agreement with
Emperor Napoleon III of France, known as the Treaty of Plombières, in which France, in return for
territorial compensation in the form of the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice, agreed to support
Piedmont-Sardinia militarily in a war against Austria, with the aim of liberating Northern Italy from
Austrian control.

Following the Treaty of Plombières, Cavour provoked a conflict with Austria in 1859, which resulted in
the Austro-Sardinian War. French intervention on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia led to a victory over
Austria in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. After the defeat in the Battle of Solferino in 1859, Austria
by the Treaty of Zurich had to cede Lombardy to the French Emperor Napoleon III, who immediately
passed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia and the embryonic Italian state.

Annexation of Central Italy (1860)

Exploiting the collapse of Austrian power in Italy, Sardinia annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy,
consisting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio and the
Papal Legations, on 22 March 1860. Two days later, Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France at the Treaty
of Turin as compensation for its assistance.

Annexation of the Kingdom of Sicily (Sicily and Naples, 1860)

In the same year, Giuseppe Garibaldi led a daring expedition known as the “Expedition of the Thousand”
or the “Expedition of the Redshirts.” The expedition was aimed at liberating the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies, which comprised the southern regions of Italy, including Sicily and Naples, from Bourbon rule.
On May 11, 1860, when Redshirts landed in Marsala, Sicily, Garibaldi’s guerrilla warfare tactics and the
support of the local population allowed the Redshirts to secure key cities and strategic points on the
island.

After several weeks of intense fighting, Garibaldi’s forces entered the city of Palermo, the capital of Sicily,
in June 1860. The Bourbon garrison surrendered, and Palermo was liberated by the Redshirts.

After securing Sicily, Garibaldi’s next objective was to liberate the mainland, specifically the Kingdom of
Naples, which was ruled by the Bourbon monarch Francis II.

After weeks of fighting and with the support of the local population, Garibaldi’s forces managed to
breach the city’s defenses, and Naples also fell to the Redshirts.
With the conquest of Naples and Sicily, much of the southern part of the Italian peninsula was now
liberated from Bourbon rule and united under Garibaldi’s leadership.

The southern regions, including Naples and Sicily, voted in favor of unification with the Kingdom of
Piedmont-Sardinia in a series of plebiscites, further solidifying the process of Italian Unification.

Annexation of Veneta (1866)

In 1866, Italy sought to take advantage of the Austro-Prussian War and launched a military campaign to
regain Venetia from Austria.

Garibaldi, with his loyal volunteers, participated in this campaign known as the “Expedition of the
Thousand,” aiming to liberate Venetia.

During the Expedition of the Thousand, Garibaldi’s forces engaged in the Battle of Bezzecca in July 1866.
The battle was an important victory for the Italians, boosting their morale and momentum.

The Austro-Prussian War ended in October 1866, and a peace settlement was reached in the Treaty of
Vienna. As a result of this treaty, Austria ceded Venetia to France, who then handed it over to Italy as
part of a negotiated agreement between Italy and Prussia.

On October 20, 1866, Venetia was officially annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, completing its integration
into the unified Italian nation-state.

The city of Venice Itself was handed over to Italy on October 22, 1866, marking the final step in the
process of Venetia’s integration.

The Annexation of Rome as Capital (1870)

The Idea of Rome as the capital of a unified Italy had deep historical and symbolic significance for
Italians, but the city remained out of reach due to its status as a sovereign territory under the Pope’s
rule. In 1870, taking advantage of the fact that France (the country responsible at the time for guarding
the Papal States) was distracted by involvement in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), the Italian army
entered Rome. Following the Capture of Rome, the city was officially annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. On
October 2, 1870, Rome was declared the capital of Italy.

The Italian government recognized the sovereignty of the Pope within Vatican City, a small area within
Rome where the Pope’s temporal authority remained intact.

Key Figures
Giuseppe Mazzini – The Heart: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian patriot, philosopher, and revolutionary.
He can be seen as the “heart” of the unification movement because of his passionate and idealistic
vision for a unified Italy.

He was one of the earliest proponents of Italian unification and inspired a generation of young Italians
with his writings and speeches, urging them to dedicate themselves to the cause. Mazzini founded the
secret society “Young Italy,” which aimed to promote Italian nationalism and unity.
Count Camillo di Cavour – The Brain: Count Camillo di Cavour was a skilled diplomat and statesman who
played a pivotal role in the political and diplomatic aspects of Italian unification. He can be considered
the “brain” behind the movement because of his strategic and calculated approach to achieve unity.

Giuseppe Garibaldi – The Sword: Giuseppe Garibaldi was a skilled military leader and a passionate
advocate of Italian unification. He is often referred to as the “sword” because of his military campaigns
and decisive actions on the battlefield. Garibaldi was a key figure in the struggle for unification in the
southern part of Italy, known as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.