On March 28, 1994, a landmark fire occurred in Lower Manhattan.

This
fire was one of the more heart wrenching events in living memory. It
led to the New York City Fire Department (FDNY) changing its
protective gear. Firefighters would begin being outfitted for “Bunker
Gear” starting May 16, 1994. The fire will forever be known in the
annals of the FDNY as the “Watts Street Fire”.
The Size-Up…”COAL WAS WEALTH”

C CONSTRUCTION: The building was a 3-story multiple dwelling

constructed of brick and wood joist. There was one apartment per floor. The
dimensions were 20 feet x 46 feet. There was a rear fire escape on the fire
building that had a gooseneck ladder that accessed the roof. There was a scuttle
ladder from the top floor to the roof and there was a skylight over the stairway.
There was a second skylight over the third floor bathroom. There was an open
wooden stairway.

Most wood lath and plaster had been removed and replaced with dry wall
in the building. The ceilings had been dropped from the original height of 9 feet 3
inches to 8 feet 4 inches. The fire apartment had energy efficient replacement
windows which also had screens and steel bars.

The second floor originally had two entrance doors to the apartment.
Renovations to the second floor eliminated the rear apartment door. The area of
the hallway on each of the three floors was reduced due to renovations. The only
entrance door was in the front of the stairway. It was a 36 inch wide steel buck
metal door. The second floor apartment door had
three locks. In the hallway of the second floor,
there was a box spring and a mattress near the
front apartment entrance door leaning against the
bannister. This storage of a mattress and a box
spring would prove to be a factor in the incident.
There was also a table in the hallway near the
stairway leading to the third floor.

The third floor apartment had two entrances off the hallway.

O OCCUPANCY: The occupancy was residential. There was one apartment

per floor with a basement apartment as well, for a total of 4 apartments.

A AREA: Each apartment occupied the entire floor, minus the stairs and
hallway. Each apartment had a floor area of approximately 900 square feet.
L LIFE: The building was an occupied multiple dwelling. The top three floor
apartments were accessed by an open interior wooden stairway. There was a
basement apartment which was accessed via an exterior door. An occupant was
removed from the basement apartment early in the fire.

W WATER SUPPLY: There was a hydrant on the

corner of Varick Street and Watts Street, there was a
hydrant on Watts Street in the middle of the block, and
there was a hydrant on 6th Avenue (Avenue of the
Americas) and Watts Street. All hydrants were
serviceable.

A APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT: The original alarm assignment was

3 Engines, 2 Ladders and a Battalion Chief. Ladder 5’s apparatus was a “Tiller-
type” aerial apparatus and Ladder 8’s apparatus was a “Rear-Mount type” aerial
apparatus. Eventually, a 2nd alarm would be transmitted bringing a total of 8
Engines, 4 Ladders, a Rescue, 3 Battalion Chiefs and a Deputy Chief.

S STREET CONDITIONS, SPECIAL MATTERS: Watts Street is a

feeder street for the Holland Tunnel. The fire occurred in the middle of rush hour
which complicated response and operations.

All floors from the fire floor to the top floor had
wooden plank floors. The wooden floors within the
building had been re-finished two days prior to the fire.

W WEATHER CONDITIONS: Weather

conditions were seasonable. There was no impactful wind condition.

E EXPOSURES: Exposure 1 was Watts Street. Exposure 2, 64

Watts Street, was a similar building to the fire building and it
was attached. Exposure 3 was a rear yard. Exposure 4, 60
Watts Street, was a similar building to the fire building and it
was attached.
A AUXILIARY APPLIANCES: There were no standpipe or sprinkler
systems in the fire building.

L LOCATION: The location of the fire was the first floor apartment of 62
Watts Street. The fire did not spread to any of the exposures.

T TIME OF DAY: The time of day impacted the order of response of fire
companies. It was the height of rush hour. It was also shortly after the start of
the night tour in the FDNY. This would have an impact due to the rotation of
personnel between Ladder 5 and Ladder 8.

H HEIGHT OF BUILDING: The building was 3 stories tall, and was 32 feet
6 inches in height. This was well within reach of aerial ladders and all floors could
be reached via portable ladders.

The night tour began on March 28, 1994 in

routine fashion. The apparatus, masks, radios and
tools were being checked. In Ladder 8, Lieutenant John Dopwell realized that he
had some Engine Firefighters detailed to his unit for the night tour. He contacted
the 2nd Battalion and it was agreed to swap out personnel with Ladder 5 to
equalize the manpower. Ladder 8 proceeded to the quarters of Ladder 5 to
perform the swap. Firefighter Jim Young was detailed to Ladder 8 for the night
tour. Fr. Jim Young was normally assigned to
Engine 24 (which shares the firehouse with Ladder
5) would be sent to Ladder 5. Firefighter Craig
Monahan of Ladder 5 would be sent to Ladder 8
and would be their Roof Firefighter. The on-duty
platoon for Ladder 5 would now be: Captain John
Drennan, Fr. Chris Waugh (Chauffeur). Fr. Gerard
Redmond (Tillerman), Fr. Ed Donohue (Roof
Firefighter), Fr. Chris Siedenburg (Forcible Entry
Firefighter) and Fr. James Young (Can Firefighter).
 At approximately 1825 hours, the occupant of the first floor apartment at
62 Watts Street left her apartment and went to work. She left a plastic garbage
bag on the stove top in an attempt to keep her dog out of the garbage while she
was at work. The pilot light for the stove top heated the plastic bag and refuse on
top of the stove. It began to pyrolize and off-gas. The fire had started.

At 1935 hours, an occupant of 60 Watts Street (exposure 4) smelled smoke

in his top floor apartment. He dialed 911 and reported the smoke condition.

At 1936 hours, Manhattan Fire Alarm Dispatchers transmitted Box 308 for a
telephone alarm for a reported smoke condition on the top floor of 60 Watts
Street. Engines 24, 55, and 7, Ladders 5, and 8, and Battalion 2 were dispatched
to the scene. At 1938 hours, a second source reported a smoke condition in 64
Watts Street (erroneously reported as 52 Watts Street).

FDNY units responded to the location of box 308. They had

to navigate their way through the heavy rush hour traffic. Ladder
8 was still at the quarters of Engine 24 and Ladder 5 when the box
came in. Fr. Jim Young gave Ladder 8’s Roof Position handi-talkie
to Fr. Craig Monahan and told him “you got the Roof.”
 At 1939 hours, Ladder 8 arrived at the corner of Watts Street and Varick
Street. They were the first FDNY unit to arrive at the box. Ladder 8 could not
make the left turn onto Watts Street against traffic. The firefighters from Ladder
8 dismounted their apparatus and proceeded on
foot approximately 120 feet to the reported
address. There was an odor of a fire in the air.

As Lieutenant Dopwell from Ladder 8

approached the scene, he saw light smoke
coming from the first floor windows of 62 Watts
Street. He radioed his Chauffeur to transmit a
10-75. The time was 1940 hours, Rescue 1, and
Battalion 6 would be dispatched.

Ladder 5, Engine 55, Engine 24 and

Engine 7 all arrived at 1940 hours. Ladder
5’s tiller-type apparatus, being driven by Fr.
Chris Waugh and Tillerman Gerard
Redmond, were able to maneuver the
ladder truck into Watts Street from Varick
Street and position the apparatus in front of
64 Watts Street. Engine 55 took a hydrant
at the corner of Varick Street and Watts
Street. Engine 7 took a hydrant on the corner of Watts Street and 6th Avenue.
Engine 24 positioned their pumper behind Engine 55. There was a hydrant
opposite 62 Watts Street but was inaccessible due to traffic conditions at this
time.

Members of Engine 55 tested their hydrant and started their stretch of an 1

¾ inch hose line with a controlling nozzle. The fire building was 120 feet away
from the corner of Watts Street and Varick Street. Members of Engine 7 came to
Engine 55’s apparatus to assist in the hose stretch. Also assisting in the hose
stretch were firefighters from Engine 24.
 Ladder 8 arrived first due and assumed the role of the
first due ladder company. The Outside Vent (OV) Firefighter
from Ladder 8 entered 62 Watts Street thinking that this was
exposure 4 and would be a way to get to the rear of the
reported fire building. He saw smoke coming from the first
floor apartment door of 62 Watts Street. The Ladder 8 OV
started forcing entry to the first floor apartment. He was
assisted by Ladder 8’s Forcible Entry Firefighter. The Officer
of Ladder 8 arrived at the first floor fire apartment door. He
told his firefighters who were laboring trying to force open
the steel buck door, to use the “Rabbit Tool” to gain entry.

Fr. Chris Waugh of Ladder 5 raised their aerial

ladder to the roof of exposure 2. Ladder 5’s forcible
entry team, Captain Drennan, Fr. Siedenburg and Fr.
Young would assume the second due ladder company
duties.

Fr. Craig Monahan of Ladder 8 (detailed from

Ladder 5) was the Roof Firefighter. He gained access to
the roof by climbing to the roof of exposure 4 and
crossing over to the fire building’s roof. Fr. Ed Donohue,
Ladder 5’s Roof Firefighter would gain access to the roof
of the fire building by climbing Ladder 5’s aerial ladder and crossing over to the
fire building via the front of the buildings.

Ladder 5’s Tillerman, Gerard Redmond, would be delayed getting to the

rear of the fire building due to having to negotiate the apparatus into the fire
block. Once the apparatus was in position, he used 66 Watts Street (exposure 2A)
to gain access to the rear of the fire building and its rear fire escape.

At 1941 hours, Battalion Chief Richie Ardisson of Battalion 2 arrived at the

fire and assumed command. He heard a handi-talkie transmission from Ladder
8’s Roof Firefighter that the “roof is open, the rear is clear, and there is smoke
coming out of the scuttle.”
 At 1942 hours, Ladder 5’s Forcible
Entry Team of Captain John Drennan, Fr.
Chris Siedenburg (Irons) and Fr. Jimmy
Young (Can) entered the fire building.
Captain Drennan stopped and told the
Officer of Ladder 8 that they were going
above the fire. Engine 55 now positioned
their 1 ¾ inch hose line near the fire

apartment entrance. Excess hose was being

flaked out in the street. Their hose line was
un-charged at this time. It is now 1 hour and
17 minutes since the apartment occupant left
the apartment with the garbage bag on top of
the stove.

Ladder 8’s forcible entry team was able

to force the fire apartment door. Initially, there was an
outrush of heavy gray smoke followed by a reversal of the
smoke into the fire apartment. The Lieutenant from
Ladder 8 attempted entry into the fire apartment to
perform a primary search, but was driven back by the
extreme heat. Ladder 8’s Lieutenant ordered his OV to
vent the front windows of the fire apartment from the
exterior. Battalion Chief Richie Ardisson of Battalion 2
transmitted the “All Hands” and
requested an additional Engine and
Truck at 1943 hours. Engine 18 and
Ladder 20 would be dispatched.

At 1944 hours, Battalion Chief Ardisson heard a

muffled “Urgent-Urgent” over the handi-talkie. When he
asked who gave the “Urgent”, the reply was “Ladder 5”. The
Nozzleman of Engine 55, Firefighter Kevin Erdman, went to the front door of the
building to see what the delay was in getting water. Firefighters from Engine 7
and Engine 24 flaked out the excess hose in front of the fire building. They then
returned to Engine 55’s apparatus to start stretching a second hose line. Water
filled the first hose line and Engine 55’s members went to prepare to advance
their hose line. Fire was now lapping out the upper reaches of the first floor
apartment door and up the interior stairway. The fire now had a greater
intensity.

The OV from Ladder 8 took the front windows with a hook. After about 5
seconds, a ball of fire
erupted from the front
windows which lasted about
10-15 seconds. Fr. Kevin
Erdman, Engine 55’s
Nozzleman who was on his
knees, was driven to the
floor by heavy fire coming
out, under pressure, from
the apartment door. He fell
backwards and saw “orange
all around him.” A tremendous amount of fire now had possession of the
apartment doorway and the first floor hallway. Engine 55’s Control Firefighter,
Scott Koennecke, had made it to the entrance hallway on the first floor where he
was donning his mask facepiece. The amount of heat and energy coming out of
the first floor apartment banked downward and drove him to the front entrance
door and stairway. The fire came out of the first floor apartment with a loud roar.
Firefighter Erdman, Engine 55’s Nozzleman,
operated the hose line from his back to try
to cool the area above where he was and in
the hallway. He was able to recover and
start operating his hose line
through the apartment door.

On the roof, Ladder

5’s Roof Firefighter, Ed
Donohue, called for a saw to
the roof as the flames were
burning through the skylight.
The flames were reaching
10-15 feet above the roof,
through the scuttle and skylight. (The flames
were coming from the first floor, up the interior
stairway, and venting 10-15 feet above the roof.)
Battalion 6, the 10-75 Chief could see the flames
pushing over the roof from blocks away.

Firefighter Chris Waugh (Ladder 5’s

Chauffeur) and Firefighter Gerard Redmond
(Ladder 5’s OV) went to the rear of 64 Watts
Street to gain entry to the rear yards. Fr. Waugh
brought a saw to the roof as was requested. Fr. Redmond ascended the rear fire
escape of the fire building. He vented the rear windows of
the first and second floors and made entry into the second
floor. Ladder 8’s Chauffeur, Frank McCutchen (detailed
from Ladder 5), brought their saw to the roof via Ladder 5’s
aerial ladder. Engine 55 continued to fight the fire at the
first floor apartment. Fire was now filling the entire
stairway from the first floor, to the second floor, to the
third floor and through the scuttle and skylight.

At 1947 hours, led by Lieutenant Richard Sautner,

Engine 55 advanced their hose line up the stairway to the
second floor. Engine 24 brought their hose line to the fire apartment on the first
floor and advanced into the fire apartment. Battalion Chief Ardisson ordered the
OV of Ladder 8, Dennis Grady, to raise a portable ladder and place it at the second
floor windows.

Deputy Chief Bruce Hassett of Division 1 arrived at the fire. Battalion Chief
Ardisson briefed him of what had transpired, including the “Urgent” transmission
that was heard but were unable to get a clarification of the message.

At 1948 hours, Ladder 5’s Tillerman, Gerry

Redmond, climbed the rear fire escape of the fire
building to the second floor. He made entry to the
rear of the apartment and worked towards the
apartment door on the apartment side of the door.
He noticed that the door was dented inward and fire
was coming through the space between the door and
the door jamb. (It was later determined that Captain
Drennan dented the door by trying to force it with his
shoulder.) Fr. Redmond had to use his Halligan Tool
to force open the door due to its being dented
inward. When he forced the door open, Captain
Drennan fell into the apartment. Fr. Siedenburg was
lying next to his Officer. The public hallway was charged with thick smoke. Fr.
Gerry Redmond (Ladder 5 Tillerman) transmitted a “Mayday” message. Deputy
Chief Hassett ordered Battalion Chief Brian McCullagh of Battalion 6 to get to the
second floor to find out what was going on.

Engine 55 kept advancing up the stairs

extinguishing fire on the second floor. As
they were advancing their hose line up the
stairs, they found a severely burned body.
They communicated that to Battalion 6 as
they were climbing the stairway. They were
obstructed by a mattress and bed springs
that were being stored in the hallway. They
kept moving up to the third floor. Battalion Chief McCullagh of the 6th Battalion
made it to the second floor as Engine 55 was advancing up to the third floor.
Chief McCullagh saw the severely burned body on the second floor. He
transmitted a 10-45 Code 1 (a fatality). It wasn’t readily apparent who the victim
was. Then, it was determined that the fatality was a Firefighter. It was Firefighter
Jimmy Young. Battalion Chief McCullagh called Deputy Chief Hassett and told him
that there was one Firefighter that was a fatality and two Firefighters that were a
10-45 Code 2 (severely injured).

At 1952 hours, Deputy Chief Bruce

Hassett of the 1st Division transmitted a 2nd
Alarm. At 2003 hours, the first Ambulance
arrived and at 2005 hours, the second one
arrived. The fire was placed under control at
2020 hours.
 Members take a moment of silence by coming to
windows of fire building and removing their helmets as
Fr. Young is carried out of fire building.
 Firefighter James Young of Engine 24
died the day of the fire. Firefighter Chris
Siedenburg of Engine 24 died the day after
the fire. Both of these Firefighters had their
funerals on the same day, one in the
morning, and one in the afternoon. Captain
John Drennan was transported to the Burn
Center where he was treated for 3rd and 4th
degree burns on his legs and his back.
Captain Drennan had his wife Vina by his
side for his valiant fight. He would
succumb to his injuries 40 days later.

Captain Drennan and Firefighters

Siedenburg and Young were subjected to the
intense heat of this fire for 6 ½ minutes. The fire
burned at temperatures of over 2,200 degrees
Fahrenheit. The wire glass that was still remaining in the skylight over the
stairway, melted. Wire glass melts at 1,600 degrees Fahrenheit.

The National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) led
by Mr. Richard Bukowski P.E. was
requested to investigate the fire. It
was determined that the unusual fire
behavior was a “backdraft”. The
tightly enclosed occupancy with energy efficient windows
contributed to the event. Also, lowered ceiling height
contributed to the flash phenomenon. The fire was burning for
over an hour before it was detected. Once the fire apartment
door was forced open, the missing ingredient for a backdraft,
air, was introduced. There were no
warning signs indicating that a
backdraft was possible. The fire came
at the attacking firefighters with such
ferocity that it overwhelmed the
capability of the first hose line. The
fire coming out of the first floor
apartment, and racing up the stairs,
and venting over the roof, extended
for approximately 50 feet.

The day after the fire, Mayor Rudolph Giuliani notified

then Fire Commissioner Howard Safir that the City will purchase
“bunker gear”. They will find the money somewhere.

As a result of this fire, the response policy of the

Firefighter Assist and Search Team (FAST) was changed. After

the Watts Street fire, the FAST Truck was

dispatched on the 10-75.

The self-closing mechanism on the

first floor apartment door did not function
properly. This has been a factor at fatal fires
this last winter in the Bronx.

Alterations to this building reduced

the size of the public hallway on the first
floor and the second floor. There was no
second doorway to the second floor
apartment due to renovations. This second doorway could have been used as an
“area of refuge” when operating on the floor above the fire. Storage of a
mattress, box spring, and a table further limited operating space in the hallway of
the second floor.
Firefighter James Young of Engine 24 was on the FDNY for 3 years. He was 31
years old and was single. He was the son of a Retired Battalion Chief Harold
Young. Two of James’ Brothers, Kenneth and Michael were also FDNY
Firefighters. Firefighter Chris Siedenburg of Engine 24 was on the FDNY for 2
years. He was 25 years old and was single. Captain John Drennan was 49 years
old and had 26 years on the FDNY. He was married to his wife Vina and had four
children. May they all rest in peace. Never forget!
 It is always important to
perform a proper size-up. If
you are planning to go above
the fire, it is vital that a
thorough size-up be
performed. What floor is the
fire on? Is the fire in the front
or rear? Is there a fire
escape(s) that serves the floor
above the fire? What is the
control of the fire on the fire floor? What kind of stairway is serving the fire area
(open, enclosed, fire tower)? Is there more than one stairway serving the fire
floor and the floor above? Is there an operating hose line in position on the fire
floor and does the attack seem organized? Is there an aerial ladder or a portable
ladder in place above the fire?

Before going above the fire, make face to face contact with the Engine
Officer or Truck Officer or Engine Control Firefighter on the fire floor.
 For those who
have been contacted
about firefighters going
above the fire, never
lose control of the fire
apartment door. If
water is lost or
delayed, the hose line
should be backed out
of the fire apartment
and this fire apartment
door should be closed.
The fire apartment door should remain closed in this situation until the
firefighters operating above the fire are out of the hallway.

If water is lost
or delayed and
firefighters are going
above the fire, call
them over the radio
and advise them of
the water supply
difficulties.

In this age of
energy efficient
windows (EEW),
horizontal ventilation
should be delayed until a hose line is in place and operating in the fire area. EEWs
should be considered the norm and not the exception. EEWs can allow a
tremendous buildup of heat without failing.
 If going above the
fire, consider the building
construction in your size-
up. The most dangerous
type of construction to go
above the fire is wood
frame construction. The
second most dangerous is
brick and wood joist
(ordinary) construction.

The smaller the

hallway on each floor, the greater the danger of Firefighters getting trapped by
fire and heat when going above the fire. The larger the hallways are, the greater
chance of the heat dissipating.

Before going
above the fire, be
clear what your
objectives are.

Upon arrival at
the floor above, the first act that must be
completed is to force entry into an “area of refuge”.
This area of refuge is usually on the other side of the
hallway than the apartment directly above the fire.

When climbing or descending a stairway that

is heavily charged, stay close to the wall and face the
wall. Heat will travel more towards the center of the
stairway.
 Before going above the fire, be ready. Have
your bunker gear fully donned; mask facepiece on,
hood on, gloves on, collar up. Make sure your radio
is on.

VINA DRENNAN: Took her

grief and sorrow over the loss
of her husband John and
channeled it into being a
tireless advocate for
firefighter safety. She served
as the Secretary to the Board
of Directors of the “National
Fallen Firefighters
Foundation.” (NFFF). She is
also a founding member of
the NFFF’s Fire Service
Survivors Network.
 ENGINE 24, LADDER 5, BATTALION 2: The horrific
losses at 62 Watts Street on March 28, 1994 would be
the first of three unthinkable losses in a 13-year
period for those assigned to Engine 24, Ladder 5, and
Battalion 2. The second event was September 11th,
2001 where 10 Firefighters and Fire Officers would
perish that responded from the firehouse on West
Houston Street and 6th Avenue. The third event was
the loss of two firefighters, one from Engine 24 and
one from Ladder 5, at the Deutsche Bank Building fire
on August 18, 2007. There are members who were
assigned to that firehouse for all three horrific events.

FIREFIGHTER CHRIS WAUGH: Firefighter Chris

Waugh was the Chauffeur of Ladder 5 at the
Watts Street fire. He later became a Chief’s
Aide in the 1st Division. On September 11th,
2001, Fr. Waugh was on-duty as Deputy Chief
Peter Hayden’s Aide. Firefighter Chris Waugh
is shown in this iconic picture from September
11th, helping to carry FDNY Chaplain Father
Michael Judge away from the World Trade
Center. Father Judge would die in the line of duty on September 11th.
The Medal Winners from the 6th and 7th Divisions: Lieutenant James P. Lee Jr.,
Division 7, “Dr. Harry M. Archer Medal”; Lieutenant Michael J. Conboy, Rescue 3,
“James Gordon Bennett Medal”; Firefighter Lucas A. Niskanen, Ladder 31, “Hugh
Bonner Medal”; Firefighter James J. McConville, Ladder 39, “Walter Scott Medal”;
Firefighter Colin Sheil, Ladder 45, “M.J. Delehanty Medal”; Firefighter Scott M.
Doody, Rescue 3, “Thomas F. Dougherty Medal”; Firefighter Matthew J. Murphy,
Rescue 3, “Vincent J. Kane Medal” and “Brummer Medal”; Firefighter Kristian
McNaughton, Ladder 19, “Frank W. Kridel Medal”; Firefighter Erik A. Lubniewski,
Ladder 39, “Emerald Society Medal”; Emergency Medical Technician Lisa D.
Rasulo, Station 27, “Lieutenant Kirby McElheam Medal”. Well Done!

On Monday May 14, 2018, Firefighter

Terence M. Lorino of Ladder 51 died
after a courageous fight against cancer. He was 38 years old. The funeral took
place on Friday May 18, 2018. One of his surviving family members is his brother
Brendan who is a Firefighter in Engine 48. May Terence rest in peace. Never
forget!
Thanks go out to the following people who contributed to this essay: Vina
Drennan, Deputy Chief Vincent Dunn (Ret.), Captain Thomas E. Smith (Safety
Command), Firefighter Craig Monahan (Ret.), Firefighter Gerard Redmond (Ladder
5), Battalion Chief Richard Ardissson (Ret.), Deputy Chief Bruce Hassett (Ret.),
Firefighter Scott Koennecke (Ret.), Firefighter Steve Napolatano (Ret.), Katy
Clements (FDNY Photo Unit), FM Daniel Maye (Mand Library), Firefighter Kevin
Erdman (Ret.), Firefighter Chris Roberto (Engine 48)

Photos courtesy of FDNY Photo Unit, Fire Marshals investigative reports and video

Resources: New York Times, FDNY Safety Bulletin 69, “Modeling a Backdraft
Incident, The 62 Watts St (NY) Fire” by Richard W. Bukowski P.E.; “Fire
Department of City of New York Investigative Report for Manhattan Box 2-2-308”,
FDNY Safety and Inspection Services Command, Public Employee Safety and
Health Bureau (PESH) Report, Report by Battalion Chief Richard Ardisson to
Assistant Chief Donald J. Burns, WNYF Magazine 1st Issue 2013, “Fire at 62 Watts
Street” by Battalion Chief Edward McDonald (Ret.) and Battalion Chief Daniel
Melia. “Safety and Survival on the Fireground” 2nd Ed., by Vincent Dunn, Fire
Engineering; “Random Thoughts” by Tom Brennan, Fire Engineering.