PYC4802
Psychopathology November exam
03 November 2022
Lucrecia Jacobs
15937224
Question 1:
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder diagnostic criteria according to the DSM-5 (Only apply to
people older than 6 years)
A. A person must have been exposed in one or more of the following ways to real or
threatened death, serious harm, or sexual assault:
I. Being present for the painful event.
2. Being there while the event or events happen to others.
3. Finding out that a close friend or family member experienced the painful event. If a friend
or family member has actually died or is about to die, the event must have been violent or
unintentional.
4. Being exposed to the traumatic event's unpleasant details repeatedly or in a particularly
intense way. (Electronic media are excluded for those who are not employed in that field.) B.
The presence of one or more of the following symptoms in connection with the traumatic
event, starting soon after the event occurred:
I. Recurrent, unwanted, and bothersome memories of the traumatizing event.
2. Repeatedly upsetting dreams when the subject matter or impact is connected to the
traumatic event.
3. Dissociative behaviours, such as flashbacks, where the sufferer acts or feels as though the
traumatic incident is reoccurring. (A person might even become unaware of their immediate
surroundings.) Depersonalization and/or derealization may occur at the beginning of an acute
stress disorder.
4. Prolonged or severe psychological suffering in response to internal or external triggers that
represent or resemble a part of the traumatic event.
5. Marked physiological responses to internal or external signals that "resemble an aspect of
the traumatic incident" or "symbolize" it.
c. Persistent avoidance of the traumatic event, beginning after the event, as shown by one or
both of the following:
1. Refusal to think about, feel, or act on memories, thoughts, or sensations that are painful or
strongly related to the traumatic incident.
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid encounters with outside reminders (people, places,
conversations, activities, things, events) that bring up upsetting memories, emotions, or
feelings related to or closely associated with the traumatic occurrence. Negative cognitive
and emotional changes brought on by the traumatic event, developing or getting worse after
the event, as shown by two or more of the following:
1. Failure to recall a crucial detail of the traumatic event (usually brought on by dissociative
amnesia and unrelated to other variables like head trauma, alcoholism, or drug use). 2.
Constantly and irrationally pessimistic expectations or views about oneself, others, or the
world
3. Constantly false beliefs about what caused or resulted from the traumatic event that cause
the person to place the blame on himself or other people.
4. Significantly decreased interest in or involvement in important activities.
5. Constantly unhappy emotional state
6. A sense of remoteness or detachment from other people.
7. Consistent inability to have good feelings
E. Marked changes in arousal and reactivity linked to the traumatic event, starting after the
event, or getting worse after it occurred, as shown by two or more of the following.
1. Irritable behaviour and angry outbursts typically expressed as verbal or physical
) aggression toward people or objects.
) 2. Reckless or self-destructive behaviour.
3. Hypervigilance.
4. Exaggerated startle response.
5. Problems with concentration.
6. Sleep disturbance.
F. The duration of disturbance (criteria B, C, D, and E) is more than 1 month.
G. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational,
or other important areas of functioning.
H. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or another
medical condition.
South Africa's violent culture.
South Africa's high rates of crime, violence, and accidents have a particular impact on anxiety
disorders that arise as a result of trauma exposure. Reviews of the incidence of reported
PTSD symptoms and the frequency of traumatic incidents in the South African population
emphasize these issues as critical psychological issues. Compared to accidents and natural
disasters, traumatic events that are perpetrated by people, such assaults and murder, have a
stronger effect. Among crime victims, those who have experienced more severe trauma have
greater PTSD prevalence rates. Although most crime victims eventually get over their early
PTSD symptoms.
a stage of development
After exposure to a severe stressor, such as a life-threatening situation, PTSD begins to
manifest. A diagnosis of PTSD should be taken into consideration if ASD persists for longer
than a month. ASD can start to manifest after at least 3 days. Acute PTSD is present if the
symptoms appear within six months of the traumatic incident and last for up to six months
afterward. A diagnosis of chronic PTSD is indicated if the disorder persists for a prolonged
period of time.
Co-morbidity
People who have PTSD frequently also have other psychological disorders. There are also in
PTSD in children. co-morbidity with psychiatry is fairly common. Alcohol and drug misuse,
personality disorders, general anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders,
schizophrenia, and other conditions can co-occur. Clinicians may occasionally find it difficult
to distinguish between PTSD symptoms and those of concurrent mental diseases.
delayed onset
The delayed onset of PTSD is a subclass of posttraumatic stress disorder in which the full
treatment of the disorder is made only after at least 6 months have passed since the exposure
to the traumatic event. This is because the patient may show some PTSD symptoms but not
all of them, which would necessitate a full diagnosis of PTSD. Some symptoms may manifest
right away and begin right away.
status socio-economic
Different groups may have different environmental needs, making them either more prone to
or more protected against particular problems than other groups. People in underprivileged
groups, who may have lower socioeconomic and educational level, are more prone to live in
stressful environments, including dangerous neighbourhoods, and to struggle with persistent
and all-pervasive anxiety.
Abuse of substances
An increasingly common co-occurring diagnosis among substance abusers is post-traumatic
stress disorder. It is believed that P.TSD develops first and that pharmacological substances
are utilized as a way of symptom alleviation in relation to PTSD as the co-occurring
condition. The initiation of substance use occurs before the development of PTSD symptoms,
according to research on PTSD among substance users from the general population. 'High
risk' behaviours, such as prostitution, may accompany early substance addiction, increasing
the possibility of exposure to potentially traumatic events (such as being severely assaulted or
hurt) and, thus, the risk of developing PTSD.
Question two
A "dysfunctional pattern of relating to others with an intense emphasis outside of oneself,
lack of expression of feelings, and a personal meaning derived from interactions with others"
is referred to as co-dependency. Co-dependents frequently neglect their own needs while
preoccupied with taking care of others, which interferes with their ability to form their own
identities. Co-dependency in adulthood has been linked to dysfunction in the family of origin.
Co-dependency has three traits: it maintains an external locus of control; it prevents open
emotional expression; and it makes use of rigidity, control, and denial to give partnerships
meaning.
Co-dependency was first used to describe a partnership when one party engaged in substance
misuse. Although the co-spouse dependent's struggled with substance misuse, this viewpoint
held that the co-dependent developed an addiction to the partner's drug usage and tried to
control it. Abuse can continue while someone is co-dependent. A co-dependent individual is
in a close relationship with another person who is dependent on or addicted to a potentially
harmful behaviour, such as substance misuse. By lying for them, giving them money, or
taking over their obligations, co-dependent people frequently "rescue" the chemically
dependent from the results of their actions. This facilitates the abuser's continued use.
Co-dependents feel a responsibility for the pleasure and feelings of others, and they can help
people with drug addiction issues avoid the unfavourable outcomes that might follow their
behaviour. Because it is characterized by, co-dependency is frequently related with dependent
personality disorder. Dependence on others and a reluctance to take charge. Personality The
family systems paradigm, which argues that a family member's behaviour directly impacts
the entire family system, can be used to understand pathologies.
The first of the three distinctive features of the family systems approach are that personality
development is heavily influenced by family traits, particularly by how parents behave
around and with their children. Second, the individual's anomalous behaviour frequently
reflects or serves as a "symptom" of unhealthful family dynamics, more specifically, a lack of
effective communication between family members. Third, the therapist should aim to include
the entire family in therapy and concentrate on the family system as a whole rather than just
the individual. As a result, the family structure is thought to be the location of disorder rather
than the person. This may clarify why co-dependence can emerge in maturity when the
affected person's family of origin experiences dysfunctional in its inception.
Co-dependency is brought on by the roles that family members play. Depending on what the
other person needs, members decide. Co-dependency causes aversion and a lack of self-
orientation in a setting when addiction is present. In the end, characters "become" the roles
they portray.
Question 3
DSM-5 Major Depressive Disorder Diagnostic Criteria
A. Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present for at least two weeks and
represent a change from previous functioning; at least one of the symptoms is either (1)
depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
Please keep in mind that symptoms that are clearly caused by another medical condition
should not be included.
1. Depressed mood for the majority of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either
subjective report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation made by others (e.g.,
appears tearful). It should be noted that irritable moods can occur in children and
adolescents.
2. Significantly reduced interest or pleasure in all, or nearly all, activities for the
majority of the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or
observation invade by others).
3. Significant weight loss or gain when not dieting (e.g., a change of more than 5% of
body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite. almost every day (Keep
in mind: Consider failure to achieve expected weight gain in children.) ·
4. Almost every day, I experience insomnia or hypersomnia.
5. Almost every day, I experience psychomotor agitation or retardation (observable by
others, not merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down).
6. Every day, I experience fatigue or a loss of energy.
7. Almost every day, I experience feelings of worthlessness or excessive or
inappropriate guilt (which may be delusional) (not merely self-reproach or guilt about
being sick).
8. Reduced ability to think or. almost every day (either by concentration or indecision)
9. Recurrent suicidal ideation (not just fear of dying) and thoughts of death without a
specific plan, or a suicide attempt, or a specific suicide plan
B. There is clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other
important areas of functioning as a result of the symptoms.
c. The episode is not the result of a substance's physiological effects or another medical
condition.
D. Schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or
other specified and unspecified schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders do not
explain the occurrence of the major depressive episode.
E. There have never been any manic or hypomanic episodes (there may have been due to
substance-induced effects or physiological effects of another medical condition).
Overcoming shame:
The last section detailed my own struggles with trying to manage my anxiety and sadness. I
wish to break down the unique learning tasks that adults must do as they try to live with
depression in the remaining sections of this chapter by drawing on this auto-ethnography. The
first three of them have nothing to do with comprehending various forms of medical
treatment, whether they be pharmacological or psychological. They are more focused on
perspective shifts, emotional intelligence growth, and ideological de-cluttering.
Learning to combat the shame that depression causes is the first and possibly most important
duty. Debilitating emotions of worthlessness and inadequacy brought on by being unable to
perform the routine everyday tasks that used to be so ordinary drive you sliding deeper and
deeper into a depression vortex. It is simple to become engulfed in self-disgust when you tell
yourself to "snap out of it" for the hundredth time that day but are unable to do so. You feel
helpless and feeble. You tell yourself that there is no real need to be depressed because it is
so obvious. You conclude that depression is therefore illogical, irrational, and unfounded in
reality. However, telling oneself this will just make the issue worse.
Ideological detoxification:
The term ideological detoxification refers to the process of uncovering how elements of
dominant ideologies such as White supremacy and patriarchy are reflected in the minutiae of
daily decisions, judgments, and actions. To understand how this type of learning occurs,
one must first discuss the concept of ideology. The concept of ideology is the most important
of all the ideas associated with critical theory. Ideology, also known as 'dominant ideology,' is
the set of widely held beliefs and practices that shape how people make sense of their
experiences and live their lives. It ensures that an unfair, racist, and sexist society can
perpetuate itself with little resistance when it operates efficiently. Its main purpose is to
persuade people that society functions in everyone's best interests and that the world is set up
the way it is for the best of all reasons.
Normalising despair:
It may seem odd to define a learning activity as "normalizing sorrow." The goal of fighting
depression, after all, is to prevent it from taking over what we perceive to be a normal way of
life. That is, after all, what we would like to happen. But learning to regard depression as
something as commonplace as possible is a necessary first step in learning how to combat it.
By normalizing depression, I mean gaining a knowledge that many people experience it, even
though few disclose it publicly, so that realizing you experience it does not cause you to
believe you are the only one.
It's simple to assume that you're the only one experiencing this when you have depression.
The apparent conclusion is that no one has any understanding what you're going through if
you don't know anyone in your close circle who is suffering with this. The possibility that
your failure to disclose your ailment would also affect another people's life never appears to
cross your mind, at least not to me. The more alone you feel, the more you think your
situation is special, that there are no resources available to help you, and that no one else goes
through what you do. One argument against this is the kind of public disclosure I discussed in
the preceding section. However, there is another, more introspective learning process to
engage in that also aids in the management of depression: learning how to do a realistic audit
of what is reasonable to hope for in the face of numbing dread and vulnerability.
Like so many other aspects of learning to live with depression, learning to normalize despair
entails going through various steps. The ability to use peers and fellow sufferers for
emotional support and knowledge is a skill that must be acquired through social learning if
one is to comprehend that what initially appears to be their own distinct pain actually
contains parts of a wider range of suffering. As we've already seen, one of the biggest
obstacles is learning to get over one's shame and move toward self-disclosure. Maintaining
optimism in the midst of difficulty and holding onto the idea that one day you will feel better
than you do right now are both necessary components of normalizing learning.
Question 4:
Sensitivity to stress:
Cognitive hypotheses for depression typically concentrate on specific negative patterns.
When faced with one or more stressful life events, those who are predisposed to depression
are more likely to experience depression. People who ascribe bad occurrences to internal,
global, and steady causes, for instance, may be more susceptible to developing depression
than those who attribute the same events to external, erratic, and focused reasons. A negative
or depressing response to getting a poor score on an exam would be, "I'm stupid," whereas a
positive response might be, "The teacher purposely designed a challenging test to force us all
to understand we need to study better."
Early hardship as a diagnosis Adversities in the early years, including family conflict,
psychopathology in the parents, physical or sexual abuse, and other instances of invasive,
harsh, or coercive parenting, can both shorten and lengthen a person's susceptibility to
depression.
Similar findings have been seen in animals, and these factors function, at least in part, by
enhancing a person's susceptibility to stressful life events in maturity. Both biological factors
(such as changes in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary stress response system) and
psychological factors (such as lower self-esteem, insecure attachment relationships, difficulty
relating to peers, and pessimistic attributions) may play a role in mediating the long-term
effects of such early environmental adversities. It's important to keep in mind, though, that
some people who have experienced early adversity still manage to remain resilient, and if the
exposure to early adversity is moderate as opposed to severe, a form of stress inoculation may
take place that makes the person less vulnerable to the effects of later stress.
Vulnerability to stress:
Separation outlined the traumatic impact that being apart from their parents for an extended
amount of time in the hospital can have on children between the ages of 2 and 5. First, there
are the immediate or acute impacts of the separation, which might include intense dejection
both before and after the reunion with the parents; Bowlby thought that this was a typical
reaction to extended separation, even in young children with a stable bond. He did discover
proof, though, that kids who experience a lot of these separations could grow to have an
uneasy attachment. Early separation from one or both parents may also have longer-term
impacts. Such splits can lead to a greater susceptibility to stressors in adulthood, increasing
the likelihood that the person would experience depression or other mental disorders. Similar
to other early traumatic events, the long-term effects of separation strongly depend on
whether a child receives encouragement and reassurance from parents or other relevant
individuals, which is most likely if the child has a solid relationship with at least one parent.
