Calculus in AP Physics

Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 1 of 8

Introduction

The following is a brief description of basic calculus as applicable to AP Physics. It is written using physics nomenclature
which is sometimes different that what is used in math courses. Regardless of whether or not you have previously studied
calculus, you should read this and make sure you understand the concepts and terminology outlined. If at the end, you dont
feel completely comfortable with the concepts, you should consider doing some additional work on calculus. Some resources
are listed at the end of this document.

Derivatives

Example of a derivative (aka differential):

dx
dt
is read as:
the derivative of x with respect to time (t) or

the time derivative of x or

the time rate of change of x

It is an instantaneous measure of how x changes when t is changed by an infinitesimally small (very, very
small) amount dt . Think of t as the independent variable and x as the dependant variable.


The definition of the derivative:

0
lim
t t t
t
x x dx
dt t
+A
A

=
A


which is essentially the same as

0
lim
t
dx x
dt t
A
A
=
A
.
where x A is the change is x that results from some finite change in t of t A .

In an algebra based physics course, instead of using the differential
dx
dt
, we would use the difference
x
t
A
A
.

In calculus based courses, we will still use
x
t
A
A
to represent an average rate of change (when t A is some finite value), but
for instantaneous values, we replace t A with dt which is defined as an infinitesimally small t A . Likewise, we replace
x A with dx , which is defined as the change in x that corresponds to that tiny little dt .

In simplest terms,
dx
dt
is just
x
t
A
A
when t A is very, very small.


Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 2 of 8

Graphical Interpretation of the Derivative


The graph at right
illustrates how to find
x
t
A
A
at some time labeled
1
t for
some given t A .


x
t
A
A
is simply the slope of
the line connecting the two
points on the curve at
1
t
and
2 1
t t t = + A .






Notice that for this function (graph), if t A were reduced, then the value of
x
t
A
A
would increases because the slope of the line
would increases. As t A approaches zero, the line becomes tangent to the curve at
1
t . The slope of the line when t A
approaches zero is the time derivative of x with respect to t at
1
t
dx
dt
| |
|
\ .
. If we were to choose a different value for
1
t , the
derivative would have a different value (the slope of the curve would be different at a different point on the curve).

In Summary, the derivative
dx
dt
:

- represents the slope of the line tangent to the x vs t curve

- is also a function of t (has different values at different times)


Notice that in this case, the dimensions of both
dx
dt
and
x
t
A
A
are
| |
| |
L
T
(both have units of / m s ) because the vertical axis has
the dimension of length | | L and the horizontal axis has dimensions of time | | T and the vertical is divided by the horizontal.


Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 3 of 8

Differentiation of Mathematical Functions

In your calculus course, you will learn many ways to find the derivatives of mathematical functions. In physics, we will
usually simply cheat and look them up in a table. In Appendix E of your text book is a table of derivative. You should
become familiar with this table and how to use it whether you already know calculus or not.

As an example, if we assume we want to find the derivative with respect to time of
3
5 3 9 x t t meters = + +



( )
3
(this means the derivative of the function with respect to t) 5 3 9
d
t t
dt
+ +


Using derivative equation 3, from the appendix we split in into three independent derivatives,


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
5 3 9 5 3 9
d d d d
t t t t
dt dt dt dt
+ + = + +


Using equation 2, we bring the constants outside the derivative operators,


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
5 3 9 5 1 3 9
d d d d
t t t t
dt dt dt dt
+ + = + +


Using equation 4, we find the three derivatives (note the derivative of 1 is zero because 1 is the same as t to the zero power),


( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 2
5 3 9 5(0) 3 1 9 3 3 27 /
d
t t t t m s
dt
+ + = + + = +

Evaluating Derivatives

To find the value of
dx
dt
at some specific time, we simply put that value for t into the functions derivative.

For example,

To find the derivative with respect to time of
3
5 3 9 x t t m = + +

at 3.2 t s = , we find the derivative as above,


( )
3 2
5 3 9 3 27
d
t t t
dt
+ + = +


and evaluate it with t = 3.2.


( ) ( )
2
3
5 3 9 3 27 3.2 279.48 /
d
t t m s
dt
+ + = + =


Note: Sig figs have not been accounted for in this example.

Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 4 of 8

Integrals (anti-derivatives)


Example of an integral:


x dt
}
is read as:

the integral of x with respect to time (t) or

the anti-derivative of x with respect to time (t).


This is an indefinite integral because we have not defined a time interval for the integration.


Example of a definite integral:

4
1
v dt
}
is read as:
the integral of v (velocity) with respect to time from time equals 1 to time equals 4.


1 and 4 are referred to as the limits of integration. 1 is the lower limit and 4 is the upper limit.

The best way to explain what an integral is, is to say
4
4
0
1
1
lim
t
t
t
v dt v t
=
A
=
= A

}
. This is not the formal definition of the integral (a
math teacher would not like it) but it explains what it is. It is a summation over a time interval where the incremental interval
of summation becomes very, very small.

Be aware the definite integrals cannot only be evaluated at numeric values, but can be evaluated with constants.

For example:


/ 2
2
/ 2
L
L
M
x dx
L

}


is being evaluated from the lower limit of L/2 (where L is a constant) to an upper limit of L/2. M is also a constant in this
integral.

Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 5 of 8

Graphical Interpretation of Integrals




The graph at right illustrates
how to find the integral
4
1
v dt
}
.

4
1
v dt
}
is simply the area under
the curve (shaded area) between
time = 1 and time = 4.






If we were to find this area using non-calculus methods, we could divide the area up into rectangles each t wide and with
height of the value of v at the start of each rectangle. One such rectangle is shown. We would then add up the area of all the
rectangles between t = 1 and 4. Obviously this would not give us a perfect answer because the rectangles do not account for
all the area. There is a small piece above the rectangle that is not accounted for.

When we use calculus, we take the limit of that summation as t approaches zero. Rather than call it t A , we call it dt
which means the limit as t approaches zero. When we do this, the rectangles are very, very narrow and the error vanishes.
Bottom line is: the integral is the exact area under the curve between the limits of integration, whereas the summation with a
finite t A is an approximation.

In Summary, the integral x dt
}
:

- represents the area under the curve of x vs t

- it is evaluated over an interval of the variable of integration (in this case t)

Notice that in this case, the dimension of
4
1
v dt
}
is | | L (units of meters) because the vertical axis has dimensions of
| |
| |
L
T
and the horizontal axis has the dimension of | | T and the two are multiplied.


Calculus in AP Physics
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Integration of Mathematical Functions

In Appendix E of your text book there is also a table of indefinite integrals.

To find the integral of
3
5 3 9 x t t = + ,


( )
3
(this is the indefinate integral with respect to time, i.e. the integral of the function with respect to t), 5 3 9 t t dt + +
}


Using integral formula 3, we split it into three independent integrals,


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
5 3 9 5 3 9 t t dt dt t dt t dt + = +
} } } }


Using equations 2, we bring out the constants,


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
5 3 9 5 1 3 9 t t dt dt t dt t dt + = +
} } } }


Using equation 4, we find the three integrals (note the integral of (1)dt is t because it is the integral of t to the zero power),


( ) ( )
3 2 4 2 4
1 1 3 9
5 3 9 5 3 9 5
2 4 2 4
t t dt t t t t t t
| | | |
+ = + = +
| |
\ . \ .
}


Evaluating Integrals

To find the value of the integral of
3
5 3 9 / x t t m s = + + over the time interval from 3 5 t to t s = =

we solve the
definite integral


( )
5
3
3
5 3 9 t t dt +
}


Note how the limits of integration are shown. The 3 is the lower limit of integration (time where we want to start integrating)
and the 5 is the upper limit of integration (time where we want to stop integrating).

We find the indefinite integral as before, but we keep the limits of integration


( )
5
5
3 2 4
3
3
3 9
5 3 9 5
2 4
t t dt t t t + = +
}


Then we evaluate the integral at the upper limit minus at the lower limit

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
| | | |
5
5
3 2 4
3
3
2 4 2 4
3 9
5 3 9 5
2 4
3 9 3 9
5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3
2 4 2 4
1, 393.75 183.75 1, 210
t t dt t t t
m
+ = +
( (
= + +
( (

= =
}


Note: Sig figs have not been accounted for in this example.



Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 7 of 8
Other Calculus We Will Use
1. We will use some higher order derivative. For example,

( )
2
3
2
5 3 9
d
t t
dt
+ + is read as a second derivative of the function
3
5 3 9 t t + + .

It is simply the derivative of the derivative. Since,

( )
3 2
5 3 9 3 27
d
t t t
dt
+ + = +


the second derivative is

( ) ( )
2
3 2
2
5 3 9 3 27 54
d d
t t t t
dt dt
+ + = + = .

2. We will have some partial derivatives. We will work on those in class.

An example might be


( )
2 2 2
3 4 3 8 x x y xy
x
c
+ = +
c


But you dont need to worry about those for now.


3. Eventually we will also encounter multi-dimensional integrals. We will work on those in class.

An example might be


3
5 3 5
2 2 2
0 2 0
2
5
2
0
5
3
0
3
3
2
7.5
7.5
312.5
3
xy dx dy x y dy
y dy
y
=
=
= =
} } }
}


You dont need to worry about those for now.


4. We will also learn to solve some basic differential equations. We will work on those in class.

An example might be


( ) ( )
2
2
2
/ 2
0
1
0
1
cos , / 2
Rt l
d q dq
L R q
dt dt C
q q e where R L
LC
e | e

+ + =
' ' = + =


You certainly dont need to worry about those for now.


Calculus in AP Physics
Rev 07/01/2010 Mr. Buchanan Page 8 of 8

Additional Resources

You can find additional help with basic calculus at the following:


On line lecture videos

MIT OpenCourseWare

Single Variable Calculus 18.01 is a complete self serve on line calculus course with lectures and problem sets.

Khan Academy

Go to the home page and look in the calculus section for short lectures on individual calculus topics


Web Sites

Calculus and other math

http://www.intmath.com/

Derivatives (differentiation)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_calculus
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus/Differentiation

Integrals (integration)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus/Integration