Applied Failure Analysis (AFA) 2

Dosen: Ir. Wahyu Anhar, S.T., M.Eng.

Politeknik Negeri Balikpapan

Tahun Akademik 2021/2022
Analyzing fractures (loads and stresses, conditions that cause fracture,
identifying types of fractures, locating fracture initiation sites, and determining
why fracture occured)

Politeknik Negeri Balikpapan

Tahun Akademik 2021/2022
Load and stresses

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to recognize the type of load a part
is experiencing, the internal stress pattern in the part, any stress raisers the part
may contain, which stress raisers are the most severe, and rate at which loads
are applied to parts.
Load types
Tensile load

Tensile loads are forces that try to pull something apart...much like a game of
“tug-of-war”...or stretching a rubber band.
Example of tensile load

A tensile load is applied by two forces pulling in opposite directions. The two
forces try to pull the affected item apart.

This cable is experiencing tensile load due to the machine pulling up on it and
the pipe pulling down on it.
Compression load

Compression loads are just the opposite of tensile loads. They are forces that try
to squeeze an object together and make it shorter, just like crushing an
aluminum can under foot.
Example of compression load

The cylinder rod on this excavator bucket experiences compression loads when
hydraulic pressure pushed it on one end and the resistance of the ground
pushes it on the other.
Bending load

Bending loads are forces that try to deflect an object while it is held at one or
both ends.
Example of bending load

This motor grader frame experiences bending loads as the weight of the
machine pushes down on the frame and the ground pushes up on the tires.
Torsion load

Torsion loads are forces that try to twist an object in opposite directions. A good
example is the load on a pencil as it is being sharpened.
Example of torsion load

A driveshaft experiences torsion loads as the engine tries to turn it in one

direction, while the forces on the wheels try to prevent it from moving.
Shear load

Shear loads are opposing forces that try to push an object in opposite directions
at the same time. An example is the loading on a piece of paper when it is cut
with scissors. Shear also occurs during torsional loading and is called torsional
shear.
Example of shear load

This bucket pin is experiencing shear loading by the structure it holds together.
Lines of stress

The previous topic showed the different types of loads experienced by parts.
Loads create stresses inside parts. The type of load determines the type of
stress that occurs.
Tensile stress

Tensile loads...that is, forces that tend to pull an object apart...result in internal
tensile stresses that resist the pull and keep the part together. As applied loads
increase, internal stress increase. Stress lines due to tensile loads try to
distribute themselves evenly over the available cross-section of the part. In fact,
the mathematical definition of stress is force divided by cross-sectional area.
Compressive stress

Compressive loads create internal compressive stresses that resist the squeeze.
Compressive stress distributes itself evenly over the cross-section just like
tensile stress.
Bending stress

Bending loads result in compressive stress on the concave side and tensile
stress on the convex side. The center of the object experinces little or no stress.
Lines of bending stress do not distribute themselves evenly over the cross-
section of the object, but are highest at the surface and diminish toward the
center. Cracking frequently starts on the convex side where tensile stresses are
present.
Torsional stress

Torsional load result in lines of tensile stress that spiral along the object’s length.
Cracking will often start at these areas of tensile stress. Tensile stresses due to
torsional loads are highest at the object’s surface and diminish towards the
center.
Torsional loads produce shear stresses

In additional to tensile stresses, torsional loads produce shear stresses down a

part’s length and through its cross-section. These are called longitudinal shear
and transverse shear stresses.
Longitudinal shear stresses

Longitudinal shear stresses can be illustrated with a hose that is split lengthwise.
Twisting the hose in the direction shown by the arrows cause longitudinal shear
stresses shown by the relative motion of the white lines. These stresses can
cause parts to fracture along their length.
Transverse shear stresses

Transverse shear stresses can be illustrated using a spring with a reference line
painted down its length. Each spring coil represents a transverse cross-section
of the part.

As torsional loads are applied, each cross-section rotates a little relative to its
neighbors. This causes the white line to spiral down the spring’s length
illustrating transverse shear stresses. These stresses can cause parts fracture
through their cross-section.
Shear stress

Shear loads...forces that try to push object in opposing derections...result in lines

of shear stress parallel to the loads. Shear stresses are highest at the loaded
area and diminish with distance. Like tensile stresses, shear stresses are
frequently responsible for starting fractures.
Stress raisers

A stress raiser, also called a stress concentrator, is a physical condition on or

within a part that moves stress lines closer together at some location on or within
a part. This concentration results in higher localized stress at the stress raiser.
Stress raiser effect

Bending loads push an object out away from its established ends.

Tensile stresses form on the convex side, and compressive stresses form on the
concave side.

The stresses are highest on the object’s surface and diminish towards its center.
Material flaws

Material related stress raisers, especially in steel, are usually “inclusions”.

Inclusions are impurities remaining in the metal after refining is complete. They
can be dirt left from the ore, pieces of furnace lining, or slag particles trapped in
the steel.
Inclusions

Inclusions can have a variety of shapes. Some are just irregular clusters of dirt.

Others are nearly spherical. If cracking starts at a spherical shaped inclusion, it

produces a target-like appearance called a bullseye.

Other inclusions are long and thin. These are called stringers. Cracking that is
perpendicular to a stringer will produce a bullseye. Cracking that starts along a
stringer looks like this.
Manufacturing errors

Manufacturing processes such as casting, rolling, forging, heat treating, and

grinding can introduce shrinkage voids and cracks within the metal.
Casting erros

Castings may contain voids, called shrinkage cavities, if insufficient metal is

available to fill the shrinking areas as it cools and becomes solid or if mold
design is incorrect. Shrinkage cavities can sometimes be recognized by the long
needlelike grains, called dendrites, that form in the cavities.
Rolling forging errors

This bolt contains a rolling seam caused by material folding in on itself during hot
rolling. The seam looks like a crack running down the entire length of the bolt.
This connecting rod eye contains a forging lap caused by material folding over or
lapping over on itself in the forging die. The forging lap contains a dark scale
produced by the high forging temperature.
Heat treating errors

Heat treat cracks can be produced by removing heat too rapidly during
quenching, or by not tempering parts that need it soon after quenching. This
connecting rod developed a crack at the rod bushing end during quenching.
Some quench crack develop a dark blue-black stain in them due to tempering. If
heat treatment causes parts to distort, they may have to be mechanically
straightened. This operation can produce straightening cracks like the one in this
crankshaft.
Grinding errors

Interrupted coolant flow, coolant not aimed at the wheel contact point, and taking
too much cut can result in grider burning or cracking. Sometimes grinder burns
leave irregular brownish colored stains on the metal surface. Grider cracking
usually results in very fine cracks that are difficult to see.
Design shape

Sometimes it is necessary to design in abrupt contour changes such as snap

ring grooves, shoulders, small fillets, and holes. Designers plan for these contour
changes and specify stronger materials or heat treatment to give the part
adequate strength at these locations. Even so, contour changes are still stress
raisers that can start fractures.
Example of contour changes

The shoulder on this part is a contour change that results in a stress raiser.

The keyway in this part is another type of contour change resulting in a stress
raiser.
Surface damage

Nicks or dent in parts are accidental contour changes that should not be present.
They are usually caused by careless handling of parts during product assembly
or repair. If this surface damage is severe enough or occurs in a highly loaded
area of the part, it can crack.
Result of surface damage

This nick in this part created a surface contour change that started a crack.
Load rates

The speed with which loading is applied has a great effect on part response and
fracture type. There are three basic rates at which loads can be applied: shock
load rate, overload rate, and cyclic load rate.
Shock load

Shock load rates are extremely fast, single load applications. These loads can
be applied in a fraction of a second, and if severe enough can cause the part to
fracture. The shape of parts that fail due to shock load generally remain
unchanged.
Overload

Overload rates are similar to shock load rates in that they are a single
application of a high load. However, the load is applied somewhat more slowly.
During overloading the part has time to change shape, often becoming
stretching or bent before fracturing.
Cyclic load

Cyclic load rates can be fast or slow, and are repeated over and over. But no
single load cycle is great enough to cause fracture. The combined effect of
thousands or millions of load cycles can produce a slow-growing crack and
ultimate fracture of the part. Cracks caused by cyclic loading generally start at a
stress raiser.
Condition that cause fracture

Upon completing this lesson, you will recognize the effect overloads, stress
raisers, and low material strength have on reducing part life.
Overloading

Parts often fracture because the applied load is greater than the part can carry.

There are two types of fractures that can result from overloads, ductile or brittle
fractures and fatigue fractures.
Ductile or brittle fracture

With severe overloads or shock loads, fractures can often occur during a single
load application. These fractures are referred to as ductile or brittle fractures.
Fatigue fractures

Cyclic overloads are loads that repeatedly occur over a period of time. One load
by itself is not enough to cause fracture but the effect of many repeated load
cycles may cause a fatigue fracture.
Fatigue limit testing

Tests may be made to determine the load amount and numbers of cycles a part
can withstand without fracturing. This is known as fatigue limit testing.
Test results

Typical test results might look like this. The vertical axis shows the amount of
load and the horizontal axis shows the part’s life in number of cycles applied.
The fatigue limit shows the most cyclic loading a part can withstand. If cyclic
loading is kept below the fatigue limit, fracture should no occur.
Design safety factor

Working conditions may vary. Therefore fatigue limits must be above the applied
loads. The comparison of fatigue limit to the applied load is called the design
safety factor. If the fatigue limit is twice the applied load the safety factor is two.
Abnormal stress raisers

One reason parts fail is because of stress raisers. There are both normal and
abnormal stress raisers.
Normal

Normal stress raisers include: material flaws, holes, and fillets.

Normal stress raisers do not cause fracture because they are taken into account
by designers.
Abnormal

Some abnormal stress raisers can be tolerated in parts since there is a safety
factor.
Low material strength

Sometimes loading and stress raisers are normal but material strength is low. If
material stength is low the fatigue limit also low, the safety factor is reduced or
lost completely and fracture can result.
Causes

Low material strength can result if an incorrect manufacturing process is used to

make the part. Material strength can also be affected after the component is put
into service. Excessively high operating temperatures, for example, can weaken
parts and lead to fracture.
Effects

When material strength is low the fatigue limit drops, the safety factor is reduced
or lost completely and fracture can result.
Identifying types of fractures

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to classify fractures as brittle,
ductile, or fatigue and identify the type of load that caused the fracture.
Fracture characteristics

It is important to be able to classify fractures in order to determine what caused

them. We can identify most fractures by making careful observations of the
texture, color, reflectivity and unique surface features.
Texture

The texture or “roughness” of a fracture will be determined by how fast the crack
grows. Faster growing cracks have rough surfaces, slower growing cracks
produce smoother surfaces.
Color

Fracture surfaces vary in color from silver to dark black. This color help to
identify the fracture.
Reflectivity

Reflectivity helps identify fractures since some fractures reflect light better than
others. Brittle fractures sometimes sparkle while ductile fractures are seldom
reflective.
Surface features

Fractures is softer metals develop more identifying surface features than

fractures in harder metals.
Grains

Metal parts are made of grains. It is helpful to compare grain structure to a stone
wall held together by mortar. The metal grains can be thought as stones and the
boundaries between the grains as the mortar joints. When parts fracture, they
break the grains in very specific ways. There are three basic types of fractures:
brittle, ductile, and fatigue.
Brittle

Grains in a brittle fracture are broken or the fracture grows along the boundaries.
The shape of the grain does not really change.
Ductile

Grains in a ductile are twisted and pulled before breaking. Their shape, and the
part, are greatly changed.
Fatigue

Grains in a fatigue are slowly broken. The fracture can also go around grains.
There is little change in shape.
Brittle fracture

Brittle fractures are usually the result of a sudden impact load. Fracture occurs
suddenly and there is little plastic deformation-that is the part does not change
shape. If the mating pieces were placed together, the part would look largely
undamaged. Brittle fractures can be further divided into two types: cleavage and
intergranular. Cleavage fractures are also called transgranular.
Cleavage

Cleavage fractures tend to split the grains leaving flat surfaces. This would be
similar to breaking the stones in a stone wall. Cleavage fractures usually have a
rough texture with a medium gray coloration. In harder metals, the surface may
sparkle as though it contains diamonds. This effect is produced by light reflecting
from the flat surfaces of the fractured grains. In softer metals, a surface features
called chevrons may develop. These are ridges on the fracture which usually
spread out as the crack grows. All characteristics of cleavage fracture.
Cause of cleavage fracture

When a fracture contains one or more of the characteristics of cleavage fracture,

such as little or no change in shape, sparly fracture surface, or chevrons, it is
very likely that the fracture was produced by a single sudden shock or impact
load. This information can be very useful for determining why fracture occurred.
Intergranular

Intergranular brittle fractures tend to break the bond between the grains,
exposing the irregular shaped grain surfaces. This is similar to cracking the
stone wall at the mortar joints.
Intergranular characteristics

Intergranular fracture have most of the same characteristics as cleavage

fractures. The main difference is intergranular fractures don’t sparkle nearly as
much as cleavage fractures.
Intergranular example

Looking closely at this fracture bolt, we see a rough surface, gray color, no
plastic deformation, and almost no sparkle. These are all characteristics of
intergranular fractures.
Cause of intergranular fracture

When a brittle fracture shows characteristics of cleavage but does not sparkle or
sparkles very little, examine the fracture with a magnifier to see if rough grain
surfaces are visible identifying this as an intergranular fracture. It is important to
recognize intergranular fracture since they may be caused by a combination of
load, working environment, and materials or processes that are not compatible
with each other. In these cases it may require more in depth analysis by
metallurgists or engineers to discover the reason for the fracture.
Ductile fractures

Ductile fractures occur somewhat slower than brittle fractures and are usually
the result of a single overload. Consequently, the metal grains tend to stretch or
change shape before pulling apart.
Tensile loads

Ductile fractures that are caused by tensile overloads produce rough, dark gray
or black fractures with necking and a shear lip nearly all the way around the
circumference. This cylinder bolt is an example of ductile fracture caused by
tensile overload. Notice the rough texture, dark gray color, lack of reflection, and
shear lip.
Bending loads

When overloaded in bending, ductile fractures produce rough, dark gray

surfaces. The shear lip usually occurs on the compression side of the fracture
and is the last metal to tear apart.
Shear Loads

Not all ductile fractures have rough surfaces. Under shear loading, parts fracture
by sliding part each other. This produces a fairly smooth texture, best described
as “satiny” or “smooth and silky”.
Torsion loads

Ductile fracture produced by torsional loads can occur in either the transverse or
longitudinal shear plane. If fracture occurs across the part, it is called transverse
shear. Much of the fracture face is smooth and silky. At the final fracture, the
surface is rough and dark gray.

Final fracture often occurs near the center of the part. If the fracture occurs along
the part’s length, it is called longitudinal shear. Grain flow can be exposed
producing a woody gray surface.
Fatigue fractures

Fatigue fractures occur after many repeated loads. There are two categories of
fatigue fractures: high cycle and low cycle.
High cycle

High cycle fatigue fractures occur after hundreds of thousands or millions of load
applications. During fatigue, a tiny crack starts at a point, perhaps an inclusion or
some other stress raiser, and grows with each cycle. As the crack grows, it picks
up speed. At some point, the remaining unfractured area becomes overload and
brittle or ductile fracture occurs. This is called final fracture.
Since high cycle fatigue occurs very slowly, the surface texture is quite smooth.
The color is a light silver gray in steels, since the fracture is smooth enough to
be reflective.
Low cycle

Low cycle fatigue occurs much faster than high cycle fatigue, taking fewer cycles
to reach final fracture. Since the crack grows faster the surface texture is
rougher, the color is a darker gray-reflecting less light, and the beach marks are
more widely spaced and easier to see. Since low cycle fatigue is often caused
by severe cyclic overloading we should expect the size of the final fracture to
increase.
Beach mark

Beach marks are often found on fatigue fractures. They can be used to trace the
fracture to its initiation site. A beach mark is formed when a fatigue crack
changes speed. If there is no change in speed, beach marks will not be seen.
Beach marks may not form in hard materials.
Ratchet mark

Ratchet marks may be present on a fatigue fracture. They indicate high stress
and multiple sites that is, several fatigue cracks started at nearly the same time
and near the same location but on different planes. As the fatigue cracks grow,
the individual fractures may join together and form one large crack.
Final fracture

The size of the final fracture is an indication of the severity of the applied load.
Large final fractures generally indicate high loads while smaller final fractures
indicate lower loads.

A – Large final fracture

B – Small final fracture

Tensile fatigue

Tensile fatigue produces circular beach marks that are concentric to the
circumference. These fractures may initiate in the outside with final fractures
beneath the surface, or they may start beneath the surface and grow outward.
Bending fatigue

Bending fatigue produces beach marks that start at one location and spread
outward towards the other side of the part like ripples on water. Reverse bending
can start two fatigue fractures one on each side of the part with beach marks
running towards each other. Final fracture occurs in the middle. Rotating bending
produces beach marks that grow inward from the circumference. Final fracture
occurs in the center region.
Torsional fatigue

Torsional fatigue cracks often leave distinct beach marks and progress at 45
degree angles within a part. There are often several branching cracks.
Shear fatigue

Fatigue fractures produced by longitudinal shear loads usually grow along the
grain flow, leaving a somewhat woody appearance.
Stair step pattern

Occasionally, a fatigue crack will break up into several smaller cracks in the
middle of the fracture due to changes on part geometry or increased stress. If
these cracks recombine into a single crack, a series of marks called “stairsteps”
may be formed.
Locating fracture initiation sites

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to locate the fracture initiation sites
of brittle, ductile and fatigue fractures.
Brittle fracture initiation sites

It is important to locate fracture initiation sites because they can reveal why
cracking started.
Cleavage

Cleavage fractures in softer metals produce chevrons. Chevrons are often

shaped like arrows, pointing to the initiation site, or they may look like a
handprint that converges at the initiation site. This piston skirt has a brittle
fracture with chevrons. The chevrons are in a handprint pattern. They converge
at the bottom indicating this is the initiation site. This area should be examined to
find out why cracking started.
Intergranular

Finding the initiation site of an intergranular brittle fracture is often very difficult.
Sometimes a faint chevron pattern is present and points to the initiation site. Or
a corrosion pit may also indicate an initiation site. There may be times when
there is no evidance on the fracture to locate where the cracking started and we
have to rely on facts gathered from other parts.
Appearance

Most hard metals have brittle fractures that have a crystalline appearance
without a lot of chevrons.

If there are no shear lips or damage areas, then often parts have to provide
information about how the fracture occured.
Locating initiation sites

Sometimes the initiation site can be located by looking for surface damage such
as a nick or dent where an impact load was applied. The fracture may also
change from brittle to ductile and leave a shear lip at the final fracture.
We should examine the area opposite the final fracture as a likely initiation site.
There may be no chevrons or impact damage to serve as guide to the initiation
site. This can often happen in harder metals and other parts must be used to
determine what happened. It should be remembered that most cleavage
fractures are a result of another problem and aren’t the root cause of a failure
Ductile fracture initiation sites

The location of a ductile fracture’s initiation site depends on the type of load that
was applied. Most initiation sites for ductile fractures are general areas rather
than specific sites. Fortunately, they are not usually needed to find the root
cause of failures.
Tensile loads

Tensile loads pull grains into longer, thinner shapes and eventually tear them
apart, leaving a mountain peak, valley appearance. Cracking usually starts in the
center and spreads to the outside where necking and stretching take place. The
outside surface holds together longer then fractures in shear producing a shear
lip around the outside. The location of the initiation site for ductile fractures
produced by tensile loading is in the general vicinity of the center of the part.
Compressive loads

Compressive fractures due to overload are extremely rare. In hard metals they
cause fracture while is soft metals they cause yielding.
Bending loads

Bending loads tear grains on the side experiencing the greatest tensile stress.
The crack grows through the cross section until the remaining metal shears
forming a shear lip at the final fracture.
Shear loads

If a part is subjected to a direct shear load, the fracture starts across the entire
surface at the same time. As the fracture surfaces slide against each other they
wipe out the fracture detail leaving a smooth silky appearance.
Torsional loads

Torsion can produce either a transverse shear or longitudinal shear fracture.

Transverse shear fractures start by tearing the grains around the circumference
where shear stress is the highest. Cracks then progress inward and final fracture
is towards the center. The fracture faces usually slide against each other and
smear the fracture detail. Longitudinal shear fractures caused by torsion also
start on the surface where shear stress are highest and grow lengthwise and
inward along the part tearing grains along the way.
Fatigue fracture initiation sites

Beach marks, ratchet marks, and final fracture points can all be used to
determine initiation sites. Beach marks are usually more closely spaced near the
initiation site and more widely spaced at the final fracture. They vary depending
on the type of load.

1. Beach marks

2. Ratchet marks

3. Final fracture
Tensile fatigue

Tensile fatigue produces beach marks that grow inward from the surface or
outward to the surface.

In the one case they form concentric circles that close in on the final fracture. In
the second case they expand outward from the initiation site.
Bending fatigue

Bending fatigue produces beach marks that expand outward and away from
initiation sites.
Reverse bending fatigue

Reverse bending fatigue produces beach marks that start nearly opposite each
other and grow towards each other. They become separated by the final
fracture.
Rotating bending fatigue

Rotating bending fatigue produces beach marks that curve inward and surround
the final fracture making it easy to mistake it for the initiation site. This initiation
site is usually at the surface nearly opposite the final fracture.
Beach mark patterns

Beach mark patterns can be used to determine the initiation site of a fatigue
fracture. Beach marks are usually more closely spaced at in initiation site and
spread out wider near the final fracture. Beach marks are easier to see the
farther they get from the origin.
Ratchet marks

Ratchet marks help locate fatigue crack initiation sites.

Ratchet marks that start on the part’s surface indicate the crack started at the
surface.

Ratchet marks which are below the surface can indicate a subsurface origin
such as a precrack or material flaw.
Locating initiation sites

When an initiation site isn’t obvious, it is possible to eliminate where it can’t be.
Exclude areas where the crack could not possibly have started, such as the final
fracture area.

With bending fatigue the initiation site often lies in a direction opposite the final
fracture.

When reverse bending occurs, the final fracture is often near the part’s center,
and when rotating bending occurs, the final fracture is often surrounded by
beach marks.
Determining why fracture occurred

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to identify fractures caused by
abnormal stress raisers, cyclic overloads, low material strength, or other
conditions.
Abnormal stress raiser

Once the initiation site has been located, it is important to find out why the
fracture occurred. Abnormal stress raisers can cause fractures. Abnormal stress
raisers include material problems, process cracks, handling damage, and cuts
and gouges.
Material problems

Material problems such as inclusions and shrinkage voids are usually internal,
meaning initiation sites can be subsurface. Inclusion shape may be spherical, or
long and thin like pencil lead. Shrinkage voids are irregular shaped cavities.
Inclusions can start fatigue cracks inside the part. If a crack starts from a
spherical inclusion or across a long thin inclusion, it can produce a bull’s eye
appearance. The crack grows very slowly away from the inclusion creating a
target like appearance with the inclusion at the bull’s eye. If cracking starts along
an inclusion’s length, instead of a bull’s eye we will see a normal fatigue
appearance
Process cracks

If surface cracks are created during metal forming, heat treating, or processing, they
are called “precracks” and act as severe stress raisers when the part is loaded. Most
precracks are ductile or brittle and can be recognized by their different surface
texture. Fatigue cracks with beach marks and ratchet marks may begin at the bottom
of the precrack.
Precracks can sometimes be identified by dark forging scale or temper oxide inside
the crack. This indicates the crack existed during heat treat-a possible forging lap or
quench crack. Sometimes a precrack has paint, rust, or oxide on its surface-good
evidance that the crack existed before the part was placed in service.
Cuts and gouges

Another source of stress raisers is surface damage. Improper assembly practice,

rough parts handling wear, or corrosion can create this damage. Failed parts
may need to be compared to good parts to determine if an abnormal surface
condition exists.
Incorrect contours

Contour changes are another from of stress raisers. Holes, keyways, fillets, and
grooves are example. If dimensional accuracy is not maintained, contour
changes can become too abrupt resulting in an abnormal stress raiser.

To determine if a part might have a contour problem compare it to a new one, a

good used one, or take measurements to verify dimensions.
Shrinkage cavities

Shrinkage cavities are another type of internal problem that can cause fatigue
cracks to grow outward the part’s surface. Some shrinkage cavities can be
identified by dendrites. Dendrites are long rows of spherical metal grains. Large
shrinkage cavities can weaken a part enough for normal loads to cause fracture.
Excessive loads

Before deciding a failure is due to a material problem, be sure to verify that

loading was not excessive. Excessive loads can start fractures at normal size
inclusions.
Dents

It is important to examine initiation sites for surface damage.

This fracture doesn’t reveal any inmediate flaws that would lead to a fatigue
fracture but on examining the initiation site a dent is discovered that could have
produced the damage.
Cyclic overloads

If careful examination of an initiation site shows no evidence of abnormal stress

raisers, we should look for clues that indicate cyclic overloading. There are three
main indications of cyclic overloading: multiple initiation sites, large final
fractures, and low cycle fatigue.
Multiple initiation sites

Cyclic overloads often start several fatigue cracks at different initiation sites. The
fracture usually contains ratchet marks as an indication of excessive cyclic
loading.
Large final fractures

If cyclic overloads continue after they initiate a fatigue crack, the size of the final
fracture is usually larger than it would be under normal loading conditions.
Low cycle fatigue

A good indicator of excessive cyclic loading is low cycle fatigue. Low cycle
fatigue produces rougher, darker fatigue surfaces with prominent wide spaced
beach marks and larger final fractures.
Ratchet marks

Cyclic overloads will often have several initiation sites and ratchet marks. If the
cyclic overloads continue after fatigue crack has started, a large final fracture will
be the result.
Low material strength

If there are no signs of abnormal stress raisers or excessive cyclic loading look
for evidence of low material strength. There are several indicators we can use to
help identify low material strength: temper colors, excessive plastic deformation,
identification marks, or case depth.
Temper color

Temper colors on steel are a result of excessive heat and oxidation. Straw gold
or pale blue colors mean the part was exposed to temperatures in excess of 500
degress.

As temperatures increase above 1.000 degress Fahrenheit, temper colors

become black and heavy surface oxides form.
Excessive plastic deformation

Excessive plastic deformation or melting is another good indicator a part has

experienced high enough temperatures to lose strength.
Identification marks

Sometimes low strength parts can be identified by markings. Bolts for example
often have identification marks that indicate their relative strength. The left bolt
with more radial lines indicates more strength than the bolt on the right.
Case depth

A part may have low material strength because of improper case depth. Case
depth can be seen on fractures, and if it is missing more facts should be
gathered in that area.
Resultant damage

Sometimes fractures are the result of some other failure and are not the cause of
a malfunction. If a part fractures because of some outside force, then the
fracture is known as resultant damage. Brittle and ductile fractures are usually
resultant damage. If we have all the failed parts and only brittle and ductile
fractures are present, there are three possibilities-equipment abuse, large
abnormal stress raiser, or insufficient part strength.
Equipment abuse

Improper operation can produce shock loads or single overloads strong enough
to fracture parts.
Large abnormal stress raiser

A very large abnormal stress raiser can weaken the part enough to cause failure
during normal loading.
Insufficient part strength

Parts can have low enough strength to stretch, deform, and fracture under
normal loading.
Fatigue fractures

Fatigue fractures are the result of cycle loading.

This type of loading occurs when the machine is operating and putting load
applications on a part.

Therefore, a fatigue fracture can sometimes be the cause of a problem which

results in other parts receiving a brittle or ductile fracture.
Inspect all parts

If we don’t have all the failed parts and only brittle or ductile fractures are
present, it is very important to get the other failed parts as they may contain a
fatigue fracture or other evidence that shows a different cause of failure.
Example: check break point

This bolt is the only part found from a failure. It is ductile fracture and needs to
be examined for clues as to the cause of the fracture.

The bolt has shear lips and no apparent initiation site.

Example: check markings

Its markings show it had enough strength and there are no signs of temper
coloring.
Conclusion

Since no initiation site was found there was no abnormal stress raiser.

There were no temper colors and the markings showed the bolt to be the proper
strength.

This fracture is resultant damage. Other parts of the machine must be

investigated to find cause of the failure.