Chapter 04

1 Chapter 4: Time Response
Chapter 4
Time Response
©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering, 3/e
Introduction
• After the engineer obtains a mathematical
representation a subsystem, the subsystem is analyzed
for its transient and steady-state response to see if
these characteristicsyields the desird behaviour.
• After describing a valuable analysis and design tool,
poles and zeros, we begin analzing our models to find
the step response of first and second order systems.
The order refers to the order of the equivalent
differntial equation representing the system-the order
of the denominator of the transfer function after
cancellation of common factors in the numarator or
the number of simultaneous first-order equation
required for the state-space representation.
Poles, Zeros, and System Response
• The output of a system is the sum of two responses: the
forced response and the natural response. Although many
techniquessuch as solving a differantial equation or taking
the inverse Laplace transform, enable us to evaluate this
output response, these techniques are laborious and time-
consuming.
• The use of poles and zeros and their relationship to the
time response of a system is such technique.
• The concept of polse and zeros, fundemental to analsis and
design of control systems, simplifies the evaluation of a
system’s response.

Poles of a Transfer Function
The poles a transfer function are:
• The values of the Laplace transform
variables, s, that cause the transfer funtion
to become infinite, or
• Any roots of the denominator of the transfer
function that are common to roots of the
numarator

Zeros of a Transfer Function
The zeros a transfer function are:
• The values of the Laplace transform
variables, s, that cause the transfer funtion
to become zero, or
• Any roots of the numerator of the transfer
function that are common to roots of the
denominator

Poles and zeros of a First-order system
Given the transfer function G(s) in Figure 4.1(a), a pole
exist s=-5 and a zero exists at –2. This values are plotted
on the complex s-plane in Figure 4.1(b) using an × for the
pole Ο for the zero. To show the proporties of the poles
and zeros, let us find the unit response of the system
Multiplying the transfer function of Figute 4.1(a) by a step
function yields
C(s) =
( s + 2) A
= +
B
=
25 35
+
s (s + 5) s s + 5 s s+5
2 3 −5t
c(t ) = + e
5 5

From the development summerized in Figure 4.1(c), we
draw the following conclusions:
• A pole of the input function generates the form of the
forced response (i.e. The pole of the origin generated a step
funtion at the output).
• A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the
natural response (i.e., the pole at –5 generates e-5t)
• A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response
of the form e-αt, where - α is the pole location on the real
axis. Thus, the farther to the left a pole is on the negative
real axis, the faster the exponantial transient response will
decay to zero (i.e., again the pole at –5 generated e-5t ; see
Figure 4.2 for the general case ).
• The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes both the
forced and natural responses (tis can be seen from the
calculation of A and B)
Figure 4.1
a. System showing
input and output;
b. pole-zero plot
of the system;
c. evolution of a
system response.
Follow blue arrows
to see the evolution
of the response
component
generated
by the pole or zero.

Figure 4.2
Effect of a
real-axis
pole upon
transient
response

Figure 4.3 System for Example 4.1
K1 K2 K3 K4
C(s) = + + +
s
Forced response
(s + 2) (s + 4) (s +5)
Natural response
Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get
− 2t − 4t −5t
c(t ) = K1 +K
2e + K3 e + K4 e
Forced response Natural response

First-Order System
• A first-order system without zeros can be described by the
transfer funtion shown in Figure 4.4(a). If input is unit
step, where R(s)=1/s, the Laplace transform of step
response is C(s), where
a
C ( s ) = R( s )G( s ) =
s (s + a )
Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by
c(t ) = c f (t ) + cn (t ) = 1 − e − at
Where the input pole at origin generated the forced
response cf(t)=1, and the system pole at –a, as shown in
Figure 4.4(b), generated the natural response, cn(t) = - e-at.

• Let us examine the significance of parameter, a, the only

parameter needed to describe the transient response. When
t=1/a,
a
C ( s ) = R( s )G( s ) =
s (s + a )
Taking the inverse transform, the step response is given by
c(t ) = c f (t ) + cn (t ) = 1 − e − at
Where the input pole at origin generated the forced
response cf(t)=1, and the system pole at –a, as shown in
Figure 4.4(b), generated the natural response, cn(t) = - e-at.

Figure 4.4
a. First-order
system;
b. pole plot

Figure 4.5
First-order
system
response
to a unit
step

Transient response performance
• Time constant We call 1/a the time constant of
response. The time constant can be desribed as the time
for e-at to decay to 37% of its initial value. Alternately,
the time constant is the time it takes for the step
response to rise takes for the step responseto rise to 63%
of its final value.
• The reciprocal of the time constant has its units
(1/seconds), or frequency. Thus, we can call the
parameter a the exponantial frequency.
• Rise Time, Tr is defined as the time for the waveform to
go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value. For c(t)=1-e-at
2.31 0.11 2.2
Tr = − =
a a a
Settling Time, Ts
• Settling time is defined as the time for the response to
reach and stay within, 2% of its final value. Letting
c(t)=0.98 and solving for time, t, we find the seeting time
to be
4
Ts =
a
For the settling time can be used 5%

First-order Transfer Function via Testing

Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a system’s transfer
function analytically. Perhaps the system is closed and the
component parts are not easily identifiable. Since the transfer
function is a representationof the system from input to output, the
system’s step response can lead to representation even though the
inner construction is not known. With a step input, we can measure
the time constant and steady-state value, from which the transfer
function can be calculated.
Consider a simple first-order system, G(s)= K /(s+a), whose step
response is
K K a K a
C(s) = = −
s( s + a ) s (s + a )
If we can identify K and a from laboratory testing, we can obtain the
Transfer function of the system.
Figure 4.6 Laboratory results of a system step response test
For example, assume the unit
Step response given in Figure
4.6. We determine that it has
first-order characteristics we
have seen thus far, such as no
overshoot and nonzero initial
slope. From response we
measure the time constant,
that is the time for the ampli- Transfer fuction is
tude to reach its 63% of its 5.54
final value.Since the final G(s) =
s + 7.7
value is about 0.72, the time
constant is evaluated where
the curve reaches
0.63×0.72=0.45, or about 0.13
second. Hence a=1/0.13=7.7.
To find K, we use steady-state
value. K/a=0.72 and K=5.54
Second-Order Systems
• Compared to the siplicity of a first-order system, a second–
order system exhibits a wide range of responses that must be
analyzed and described. Whereas varying a first-order
system’s parameter simply changes the speed of response,
changes in the parameter of a second order system can
change the form of the response. For example, a second
order systemcan display characteristics much like a first-
order system, or depending on component value, display
damped or pure oscillations for in transient response.
b
The general case : G( s ) = 2
s + as + b
By assigning appropriate values to parameters a and b, we
can show all possible second-order responses for unit step
input.
Figure 4.7
Second-order
systems, pole
plots,
and step
responses

Overdamped Response
For this response
9 9
C(s) = =
( )
s s + 9 s + 9 s (s + 7.854 )(s + 1.146 )
2
This function has a pole at the origin that come sfrom the
unit step input and two real poles that come from the
system. The input pole at the origin generates the constant
forced response; each of two systems poles on the real
axis generates an exponantial naturel response whose
exponantial frequency is equal the pole location. Hence,
the output initially could have been written as
c(t ) = K1 + K 2 e −7.854 t + K 3 e −1.146 t

Underdamped Response
9
For this response C ( s ) = → s1 = 0; s2 ,3 = −1 ± j 8
( 2
s s + 2s + 9 )
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step input and
two complex poles that come from the system. The input pole at the origin
generates the constant forced response; each of two systems poles generates
naturel response. The real part of the pole matches exponantially decay frequency
of sinosoid’s amplitude, while the imaginary part of the pole matches the
frequency of sinusoidal oscillation.
Figure 4.8 shows a general, damped sinusoidal response for a second-order
system. The transient response consist of an exponentially decaying amplitude
generated by real part of the system pole times a sinusoidal waveform generated
by the imaginary part of the system pole. The time constant of the exponential
decay is equal to reciprocal of the rael part of the system pole. The sinusoidal
frequency is given the name damped frequency of oscillation, ωd. The steady-state
response (unit step) was generated by the input pole located at the origin. We call
the type of response show in Figure 4.8 an underdamped response, one which
approaches a steady-state value via a transient response that is damped oscillation.
Figure 4.8
Second-order
step response
components
generated by
complex poles

Figure 4.9 System for Example 4.2
200
C(s) =
(
s s 2 + 10 s + 200 )
s1 = 0; s2 ,3 = −5 ± j13.23
c(t ) = K1 + e −5t (K 2 cos 13.23t + K 3 sin 13.23t ) = K1 + K 4 e −5t cos(13.23t − φ)

K3
φ = tan − 1 ; K 4 = K 22 + K 32
K2
Undamped Response
For this response
9
C(s) = → s1 = 0; s2 ,3 = ± j 3
(
s s2 + 9 )
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit
step input and two imaginary poles that come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response
and two of system poles on the imaginary axis generates sinusoidal
naturel response whose frequency is equal to the location of
imaginary poles. Hence, the output can be estimated as
c(t ) = K1 + K 4 cos(3t − φ)
This type of response is called undamped.

Critically Damped Response
For this response
9 9
C(s) = = → s1 = 0; s2 ,3 = −3
( )
s s + 6 s + 9 s (s + 3)2
2
This function has a pole at the origin that comes from the unit step
input and two multiple real poles that come from the system.
The input pole at the origin generates the constant forced response and
two of system poles on the real axis generate a naturel response
consisting of an exponatial and an exponantial multiplied by time,
where exponantial frequency is equal to the location of real poles.
Hence, the output can be estimated as
c(t ) = K1 + K 2 e −3t + K 3t e −3t
This type of response is called critically damped. Critically response
are the fastest possible without the overshoot this characteristic of the
underdamped response
Summary
• Overdamped responses:
poles : Two real at -σ1, -σ2
natural response: Two exponentials with time constants equal to
resiprocal of the pole loacations, or
c(t ) = K1e − σ1t + K 2 e − σ 2t

• Underdamped responses:
poles : Two complex at -σd,± jωd
natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential envelope
whose time constant is equal to the reciprocalof the pole’s real part.
The radian frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of
oscillation, is equal to the imaginary part of poles, or”
c(t ) = Ae −σd t
cos(ωd t − φ)
Summary
• Undamped responses:
poles : Two imaginary at ,± jω1
natural response: Undamped sinusoid with radian frequency equal the
imaginary part of poles, or
c(t ) = A cos(ω1t − φ)
• Critically damped responses:
poles : Two complex at -σ1
natural response: One term is exponential whose time constant is
equal to the reciprocalof the pole location. Another term is the
product of time, t, and an exponential with time constant equal to
reciprocal of the pole loaction, or
c(t ) = K1e − σ1t + K 2te − σ1t

Figure 4.10 Step responses for second order system
damping cases

General Second-order System

Now that we become familiar with second-order system and
their responses, we generalize the discussion and the
establish quantitive specifications defined in such a waythat
the response of a secon-order system can be described to a
designerwithout the need for sketching the response.
Natural frequency, ωn: The natural frequency of a secon-
order system is frequency of the system without damping
Damping Ratio, ζ: We define the damping ratio, ζ, to be
Exponential decay frequency 1 Natural period (seconds)

ζ= =
Natural frequency ( rad/sec) 2π Exponential time constant

Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles have

a real part , σ, equal to - a/2
b
G( s ) = 2
s + as + b
By defination, the natural frequency, ωn, is
ωn = b
Damping ratio
Exponential decay frequency σ a 2
ζ= = =
Natural frequency ( rad/sec) ωn ωn
From which a = 2ζωn
ωn2
G( s ) = 2
s + 2ζωn + ωn2
Figure 4.11 Second order response as a function of damping ratio

Figure 4.12
Systems for
Example 4.4

Underdamped Second-order System
The underdamped secon-order system, a common model for
physical problems, displays unique behavior that must be
itemized; a detailed description of the underdamped response is
necessary for both analysis and design. Let us begin by finding
the step response for the general second-order system.
ω2n K1 K 2 s + K3
C(s) = 2 = + 2
( 2
s s + 2ζωn + ωn )
s s + 2ζωn + ω2n
Taking the invers Laplace transform
e − σt
c(t ) = 1 − cos(ωd t − φ)
2
1− ζ
ζ
ο = ζωn ; φ = tan −1
; ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
1− ζ2
Figure 4.13 Second-order underdamped responses for
damping ratio values

We have two parameters associated with second-order systems, ζ and
ωn. Other parametes associated with the underdamped response are
percent overssot, peak time, settling and rise time.
• Peak time, Tp: The required to reach the first, or maximum peak.
• Percent overshoot, % OS: The amount that the waveform ovreshoots
the steady-state, or final, value of the peak time, expressed as a
percentage of the steady-state value.
• Settling time , Ts: The time required for the transient’s damped
oscillations to reach and stay within ±2% of the stead-state value.
• Rise time , Tr: The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 and
the final value to 0.9 of the final value.
Notice that the definations for settling time and rise time are basicly
the same as the definations for the first-order response. All
definations are also valid for systems of order higher than 2, alhough
analytical expression for these parameters can not be found unless the
responseof higher order system can be aproximated as a second-order
system.
Figure 4.14 Second-order underdamped response
specifications

• Rise time settling time, and peak time yield of the information
about the speed of transient response. This information can help
a designer determine if the speed and the nature of the response
do or do not degrade the performance of the system.
• Evaluation of Tp: Tp is found by differantiating c(t) and finding
the first zero crossing after t=0.
( ) ( )
− ζω n t
e − ζωnt dc( t ) ω e
c(t ) = 1 − cos ωn 1− ζ2 t − φ ; = n sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t
1− ζ 2 dt 1− ζ2
nπ
ω n 1 − ζ 2 t = nπ → t =
ωn 1 − ζ 2
For n = 1 t = Tp
π
Tp =
ωn 1 − ζ 2

Evaluation of % OS
• Maximum overshoot is
cmax − c final
% OS = ×100
c final
The term cmax is found by evaluating c(t) at the peak time c(Tp)
− ζπ 1− ζ 2   ζ 
cmax = c(Tp ) = 1 − e    cos π − sin π 
 1 − ζ 2 
 
− ζπ 1− ζ 2 
= 1+ e  
For the step unit cfinal =1

− ζπ 1− ζ 2 
% OS = e  
×100

Figure 4.15
Percent
overshoot vs.
damping ratio

Evaluation of Ts
• In order to settling time, we must find the time for which c(t)
reaches and stays within ±2% of the steady-state value cfinal.
Using our definition, the settling time is the time it takes for
the amplitude of decaying sinusoid to reach 0.02, or
e − ζω nTs 1
= 0.02 Ts =
(
− ln 0.02 1 − ζ 2 )
1− ζ2 ζωn
You can verfy that the numerator varies from 3.91 to 4.74 as
ζ varies from 0 to 0.9. Let us agree on an approximation for
the settling time
4
Ts =
ζωn
Evaluation of Tr
Figure 4.16
Normalized rise
time vs. damping
ratio for a
second-order
under-damped
response a
precise analytical
relationship
between rise time
and damping
ratio can not be
found.

Figure 4.17
Pole plot for
an
underdamped
second-order
system

Figure 4.18
Lines of
constant
peak time,Tp ,
settling
time,Ts , and
percent
overshoot,
%OS
Note: Ts <
2
Ts ;
Tp1 < Tp ;
2 1
%OS 1 <
%OS2
Figure 4.19
Step responses
of second-order
underdamped
systems
as poles move:
a. with constant
real part;
b. with constant
imaginary part;
c. with constant
damping ratio
Figure 4.20 Pole plot for
Example 4.6
Given the pole plot
shown in Figure, find
ζ, ωn, Tp, % OS and Ts
ζ = cos θ = cos[arctan (7 3)] = 0.394

ωn = 7 2 + 32 = 7.616
π π
Tp = = = 0.449 second
ωd 7
− ζπ 1− ζ 2 
%OS = e 
×100 = 26% 
4 4
Ts = = = 1.333 second
σd 3
Figure 4.21 Rotational mechanical system for Example 4.7
Problem: Given
the system in K D
ωn = ; 2ζωn =
figure, find J and J J
D to yield 20% 4
Ts = 2 = → ζωn = 2
overshoot and ζωn
settling time of 2
seconds for a step 4 J
2ζωn = 4 → ζ = =2
input of torque T(t) 2ωn K
From the 20 % ζ = 0.456
Solution: J
1J Hence, = 0.052 → J = 0.26 → D = 1.04
G( s ) = K
2 D K
s + s+
J J ©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 4.22
The Cybermotion
SR3 security robot
on patrol. The
robot navigates by
ultrasound and path
programs transmitted
from a computer,
eliminating the need
for guide strips on
the floor. It has video
capabilities as well as
temperature, humidity,
fire, intrusion, and gas
sensors.
Courtesy of Cybermotion, Inc.
System Response with Additional Poles
• If a system has more than two poles or with zeros we can not
use the formulae (percent overshoot, settling time) to calculate
the performance specifications that we derived. However,
under certain conditions, a system with more than two poles
or with zeros can be approximated as a second-order system
that has just two complex dominant poles.
• Consider a three-pole system with complex poles − ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2
the real pole is at –ar the step responseof the system can be
determined from a partial fraction expansions
A B(s + ζωn ) + Cωd D
C(s) = + +
s (s + ζωn ) + ωd s + α r
2 2
c(t ) = Au (t ) + e −ζωnt (B cos ωd t + C sin ωd t ) + De −α r t

Figure 4.23
Component
responses of
a three-pole
system: a.
pole plot; b.
component
responses:
nondominant
pole is near
dominant
second-order
pair (Case I),
far from the
pair (Case II),
and at infinity
(Case III)

• The component parts of c(t) are shown in Figure 4.23 for three cases of
αr.
• Case I: αr= αr1 and is not much larger than ζωn. The real pole’s transient
response will not decay to insignificance at the peak time or settling time
generated by the second-order pair. In this case, the exponantial decay is
significant, and the system can not be represented as a second-order
syatem.
• Case II: αr= αr2 >> ζωn, the pure exponantial will die out of much
rapidly than the second-order underdamped step response. If the pure
exponantial term decays to an insignificant value at the time of the first
overshoot, such parameters as percent overshoot, settling time, and peak
time will be generated by the second-order undamped step response
component. Thus, the total response will approach that of a pure second-
order system.
• Case III: αr= ∞ the total response will be that of a pure second-order
system.

• The next question is, how much further from the

dominant poles does the third pole have to be for its
effect on the second order response negligible?
• The answer, of course, depends on accuracy for which
you are looking. However, in this course, we assume
that the exponential decay is negligible after five time
constants. Thus, if real pole is five times farther to the
left than the dominant poles, we assume that the
systemis represented by its dominant second-order
pair of poles.

Comparing responses of three-pole system
24.542
T1 ( s ) = c ( t ) = 1 − 1 . 09 e − 2t
cos(4.532t − 23.8°)
s + 4s + 24.542
2
245.42
T2 ( s ) = c ( t ) = 1 − 0 . 29 e −10 t
+ 1. 189 e − 2t
cos(4.532t − 53.34°)
(
(s + 10) s + 4s + 24.542
2
)
73.626
T3 ( s ) = c ( t ) = 1 − 1 . 14 e − 3t
+ 0. 707 e − 2t
cos(4.532t + 78.63°)
(
(s + 3) s + 4s + 24.542
2
)
• The three responses are plotted in Figure 4.24. Notice that
c2(t), with its third pole at –10 and farthest from the
dominant poles, is the better approximation c1(t), the pure
second-order system; c3(t), with a third pole close to the
dominant polse , yields the most error.

Figure 4.24 Step responses of system T1(s), system T2(s),
and system T3(s)

System Response with Zeros
Now, let us add a zero to the second-order system. The
zeros of a response affect the residu or amplitude, of a
response component butdo not affectthe nature of the
response-exponential, damped sinusoid, and so on. Now,
we add a real-axis zero to a two pole system.
• Zero on the left side of the s-plane: With a two poles at -
1±j2.828, we consecutively add zeros at –3, -5, and –10.
The results normalized to the steady-state value, are plotted
in Figure 4.25. We can see that the closer the zero is to the
dominant poles, the greater its effect on the transient
response. As the zero moves away from the dominant
poles, the response approaches that of the two-pole system.
• If we assume a group of poles and zero far from the poles,
the residue of each pole will be affected the same by the
zero. Hence, the relative amplitudes remains appreciable
the same. ©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Example
T (s) =
(s + a)
=
A
+
B
(s + b )(s + c ) (s + b ) (s + c )
=
(− b + a ) (− b + c ) (− c + a ) (b − c )
+
(s + b ) (s + c )
• If the zero is far from the poles, then a is large compared to b
and c
1 (− b + c ) 1 (b − c ) a
T (s) ≈ a +  =
 (s + b ) (s + c )  (s + b )(s + c )
Hence, the zero looks like a simple gain factor and does not
change the relative amplitudes of the components of the response.

Figure 4.25
Effect of
adding
a zero to a
two-pole
system

Another way to look at the effect of a zero, which is more general : Let
C(s) be a response of the system, T(s), with unity numerator. If we add
a zero to the transfer function, yielding (s+a) T(s), the Laplace
transform of the response will be (s+a) C(s)= s C(s) + a C(s).
Thus, the response of a system with a zero consists of two parts:
• The derivative of the original response and a scaled version of original
response. If a, the negative of the zero, is very large, the Laplace
transform of the response is approximately a C(s), or scaled version of
the original response.If a is not very large, the response has an
additional component consisting of the derivative of the original
response. As a become smaller, the derivative term contributes more to
the response and has a greater effect. For step responses, the derivative
is typicallypositive at the start of a step response. Thus, small values of
a, we can expect more overshoot in the second-order systems because
the derivative term will be additive around the first overshoot.

Zero on the right side of the s-plane:
Zero on the right half-plane: s C(s) - a C(s).
If the derivative term, s C(s) is larger than scaled response,
a C(s), the response will initially follow the derivat,ve in the
opposite direction from the scaled response. The result for a
second-order system is shown in Figure 4.26, where the sign
of the input reversed to yield a positive steady-state value.
Notice that the response begins to turn toward the negative
direction even though the final value is positive. A system that
exhibits this phenomenon is known as a nonminimum-phase
system.

Figure 4.26
Step response
of a
nonminimum-
phase system

Transfer Function of Nonminimum Phase System
Figure 4.27 Nonminimum-phase electrical circuit

Solution



We conclude this section by talking about pole-zero cancelletion and its

effect on our ability to make second-order approximation to a system.
Assume a three pole system with a zero. If pole term , (s+p3), and zero term,
(s+z), cancel out. We are left with
K (s + z )
T (s) =
(
(s + p3 ) s 2 + as + b )
As a second-order transfer function. From another perspective, if the zero at –z
very close to pole -p3, then a partial fraction expansion will show that the
residue of the exponential decay as much smaller than the amplititudeof the
second –order response. ©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 4.28 Step response of the nonminimum-phase network of Figure 4.27

(c(t)) and normalized step response of an equivalent network without the zero
(-10co(t))
Evaluating pole-zero Cancelletion Using Residues
Example 4.10
Problem: For each of response functions are given below,
determine whether there is cancelletion between the zero and
the pole closest to zero. For any function for which pole-zero
cancelletion is valid, find the approximate response.
26.25(s + 4 )
C1 ( s ) =
s (s + 3.5)(s + 5)(s + 6 )
26.25(s + 4 )
C2 ( s ) =
s (s + 4.01)(s + 5)(s + 6 )
Solution: The partial-fraction expansion

1 3.5 3.5 1
C1 ( s ) = − + −
s s + 5 s + 6 s + 3.5
The residue of the pole at –3.5, which is closest to the zero at

–4, is equal to 1 and is not negligible compared to the other
residues. Thus a second-order step response approximation
can not be made for C1(s). The partial-fraction expansion for
C2(s) is 0.87 5.3 4.4 0.033
C2 ( s ) = − + +
s s+5 s+6 s + 4.01
The residue of the pole at –4.01, which is closest to the zero
at –4, is equal to 0.033, about two orders of magnitede below
any of the other residues. Hence, we make a second-order
approximation by neglecting the response generated by the
pole at –4.01.
0.87 5.3 4.4
C2 ( s ) ≈ − +
s s+5 s+6
c2 (t ) ≈ 0.87 − 5.3e −5t + 4.4e −6t
Exercise 4.7
Problem: Determine the validity of a second-order step-response
approximation for each transfer function shown below.
185.71(s + 7 )
a. G( s ) =
(s + 6.5)(s + 10)(s + 20)
197.14(s + 7 )
b. G( s ) =
s (s + 6.9 )(s + 10 )(s + 20 )
Solution:

Effects of Nonlinearities Upon Time Response:
Saturation effect
In the following example we insert nonlinearities, such as
saturation, dead-zone, and backlash, as shown in Figure 2.46,
into a system to show the effects of these nonlinearities upon
the linear responses.
The responses were obtained using SIMULINK. As an
example, a system (motor, load & gears) are considered for
simulation. The system is
0.2083
G( s ) =
s + 1.71
A step input is applied this system, one time with saturation,

other withot saturation effect. The result is given in Figure
4.29
Figure 4.29
a. Effect of
amplifier
saturation on
load angular
velocity
response;
b. Simulink
block
diagram

Dead-Zone Effect
The same motor, load & gear system is taken into
considered for the dead-zone example.
A sinusoidal input is applied this system, one time with
dead-zone, other withot dead-zone effect. The result is given
in Figure 4.30. Using a sinusoidal waveform for input, chosen
to allow us to vividly see the effects of dead-zone.
The response begins when the input to the system exceeds
a threshold. We notice a lower amplitude when dead-zone is
present.

Figure 4.30
a. Effect of
deadzone on
load angular
displacement
response;
b. Simulink
block
diagram

Backlash Effect
The same motor, load & gear system is taken into
considered for the backlash effect example.
A sinusoidal input is applied this system, one time with
backlash, other without backlash effect. The result is given in
Figure 4.31. Using a sinusoidal waveform for input, chosen to
allow us to vividly see the effects of backlash. This effect on
the output of the motor, load and gear system is shown in
Figure 4.31.
As the motor reverses direction, the output shafts remains
stationarywhile the motor begins to reverse. The resulting
response is quite different from the linear response without
backlash.

Figure 4.31
a. Effect of
backlash
on load angular
displacement
response;
b. Simulink block
diagram

Laplace Transform Solution of State Equations


Eigenvalues and Transfer Function
The system poles equal to eaigenvalues. Hence, if a system

reprsented in state-space, we can find the poles from det(sI-A)=0.
Example 4.11

Solution



Exercise 4.9

Solution

Time Domain Solution of State Equtions





Summary


The integral in equation is called the convolution integral.

Notice that the first term on the right-hand side of the
equation is the response due to intial state vector. We call this
part of the response the zeo-state response, wsince it is total
response if the input is zero. The second term, the convolution
integral, is depend only on the input, u, and the input matrix,
B, not the initial state vector. We call this part of the response
the zero-state response, since it is the total response if initial
state vector is zero. Thus, there is a partioning of the response
different from the forced/natural response we have seen when
solving differential equations.

Before proceeding with the example, let us examine the for the elements of
Φ(t) take for linear, time-invariant systems. The first term, the Laplace
transform of the response for unforced systems, is the transform
of the state
(sI-A)-1 is
is found from


Time domain-solution





State-transition matrix via Laplace Transform


Exercise 4.10

103
Solution Chapter 4: Time Response

Figure 4.32
Antenna
azimuth
position control
system for
angular
velocity:
a. forward path;
b. equivalent
forward path

Figure 4.33
Unmanned
Free-
Swimming
Submersible
(UFSS)
vehicle
Courtesy of Naval Research Laboratory.

Figure 4.34
Pitch control loop for
the UFSS vehicle

Figure 4.35
Negative step
response of
pitch control for
UFSS vehicle

Figure 4.36
A ship at sea,
showing roll
axis

Figure P4.1

Figure P4.2

Figure P4.3

Figure P4.4

Figure P4.5

Figure P4.6

Figure P4.7

Figure P4.8

Figure P4.9
(figure
continues)

Figure P4.9
(continued)

Figure P4.10
Steps in determining
the transfer function
relating output physical
response to the input
visual command

Figure P4.11
Vacuum
robot lifts
two bags of
salt
Courtesy of Pacific Robotics, Inc.

Figure P4.12

Figure P4.13

Figure P4.14

Figure P4.15

Figure P4.16

Figure P4.17

Figure P4.18

Figure P4.19

Figure P4.20
Pump diagram
© 1996 ASME.

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1 Chapter 4: Time Response

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get

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• Let us examine the significance of parameter, a, the only

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First-order Transfer Function via Testing

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Figure 4.9 System for Example 4.2

c(t ) = K1 + e −5t (K 2 cos 13.23t + K 3 sin 13.23t ) = K1 + K 4 e −5t cos(13.23t − φ)

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

c(t ) = K1e − σ1t + K 2 e − σ 2t

c(t ) = K1e − σ1t + K 2te − σ1t

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General Second-order System

Exponential decay frequency 1 Natural period (seconds)

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Assuming an underdamped system, the complex poles have

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For the step unit cfinal =1

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ζ = cos θ = cos[arctan (7 3)] = 0.394

c(t ) = Au (t ) + e −ζωnt (B cos ωd t + C sin ωd t ) + De −α r t

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• The next question is, how much further from the

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Figure 4.27 Nonminimum-phase electrical circuit

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©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

We conclude this section by talking about pole-zero cancelletion and its