Experiment No.

1
AIM: To Study Single Point Cutting Tool.

OBJECTIVES:

• To understand tool geometry with tool nomenclature.

• To classify the single point and multipoint cutting tools.

• To understand tool signature and compare ASA and ORS system of tool signature.
THEORY:

Introduction:

A cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used to remove material from the work piece by means
of shear deformation. Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools. Single-
point tools are used in turning, shaping, planing and similar operations, and remove material by
means of one cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools. Grinding tools
are also multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting
edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip.

Cutting tool materials must be harder than the material which is to be cut, and the tool must be
able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process. Also, the tool must have a
specific geometry, with clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the work
piece without the rest of the tool dragging on the work piece surface. The angle of the cutting
face is also important, as is the flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to
have a long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds at which
the tool is run.

Classification:

Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points) involved
as follows:

• Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boringtools.

• Double (two) point: e.g.,drills

• Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.
Linear cutting tools include tool bits (single-point cutting tools) and broaches. Rotary cutting
tools include drill bits, countersinks and counterbores, taps and dies, milling cutters, reamers,
and cold saw blades. Other cutting tools, such as bandsaw blades, hacksaw blades, and fly
cutters, combine aspects of linear and rotarymotion.
Single point cutting tool:

There are mainly two types of single point tools namely the solid type as shown in figure 1.1(a)
and the tipped tool 1.1(b)
 .

Fig. 1.1 (a) solid type of single point cutting tool, (b) tipped type single point cutting tool, (c) index-
able insert type single point cutting tool.

A brazed tool is generally known as tool bits and is rescued in tool holders. The tipped type of
tool is made from a good shank steel on which is mounted a tip of cutting tool material. Tip may
be made of high speed steel or cemented carbide. In addition to this, there are long index-able
insert tools and throwaway. The insert type tool throwaway refers to the cutting tool insert which
is mechanically held in the tool holder. The inserts are purchased which are ready for use. Tools
may be of the types planning tools, facing tool, boring tools, parting and slotting tools etc.

TOOL GEOMETRY:
Fig. 1.2: Tool Geometry
 Fig. 1.3: Elements of tool signature or nomenclature of single point tool

Toolsignature:

It is the numerical method of identification of tool angles standardized by the American

Standards Association (ASA). According to which the seven important elements that comprise
the signature of a single point cutting tool can be stated in the followingorder:
Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

BRA SRA ERA SRA ECEA SCEA NR

0 7 6 8 15 16 0.8

1. Back rake angle (0): It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with base
of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. If the slope face is
downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is
positive back rake angle. The angle helps in removing the chips away from the workpiece.

2. Side rake angle (7): It is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined sideways. This angle
of tool determines the thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to
provide clearance between work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work-piece with
end flake of tool. It is angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the
line down from the point perpendicular to thebase.

3. End relief angle (6): It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the work-
piece. It is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angle to the flank.
Some time extra end clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as end clearance
angle.

4. Side relief angle (8): It is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side edge
and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right angles to the side. It is
incorporated on the tool to provide relief between it is flank and the work piece surface. Some time
extra side clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as side clearance angle. It is the
secondary angle directly below the side reliefangle.

5. End cutting Edge angle (15): The ECEA provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of
the cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing part of
the CE. Only small angle is sufficient for this purpose. An angle of 8O to 15O has been found
satisfactory in mostcases.
6. Side cutting angle (16): It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank. Complimentary angle of SCEA is also called the approach angle. It is the angle which
prevents interference as the tool enters the workmaterial.

7. Nose Radius (0.8 mm): If the cutting tip of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting point the
cutting tip is weak. It is therefore highly stressed during the operation, may fail or lose its cutting
ability soon and produces marks on the machinedsurface.

In order to prevent these harmful effects the nose is provided with a radius called nose radius. It
enables greater strength of the cutting, tip, a prolonged tool life and a superior Surface finish on
the work piece. Also as the value of this radius increases, a higher cutting speed can be used. But
if it is too large it may lead to chaffer. So a balance has to be maintained.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Describe tool signature of followings-

SN. ASASystem (8, 10, 6, 6, 10, 2) ORS System (0, 10, 5, 5, 8, 90,1)

7
Answer the following Questions-

1. What is the orthogonal cutting?

2. what is meant by cutting tool signature
3. What are the functions of rake angle and end relief angle in single point cutting tool?
4. What are the principle angles of single point cutting tool and explain: i. Back rake
angle ii. Clearance angle?
5. What are the characteristics of cutting tool materials? List out the different types of
cutting tool materials?

RESULT: Single point cutting tool has been studied.

CONCLUSION:

VIVA-QUESTIONS:

1. Explain about the single point cuttingtool.

2. What is toolsignature?
3. What are the principal parts of single point cuttingtool?
4. What are the operations performed by single point cuttingtool?
5. What is significance of rakeangle?

REFERENCE:
1. Workshop Technology (Volume II), Hajra Chaudhary, Media Promoters &Publishers.
2. Workshop technology (Vol. II), V. S. Raghuwanshi, Dhanpat Rai &Sons.
3. Manufacturing Science, Ghosh &Mallik, East WestPress.
4. Manufacturing technology (Metal cutting & Machine tools) Vol. II, P. N. Rao,
TataMcGrawHill.
5. Workshop technology, H. S. Bawa, Tata Mc-GrawHill.
Experiment No.2

Aim: To Study Various Forces on Single Point Cutting Tools

There are two types of metal cutting processes. One is oblique cutting process which is
shown in Fig.(b) and second is orthogonal cutting process as shown in Fig. (a).

Force Relationship in Oblique Cutting:

Fig. shows a turning process in oblique cutting. In oblique cutting, the principal cutting
edge (ab) makes an angle with the direction of the feed. Since the metal is being cut there
must be a cutting force (R). This cutting force (R) can be resolved in three mutually
perpendicular directions. Therefore, force relationship in oblique cutting is complex in
nature and do not considered for force analysis in cutting process. Only orthogonal cutting
process is best suitable for ease of calculations and lower complexity.
The cutting force (R) in oblique cutting can be resolved into three mutually
perpendicular directions, as given below:
(a) In the direction of feed of the tool (Fd):
It is the horizontal components of the cutting force. It is also called Feed Force (Fd).
(b) In the direction perpendicular to feed direction (Fr):
It is in the radial direction, i.e., in the direction perpendicular to the generated surface. It
may be considered due to the reaction between the tool and the workpiece. It is also called
thrust force and is represented by (Fr).
(c) In vertical direction (FC):
It is vertical component of the cutting force. It is the main cutting force. It is represented by
(FC).
(ii) Force Relationship in Orthogonal Cutting:
Fig. shows an orthogonal machining process. In this process, the cutting force has only two
components. One in the feed direction (Fd) and other in direction of cutting (Fc).

The cutting tool moves along the feed direction. The metal gets plastically deformed along
the shear plane. The chips move along the rake face of the tool. The chip being rough gets
resistance in movement and hence a frictional force F of the tool acting on the chip.
Various forces acting are:
Force F: Frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip.
Force N: Reaction provided by the tool, acting in a direction normal to the rake face of the
tool. It is normal to frictional force F.
Force Fs: Shear force of the metal. It is due to resistance of the metal to shear in forming
the chips.
Force Fn: Normal force to shear plane. It is a backing up force provided by the workpiece
on the chip. It causes compressive stress on the shear plane.
A free body diagram of the chip with the forces acting on it is shown in above Fig. :
Force R: Is the resultant of forces Fs and Fn.
Force R’: Is the resultant of forces F and N.
Since the chip is in equilibrium, the resultant forces R and R’ are equal in the magnitude but
opposite in direction and collinear.
For a fixed geometry of the cutting tool there exists a definite relationship among these
forces. The component of the cutting forces could be measured by a dynamometer and all
other forces could be calculated.
Graphical Method
Merchant's Force Circle is a method for calculating the various forces involved in the
cutting process. This will first be explained with vector diagrams, these in turn will be
followed by a few formulas.
The procedure to construct a merchants force circle diagram (using drafting
techniques/instruments) is,
1. Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the centre of the page. The
scale should be enough to include both the measured forces. The cutting force (Fc)
is drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically. (These
forces will all be in the lower left hand quadrant) (Note: square graph paper and
equal x & y scales are essential)
2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If done correctly,
the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant, taking care to draw the
correct rake angle ( ) from the vertical axis.
5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same rake angle) through
the circle. This now gives the friction vector (F).
6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to the head of the
resultant vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle
( ) between vectors R and N. As a side note recall that any vector can be broken
down into components. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
 7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the cut depth to find the shear force.
To do this, the chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before drawing, select some
magnification factor (e.g., 200 times) to multiply both values by. Draw a feed
thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip thickness line
parallel to the tool cutting face.
8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two chip
lines, stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also
measure the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of R.
10. Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces) and angles.
The resulting diagram is pictured below,

Fig: Machant Circle Diagram

Problem: During a metal cutting test under orthogonal cutting conduction it was found
that cutting force is 110N and feed force is 102N when cutting at 165m/min. The rake
angle of the toolis 10 degree and shear plane angle was found to be at 19 degree.
Determine the following by constructucting Marchant circle diagram;
1. Shear velocity, 2. Chip flow velocity,3. Fn, 4. Fs, 5. P, 6.N, 7.U,
 Experiment 2
Aim: To Study Multi point cutters ( Milling Cutter and Drill)
Milling is a process of generating machined surfaces by progressively removing a predetermined
amount of material from the workpiece, which is advanced at a relatively slow feedrate to a
milling cutter rotating at a comparatively high speed.
Types of milling cutters
The variety of milling cutters available helps make milling a versatile machining process. Cutters
are made in a large range of sizes. Milling cutters are made from High Speed Steel (HSS), others
are carbide tipped and many are replaceable or indexable inserts.
Periphery milling cutters — Periphery milling cutters are usually arbor-mounted to
performvarious operations. Common high-speed steel milling cutters include the staggered tooth
cutter, side-milling cutter, plain-milling cutter, single-angle milling cutter, double-angle milling
cutter, convex milling cutter, concave milling cutter, and corner-rounded milling cutter
Light-duty plain mill — A general-purpose cutter for peripheral milling operations. Narrow
cutters have straight teeth, while wide ones have helical teeth.
Heavy-duty plain mill — Similar to the light duty mill except that it is used for higher rates of
metal removal. To aid it in this function, the teeth are more widely spaced and the helix angle is
increased to about 45 degrees.
Side milling cutter — Has a cutting edge on the sides as well as on the periphery. This allows the
cutter to mill slots.
Half-side milling cutter — Same as the one previously described except that cutting edges are
provided on a single side. It is used for milling shoulders. Two cutters of this type are often
mounted on a single arbor for straddle milling.
Stagger-tooth side mill — Same as the side-milling cutter except that the teeth are staggered so
that every other tooth cuts on a given side of the slot. This allows deep, heavy-duty cuts to be
taken.
Angle cutters — The peripheral cutting edges lie on a cone rather than on a cylinder. A single or
double angle may be provided.
Shell endmill — Has peripheral cutting edges plus face cutting edges on one end. It has a hole
through it for a bolt to secure it to the spindle.
Form mill — A peripheral cutter whose edge is shaped to produce a special configuration on the
surface. One example is the gear tooth cutter. The exact contour of the cutting edge of a form mill
is reproduced on the surface of the workpiece.

Milling cutter nomenclature — As far as metal cutting action is concerned, the pertinent angles
on the tooth are those that define the configuration of the cutting edge, the orientation of the tooth
face, and the relief to prevent rubbing on the land.
 Figure: Plain Milling Cutter
Outside diameter — The diameter of a circle passing through the peripheral cutting edges. It is
the dimension used in conjunction with the spindle speed to find the cutting speed (SFPM).
Root diameter — This diameter is measured on a circle passing through the bottom of the fillets
of the teeth.
Tooth — The tooth is the part of the cutter starting at the body and ending with the peripheral
cutting edge. Replaceable teeth are called inserts.
Tooth face — The tooth face is the surface between the fillet and the cutting edge, where the chip
slides during its formation.
Land — The area behind the cutting edge on the tooth that is relieved to avoid interference is
called the land.
Flute — The flute is the space provided for chip flow between the teeth.
Gash angle — The gash angle is measured between the tooth face and the back of the tooth
immediately ahead.
Fillet — The fillet is the radius at the bottom of the flute, provided to allow chip flow and chip
curling.
ii) Geometry of milling cutter
Principal part in the geometry of a plain milling cutter
Body of cutter: The part of the cutter left after the exclusion of the teeth and the portion to which
the teeth are attached.
Cutting Edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the face and the circular land or the surface
left by the provision of primary clearance.
Face: The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as it is cut
from the work.
 Figure: Geometry of Plain Milling Cutter

Fillet: The cured surface at the bottom of gash which joining the face of one tooth to the back of
the tooth immediately ahead.
Land: The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is relived to avoid
interference between the surface being machined and the cutter.
Lead: The axial advance of the helix of the cutting edge in one complete revolution of the cutter.
Outside diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral cutting edge.
Root diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.
Relief angle: The angle in a plane perpendicular to the axis which is the angle between the land
of a tooth and the tangent to the outside diameter of cutter at the cutting edge of that tooth.
Rake angle: The angle measured in the diametric plane between the face of the tooth and a radial
line passing through the tooth and a radial line passing through the tooth cutting edge.
Lip angle: The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth, or alternatively the
angle between the tangent to the back of the cutting edge and the face of the tooth.
Helix angle: The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a plane containing
the axis of a cylindrical cutter
To Study Drilling Tools
Drilling is one of the most complex machining processes. The chief characteristic that
distinguishes it from other machining operations is the combined cutting and extrusion of metal at
the chisel edge in the center of the drill. The high-thrust force caused by the feeding motion first
extrudes metal under the chisel edge. Then it tends to shear under the action of a negative rake
angle tool.
Nomenclature of a Twist Drill
The cutting action along the lips of the drill is not unlike that in other machining processes.
Because of variable rake angle and inclination, however, there are differences in the cutting action
at various radii on the cutting edges. This is complicated by the constraint of the whole chip on
the chip flow at any single point along the lip. Still, the metal-removing action is true cutting, and
the problems of variable geometry and constraint are present. Because it is such a small portion of
the total drilling operation, though, it is not a distinguishing characteristic of the process.
The machine settings used in drilling reveal some important features of this hole-producing
operation. Depth of cut, a fundamental dimension in other cutting processes, corresponds most
closely to the drill radius. The un-deformed chip width is equivalent to the length of the drill lip,
which depends on the point angle as well as the drill size. For a given set-up, the un-deformed
chip width is constant in drilling. The feed dimension specified for drilling is the feed per
revolution of the spindle. A more fundamental quantity is the feed per lip. For the common
two-flute drill, it is half the feed per revolution. The un-deformed chip thickness differs from the
feed per lip depending on the point angle.
The spindle speed is constant for any one operation, while the cutting speed varies all along the
cutting edge. Cutting speed is normally computed for the outside diameter. At the center of the
chisel edge the cutting speed is zero; at any point on the lip it is proportional to the radius of that
point. This variation in cutting speed along the cutting edges is an important characteristic of
drilling.
Once the drill engages the workpiece, the contact is continuous until the drill breaks through the
bottom of the part or is withdrawn from the hole. In this respect, drilling resembles turning and is
unlike milling. Continuous cutting means that steady forces and temperatures may be expected
shortly after contact between the drill and the workpiece.
Drill Nomenclature
The most important type of drill is the twist drill. The important nomenclature listed below and
illustrated in the figure above.
Drill: A drill is an end-cutting tool for producing holes. It has one or more cutting edges, and
flutes to allow fluids to enter and chips to be ejected. The drill is composed of a shank, body and
point.
Shank: The shank is the part of the drill that is held and driven. It may be straight or tapered.
Tang: The tang is a flattened portion at the end of the shank that fits into a driving slot of the drill
holder on the spindle of the machine.
Body: The body of the drill extends from the shank to the point, and contains the flutes. During
sharpening, it is the body of the drill that is partially ground away.
Point: The point is the cutting end of the drill.
Flutes: Flutes are grooves that are cut or formed in the body of the drill to allow fluids to reach
the point and chips to reach the workpiece surface. Although straight flutes are used in some
cases, they are normally helical.
Land: The land is the remainder of the outside of the drill body after the flutes are cut. The land
is cut back somewhat from the outside drill diameter to provide clearance.
Margin: The margin is a short portion of the land not cut away for clearance. It preserves the full
drill diameter.
Web: The web is the central portion of the drill body that connects the lands.
Chisel edge: The edge ground on the tool point along the web is called the chisel edge. It
connects the cutting lips.
Lips: The lips are the primary cutting edges of the drill. They extend from the chisel point to the
periphery of the drill.
Axis: The axis of the drill is the centerline of the tool. It runs through the web and is
perpendicular to the diameter.
Neck: Some drills are made with a relieved portion between the body and the shank. This is
called the drill neck. In addition to these terms that define the various parts of the drill, there are a
number of terms that apply to the dimensions of the drill, including the important drill angles.
Among these terms are:
Length: Along with its outside diameter, the axial length of a drill is listed when the drill size is
given. In addition, shank length, flute length and neck length are often used.
Body diameter clearance: The height of the step from the margin to the land is called the body
diameter clearance.
Web thickness: The web thickness is the smallest dimension across the web. It is measured at the
point unless otherwise noted. Web thickness will often increase in going up the body away from
the point, and it may have to be ground down during sharpening to reduce the size of the chisel
edge. This process is called "web thinning."
Helix angle: The angle that the leading edge of the land makes with the drill axis is called the
helix angle. Drills with various helix angles are available for different operational requirements.
Point angle: The included angle between the drill lips is called the point angle. It is varied for
different workpiece materials.
Lip relief angle: Corresponding to the usual relief angles found on other tools is the lip relief
angle. It is measured at the periphery.
Chisel edge angle: The chisel edge angle is the angle between the lip and the chisel edge, as seen
from the end of the drill.
 Figure: Nomenclature of Twisted Drill Bit
Classes of Drills
There are different classes of drills for different types of operations. Workpiece materials may
also influence the class of drill used, but it usually determines the point geometry rather than the
general type of drill best suited for the job. The twist drill is the most important class. Within the
general class of twist drills there are a number of drill types made for different kinds of
operations.
High helix drills: This drill has a high helix angle, which improves cutting efficiency but
weakens the drill body. It is used for cutting softer metals and other low strength materials.
Low helix drills: A lower than normal helix angle is sometimes useful to prevent the tool from
"running ahead" or "grabbing" when drilling brass and similar materials.
Heavy-duty drills: Drills subject to severe stresses can be made stronger by such methods as
increasing the web thickness.
Left hand drills: Standard twist drills can be made as left hand tools. These are used in multiple
drill heads where the head design is simplified by allowing the spindle to rotate in different
directions.
Straight flute drills: Straight flute drills are an extreme case of low helix drills. They are used for
drilling brass and sheet metal.
Crankshaft drills: Drills that are especially designed for crankshaft work have been found to be
useful for machining deep holes in tough materials. They have a heavy web and helix angle that is
somewhat higher than normal.
Extension drills: The extension drill has a long, tempered shank to allow drilling in surfaces that
are normally inaccessible.
Extra-length drills: For deep holes, the standard long drill may not suffice, and a longer bodied
drill is required.
Step drill: Two or more diameters may be ground on a twist drill to produce a hole with stepped
diameters.
Subland drill: The subland or multi-cut drill does the same job as the step drill. It has separate
lands running the full body length for each diameter, whereas the step drill uses one land. A
subland drill looks like two drills twisted together.
Solid carbide drills: For drilling small holes in light alloys and nonmetallic materials, solid
carbide rods may be ground to standard drill geometry. Light cuts without shock must be taken
because carbide is quite brittle.
Carbide-tipped drills: Carbide tips may be used on twist drills to make the edges more wear
resistant at higher speeds. Carbide-tipped drills are widely used for hard, abrasive non-metallic
materials such as masonry.
Oil hole drills: Small holes through the lands, or small tubes in slots milled in the lands, can be
used to force oil under pressure to the tool point. These drills are especially useful for drilling
deep holes in tough materials.
Flat drills: Flat bars may be ground with a conventional drill point at the end. This gives very
large chip spaces, but no helix. Their major application is for drilling railroad track.
Three- and four-fluted drills: There are drills with three or four flutes that resemble standard
twist drills except that they have no chisel edge. They are used for enlarging holes that have been
previously drilled or punched. These drills are used because they give better productivity,
accuracy and surface finish than a standard drill would provide on the same job.
Drill and countersink: A combination drill and countersink is a useful tool for machining
"center holes" on bars to be turned or ground between centers. The end of this tool resembles a
standard drill. The countersink starts a short distance back on the body.
Related Drilling Operations
Several operations are related to drilling. In the following list, most of the operations follow
drilling except for centering and spotfacing, which precede drilling. A hole must be made first by
drilling and then the hole is modified by one of the other operations. Some of these operations are
illustrated below.
Reaming: A reamer is used to enlarge a previously drilled hole, to provide a higher tolerance and
to improve the surface finish of the hole.
Tapping: A tap is used to provide internal threads on a previously drilled hole.
Counterboring: Counterboring produces a larger step in a hole to allow a bolt head to be seated
below the part surface.
Countersinking: Countersinking is similar to counterboring except that the step is angular to
allow flat-head screws to be seated below the surface.
Centering: Center drilling is used for accurately locating a hole to be drilled afterwards.
Spotfacing: Spotfacing is used to provide a flat-machined surface on a part.
Operating Conditions
The varying conditions, under which drills are used, make it difficult to give set rules for speeds
and feeds. Drill manufacturers and a variety of reference texts provide recommendations for
proper speeds and feeds for drilling a variety of materials.
Drilling speed: Cutting speed may be referred to as the rate that a point on a circumference of a
drill will travel in I minute. It is expressed in surface feet per minute (SFPM). Cutting speed is
one of the most important factors that determine the life of a drill. If the cutting speed is too slow,
the drill might chip or break. A cutting speed that is too fast rapidly dulls the cutting lips. Cutting
speeds depend on the following seven variables:
• The type of material being drilled. (The harder the material, the slower the cutting speed.)
• The cutting tool material and diameter. (The harder the cutting tool material, the faster it
can machine the material. The larger the drill, the slower the drill must revolve.)
• The types and use of cutting fluids allow an increase in cutting speed.
• The rigidity of the drill press.
• The rigidity of the drill. (The shorter the drill, the better.)
• The rigidity of the work set-up.
 • The quality of the hole to be drilled.
Each variable should be considered prior to drilling a hole. Each variable is important, but the
work material and its cutting speed are the most important factors.
Drilling Feed: Once the cutting speed has been selected for a particular workpiece material and
condition, the appropriate feedrate must be established. Drilling feedrates are selected to
maximize productivity while maintaining chip control. Feed in drilling operations is expressed in
inches per revolution, or IPR, which is the distance the drill moves in inches for each revolution
of the drill. The feed may also be expressed as the distance traveled by the drill in a single minute,
or IPM (inches per minute), which is the product of the RPM and IPR of the drill. It can be
calculated as follows: IPM = IPR x RPM.
AIM: To Study Lathe machine.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand working principal and principal parts of lathe machine.

2. To identify various parts of lathe machine.
3. To practice on lathe machine.

THEORY:
Introduction:
Lathe removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with
the help of a tool which is traversed across the work and can be fed deep in work. The
tool material should be harder than the work piece and the later help securely and
rigidly on the machine. The tool may be given linear motion in any direction. A lathe is
used principally to produce cylindrical surfaces and plane surfaces, at right angles to
the axis of rotation. It can also produce tapers and bellows etc.

Working Principal:

A lathe basically consists of a bed to provide support, a head stock, a cross side to
traverse the tool, a tool post mounted on the cross slide. The spindle is driven by a
motor through a gear box to obtain a range of speeds. The carriage moves over the bed
guide ways parallel to the work piece and the cross slide provides the transverse
motion. A feed shaft and lead screw are also provided to power.

Principal Parts of Lathe

Fig. : Principal parts of Lathe Machine

Lathe Machine Operation & Working:

Fig. : Operations on Lathe machine

Operations performed on a lathe either by Operation performed by holding the

holding the work piece between centers or work by a chuck or a face plate or
by chuck an angle plate

Drilling
Straight turning

Reaming
shoulder turning
 Boring
chamfering

Thread cutting Internal thread cutting

Parting off
Facing

Knurling

CONCLUSON:

VIVA-QUESTIONS:-
1. Discuss tool post and carriage.

2. Differentiate between lead screw and feed rod.

3. Explain various rests with neat sketches.

4. Differentiate Capstan and Turret Lathe.

5. What is taper turning? Explain in detail.

EXPERIMENT NO.07

AIM: - TO STUDY THE MECHANISM IN SHAPER

Introduction:
A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the workpiece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. A metalworking shaper is with the cutter
riding a ram that moves relative to a stationary workpiece. The ram is typically actuated by a
mechanical crank inside the column, though hydraulically actuated shapers are increasingly used.
Adding axes of motion to a shaper can yield helical tool-paths.

The shaper is a machine tool used primarily for:

1. Producing a flat or plane surface which may be in a horizontal, a vertical or an angular
plane.
2. Making slots, grooves and keyways
3. Producing contour of concave/convex or a combination of these.

DESCRIPTIONS OF PARTS

1.Base:-

Base is rigidly bolted to shop floot and machine components rest on it. This base has to take up
machine load, both dynamic and impact load,during machining operations. Grey cast iron is
generally used as base material to resist vibration and to take up maximum compressive load.
2.Column:-

The main part, column of the machine consist of mating parts of reciprocates on the roap of the
column along the bead. The ram and table driving indicates and enclosed inside the column.

3.Table:-

It is a cast iron body, properly machined with Tee-slots on the top sides and front for holding the
job on it by using clsmps, fixtures etc. The table may be raised or lowered either by hand feed or
by power feed through elevating jack. In universal type machine, the table may be fitted in either
direction and also having the arrangement of tilting either forward or backward. A separated top
is used for the table. These two arrangements of tilting provide to machine any angular jobs
inclined to either plans from stay may be used to increases the rigidity of the table during
operations. The table can be moved horizontally for feeding vertically for positioning of the
work.

4.Ram:-

It carries a tool head on its front end. It reciprocats on horizontal guideways of machine in the
top of the column across the work. The motion of the ram is obtained by quick return
mechanism. It machines only in forward stroke, moves at slower speed but runs at higher speed
or a minimum time is taken for the idle return stroke. The position of the ram relative to the
workpiece can also be adjusted.

5.Tool Head:-

It is fixed to the front of the ram. It consists of post, clapper box, down feed screw. Tool slide
can be swiveled for the shaping of bevels, angular cuts, etc. The clapper box (or tool box) hinges
on a pin, in order to allow.

THE AUTOMATIC FEED MECHANISM

Feed is the movement of the intermittently in either direction during return stroke only. The
driving disc(D) with Tee-slots is driven by the gear shaft and is used to connect the connecting
rod (C) by an aaadjustable bolt (B). The bolt (B) , running eccentrically on disc (D), causes the
connecting rod to angular motion. Connecting rod (C) connected with the rockek arm at its lower
end by a pin (PN), causes the rocker to rock with respect to its fulcrum (F). This rocker arm is
fitted with a reversible spring load pawl (P). This pawl (P) is engaged with teeth of the ratchet
wheel, which is also mounted on the spindle of the table.

During forward motion (i.e., during cutting stroke), the ratchet wheel connecting
the slant side of the pawl (P) slides over the wheel, imparts no motion to the table and meshes
again between the teeth.

During background motion (i.e., during return stroke), the ratchet wheel
connecting the straight side of the pawl (P), imparts a short rotary motion to the ratchet wheel,
which transmits the motion to the screw spindle of the table and hence the feed movement of the
table.

The feed direction can be reversed by turning the pawl to 1800 .

 The amount of feed can be adjusted by shifting the bolt (B). Several teeth may be
shifted by the pawl during roughing operation and tooth by tooth shifting during finishing
operation.

MECHANISM OF RAM DRIVE

Rotary motion of the bull gear is converted into reciprocating motion of the ram through the
crank arm. The machining is done during forward cutting stroke and no machining (or no metal
is removed) is done during return or backward stroke of the ram, (may be called as idle stroke).
If by some mechanism, the return (or idle) stroke travel time is reduced to reduce the total
machining time, it is known as quick return principle.

This mechanism may be attained by any one of the following methods:

(a) Whitworth quick return mechanism.

(b) Crank and slotted mechanism.
(c) Hydraulic shaper mechanism.

CRANK AND SLOTTED LINK MECHANISM

The driving pinion (DP) which receives power from the individual motor or overhead line shaft,
drives the bull gear (BG) at different speeds either directly or through back gears. The crank pin
(CP) may be adjusted by a handwheel operating through suitable gears for length of stroke. The
slotted link is pivoted at its lower end, while the upper fork end is connected with the moving
block (MB). Crank pin is connector between the crank gear and the slotted link. The rotary
motion of the crank gear transmits the rocking movements of the crank pin within the slot in the
slotted link. This rocking movement of the slotted link is communicated to the reciprocating
movement of the ram through the moving block which is locked with the ram screw(S).
ADJUSTMENT OF LENGTH OF STROKE

The length of stroke may be adjust by moving the position of crank pin from the center of the
crank gear. Greater distance of the crank pin center from the center of the crank gear longer will
be the stock , and vice versa . Crank pin (CP) can be adjusted of inward/ outward w.r.t the
center of the crank gear (CG).

This movement of the crank pin (CP) along with the crank gear sliding screw (LS). The
adjustment of crank pin (CP) for the length of stroke may be either by hand during machine
stopping condition or in some shaper, by a handwheel operating through suitable gears (pinions)
during the machine running condition.

ADJUSTMENT OF POSITION OF STROKE

The position of the ram relative to the job can also be adjusted. For adjusting the position of
stroke, the following steps are to be followed:

1. Switching-off the machine.

2. Unlocking the ram lock (RL); this will unlock the moving block (MB) and now it is
ready tomove axially w.r.t. the ram screw(S).
3. By rotating handwhel (HW), the bevel pinions will rotate the ram screw (S). Which will
bring the moving block (MB) to required position by trial method.
4. Locking the ram lock(RL); this will lock the moving block (MB) with the ram screw(S).

Now the machine ready for machining.

PRINCIPLE OF THE QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

The crank pin driven at a uniform speed by the crank gear (CG). This rotary movement of the
crank pin (CP) rocks the slotted link (SL) as its lower end is fixed at the fulerum (F). The rocking
movement of the slotted link drives ram to and fro through moving block(MB). The cranck pin
(CP)moves the ram through the slotted link to its two extreme positions(!) and(@) , it only
possible when two axes of possible when two axes of the slotted link and lead screw of crank
gear are right angle.

During the forward (or cutting stroke) motion of the ram ®, the crank pin (CP) will
leaved the path BDA and will make the reflex angle AOB and also the ram will travel from
position (1) to position (2) in straight line path.

During the backward (return stroke or idle stroke) motion of the ram, thecrank pin
(CP) will travel the path ACB and will make the obtuse angle BOA and also the ram will also the
ram will travel from position (2) to position (1).

It is seen from the diagram that the path travelled by the crank pin during forward motion is
much more than the background (or return) motion.Supposing the obtuse angle (or return angle)
BOA is 1440, then the reflex angle (cutting angle) AOB will be 3600--1400=2160

Cutting time/return time= cutting angle/return angle=AOB/BOA=216/114=3/2=3:2

From the above equation, it is clear that the ram moves 11 times faster on the return stroke
than on cutting stroke.
CALCULATIONS:

Cutting speed = 1.67 * L* S

Where, L = Length of stroke (meter) S = No. of strokes per minute

Machining time –
Total length of stroke (L) = Cutting stroke time (tc)= L/v1 Idle stroke time (ti)= L/v2 Total time
per cycle (t) = tc+ti Shaping width (B) =
No. of cycles required = B/f

Machining time = n*t (min)

Where, f= feed per cycle (mm)
v1= cutting speed (mm/min) v2 = Return speed (mm/min)

CONCLUSION:
VIVA-
QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between vertical shaper andslotter.
2. Explain driving mechanism involved inshaper
3. Differentiate shaper, planer andslotter.
4. List and explain shapingoperation?
5. DiscussPlanomiller.
AIM: To Study Broaching Process.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand working principal of broaching machine.

2. To understand various broaches and their applications.

THEORY:

Introduction:

Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material.
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of the teeth increases over the length of
the tool. Moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections: one for roughing, another for
semi-finishing, and the final one for finishing.

Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool. The profile
of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise per tooth
(RPT), also known as the step or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material removed and
the size of the chip.

Working Principle:

Broaching is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of desired width and depth
usually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter having a series of cutting edges with
gradually increasedprotrusion.

Fig. : Working Principal of Broaching

 The broach can be moved relative to the work piece or vice versa. Because all of the features are
built into the broach, no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it. A broach is
effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the
other; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.

Internal broaching is more involved. The process begins by clamping the work piece into a
special holding fixture, called a work holder, which mounts in the broaching machine.
The broaching machine elevator, which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the work
holder, then lowers the broach through the work piece
Once through, the broaching machine's puller, essentially a hook, grabs the pilot of the broach. The
elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the work piece
completely.

The work piece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage
with the elevator. The broach usually only moves linearly, but sometimes it is also rotated to
create a spiral spline or gun-barrel rifling.

Cutting fluids are used for three reasons

1. to cool the work piece andbroach

2. to lubricate cuttingsurfaces
3. to flush the chips from theteeth.

Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common. However, heavy-duty water-soluble
cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling, cleanliness, and non-
flammability.

Classification:

There are two main types of broaching: linear and rotary.

In linear broaching, which is the more common process, the broach is run linearly against a
surface of the work piece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine,
which is also sometimes shortened to broach.

In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into the work piece to cut an axisymmetric
shape. A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is
performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it veryefficient.

Broaches can be categorized by many means

Use: internal, orsurface

Purpose: single, orcombination

Motion: push, pull, orstationary

Construction: solid, built-up, hollow orshell

Function: roughing, sizing, orburnishing

Fig. : Broaching types

 If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a
built- up or modular construction. This involves producing the broach in pieces and
assembling it. If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced, instead of
the entirebroach.

Broach nomenclature

For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below.

Fig. 6.3: Broach nomenclature

Most broaches are made from high speed steel (HSS) or an alloy steel; Tin coatings are
common on HSS to prolong life. Except, when broaching cast iron, tungsten carbide is
rarely used as a tooth material; because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass.

APPLICATION:

Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes.
Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, and
flat surfaces.
RESULT: Broaching process, tool nomenclature, classification of broaches and
function of broaches has been understood.

CONCLUSION:

VIVA-QUESTIONS:

1. Differentiate pull and push broaches.

2. Classify broaches.
3. Discuss horizontal broaching machine.
4. Discuss broach tool materials.
5. Explain continuous broaching machine.