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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1 STRESS & STRAIN

1. CONCEPT OF STRESS

The externally applied forces are termed as loads.

These externally applied forces may be due to any one of the reasons.
(i) due to service conditions
(ii) due to environment in which the component works
(iii) through contact with other members
(iv) due to fluid pressures
(v) due to gravity or Inertia forces.
Due to these external applied loads, body tries to deform. But from equilibrium point of view,
this action should be opposed or reacted by internal forces which are set up within the particles
of material due to cohesion.

2. STRESS

Let us consider a rectangular bar of some cross – sectional area and subjected to some load or
force (in Newtons)

Fig.1: Load acting on a bar

Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is assumed to be cut into two halves at section
X-X. Then each portion of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium under the action of load P and
the internal forces acting at the section XX has been shown

Fig.2: Sectional View of bar

The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress.
It is denoted by a symbol ‘σ’.
And mathematically expressed as

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P
=
A
Where A is the area of the cross – section
Here we are assuming that the total force carried by the rectangular bar is uniformly distributed
over its cross – section. But the stress distributions may be for from uniform, with local regions
of high stress known as stress concentrations.
If the force carried by a component is not uniformly distributed over its cross – sectional area,
A, we must consider a small area, ‘δA’ which carries a small load δP, of the total force ‘P’, Then
definition of stress is
P
=
A
As a particular stress generally holds true only at a point, therefore it is defined mathematically
as
P
 = lim
A → 0 A
2.1. Units of stress:
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (international system) ore N/m 2 (or Pa)
MPa = 106 Pa
GPa = 109 Pa
kPa = 103 Pa
Sometimes N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa,
2.2. Difference between pressure and stress
1. Pressure is externally applied or due to acting loads whereas stress is internal resisting
force developed or induced at a pt.
2. Pressure Always acts normal to the surface but stress can act normal or parallel to the
surface.
3. Pressure is scalar whereas stress is a tensor.

Fig.3: Resistance offered by bar

Internal resisting force acts similarly to externally applied load but in opposite direction.
2.3. TYPES OF STRESSES:
only two basic stresses exist.
(1) Normal stress and
(2) Shear stress.

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(i) Normal stresses:
If the force applied are perpendicular or normal to areas concerned, then these are
termed as normal stresses.
The normal stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ).

Fig.4: Uniaxial Normal Stress

Here, the stresses act only in one direction, Thus it is known as uniaxial state of stress,
When there is the load is applied in two mutually perpendicular planes then it is known
as Biaxial state of stress and when load is applied in three mutually perpendicular planes
then it is known as Triaxial state of stress.

Fig.5: Biaxial Normal Stress Fig.6: Triaxial Normal Stress

Tensile or compressive stresses:
The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive depending upon the direction
of the load.
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as a result
of which there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress.
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as shown
in Fig. as a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is known as
compressive stress.

Fig.7: Tensile and compressive stresses

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Sign convention: The tensile forces are termed as (+ve ) while the compressive forces

are termed as negative (-ve).

(ii)Shear Stress:

when cross – sectional area of a block of material is subject to a distribution of forces

which are parallel to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of

the material, are known as shear forces. The stress produced by these forces are known

as shear stresses.

Fig.8: Shear stress

It is generally denoted by ‘τ’ and expressed as

Shear resis tance Ps

= =
Shear area A
Where A the area over which it acts.

Example: A circular steel bar of diameter 100 mm is subjected to a normal tensile load

of 200 kN. Determine the normal stress induced in it.

Sol.

Given, diameter of the bar = 100mm

Load applied = 200kN

P 200  1000
Stress in tube,  = = = 25.46  106 Pa
A 
 1002
4

Stress in tube,  = 25.46MPa

2.4. Cartesian co-ordinate system

2.4.1 Normal Stress
in the Cartesian co-ordinates system, we make use of the axes, X, Y and Z
Let us consider the small element of the material and show the various normal stresses
acting the faces

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Fig.9: Triaxial Normal Stress

Thus, in the Cartesian co-ordinates system the normal stresses have been represented
by σxx, σyy and σzz or it can be simply represented as σx, σy and σz.
2.4.2 Shear Stress -
In shear stress, we need two directions to specify, that of normal to the surface which
tells in which face the shear force is acting and the direction of applied load itself.
Thus, for the notation of shear stress double subscript notations are required.
Thus, various shear stress component in a 3 dimensional body is as follows
xy , yx , yz , zy , zx , xz

First subscript: it indicates the direction of the normal to the surface.

Second subscript: it indicates the direction of the stress

Fig.10: Combined normal and shear stress in cartesian coordinate

From the above diagram we can conclude that nine components, to define the state of
stress at a point
In X Face - x xy xz

In Y Face - y yx yz

In Z Face - z zx zy

If we apply the conditions of equilibrium which are as follows:

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Fx = 0; Mx = 0
Fy = 0; My = 0

Fz = 0; Mz = 0
Then we get
xy = yx , yz = zy , zx = xy

Thus, inly 6 components are sufficient to determine the state of stress a given point.
i.e.
x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

2.5. Complementary shear stresses:

The existence of shear stresses on any two sides of the element induces complementary
shear stresses on the other two sides of the element to maintain equilibrium.

Fig.10:
On planes AB and CD, the shear stress τ acts.
To maintain the static equilibrium of this element, on planes AD and BC, τ’ should act, in
such a way that net effect of shear stress on the element ABCD will become zero.
Proof -

Fig.11:
The figure shows a small rectangular element with sides of length Δx, Δy parallel to x and
y directions respectively. Its thickness normal to the plane of paper is Δz in z – direction.
Since the element is in equilibrium condition, then the moments applied to it must also
be in equilibrium. Let ‘O’ be the centre of the element.
Let us consider the axis through the point ‘O’ the resultant force associated with normal
stresses σx and σy acting on the sides of the element each pass through this axis, and
therefore, have no moment.
Thus, σx = σy

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Now for equilibrium, forces on top and bottom surfaces produce a couple which must be
balanced by the couple produced by left and right hand forces.
Thus,

( yx . x. z ) y = ( xy . x. z) y

yx = xy

In other word, the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude. The same form
of relationship can be obtained for the other two pair of shear stress components to arrive
at the relations
zy = zy , zx = xz

Sign convections for shear stresses:

Shear stress tending to turn the element Clockwise is taken as Positive.
Shear stress tending to turn the element Anticlockwise is taken as Negative.

3. STRAIN

When a prismatic bar is subjected to axial load, it undergoes a change in length, as indicated
in Figure. This change in length is usually called deformation.

Fig.12: Deformation of bar under axial load

If the axial force is tensile, the length of the bar is increased, while if the axial force is
compressive, there is shortening of the length of the bar.
The deformation (i.e. elongation or shortening) per unit length of the bar is termed as strain
and denoted by  or e.
change in length L
strain = =
Original lenth L

Since strain is the deformation per unit length, it is a dimensionless quantity. Thus, it has no
units, and therefore, it is expressed as pure number.
Sometimes, in practice, strain is recorded in forms such as mm/m or μm/m etc.

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Fig.13: Classification of strain

If the bar is in tension, the resulting strain is known as tensile strain.
Similarly, the strain resulting from a compressive force is known as compressive strain,
in general, strains associated with normal stresses are known as normal strains. Similarly, the
strain associated with shear stress is known as shear strain.
(i) Longitudinal strain:
The ratio of axial deformation along the length of applied load to the original length of the body
is known as longitudinal (or linear) strain.
L = Length of the body,
P = Tensile force acting on the body,
δL = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P.
Then,
L
longitudinal strain = .
L
(ii) Lateral strain:
The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a
rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P. The
length of the bar with increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
δL = Increase in length,
δb = Decrease in breadth, and
δd = Decrease in depth.
L
Then longitudinal strain =
L
Change inlateral dim ension do − di
lateral strain = =
originallateral dim ension di

b d
Lateral strain = or
b d

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Fig.14: Lateral strain

(iii)Shear Strain
Change in initial right angle between two-line elements which are parallel to x and y axis
respectively.

Fig.15: Shear strain

Y=ϕ


tan  =
L
For smaller angles, tanϕ ≈ ϕ

= =·L
L
P
=
A
 
G= or y =
y G
Example- An axial pull is applied on bar of length 6m and the deformation of a bar is 1.2 mm,
then strain will be.
Sol.
Given,
L = 6m = 6000mm,
Δl = 1.2mm
change inlength L
strain = =
Originallenth L

L 1.2
= = = 2  10−4
L 6000

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4. STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM

The mechanical properties of a material are determined in the laboratory by performing tests
on small specimens of the material, in the materials testing laboratory. The most common
materials test is the tension test performed on a cylindrical specimen of the material.
When such a specimen of a ductile material is subjected to a gradually increasing pull in a
tension test machine,
The loads & elongations are measured & the relationship between the strain and the
corresponding stress is usually represented graphically by a tensile test diagram known as
stress strain diagram. where the strain is plotted along the horizontal axis while stress is plotted
on the vertical axis.
Followings are the observations-
(i) Strain is proportional to the corresponding stress upto a limit (Point A) only and that limit
is known as limit of proportionality beyond that, the relation is not linear.
(ii) Beyond Point A, the curve becomes slightly curved, until point B, which is the elastic limit
of material.
(iii) Region AB is the non-Linear region in which the stress is not proportional to strain, and the
elongation increases more rapidly. This is region is known as Elastic Region However, upto the
point B, the removal of load would result in complete recovery by the specimen to its original
dimensions.
(iv) If the load is increased further, yielding takes place; point C is the point of sudden
elongation, known as the yield point.
(v) After the yield point stress is reached, the ductile elongations take place, the strains
increasing at an accelerating rate as represented by C to D. this is the region of perfect plasticity
or yielding. perfectly plastic (C to D) means that it can deform without an increase in the
applied load
(vi) If the load is further increased, the steel begins to strain harden & the material appears to
regain some of its strength and offers more resistance, thus requiring increased tensile load
for further deformation this region (D- E) is known as strain hardening region.
After D, with further increases in loads and extensions, the point E of the maximum load or
ultimate stress (commonly known as the ultimate strength) is reached.
(vii) If the load is further increased then Fracture(F) will takes place.

Fig.16: Stress strain Diagram

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A = Proportional Limit Oa = Linear Deformation
B = Elastic Limit Ob = Elastic Deformation
C = Yield Point bd = Perfect Plastic Yielding
C’ = Lower Yield Point de = Strain hardening
E = Ultimate Strength ef = Necking
F = Rupture Strength/ Fracture strength
It is customary to base all the stress calculations on the original cross-sectional area of the
specimen, and since the latter is not constant, the stresses so calculated are known as nominal
stresses.
The diagram of real stresses (i.e. load divided by reduced area of cross-section) is shown by
the dotted curve in Figure (E’ – F’).
4.1. LINEAR ELASTICITY: HOOKE’S LAW
In Tensile test diagram, we observe that the initial portion (OA) of the stress-strain
diagram is straight. The slope of this line is the ratio of stress to strain, and is constant
for a given material.
In this range, material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between
stress and strain, it is called linearly elastic.
The slope of stress-strain curve is called the young’s modulus of elasticity (E):

Slope of stress-strain curve, E =

 = .E
This equation is known as Hooke’s law.
Thus, the modulus of elasticity (E) is the constant of proportionality which is defined as
the intensity of stress that causes unit strain.
Modulus of elasticity E has the units same as units of stress.
As we know that,
σ = P/A,  = L L ,

 P A
= E, =E
 L
PL L
L = =
AE E
Where ΔL is the change in length of a specimen under a static load of P.

Fig.17: Stress Strain Curve for different Materials:

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Note:
1
Ecast iron = E
2 Steel
1
EEluminium = E
3 Steel
1 1
Econcrete = to
10 20
1 1
Ewood = to of ESteel
8 20
4.2. Properties of Materials
(i) Ductility: It is that properly of material due to which a metal piece can be drawn into
wires of thin section under tensioning effect. Ductile materials are those which have 5%
past elastic strain before fracture.
(ii) Brittleness: Brittleness is the property of the material by virtue of which it breaks
without significant plastic deformation, when subjected to stress.
It is the lack of the ductility. Such metals don’t show necking before fracture.
(iii) Malleability: It is that property of metal due to which a metal can be drawn into a
thin sheet of negligible section by pressing/forging through the compression process.
(iv) Proof stress: A proof stress is a level of stress at which a material undergoes plastic
deformation. More specifically, the proof stress is often defined as the point when the
material undergoes an amount of plastic deformation equal to 0.2 percent.

Fig.18: proof stress

(v) Resilience: Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading.
It is area under the load vs deformation curve within the elastic limit.
Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed up to the elastic
limit, without creating a permanent distortion.
It is total area under the load vs deformation curve up-to elastic limit
The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per
unit volume without creating a permanent distortion.
It is area under the load vs deformation curve up-to elastic limit per unit volume which
is same as area under the stress Vs strain curve up to elastic limit.

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Fig.19: Resilience
(vi) Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
without fracturing.
Toughness is area under the load Vs deformation curve up to fracture point.
(vii) Modulus of toughness: The modulus of toughness is the amount of strain energy
per unit volume (i.e. strain energy density) that a material can absorb just before it
fractures.
The modulus of toughness is calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve up to
the fracture point.

Fig.20: Modulus of toughness

(viii) Hardness: Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to local plastic
deformation achieved from indentation of a predetermined geometry indenter onto a flat
surface of metal under a predetermined load.
(ix) Creep: Creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to
move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical
stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are
still below the yield strength of the material. Factors affecting creep are
(i) Magnitude of load
(ii) Type of loading (static or dynamic)
(iii) Time or age
(x) Fatigue: Fatigue strength is the highest stress that a material can withstand for a
given number of cycles without breaking. Fatigue strength is affected by environmental
factors, such as corrosion, wear, pitting etc.

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The maximum stress that can be applied for a certain number of cycles without fracture
is the fatigue strength.
(xi) Endurance limit: An endurance or fatigue limit which is defined as the maximum
stress below which the steel could presumably endure an infinite number of cycles without
failure. A simple rule of thumb calculation for the fatigue limit is one-half of the ultimate
tensile strength.

Fig.21: Endurance limit

(xii) Elasticity: It is that property of metals due to which original dimensions will be
recovered offer loading within elastic limits the stress-strain curve may be linear or non-
linear.
4.3. Type of Metal Behaviour

4.4. Types of Failure

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(i) Tension Failure in Ductile Materials: In ductile material shear strength is less than
tensile strength which is less than or equal to compressive strength. Shear strength is of
the order of 57% of tensile strength.
Ductile materials in tension test show necking (reduced area of critical section) and during
failure. Cup and cone are formed. Before fracture and this is called cup cone failure. Such
is a failure is due to shear and failure surface (Cup-surface) of 45° to the longitudinal
direction of loading.

Fig.22: Cup & cone Failure

(ii) Tension failure in brittle materials: In brittle material tensile strength is less than
shear strength and shear strength is less than compression strength. Metals fail in tension
fracture without much change in cross sectional area during axial loading. Failure surface
is rough surface at 90° to the direction of loading.

Fig.23: Brittle Fracture(granular)

(iii) Compression failure in ductile materials: Long compression members fails in
buckling and short members fail in compression yielding. Due to axial compression lateral
dimension increases and compression plane is at perpendicular to the direction of loading.

Fig.24: Buckling
(iv) Compression failure in Brittle Metals: In compression test the short members
fails in shear and shear cracks are at 45° to the direction of loading.

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Fig.26: Shear failure

5. ELONGATION OF BAR UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITION

5.1. UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR BAR

Let us now consider a uniformly tapering circular bar, subjected to an axial force P, as
shown in Figure. The bar of length L has a diameter d 1 at one end and d2 at the other end
(d2 > d1).

Fig.27: Uniformly tapering circular bar

Consider a very short section x-x of length δx and diameter dx, situated at a distance x
from end A.
d2 − d1
Diameter dx = d1 + x = d1 + kx
L
d2 − d1
where k = .
L
P . x
Extension of the elemental strip is =  =
 2
d E
4 x
Hence the extension of the whole length of the rod is
x =L L L
4P.dx 4P 1 
 1  
L =   =  =−  
2 E k 
x =0 0  ( d1 + kx ) E  d1 + kx 
0

4 PL  1 1 4 PL 1 1
or L = −  − =  − 
 E ( d2 − d1 )  d1 + d2 − d1 d1   E (d2 − d1 )  d1 d2 

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4PL
or L =
 E d1 d2

5.2. UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR BARS

Figure shows a uniformly tapering bar of rectangular cross-section, length L and thickness
t. The width of the bar at one end is b 1 and the width at the other end is b 2, (b2 > b1).
The bar is subjected to an axial force P.
Consider a very short section x-x of length δx and width bx, situated at distance x from
end A.
b2 − b1
Width bx = b1 + x = b1 + kx
L
b2 − b1
where k =
L

P . x
Extension of the elemental strip is =  =
(b1 + kx) t .E

Fig.28: Uniformly tapering rectangular bars

Hence the extension of the whole length of the rod is

x =L L
P dx P 1 L
L =   =  (b1 + kx ) t E = . log (b + kx ) 
tE k  e 1 0
x =0 0

P b + kL P b
L = loge 1 = loge 2
kt E b1 k tE b1

PL b
= loge 2
(b2 − b1 ) t E b1

5.3. ELONGATION OF NIFORM SECTION BAR DUE TO SELF WEIGHT

Figure shown a bar of uniform section, hanging freely under its own weight. The bar is

either at circular section or of rectangular section.

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Let A = cross section Area

L = length of the bar

λ =  g = specific weight (N/m3)

Fig.29: Circular and Ractangular hanging from the top

Consider a small section of length δx, at a distance x from the free end. The deformation
δΔ is given by
Let, Weight of this small section is Wx = λVx = λ.A.x
Wx . x
 =
A .E

(A x  ) x x  x
  = =
A .E E
 Total deformation of the rod,
x =L L
x
L =   =  E
dx
x =0 0

L
 x2    L2  g L2
or  =   = =
 2 E  0 2E 2E

5.4. Elongation of Uniformly Tapering Bar Under Self Weight

Figure shows a bar of uniformly tapering section of length L, hanging freely under its own
weight.
Consider an elementary section of length δx, at a distance x from the free end. Let A x be
the area of cross section of the elementary section. The extension of this elementary
section is given by

Fig.30: Uniformly Tapering Bar hanging from top Under Self Weight

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Wx . x
 =
A x .E

1
where Wx = weight of the conical portion below the section = Ax . x . 
3
(where λ is the specific weight or unit weight of the material)
1 A x . x .  x x  x
  = =
3 A x .E 3E
x =L L
x  x
Hence total extension of L =   =  3E
x =0 0

 L2 gL2
which give L = =
6E 6E
If d is the diameter of bar at its uppermost section (i.e. at the support) total weight of
1  2
the bar = W =  d L 
34 
12 W
or  =
 d2 L
Substituting this value of λ in above equation
2 WL WL
L = =
2 2AE
d E
Example - A conical bar tapers uniformly from a diameter of 15 mm to a diameter
of 40 mm in a length of 400 mm. Determine the elongation of the bar under an axial
tensile force of 100 kN. Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.
Solution -
The deformation of a tapering conical bar is given by Equation
4 PL
L =
 E d1 d2

Here P = 100 kN = 100 × 103N ; L = 400 mm; d1 = 15 mm; d2 = 40 mm

E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
4  100  103  400
 L = = 0.424 mm
  2  105  15  40
Example - A flat steel plate is of trapezoidal form. The thickness of the plate is 15 mm
and it tapers uniformly from a width of 60 mm to a width of 10 mm in a length of 300mm.
Determine the elongation of the plate under an axial force of 120kN.
Take E = 2.04 × 105 N/mm2.
Solution-
The deformation of uniformly tapering rectangular bar is given by Equation
PL b
L = loge 2
( 2 1)
b − b t E b1

Here P = 120kN = 120 × 103N; L = 300 mm

b1 = 10 mm; b2 = 60 mm; t = 15 mm

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120  103  300 60

 L = log4 = 0.422 mm
(60 − 10) 15  2.04  10
3 10

6. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

6.1. Bars In Series

When a bar made is subjected to multiple load at different cross section at a same time
then elongation of this bars is calculated by principle of superposition
It stated that
"the resultant strain in bar will be equal to the algebraic sum of the strains caused by the
individual forces acting along the length of the member.
Thus, if a member of uniform section is subjected to a number of forces, the resulting
deformation (ΔL) is given by

Fig.31: A prismatic bar subjected to multiple loads

Note – sum of the left arrowed force must be equal to sum of the right arrowed force.
i.e. P1 + P4 = P2 + P3 + Pn

PL 1
L =  = [P1L1 + P2L2 + … + Pn Ln]
E AE
where Pn = force acting on section n
Ln = length of section n

Fig.32: Free body diagram of prismatic bar under multiple load

6.1.1 BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

When a structural member having varying areas of cross-section along its length is
subjected to an axial force P, the total determination will be equal to sum of deformations
of individual sections under the action of axial force P.

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Fig.33: Bars of varying cross section in series

Thus, with reference to the bar of Figure, the total elongation is

P  L1 L2 L 
L = L1 + L2 + ..... + Ln =  + + ....... + n 
E  A1 A2 An 

Similarly, if the bar of varying sections is subjected to various forces, both at the ends as
well as at intermediate points,
Principle of superposition can be applied and the total deformation can be computed by
drawing the free body diagrams of individual section. The total deformation for such a
bar is given by

1  P1L1 P2L2 PL  1 P L
L = Ln =  + + ... n n  = 
E  A1 A2 An  E A

Example - A circular rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tension. The total elongation
on a 300 mm length was 0.22 mm under a tensile load of 17kN. Find the value of stress
and young’s modulus of Elasticity (E).
Solution:

P 17  103
Stress  = = = 150.31 N/mm2
A  2
(12)
4
L 0.22
Strain  = = = 7.333 × 10–4
L 300
Stress 150.31
 E= = = 2.05  105 N/mm2 = 210 kN/mm2 = 210GPa
Strain 7.333  10− 4

6.2. COMPOUND BARS

A structural member, composed of two or more elements of different materials rigidly
connected together at their ends to form a parallel arrangement and subjected to axial
loading termed a compound bar.
These problems are statically indeterminate, since equation of statics alone based on
conditions of equilibrium, will provide only one equation for the stresses in the individual
section.
Other equation can be obtained from the consideration of the deformation of the whole
structure, this equation is known as compatibility equation.

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Consider the effect of a compressive load P upon a composite bar consisting of a rod and
enveloping tube having the same length, but made of different material. Let the end
collars be rigid. Let us use suffix 1 for the rod and 2 for the tube.

Fig.34: Bar attached in parallel combination

From the conditions of equilibrium,
P1 + P2 = P (i)
Since the members are of the same initial length and are shortened by the same amount
under load,
Then
ΔL1 = ΔL2
P1 L1 P L
or = 2 2 ….(ii)
A1 E1 A2 E2

This equation is known as the equation of compatibility.

A1 E1
P1 = P2 . …(iii)
A2 E2

Substituting in (i), we get

A E 
P2  1 1 + 1 = P
 A2 E2 
P
From which P2 =
A1 E1
1+
A2 E2

P
Hence from (iii), P1 =
A2 E2
1+
A1 E1
Example - A mild steel rod of 25 mm diameter and 400 mm long is encased centrally
inside a hollow capper rube of external diameter 35 mm and inside diameter 30 mm. The
ends of the rod and rube are rigidly attached, and the composite bar is subjected to an
axial pull of 40 kN.
If E for steel and copper as 200 GN/m 2 and 100 GN/m2 respectively. Find the stress
developed in the rod and the tube. Find also the extension of the rod.
Solution-
Given,
P = 40kN, d1 = 25mm, L = 400mm
Do = 35mm, di = 30mm, E1 = 200GPa, E2 = 100GPa
Let us use suffix 1 for the steel rod and suffix 2 the copper tube.

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
A1 = (25) 2 = 490.87 mm2
4

A2 =

4
 
(35) 2 − (30) 2 = 255.25 mm2

From the equilibrium of the bar

P1 + P2 = P (P = σA)

1A1 + 2 A2 = P = 40  103 ….(i)

P1 L1 P L
= 2 2
A1 E1 A2 E2

1 L 2 L
Also, from compatibility, =
E1 E2

E1 200
or 1 = 2 = 2  = 2 2
E2 100

1 = 2 2 ….. (ii)

Substituting the value of p1 in (i), we get

2 2 A1 + 2 A2 = 40  103

or 2σ2(490.87) + σ2(255.25) = 40 × 103

From which, σ2 = 32.34 N/mm2
Hence σ1 = 2σ2 = 64.68 N/mm3

7. EQUIVALENT MODULUS OF A COMPOUND BAR

Figure shows a compound bar of length L, consisting of two materials of modulus E 1 and E2 and
having areas of cross-section A1 and A2.
The equivalent bar, of length L and made up of a material having modulus E and cross-sectional
area A = A1 + A2, is shown in Figure. Such equivalent bar should have the same deformation
under the load as that of the compound bar.

Fig.35: Equivalent modulus

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For the equivalent bar,
PL PL
Extension L = =
A E ( A1 + A2 ) E

PL
 = ( A1 + A2 ) E ….. (i)
L
For compound bar
1  E
= 2 or 1 = 2 1
E1 E2 E2

and σ1A1 + σ2A2 = P

 E 
or  2 1  A1 + 2 A2 = P
 E2 
P
From which 2 =
E1
. A + A2
E2 1

2L PL
Now L = =
E2 A1 E1 + A2 E2

PL
or = A1 E1 + A2 E2 …. (ii)
L
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
(A1 + A2 )E = A1 E1 + A2 E2
A1 E1 + A2 E2
From which E =
A1 + A2

8. ELASTIC CONSTANTS

Elastic constants are those factors which determine the deformations produced by a given
stress system acting on a material. These factors (i.e. elastic constants) are constant within
the limits for which Hooke’s laws are obeyed.
Various elastic constants are :
(i) Modulus of elasticity (E)
(ii) Poisson’s ratio (μ or 1/m)
(iii) Modulus of rigidity (G or N)
(iv) Bulk modulus (K)
Materials on the basis of elastic properties
(i)Homogeneous Material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at any point in a given directions than the
material is known as homogenous material
[i.e., elastic properties are independent of location]

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Fig.36: Homogeneous material

(ii)Isotropic Material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at any direction at a given point than the
material is known as Isotropic Material.
i.e. elastic properties of material are independent of direction.

Fig.37: Non-Homogenous and isotropic material

(iii)Homogenous & isotropic material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at any direction at a every point than the
material is known as homogeneous Isotropic Material.

Fig.38: Homogenous and isotropic material

(iv)Anisotropic Material
When a material exhibits different elastic properties at every direction at a every point than
the material is known as Isotropic Material.
Exhibit direction dependent elastic property

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Fig.39: Anisotropic material

(v) Orthotropic Material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at only orthogonal direction at a given point
than the material is known as Orthotropic Material.
For a homogenous and isotropic material, the number of elastic constants is four [i.e., E, G, K

 1
and  µ or ]
 m
For a homogeneous and isotropic material, the number of independent elastic constants are
two.

Material No. of independent elastic constants

Isotropic 2
Orthotropic 9
Anisotropic 21

8.1. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

When an axial load, P is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar due to which length
of the bar will be increases in the direction of applied load and a stress, σ is induced in
the bar.
The ratio of stress to longitudinal strain, within elastic limits, is called the modulus of
elasticity (E):

Thus, modulus of elasticity E =

The modulus of elasticity (also called Young’s modulus of elasticity) is the constant of
proportionality which is defined as the intensity of stress that causes unit strain.
8.2. POISSON’S RATIO
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
It is an unitless quantity which is generally denoted as μ or 1/m.
Lateral strain
poisson' s ratio = −
longitudinal strain

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do − di
1 di
 or =−
m lo − li
li

Material µ
Cork Zero
Concrete 0.1 to 0.2
1 1
Metals to
4 3
Rubber, Clay, Paraffin 0.5 → Behaves like perfect plastic material

8.3. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

8.3.1. Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress
Figure shows a rectangular bar of length L, width b and thickness t subjected to single
direct load (P) acting along its longitudinal axis. Let this stress σ generated to be tensile
in nature.

Then longitudinal strain, 1 = (tensile)
E

Lateral strain 2 = − 1 = − (compressive)
E
Now, for the rectangular bar, V = L.b.t
If δL, δb and δt denote the change in the corresponding dimension, the final volume (V
+ δV) is given by
Taking log and differentiate the above equation
ln V = ln(L.b.t)
ln V = lnL + lnb + ln t
V L b t
= + +
V L b t

Fig.40: Volumetric strain

V
or = v = 1 + 2 + 3 = x + y + z
V
L  b  t 
= 1 = ; = 2 = − and = 3 = −
L E b E t E
Now,
V    
 Volumetric strain, v = = −  −  = (1 − 2 )
V E E E E

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 Again, for the circular bar of diameter d, we have
 2
V= d L
4
V L d
Hence = +2
V L d
L  d 
Here, = 1 = and = 2 = −
L E d E
V   
 Volumetric strain, v = = − 2 = (1 − 2 )
V E E E
8.3.2 Volumetric Strain Due to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress
Figure shows a parallelepiped subjected to three tensile load P 1, P2 and P3 in the three
mutually perpendicular direction.
Then,
V
= 1 + 2 + 3
V

Fig.41: parallelepiped subjected to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress

Since any axial load produces a strain in its own direction and an opposite kind of strain
in every direction at right angles to this direction.
we have,

1    (  + 3 )
− 2 − 3 = 1 − 2
Longitudinal strain 1 =
E E E E E

2 =
2    (  + 3 )
− 1 − 3 = 2 − 1
E E E E E

3 =
3    (  + 3 )
− 2 − 1 = 3 − 2
E E E E E
Above equations are known as general equations of Hooke’s law.
Adding the three expressions of Equations we get.
V   + 2 + 3 
v = = 1 + 2 + 3 = (1 − 2 )  1 
V  E 
8.3.3 Hydrostatic static state of stress-
In case of hydrostatic state of stress, the applied stress in all direction are equal and
tensile in nature.
i.e. σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ

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V   + 2 + 3 
v = = 1 + 2 + 3 = (1 − 2 )  1 
V  E 

V   +  + 
v = = 1 + 2 + 3 = (1 − 2 )  
V  E 

 3 
Hence 3 = (1 − 2 )  
 E 

or E =  (1 − 2 )

since Eϵ and σ in the above expression are positive numbers, (1 − 2 ) must also be

positive.
1 − 2  0

2  1

  0.5
Thus, maximum value poisson’s ratio is 0.5
Example - A steel cube block of 50 mm side is subjected to a tensile force of 10 kN,
12.5kN (compression) and 7.5kN (tension) along x, y and z directions respectively.
determine the change in the volume of the block.
Take E = 200 kN/mm2 and μ = 0.3.
Solution-
Area of each side = 50 × 50 = 2500 mm2

Px 10  103
Stress in x direction = x = = = 4N/mm2 (tension)
A 2500
Py −12.5  103
Stress in y direction y = = = - 5 N/mm2 (comp.)
A 2500

Pz 7.5  103
Stress in z direction z = = = 3N / mm2 (Tensile)
A 2500

x y 
x = − − z
E E E
4 (−5) 3
x = − 0.3  − 0.3 
E E E

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4 1.5 0.9 4.6
x = + − =
E E E E
Similarly
y x  −5 3  0.3 4  0.3 7.1
y = − − z = − − =−
E E E E E E E

z  y 3 4  0.3 5  0.3 3.3

z = − x − = − + =
E E E E E E E
V
Now = x + y + z
V
V 4.6 7.1 33 0.8
 = − + =
(50) 3 E E E E

0.8
 (50) = 0.5 mm3
3
 V = 5
2  10
8.4. SHEAR MODULUS OR MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
The shear modules or modulus of rigidity expresses the relation between shear stress
and shear strain.
It has been found experimentally that, within elastic limit, shear stress (τ) is proportional
to the shear strain ()

Thus,   

or  = G


or =G


where G = modulus of rigidity

(also sometimes denoted by symbol C or N)
 = Shear strain (in radians) (also sometimes denoted by the symbol γ)

8.4.1 LINEAR STRAIN OF DIAGONAL DUE TO SHEAR

Figure shows a square block ABCD subjected to a state of simple shear τ , due to which
shape of the block will get distorted and a new shape A’B’C’D’ in which total change in
 
each corner angles is   +  =  .
2 2

for the purpose of convenience in computations, direction of one side AD has been kept
fixed, while keeping the shearing strain  still the same. Then a new distorted shape of

the block will be A”B”C”D”.

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Fig.42: linear strain due to shear

The shearing strain  is extremely small. Hence, we can assume BB'’ as an arc with A
as centre and AB as radius.
BB" CC"
Then  = =
AB CD
Draw CF perpendicular to AC”. Considering CF also an arc with A as centre and AC as
radius, the elongation of diagonal. AC can be nearly taken equal to FC”.
FC" CC" cos 45o
 Linear strain (ϵ) of diagonal = =
AC CD sec 45o
1 CC " 1 
 = = =
2 CD 2 2G

d =
2
8.5. BULK MODULUS
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular like stresses of equal intensity
(σ).
Then the ratio of direct stress (σ) to the corresponding volumetric strain (ϵv) is defined
as the bulk modulus K for the material of the body.
Which is generally denoted as ‘K’
Direct stress 
Thus K = =
Volumetric strain v

9. RELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT ELASTIC PROPERTIES

9.1. RELATION BETWEEN E AND G

From above equation

d =
2
Hence, the linear strain ϵ of the diagonal AC, due to two mutually perpendicular direct
stresses is given by.
    
= −  −   = (1 +  ) = (1 +  )
E  E E E

Equating (i) and (ii), we get


=
E
(1 +  )

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In the case of pure shear stress, shear stress is equal to the axial stress along the
diagonal.
Τ=σ

d =
2G
 
= (1 +  )
2G E
E = 2G(1 + )
9.2. RELATION BETWEEN E AND K
Let a cube of side ‘L’ be subjected to three mutually perpendicular like compressive
stresses of equal intensity σ.

Fig.43: A cube under hydrostatic state of stress

  
Total linear strain of each side =  = − −
E E E
L 
Hence =  = (1 − 2 )
L E
Now V = L3
or V = 3 L2  L

V L 3

V
= v = 3
L
= 3 =
E
(1 − 2 )
3
v =
E
(1 − 2 )

Also, by definition of bulk modulus, =K
v

V 
Or v = =
V K
Thus,
 3
K
=
E
(1 − 2 )
E = 3K (1 − 2 )

This is the desired relation between E and K in terms of μ.

9.3. Relation between G and K
As we know

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1 E
E = 3K (1 − 2 )   = −
2 6K
E
E = 2G(1 + )   = −1
2G
1 E E
− = −1
2 6K 2G
9KG
E=
3K + G
Value of any Elastic constant should be ≥ 0
E, K, G > 0
µ ≥ 0 [µcork = 0]
If K should be positive,
Then 1 – 2µ ≥ 0
1
µ
2
For any Engineering Material
1
0µ 
2

µ G K

Min E E
0
limit 2 3
Max 1 E
∞
limit 2 3

E E
G
3 3
E
K 
3
µ  → G
K
Always
G≤E
For metals
µ G K
1
0.4E 0.67E
4
1
0.375E E
3

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PRACTICE QUESTION

1. A bar 30 mm in diameter was subjected to a tensile load if 54 kN and the measured extension
on 300 mm gauge length was 0.112 mm and change in diameter was 0.0036 mm. calculate
Poisson’s ratio and values of three module.
Ans. – μ = 0.327, E = 204.6GPa, G = 77.1GPa, K = 197.1GPa
2. For a given material, young’s modulus is 1.0 × 10 5 N/mm2 and modulus of rigidity 0.4× 10 5
N/mm2. Find the bulk modulus and lateral contraction of a round bar of 50 mm diameter and
1
2.5 m long, when stretched 2.5 mm. Take Poisson’s ratio as .
4
Ans – K = 66.7GPa, Δd = 0.125mm
3. A 500 mm long hollow cylindrical steel tube is subjected to an axial compressive load of 100 kN.
The inner and outer diameters of the tube are 50 mm and 70 mm respectively. The compressive
stress generated in this tube due to the axial load is
Ans. – 53.05MPa
4. A determination of E and G given values of 2 × 10 N/mm and 0.79 × 10 N/mm2. Calculate
5 2 5

Poisson’s ratio and the bulk modulus.

Ans. – μ = 0.266 , K = 142.34GPa
5. A composite bar ABC, rigidly fixed at A and 1 mm above the lower support is loaded as shown
in Figure. If the cross-sectional area of section AB is 100 mm 2 and that of section BC is 200
mm2, find the reaction at the ends, and the stresses in the two sections. Take E = 2 × 10 5
N/mm2.

Ans. RA =35kN, RB = 15kN, σAB = 350N/mm2, σBC = 75N/mm2

6. The bar shown in Figure is subjected to a tensile load of 100 kN. Find diameter of the middle
portion if the stress there is to be limited to 150 N/mm 2. Find also the length of the middle
portion if the elongation of the bar limited to 0.2 mm.
Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.

Ans. 29.13mm. 116mm

7. A steel flat plate of 10 mm thickness tapers uniformly from 100 mm to 50 mm width in a length
of 400 mm. Determine the elongation of the plate if the axial tensile force is 100 kN.

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Take E = 2 × 105 N/mm2.
Ans. 0.28mm
8. A mild steel rod of 20mm diameter and 300mm long is enclosed centrally inside a hollow copper
tube of external diameter 30mm and internal diameter 25mm. The ends of the rod and tube are
brazed together and composite bar is subjected to a load of 50kN. Find the stresses developed
in the rod and tube. Also find the extension of the composite.

ES = 200kN / mm2 ,Ecu = 100kN / mm2

Ans. – σS = 118.44N/mm2, σcu = 59.22N/mm2, ΔL = 0.178mm

9. A steel wire of 10mm diameter is used for lifting a load of 1kN at its lowest end, the length of
the wire hanging vertically being 200m. if the unit weight of steel 78kN/m3 & young’s modulus
of elasticity of steel is 200GPa. Then total elongation of the wire will be?
Ans. 20.53mm
10. A circular copper bar having length 900mm consists of 200mm long bar of 40 mm diameter,500
mm long bar of 15 mm diameter and 200mm long bar of 30mm diameter. If the bar is subjected
to a tensile load of 60kN, Find the total extension of the bar. Take the value of E=100GPa.
Ans. 1.963 mm
11. A prismatic bar is fixed between two rigid supports as shown in figure. Determine the reaction
on the supports.

Ans. 45.56 kN, 23.14 kN

12. A cylindrical bar of steel having diameter 100 mm and 200 mm long is subjected to an axial
compressive force of 500 kN. The change in volume if the bulk modulus of steel is 1.7×10 5
N/mm2 and Poisson ratio is 0.28.
Ans. 0.196 cm3
13. A metal bar 40mm×40mm section, is subjected to an axial compressive load of 480 kN. The
contraction of a 200 mm gauge length is found to be 0.4 mm and the increase in thickness 0.04
mm. Find Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Ans. E= 1.5×105 N/mm2, µ = 0.5

***

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2 BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Beam:
• The term beam refers to a component that is designed to support transverse loads, that
is, loads that act perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam as shown in figure.
• The beam supports the load by bending only.

Fig.1 A supported beam loaded by a force and a distribution of pressure

1.2 Bending:
• When the beam is bent by the action of downward transverse loads, the fibres near
the top of the beam contract in length whereas the fibres near the bottom of the beam
extend.
• Somewhere in between, there will be a plane where the fibres do not change length.
This is called the neutral surface. Such a deformation of beam is called the bending.

Fig.2 Positive and Negative bending and draw for negative bending
Note.1
• The intersection of the longitudinal plane of symmetry and the neutral surface is called
the axis of the beam.
• The deformed axis is called the deflection curve.

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1.3. Effect of bending of a beam

• The section of a beam resists the bending stresses, also known as longitudinal stresses.

• Since the B.M. varies along the length of the beam, the magnitude of bending stresses

also varies along the length.

• The bending stresses also vary along the depth of the section.

• As a simple instance, consider a cantilever carrying a concentrated load W at its free

end, shown in Fig.3 (a).

Fig.3 Bending strains in a loaded cantilever.

• At section remote from the free end, the upper longitudinal fibres are stretched i.e.

tensile stresses are introduced while the lower fibres are compressed due to

compressive stresses set up there.

• At any cross-section of the beam, as shown in fig.3 (b), the upper fibres, which are

stretched longitudinally contract laterally owing to the Poisson’s ratio effect while the

lower fibres extend laterally. Thus, the whole cross-section of the beam is distorted.

• In addition to longitudinal direct stresses in the beam, there are also shearing stresses

over any cross section of beam.

2. THEORY OF SIMPLE ENDING

• As elementary bending problem is that in which a beam, having constant cross-sectional

area with an axis of symmetry, is under the action of end couple.

• Such a bending is known as pure bending in which the beam is subjected to a constant

bending moment M, bending the beam into circular arc of radius R.

Let us consider two section mn and m1n1 along the length of the beam, spaced dx apart and

subjected to a bending moment M, which bends the beam into a circular arc of radius R (Fig.4

a, b). On observation various lines before and after bending, the following points can be noted:

1. The two sections mn and m1n1 which were parallel to each other before bending, rotate

through an angle θ. However, they remain straight after the deformation.

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Fig.4 Beam in pure flexure

2. The fibre ab towards the concave side shortens, while the fibre nn1 towards the convex side

elongates. However, there exists one fibre, such as ef, the length of which remains unchanged,
indicating that this fibre neither elongates nor shortens. The layer ef is known as the neutral
layer or the neutral surface. The line of intersection of the neutral layer with plane of cross-
section of the beam is called the neutral axis as marked in fig.4 (e).
Note.2
• Both the terms neutral surface as well as the neutral axis imply the location of zero stress
in member subjected to bending.
3. The experimental results revealed that the amount of deformation (compressive or tensile)
is greater for farther layers and smaller for those which are nearer to the neutral layer. This
will be established soon in further steps that the variation of the deformation is linear along
the depth of the beam.
Let us consider an elementary layer cd, at a distance y from the neutral layer, and of thickness
dy. This layer bends into shape c’d’, under the action the bending moment M.

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Strain in the element = Change in length/original length

cd − c ' d'
 e= (compressive)
cd
Assuming the element to be bent into a circular arc and taking the radius of the neutral fibre
to be R,
e ' f ' ef x
= = =
R R R
x = R. = cd

and cd = (R − y ) 

cd − cd R − (R − y )  y
Hence, strain (e) = = = …………………... (1)
cd R R
This shows that the strain of a fibre is proportional to its distance from the neutral axis. The
variation of strain is shown in fig.4(c). The strains are of compressive nature for all the fibres
above the N.A. and are of tensile nature for the fibre below the neutral layer.
For the case of bending shown in fig.4 (a):
Now, if σ is the longitudinal stress (usually called the bending stress).
Stress = strain  elasticity
y
 = e.E =.E
R
 E
Hence, = ……………………… (2)
y R

Fig.5: Bending stress variation in pure bending

• Equation (2) gives the law of distribution of the longitudinal stress (or the bending stress)
along the depth of the beam.
• This variation is also linear. The bending stress is of compressive nature for all fibres above the
neutral axis, the stress in the outermost fibre distant yc from the N.A. being denoted by σc.
• Similarly, the bending stress is of tensile nature for the fibres below the neutral axis and the
stress in the outer most fibre distant yt from the N.A. is denoted by σt.
2.1. Determination of the magnitude of the longitudinal or bending stress:
Now consider the equilibrium of the section mn subjected to external B.M. M, as the
internal stresses, as shown in Fig.5. Since there is no other external force, the sum of all
the compressive forces above the N.A. must be equal to the sum of all the tensile forces
below the N.A.

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Let us take a strip of dy thickness at a distance y from N.A. and let its area be a as
shown in Fig.5 (c). Since the stress at this location is σ, the compressive force exerted
by this small area will be equal to .a . Hence,
y = yc
The total compressive force C =  .a
y =0
…………………… (3)

y = yt
Similarly, Total tensile force T =  .a
y =0
…………………… (4)

Since, C + T =0. Thus,

y = yc
0.250
 .a = 0
y = yt
, But  = 62.5  103 
1  10−4
= 156.25 N / mm2 [from equation (2)].

y = yc
E E
  R y.a = 0
y = yt
(But
R
is not equal to zero)

y = yc

 ya = 0
y = yt
………………………… (5)

In the above equation, the term y.a represents the statical moment of the elementary
y = yc
area about N.A. Hence  y.a is the sum of the statical moments of all such elementary
y = yt

areas of the whole beam about the N.A., and its value is equal to Ay , where A is the total

area of cross-section and y is the distance of the centroid from the N.A.

Thus, Ay = 0 …………………………... (6)

But A  0 . Hence y = 0

This shows that the N.A. passes through the centroid of the section. Hence the N.A. may
be quickly and easily determined by simply finding the centroid of the cross-section.
2.2. Moment of Resistance (M):
Now, referring to Fig.5, the bending moment M acting on section mn is resisted by the
internal moment set up by the unbalanced forces C and T acting at some distance. This
internal moment is known as the moment of resistance M, of the cross-section. In
order to find its magnitude, let us again consider the elementary strip of thickness dy,
distant y from the N.A.
E
The elementary moment of resistance Mr = a.y = .a.y2
R
y = yc yc
E E
 Total moment of resistance Mr = 
y = yt R
.a.y2 =
R  y a
2
…………………... (7)
yt

The expression y2.a in the integral is known as the second moment of area, and more

commonly as the moment of inertial of the section about the N.A. and is represented by I.
E
Hence, Mr = I ……………………… (8)
R

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But for the equilibrium of the section, the moment of resistance Mr must be equal to

the bending moment M. Hence:

E
M = Mr = I
R
M E
= ……………………. (9)
I R
Now, by equation (2) and (9):
M E 
= = ……………………. (10)
I R y
Equation (10) is known as the flexural formula or Bending Equation. From the above equation:
1 M
=
R EI
The term 1/R (= ρ) is known as the curvature of the section and is inversely proportional
to the flexural rigidity (EI) of the section.
Assumptions:
The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:
1. Beam is initially straight and has a constant cross-section.
2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a longitudinal
plane of symmetry.
3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.
4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the
primary cause of failure.
5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded, and ‘E’ is same in tension and compression.
6. Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending.
Note.3:
When a beam is subjected to pure bending are loaded by the couples at the ends, certain
cross-section gets deformed and we shall have to make out the conclusion that:
1. Plane sections originally perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane
and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis even after bending. i.e. the cross-section does
not get warped or curved.
2. In the deformed section, the planes of this cross-section have a common intersection
i.e. any time originally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam becomes an arc of circle.

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We know that when a beam is under bending the fibres at the top will be lengthened
while at the bottom will be shortened provided the bending moment M acts at the ends.
In between these there are some fibres which remain unchanged in length that is they
are not strained, that is they do not carry any stress. The plane containing such fibres is
called neutral surface.

Example. A beam 500 mm deep of a symmetrical section has 1 = 1  108 mm4 and is
simply supported over a span of 10 metres. Calculate (a) the uniformly distributed load

it may carry if the maximum bending stress is not to exceed 150 N/mm2 . (b) the

maximum bending stress if the beam carries a central point load of 25 kN.
Sol.
From the bending equation:
0.250
 = 62.5  103  = 156.25 N / mm2
1  10−4

I  1  108  4
Mr = . =   = 40  10  N-mm …………….. (1)
y  250 
(a) Let the U.D.L. by w kN/m

wL2 w (10)
2

Then Mmax = = = 12.5w kN-m

8 8

But 1 kN-m = 1  103  103 = 106 N-mm

 Mmax = 12.5w  106 N-mm

Equating this to the moment of resistance Mr :

12.5w  106 = 40  104  = 40  404  150

40  104  150
Hence, w = = 4.8 kN/m
12.5  104

(b) For a central point load of 50 kN:

WL 25  10
Mmax = = = 62.5 kN-m = 62.5  106 N-mm
4 4
0.250
Thus,  = 62.5  103  = 156.25 N / mm2
1  10−4
Example. A cost iron pipe has 300 mm bore and 10 mm metal thickness and is supported
at two points 8 m apart. Find the maximum stress in the metal when it is running full.
Take unit weight of cost iron as 70 kN/m3 and that of water as 9.81 kN/m3 .
Sol.

(0.3) = 0.07069 m2
2
Internal area of pipe =
4
 Weight of water per m run of pipe = 0.07069  1  9.81 = 0.6934 kN/m

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 2 
Area of cross-section =
4
(D − d2 =
4
) ( )
0.3202 − 0.3002 = 9.7389  10−3 m2

 Weight of pipe per m run = 9.7389  10−3  1  70 = 0.6817 kN/m

 Total weight per m run, w = 0.6934 + 0.6817 = 1.3751 kN/m
 
Also, Ixx =
64
( )
D4 − d4 =
64
( )
3204 − 3004 = 11.711  108 mm4

18.7377  10x
 Zxx = = 731.942  103 mm3
160

WL2 1.3751 (8)

2

Now, M = = = 11 kN-m = 11  106 N-mm

8 8
M 11  106
 = = = 15.03 N/mm2
Z 731.942  103
Example. A long rod of uniform rectangular section and thickness t originally straight is
bent into the form of circular arc and the displacement d of the midpoint of length L is
measured by means of dial gauge. The displacement d may be regarded as small
compared with the length L. show that the longitudinal surface strain in the rod is given
by e = 4td / L2 .
Sol.
At any height y from the N.A.
 E M
= =
y R I

 d2 = b2 + h2 ……………….. (1)

From the properties of chord of a circle,

L2
d (2R − d) =
4
L2
2Rd − d2 =
4
Neglecting d2 in comparison to 2Rd:

L2
2Rd =
4
L2
2R = …………………….. (2)
4d
Substituting in (1), we get:
t L2 4td
e= =t+ = 2
2R 4d L

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3. SECTION MODULUS

From simple bending theory equation, the maximum stress obtained in any cross-section is
given as
M
max = y
I max
For any given allowable stress, the maximum moment which can be accepted by a particular
shape of cross-section is therefore
I
M= 
ymax max
For ready comparison of the strength of various beam cross-section this relationship is
sometimes written in the form
M = Zmax

I
where Z = is termed as section modulus.
ymax

• The higher value of Z for a cross-section, the higher the bending moment which it can
withstand for a given maximum stress.

4. COMPARISON OF THE MOMENTS OF RESISTANCE OF A BEAM OF SQUARE ACTION

PLACED WITH TWO SIDES HORIZONTAL AND WITH A DIAGONAL HORIZONTAL

Fig.6: Square placed with two sides horizontal and with a diagonal horizontal
Let b be the side of the square.
In case (i):
1 2 1 3
Z1 = bd = b
6 6
In case (ii):
3
1 1  b4
Ixx = 2  b 2  b 2 =
12 2  12
1 b
y= b 2 = .
2 2

b4 b b3
Hence Z2 = + =
12 2 6 2

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Z1
 = 2 = 1.414
Z2

Hence arrangement (i) is 41.4% more strong than (ii).

5. SAFE CONDITION FOR DESIGN WITH RESPECT TO STRENGTH CRITERION

Maximum stress induced  permissible Stress.

M
 per
ZN.A

M  {(per  ZN.A ) = MR }

MR = per  ZN.A …………………….. (11)

From the above Equation for a given material:

MR  ZN.A

ZN.A = MR  chances of beam failures  .

EIN.A = Flexural rigidity of cross-section of beam.

EIN.A = MR  R

When R = 1
 EIN.A = MR

Thus, it is also defined as the moment of resistance developed by a cross-section beam for unit
radius of curvature.
EIN.A = MR (  ) = (  &  )  = chances of beams failures (  ) .

Note.4:
• Section Modulus should be considered in design of beams based on strength criterion whereas
flexural rigidity is considered in design of beam based on rigidity criterion
• For a given cross-section area:

• For a given cross-section area and given BM:

1
( b )max 
ZN.A

• For a given x-s/c area of given material: MR  ZN.A.

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Example. For the rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure, determine the following
when it is subjected to a sagging BM of 20 kN-m.
(1) Bending stress developed at fibre located at a distance of 2 cm from the bottom fibre.
(2) Tensile force developed on the rectangular hatched area, as shown in figure.
(3) Compressive force developed on triangular hatched area.

Sol.

M 20  106
(1). ( b )max = = = 30 MPa
ZN.A 1
 100  (200 )
2

My  y  8
b = = ( b )max   = 30  = 20 MPa
IN.A.  ymax  10

(2). F1 = Internal resisting total force developed on rectangular hatched area

y2 y2 y2
 My 
F1 =  df =  ( b ) dA =   I  dA
y1 y1 y1 N.A 

1st method:
y2
M
F1 =
IN.A  y ( db ) ( dy )
y1

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  100
Mb
100
 20  10  100   y2 
F1 =
IN.A 
80
ydy =   
 1  100  2003   2  80
= 54 kN
 12 

2nd Method: It is valid when width of fibres is constant on given area.

F1 = avg  A

 24 + 30 
  (100  20 ) mm = 54 kN
2
F1 = 
 2 

(3).

b db
From the diagram: =
d/2 y

2by
db = =y Because 2b = d .
d
100 100
M M  y3 
F2 =
IN.A  ( y )  ( y ) (dy ) = I
0 N.A
 
 3 0
Example. A rectangular beam 300 mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4 metres.
Determine the uniformly distributed load per metro which the beam may carry, if the bending

stress should not exceed 120 N/mm2 . Take 1 = 8  106 mm4 .

Sol.
Given:
Depth d = 300 mm
Span L = 4 m

Max. bonding stress: mar = 120 N/mm2

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Moment of inertia: I = 8  106 mm4

Let, w = U.D.L. per metre length over the beam in N/m.

The bending stress will be maximum, where supported beam carrying U.D.L., the bending
moment is maximum at the centre of the beam.
 Max B.M. = 2w  2 − 2w  1 = 4w − 2w

= 2W Nm
w  L2 w  42 16w
Also M = = = − 2w
8 8 8
M = 2w  1000 N-mm
M = 2000w Nmm

Now using equation:

M = max  Z ………………… (1)

I 8  106  d 300 
where Z = =  ymax = = = 150 mm 
ymax 150  2 2 

Hence above equation (1) becomes as

8  106
2000w = 120 
150

120  8  106
w= = 3200 N/m
2000  150
Example. Prove that the moment of resistance of a beam of square section with the diagonal
in the plane of bending is increased by flattening the top and bottom corners as shown in figure
8
and that the moment of resistance is maximum when y = y .
9 1

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Sol.
Let us take an elementary strip of width b and thickness d at a distance d from the N.A.

Ixx of elemental strip = b.d.d2

(
Ixx = (B − 2d) d.d2 = Bd2 − 2d3 d )
y
y3
(
 Ixx of whole section = 2 Bd2 − 2d3 d = ) 3
(2B − 3y ) = I1 ……………... (1)
0

B
When y =
2
B3  3B  B4
Ixx =  2B − = = I2
24  2  48

Now M1 = 1Z1 and M2 = 2Z2

 M1  M2 , if Z1  Z2 for the same value of σ.

I2 B4 2 B3
 Z2 = =  =
B / 2 48 B 24

I1 y2 2
and Z1 =
y
=
3
( 2B − 3y ) = By2 − y3
3

For Z1 to be maximum:

dZ1 4By
= − 3y2 = 0
dy 3

4 8 B 8
y= B =  = y1
9 9 2 9
2 3
2 4  4  32B3
 Z1 = B  B −  B =
3 9  9  729

B3
Since Z2 = ,
24
Z1 is greater than Z2 . Hence M1  M2 .

The reason for this increase in moment of resistance is quite obvious: the removal of small
corner areas decreases the extreme fibre distance in greater proportion than it reduces the
moment of inertia of the section.
Example. Prove that the ratio of depth of width of the strongest beam that can be cut from a
circular log of diameter d is 1.414.
Sol.
Dia. of log = d
Let ABCD be the strongest rectangular section which can be cut out of the cylindrical log.

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Let b = Width of strongest section.

d = Depth of strongest section.
Now section modulus of the rectangular section.
 bh3 
 
Z=
I
=  12 
=
bh2
…………………….. (1)
y h 6
2
 
In the above equation, b and b are variable.
From ABCD, b2 + h2 = d2
h2 − d2 − b2
Substituting the value of h2 in equation (1):
b 2 1
Z= [d − b2 ] = [bd2 − b3 ] …………….. (2)
6 6
In equation (2), d is constant while only b is the variable.
Now, for the beam to be strongest, the section modulus should be maximum.
For maximum value of Z:
dZ
=0
db
d bd2 − b3
[ ]=0
db 6

d2 = 3b2 ………………… (3)

But from the triangle BCD:
d2 = b2 + h2
Substituting the value of d2 in equation (3), we get:
b2 + h2 = 3b2 or h2 = 2b2

h = 2 b
h
= 2 = 1.414
b
Example. Figure shows a rectangular section, 200 mm  300 mm , subjected to a sagging B.M.
of 150 kN-m acting about is horizontal axis. Find (a) the compressive force and its moment
about the N.A., acting on the shaded area of the section, and (b) the tensile force and its
moment about the N.A., acting on the cross-hatched area of the section.

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Sol.
1
 200 (300) = 45000  104 mm4
3
For the whole section, I =
12
M 150  106
Hence max = ymax =  150 = 50 N/mm2
I 45000  104

(a) Compressive force on the shaded area

max 50
Pc =
ymax
Ay =
150
(120  100) (50 + 50) = 666667 kN = 666.667 kN
Moment of this force about N.A. is
max
Mc = .I
ymax NA

and INA = moment of inertial of the shaded are about the N.A.

1
 200 (100) + 200  100 (100) = 21667  104 mm4
3 2
=
12
50
Mc =  21667  104 = 72.222  106 N-mm = 72.22 kN-m
150

Alternatively: max = 50 N/mm2

50
Hence c =  50 = 16.667 N/mm2
150
50 + 16.667
 Average stress on shaded area = = 33.333 N/mm2
2
 Pc = average stress  area = 33.333  200  100 = 666667 N = 66.667 kN

100  2  16.667 + 50 
and distance of centroid of this force from top fibre: yc = = 41.67 mm
3  16.667 + 50 

 Mc = 666.667  (150 − yc ) = 666.667 (150 − 41.67)  10 = 72.222 kN-m

−3

(b) Tensile force on the cross-hatched area

max 50
Pt =
ymax
Ay =
150
(80  120 )  60 = 19200 N = 192 kN

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1
 80 (120) = 4608  104 mm4
3
INA =
3
max 50
 MT = I =  4608  104 N-m = 15.36 kN-m
ymax NA 150

Alternatively:
50
Stress t =  120 = 40 N/mm2
150
0 + 40
PT = Average stress  area =
2
(80  120) = 192000 N = 192 kN
2 
and MT = PT y = 192   120  = 15.36  106 N-m = 15.36 kN-m
3 

6. BEAM OF UNIFORM STRENGHT

In common practice, a beam of constant cross-section throughout the length is provided. This
gives rise of constant section modulus and has constant or uniform moment of resistance.
Since the actual moment generally varies along the length, such a section is not economical.
Under heavy loads, a beam of variable section is designed to have uniform strength.
There can be two such configurations:
(a). beam of uniform width
(b). beam of uniform depth
We shall investigate both the configurations for the case of a beam with a concentrated load
at the mid span it is to be noted that a beam of uniform strength has the same maximum,
bending stress all along the length.
(a) Beam of constant width:
(i). Simply supported beam:
Let the depth vary along the length such that the depth at the distance x from the Left Hand
support is dx and that at the mid-span is d.

Fig.7 Beam of uniform strength: constant width

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1 2
 Zx = bd
6 x
1
Mxx = .Zx = . bd2x
6
W
But Mx = x
2
1 W
 . bd2x = x
6 2
3W.x
d2x =
f.b
3W
which gives dx = x =c x ………………. (1)
fb
Thus, the depth will be proportional to x and the variation of depth will be parabolic, as
shown in Fig.7 (a).

L 3WL
At the mid span, when x = ,d = ………………… (2)
2 2fb
(ii). Cantilever beam:
Case (a): Beam subjected to constant bending moment:

Fig.8 Cantilever beam subjected to a constant bending moment

Mx−x = −M or M (hogging) M

bd2
Zx − x =
6
 
Mx − x  M  6M
( b )  = =   2  =  2 = constant …………….. (3)
 max  x − x
( x −x )N.A
Z bd bd
 
 6 
Equation (3) shows that ( b )max  independent of location (x) of a cross-section. Hence,
x −x

beam is said to be a beam of uniform strength.

Case (b): When the bending moment varies with the location of the cross-section:

Fig.9 Cantilever beam subjected to a point load at free end

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Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 for which the depth is varying. Then, for a beam of
uniform strength:
( b )  = ( b )max 
 max 2−2 1−1

 M   M 
  = 
 ZN.A 2−2  ZN.A 1−1
Wx WL
=
bdx2 bd2
6 6

x
dx = d …………………….. (3)
L

From the equation (3) the variation of depth of beam with distance x is parabolic in nature.
For condition with respect to strength criterion:

( max )ind  ( per or f )

6WL
f
bd2

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6WL
d
bf
(b) Beam of constant depth
(i). Simply Supported beam:
Let the width of the beam vary along the length such that the width at a distance x from the
support be bx , and that at the mid-span be b.

Fig.10 beam of uniform strength: constant depth

1
 Zx = b d2
6 x
1
 Mxx = Zx = . bx d2
6
W
But Mx = x
2
1 W
 . bx d2 = x
6 2
3W
From which bx = .x = cx … (10.14)
d2
Thus, the width bx is proportional to the distance x and the variation is linear. The value of

3WL
width is zero at the supports and at the mid-span, as shown in Fig.10 (b).
2d2
(ii). Cantilever Beam:
Consider two section 1-1 and 2-2 in order to get variation of width for the beam of uniform
strength:

( b )  = ( b )max 
 max 2−2 1−1

 M   M 
  = 
 ZN.A 2−2  ZN.A 1−1
Wx WL
=
1 2 1 2
b d bd
6 x 6

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x
bx = b
L
Thus, the width bx is proportional to the distance x and the variation is linear.

Fig.11 Cantilever beam of uniform strength: constant depth

Example. A rolled steel joist of I section has the dimensions as shown in Figure. This beam
of I section carries a u.d.l. of 40 kN/m run on a span of 10 m, calculate the maximum tress
produced due to bending.
Sol.
u.d.l., w = 40 kN/m = 40000 N/m
Span (L) = 10 m
Moment of inertial about the neutral axis:
200  4003 (200 − 10 )  360
3

INA = − = 1066666666 − 738720000

12 12
INA = 327946666 mm4
Maximum B.M. is given by:
w  L2 40000  102
M= = = 500000 Nm = 500000  1000 Nmm
8 8
= 5  108 Nmm

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Now using the relation:

M 
=
I y

M
 = y
I
M 5  108
max =
I
 ymax =
327946666
 200 ( ymax = 200 mm)

= 304.92 N/mm2
Example. A cast iron beam is of I-section as shown in figure. The beam is simply supported

on a span of 5 metres. If the tensile stress is not to exceed 20 N/mm2 , find the safe uniformly

load which the beam can carry. Find also the maximum compressive stress.

Sol.
Length of beam, L = 5 m

Maximum tensile stress: t = 20 N/mm2

First calculate the C.G. of the section. Let y is the distance of the C.G. from the bottom face.

As the section is symmetrical about y-axis, hence y is only be calculated.

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A1y1 + A2y2 + A3y3

Now, y =
( A1 + A2 + A3 )
40  200   20 
(160  40) . 2
+ (200  20)  40 +
2  + (80  20) .  40 + 200 +
2 
y=  
160  40 + 200  20 + 80  20
125000 + 560000 + 400000 1088000
y= =
6400 + 4000 + 1600 12000
y = 90.66 mm
N.A. lies at a distance of 90.66 mm from the bottom face at 260 − 90.66 = 169.34 mm from
the top face.
Now moment of inertia of the section about N-axis is given by,
I = I1 + I2 + I3

Where I1 = M.O.I. of bottom flange about N.A.

I1 = M.O.I . of bottom flange about its C.G. + A1  (distnace of its C.G. from N.A.)
2

160  403
+ 160  40  (90.66 − 20)
2
=
12
= 853333.33 + 31954147.84 = 32807481.17 mm4
I2 = M.O.I. of web about N.A.

= M.O.I. of web about its C.G. + A2  (distnace of its C.G. from N.A.)
2

20  2003
+ 200  20  (140 − 90.66) = 13333333.33 + 9737742.4
2
=
12
= 23071075.73 mm4
I3 = M.O.I. of top flange about N.A.

I3 = M.O.I. of top flange about its C.G. + A3  (distnace of its C.G. from N.A.)
2

80  23
+ 80  20  (250 − 90.66 ) = 53333.33 + 40622776.96
2
=
12
= 40676110.29 mm

 I = 32807481.17 + 23071075.75 + 40676110.29 = 96554667.21 mm4

For a simply supported beam, the tensile stress will be at the extreme bottom fibre and
compressive stress will be at the extreme top fibre.

Here maximum tensile stress = 20 N/mm2

Hence for the maximum tensile stress:
y = 90.66 mm

[i.e. y is distance of the extreme bottom fibre (where the tensile stress is maximum) from
the N.A.]
M 
Now, =
I y

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 20
 M=
y
1 =
90.66
 96554667.21 (  = 1 = 20 N/mm2 )
= 21.300389.85 Nmm ………………… (1)
Let w = Uniformly distributed load in N/m on the simply supported beam.
wL2
The maximum B.M. is at the centre and equal to .
8

w  52 w  25  1000
M= Nm = Nmm= = 3125w Nmm ………………….. (2)
8 8
Equating the two values of M, given by equation (1) and (2):
3125w = 21300389.85

21300389.85
 w= = 6816.125 N/m
3125
Maximum Compressive Stress:
Distance of extreme top fibre from N.A.,
yc = 169.34 mm
M = 21300389.85
I = 96554667.21

Let c = Max. compressive stress

M
 = y
I
M 21300389.85
c =  yc =  169.34 = 37.357 N/mm2
I 96654667.21

7. BEAM OF COMPOSITE SECTION: (FLITCHED BEAM)

• Beams that arc made of more than one material are called composite beams.
• The common examples are:
(a) bimetallic beams
(b) sandwich beams
(c) Fletched beams
(d) reinforced concrete beams, as shown in Fig.12.

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Fig.12: Composite Sections

• Such composite beams can be analysed by the same bending theory because the assumption
that cross-sections that are plane before bending remain plane after bending is valid in pure
bending regardless of the material.
• The strain distribution along the depth of such a beam is linear. However, such structures
are statically indeterminate' and the position of the neutral axis is not the centroid of the
section.
• The criterion of strain compatibility has to be used, i.e. strain in the two materials, at a given
vertical distance from the N.A., has to be the same.
• If both the materials are rigidly joined, they will behave like a unit piece and the bending
will take place about the combined axis. On the other hand, if both the materials have been
simply placed one above the other, they will bend about their respective geometrical axes.
However, in both the cases, the total moment of resistance will be equal to the sum of
moments of resistance of individual sections.
7. (a) Symmetrical Section
Let us take the examples of two timber pieces strengthened by a steep strip sandwiched
between them (Fig.13). Such a beam is commonly known as a flitched beam.

Fig.13: Flitched beams

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Let D be the depth of timber planks and d be the depth steel strip. Similarly, let B be the total
width of timber section and b be the width of the steel strip. Let us use suffix 1 for timber and
2 for steel. Since the steel strip is symmetrically placed, the common axis of bending will
remain the same as that of the timber.
From Statics:
M = M1 + M2 …………………………... (1)
Fig.13 (b) shows the strain distribution across the depth.
At any section distance y from the N.A., the strain in both the materials will remain the same
(strain compatibility condition), since they are in contact. Hence
e1 = e2
1 2
=
E1 E 2
E2
∴ σ2 = σ1. = mσ1 …………………… (2)
E1
E2
Where m = is known as the modular ratio. Since E2 is much more than E1, m is much greater
E1
than 1. Hence the bending stress σ2 will be much greater than σ1. The bending stress diagram
is shown in Fig.13 (c) in which σ2= gh= m. gh’=mσ1.
The above relation can also be obtained by because the radius of curvature at any level will be
the same for both the materials. Thus,
E1 y E 2 y
=
1 2
E2
σ2= .1 = m1
E1
Thus, if σ1 is given, σ2 can be found, and vice-versa.
If the geometry of the section is given, Z 1 and Z2 can be calculated.
Hence, M1 = σ1Z1 and M2 = σ2Z2
∴ Total M = M1 + M2 = σ1Z1 + σ2Z2 ……………………… (3)
Thus, the total moment of resistance can be calculated.
If, however, it is required to find the stresses induced in the section corresponding to a given
bending moment, we have:
R1 = R 2
E1I1 E 2 I2
=
M1 M2
M1 E1I1
∴ = …………………….. (4)
M2 E 2 I2
From (1) and (4), M1 and M2 can be found. Hence the stresses σ1 and σ2 can be found by using
Eq. (3).

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7. (b) Unsymmetrical Section

Let us now take the example of Unsymmetrical Section, consisting of strip of width b and depth
d1 of material 1 and strip of width b and depth d 2 of material 2. The first step will be to find the
position of new axis of bending. This be best done by drawing what is known as the equivalent
section (Fig.14 b).

Fig.14 Composite Section

Fig.14 (a) shows the original section. Let us find the equivalent section of plate 2 in terms of
plate 1.
For the original section of plate 2:
M2= σ2Z2 …………………. (1)
If M1’ and Z1’ are the moment of resistance and section modulus of equivalent section of plate
2:
M1’=σ1Z1’ …………………… (2)
If M1’ has to be equal to M2:
σ2Z2= σ1Z1’
2
Z1’ = Z2 = mZ2
1
Since Z1’ and Z2 are proportional to b. Thus,
E2
Hence b = mb = b …………………... (3)
E1

Equation three shows a relation by which the width of one material can be changed to
equivalent width in terms of another material to simplify the problem.
Sandwich Beams
A sandwich beam consists of:
(i) two thin layers of strong material, called faces, placed at top and bottom.
(ii) Thick core. Consisting of light weight, low strength material. The core simply serves as a
filler or spacer. Sandwich construction is used where light weight combined with high strength
and high stiffness are needed.

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Fig.15: Sandwich Beam

Sandwich Beams can be analysed by two method:
(i) Method 1: Same as described for composite beam or flitched beam.
(ii) Method 2: An approximate theory for bending can be used, based on the assumption that
the faces carry all the longitudinal bending stresses. Such an approximation is valid, especially
when the core has very low modulus of elasticity in comparison to that of the faces.
If If is the moment of inertia of the faces about the bending axes:
1
If = b(d 3 − h 3 )
12
M d Md
Hence, σt = . = ………………………. (4)
If 2 2If
Where σt is the bending stress at the outermost edge of the beam.
Example. A flitched timber beam consist of two joists each 80 mm wide and 240 mm deep,
with a steel plate 160 mm deep and 12 mm thick placed symmetrically between and clamped
to them. Calculate the total moment of resistance of the section if the allowable stress in joist
is 9 N/mm2. Take Es= 20ET.

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Sol.

Figure (a) below shows the arrangement while Figure (b) shows the stress diagram, both for

timber as well as steel. Max. stress in timber = 9N/mm 2 (shown by ab).

80
Hence stress in timber at the level of steel = gh = 9  = 6N/mm2.
120
Es
Modular ratio (m) = = 20
ET

Hence max. stress in steel (σsteel) = gh = m × 6 = 120 N/mm2

1
For timber: ZT = × 160(240)2 = 1536 × 103 mm3
6
1
For steel: ZS = × 12 × (120)2 = 51.2 × 103 mm3
6
∴ Moment of resistance of timber section,

Mr,T =  T  ZT = 9  1536  103 = 13.824  106 N − mm

Moment of resistance of steel section:

Mr,S = σS.ZS = 120 × 51.2 × 103 = 6.144 × 106 N-mm

∴ Total moment of resistance of the composite section (M total) = Mr,T + Mr, S

Mtotal= (13.824 + 6.144) 106 = 19.968 × 106 N-m = 19.968 kN-m

Example. A solid rod of bronze 20 mm in diameter is surrounded by a fitting steel cylinder of

external diameter 28 mm. If the permissible bending stress in bronze and steel are 100 and

150 N/mm2, find the moment of resistance of the composite section. The Young’s modulus for

steel may be taken as 1.75 times that of bronze.

Solution:

Es
Given: m = = 1.75
Eb

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Let the maximum stress in steel reach its permissible value of 150 N/mm 2. Hence
corresponding maximum stress reached in bronze:
10 1 150  10
σb= 150   =
14 m 14  1.75
σb = 61.22 N/mm2
which is less than the permissible value of 100 N/mm 2.

For bronze component:


Section modulus (Zb) = (20)3 = 785.4 mm3
32
For steel component:

 (284 − 204 )
Section Modulus (Zs) = = 1594.1 mm3
32 28
∴ Mrb = σbZb = 61.22 × 785.4 = 48082 N-mm
Mrb = σsZs = 150 × 1594.1 = 239120 N-mm
∴ Total Mr = 48082 + 239120 = 287202 N-m ≈ 0.287 kN-m
Example. A composite beam having cross-sectional dimensions shown in Figure below is
subjected to a bending moment of 30 kN-m. Materials are fastened so that the beam acts as a
unit. Determine the maximum bending stress in each material.

Take Es = 2 x 05 N/mm2, EA= 0.667 x 105 N/mm2 and Ec= 1 x 105 N/mm2.

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Sol.
Es 2
m1= = =3
EA 0.667

Ec 1
m2 = = = 1.5
EA 0.667
The equivalent section in terms of aluminium is shown in Figure (b).

Let the N.A. be at a distance of y below the top.

Total area A = 75 x 50 + 150 x 100 + 80 x 50 = 22750 mm2

(75x50x25) + (150x100x100) + (80x50x190)
y= = 103.46mm
22750
1  1 
Ixx =  x 75 x 503 + 75 x 50(103.46 − 25)2  +  x150 x (100)3 + 100 x150(103.46 − 100)2 
12  12 
1 
+ x150 x (80)3 + 50 x 80(126.54 − 40)2 
12 
Ixx = 6863.4 x 104 mm4

M 30 x105
∴ A = yA.max = x126.54 = 55.31N / mm2
I 6863 x104

M 1.5 x 30 x104
c = 1.5. yc.max = 4
x103.46 = 67.83N / mm2
I 6863 x10

M 3 x 30 x106
s = 3. ys.max = 4
x (103.46 − 50) = 70.1N / mm2
I 6863 x10

8. STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING

2
As we know that strain energy per unit volume = . In order to find strain energy due to
2E
bending, consider two transverse sections at a small distance δx apart. Let δA be the small
transverse area over which the direct stress σ is acting at a height h above the N.A. If M x is
the B.M. at the section:
M xy
σ=
I
∴ Strain energy of the elementary volume of length δx and area δA is:

2 M2 y2
dU =  x  A = x 2 x  A
2E 2I E
Strain energy of the whole piece of length dx between the transverse sections:

M2x y2
U=  dU =  2I2E
 x A

M2x x M2 x
U = 2
 A  y2 = x 2  I (Since  A  y2 = I)
2I E 2I E

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M2x x
Hence, Strain energy (U) =
2EI
δU = work done by bending = average B.M. × Change in angle
1 1 x
δU = M  = Mx 
2 x 2 R
1 M M2 x
δU = Mx  x  x = x
2 EI 2EI
1 L
∴ Total strain energy (U) =
2EI 
0
M2x dx.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A cost iron pipe of external diameter 60 mm, internal diameter of 40 mm, and of length 5 m is

supported at its ends. Calculate the maximum bending stress induced in the pipe if it carries a point

load of 100 N at its centre.

2. A rectangular beam 300 mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4 m. What uniformly

distributed load per metre, the beam may carry if the bending stress is not to exceed 120 N/mm2 ?

Take I = 8  106 mm4 .

3. A simply supported beam of rectangular cross section having width of 100 mm is subjected to a

maximum shear force of 50 kN, the corresponding maximum shear stress being 3 N/mm2 . The depth

of the beam is equal to

4. Find out minimum depth of the beam shown in the figure, if the flexural stress of the beam is

not to exceed 20 MPa.

5. A T-beam shown in figure is made of a material the behaviour of which may be idealized as having

a tensile proportional limit of 20 MPa and a compressive proportional limit of 40 MPa and a Young’s

modulus of 100 GPa. In your calculations neglect the self-weight of the beam and Find the magnitude

of the largest force F that may be applied to this beam in a downward direction is _____ kN.

6. A beam is of T-section as shown in figure below. The beam is simply supported over a span of 4 m
and carries a uniformly distributed load of 1.7 kN/m run over the entre span. Determine the maximum
tensile and maximum compressive stress.

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7. The compression flange of a cast iron girder is 100 mm wide and 30 mm deep, the tension flange
300 mm wide and 50 mm deep and the web 250 mm  30 mm . Find the load per metre run which
may be carried over a 3 m span by a beam simply supported at its ends if the maximum permissible

stresses are 95 N/mm2 in compression and 25 N/mm2 in tension.

8. Three beams have the same length, same allowable bending stress and the same bending moment.
The cross-section of the beams are a square, rectangle with depth twice the width and a circle. Find
the ratios of weights of the circular and the rectangular beams respect to square beams.
9. A simply supported beam of length 4 m carries a point load of 16 kN at a distance of 3m from left
support. The cross-section of the beam is shown in figure below. Determine the maximum tensile and
compressive stress at a section which is at a distance of 2.25m from the left support.

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10. A bar of steel 120 mm in diameter is encased in an aluminium tube 160mm outer diameter.
Assuming no slip between the components, find the maximum stresses induced in each material when
the beam section is subjected to bending moment of 50 kN-m. Take Es = 3 EA.

11. A flitched beam consists of a wooden joist 180 mm wide and 300 mm deep strengthened by steel
plates 12 mm thick and 240 mm deep one on either side of the joist (as shown below). If the stresses
in wood and steel are not to exceed 8.75N/mm 2 and 150N/mm2, find the moment of resistance of the
section taking ES = 20ET.

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Answers:
1. 7.34 N/mm2
2. 3.2 kN/m
3. 250 mm
4. 137 mm
5. 13 kN

6. 8 N/mm2 and 4.8 N/mm3

7. 66.23 kN/m
Wrec tan gular Wcircular
8. = 0.7938 , = 1.1172
Wsquare Wsquare

9. 24.9 N/mm2; 27.84 N/mm2

10. σS = 171.4 N/mm2, σa = 76.2 N/mm2

11. 46.77 KN-m
****

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

3 TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESSES

1. INTRODUCTION

A shaft is said to be under pure torsion when it is subjected to two equal & opposite couples in
a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the shaft (i.e. twisting couples) in such a way
that the magnitude of twisting moment remains constant throughout the length of the shaft.
It’s magnitude is given as the product of the force and the distance between the force.
Torque, T = P  d

Fig.1: Magnitude and representation of Torque

Sign convention:
Right hand thumb rule → If right hand fingers represent direction of torque applied and thumb
is pointing towards the section, the torque is taken positive.
Or
Clockwise rotation of shaft is taken as positive and anticlockwise rotation of shaft is taken as
negative.

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2. TORSION ON CIRCULAR BARS OR SHAFTS

Fig.2: Circular shaft without torsion

ASSUMPTIONS:
The following assumptions have been made in developing the equations for stresses and
deformations in a bar subjected to pure torsion.
1. Shaft is loaded with twisting couples in planes that are perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
2. Torsion is uniform along the length i.e. all normal cross-section which are the same axial
distance suffer equal relative rotations.
3. Circular sections remain circular. Thus, radii remain straight after torsion.
4. Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting, i.e. no warping or distortion of
parallel planes normal to the axis of the shaft takes place.
5. Stress is proportional to strain, i.e. stresses do not exceed proportional limit.
6. Material is homogenous and isotropic.
Let a shaft is subjected to two equal force perpendicular to the cross section and parallel to the
longitudinal axis. Due to these two forces, a torque,T is produced at free end of the shaft.
et T = torque transmitted by the shaft
τ = maximum shear stress at shaft surface
τr = shear stress at any radial distance r
R = external radius of shaft.
 = angle of twist
G modulus of rigidity of the shaft material.
L = length of the shaft
Figure shows a bar or shaft of circular section, subjected to torque T. Such a case is a case of
pure torsion.

Fig.3: Shaft is under pure torsion

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Under the action of the torque, a line CA drawn on the surface of the shaft is displaced to a
position CA’, through an angle ϕ. Hence the point A on the external surface in the end section
is displaced to a position A’, and since the driven end of the shaft is fixed. Angle AOA’ is the
angle of twist (  ) .

If τs the maximum shear stress induced at the surface of the shaft, the strain  is given by


= …....(i)
G
AA1 OA.  R
Also, from figure  = = = …(ii)
L L L
From (i) and (ii),
we get
 R
=
G L
 G
= (iii)
R L
Let us now take a layer DB, distant r from the axis of the shaft. The layer will be distorted to
a new position DB’, through an angle 1 , though the angle of twist (  ) remains the same.

if τr is the shear stress induced at a radial plane distant r from the axis of the shaft,
Then
r BB1 r
= 1 = =
G DB L
r G
or = (iv)
r L
Combining (iii) and (iv),
we get,
 r G
= = …..(v)
R r L
The above relation states that the intensity of shear stress at any point in the cross-section of
a shaft subjected to pure torsion is proportional to its distance from the centre and the variation
of shear stress with respect to radial distance is linear.

Fig.4: VARIATION OF TORSIONAL SHEAR STRESS

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2.1. RESISTING TOROUE
From equilibrium point of view of, the external torque T must be balanced by the resisting
torque ( Tr ) . The resisting torque is the sum of the moments of tangential shearing stress

acting on any transverse section.

Consider a ring at radial distance r from the centre of the shaft and of thickness r . The
r
intensity of shear stress τ is equal to r =  . .
R
The elementary resisting couple by this thin ring is given by
Tr = ( r . A )  r

where A = 2r  r = Area of the elementary ring .

Fig.5: Shear stress distribution in an elemental ring

Hence the resisting couple T, by the whole cross-section of the shaft is
R R R
r 
TR =  r  A  r =    A  r =  A  r2
0 0
R R0

As we know
R

 A  r
2
= J (Polar moment of inertia about the longitudinal axis of the shaft.)
0


Hence TR = .J
R
TR 
=
J R
Thus,
r  T G
= = R =
r R J L
This equation is analogous to bending equation.
By comparing the two be find that

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(i) r / r corresponds to x / y

(ii) TR / J corresponds to MR / I

(iii) G  / L corresponds to E / R

I
(v) J / R corresponds to
d/2

(vi) GJ corresponds to EI
J/R is known as torsional section modulus.,& GJ is known as torsional rigidity of the bar
or the shaft.
2.2. Polar moment of inertia

Fig.6: Cross sectional view of solid and hollow shaft

Izz = J = Ixx + Iyy

(a)For a solid shaft of circular section,

D4
Ixx = Iyy =
64

 4  4
 Izz = J = 2Ixx = 2  D = D
64 32
(when D is the external diameter of the shaft)

J J  3
Hence torsional section modulus ZP = = = D
R D / 2 16

Similarly,
(b)for a hollow circular shaft
for external diameter D and internal diameter d,

 4 
J=
2
(
R − r4 = )
32
(
D4 − d4 )
 4
J 2
R − r4( )
torsional section modulus, ZP = =
R R

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2.3. SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS
From the torsion equation,
r  T
= = R
r R J
r T
= R
r J
Under given loading condition and cross section area
r
So, the shear stress varies linearly with the distance from the center.
It is zero at the center and increases in the radially outward direction and become
maximum at the outer periphery
And for hollow circular shaft, it is minimum at inner radius and maximum at the outer
periphery.
(a) Solid circular section:

Fig.7: Shear stress distribution in solid circular shaft

Here,
T
max =
ZP

J
ZP = polar section modulus =
R

J d4 / 32 d3
⇒ ZP = = =
R d/2 16

(b) Hollow circular section:

Fig.8: Shear stress distribution in hollow circular shaft

  D4 − d4 
Zp =  
16  D 


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3. POWER TRANSMITTED

Work
P= = Force  velocity = torque  angular speed
time

P = F v = T 

2N
= (where N inrational speedinRPM)
60

2 NT
P= W
60
Note - Do not confuse it with work done
 Work supplied = (couple)  total angle turned
W = T.

3.1. DESING OF SHAFT

While designing a shaft, we calculate the maximum torque that can be transmitted from
the shaft.
The resisting couple should be equal to the applied torque. Hence

T 
=
J R
J
TR = T = 
R
3.2. MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY A CIRCULAR SHAFT
(a) CIRCULAR SOLID SHAFT
The maximum toque transmitted by a circular solid shaft, is obtained from the
maximum shear stress induced at the outer surface of the solid shaft.
Consider a shaft subjected to a torque T as shown in figure.
Let  = Maximum shear stress induced at the outer surface

R = Radius of the shaft

τr = Shear stress at a radius ‘r’ from the centre.
Consider an elementary circular ring of thickness ‘dr’ at a distance ‘r’ from the centre as
shown in figure.
Then the area of the ring,
A = 2r  r

as we know

 r
=
R r
 Shear stress at the radius r,
r
r = 
R

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Fig.9: Elemental ring in a solid circular shaft

 Turning force on the elementary circular ring
dF = Shear stress acting on the ring x Area of elementary ring
dF = r  dA

r
dF =    2rdr
R

dF =  2r2dr
R
So, turning moment due to the turning force on the elementary ring,
dT = Turning force on the ring x Distance of the ring from the axis
dT = dF  r

dT =  2r2dr  r
R

dT =  2r3dr
R
 The total turning moment (or total torque) on cross section
R R

 T =  dT =  R  2r dr
3

0 0

R R
  r4 
=  2 r3dr =  2  
R 0 R  4 0

 R4 
T=  2  =    R3
R 4 2
3
 D  D
T =     R = 2
2 2  

 D3 D3 
T =   =  = D3
2 8 16 16
(b) HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS
Torque transmitted by a hollow circular shaft Is obtained in the same way as for a solid
shaft.
Consider a hollow shaft.

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Let it is subjected to a torque T as shown in Figure. By taking an elementary circular
ring of thickness 'dr' at a distance r from the centre as shown in Figure.
Let R0 = Outer radius of the shaft

Ri = Inner radius of the shaft

r = Radius of elementary circular ring
dr = Thickness of the ring
 = Maximum shear stress induced at outer surface of the shaft.
τr = Shear stress induced on the elementary ring
dA = Area of the elementary circular ring
= 2r  dr

Fig.10: elemental ring in a Hollow circular shaft

Shear stress at the elementary ring is obtained from
 
= r ( Here outer radius R = R0 )
R0 r


 r = r
R0

 Turning force on the ring = Stress  Area dF = r  dA


dF = r  2rdr
R0

 2
dF = 2 r dr
R0

Turning moment (dT) on the ring,

dT = Turning force  Distance of the ring from centre
 2  3
dT = 2 r dr  r = 2 r dr
R0 R0

The total turning moment (or total torque T is obtained by integrating the above
equation between the limits Ri and R0 .
Ro Ro

 T= 
Ri
dT =  2 R
Ri 0
r 3dr

Ro

 r dr
3
T = 2
R0 Ri

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R
  R 0 − Ri 
4 4
 r 4 
0

T = 2   = 2  
R 0  4 R R0  4 
i

  R 0 − Ri 
4 4
T=  
2  R0 

  D 4  D 4   D04 Di4 
 0  −  i    − 
 2   2   =    16 16 
T =   
2  D0  2  D0 
     
  2   2

Where, D0 = Outer diameter of the shaft

Di = Inner diameter of the shaft.

  D0 − Di 
4 4
T=  
16  D0 
NOTE -1 For a given diameter [i.e. radial space is the constraint], solid circular shafts
are preferred than hollow circular shafts because the power transmission capacity of solid
shaft is more than the hollow shaft.
NOTE -2 For a given weight or given cross-sectional area, hollow circular shafts are
preferred than solid circular shaft because the power transmission capacity of hollow
circular shaft is more than the solid circular shaft.
Example -A solid circular shaft of 60 mm diameter transmits a torque of 1600 N.m. The
value of maximum shear stress developed is:
Solution:
Given, d= 60 mm, T = 1600 N-m
From the torsional formula,
T r
= ,
J r
d  4
r= and J = d
2 32
T d 16T
max =  =
 4 2 d3
d
32
Substituting the values, we get
16  1600 8152.866
max = =  109
( )
3 3
3.14  60  10 −3 (60)
= 0.03774 × 109 Pa = 37.74 MPa
Example - A hollow and a solid shaft of same material is subjected to the same torque.
The length and outer radius of both the shafts are same and it is given that the inner
radius of the hollow shaft is 0.6 times the outer radius. The angle of twist is will increase
or decrease by

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Solution –
angle of twist is,
TL
=
GJ
1
 (Since T, L and G is same for both shafts)
J
Let, R= outer radius of hollow shaft = radius of solid shaft
Inner radius of hollow shaft = 0.6R
Polar sectional modulus for solid shaft:

R 4
Js =
2
Polar sectional modulus for hollow shaft:
4
R 4  (0.6R )
JH = − = 0.4352R 4
2 2
hence,
H JS 0.5R 4
= = = 1.15
S JH 0.4352R 4
θH = 1.15θS
Hence, angle of twist in hollow shaft is higher than that in solid shaft by 15%

4. SHAFTS OF VARYING DIAMETER

Figure shows a shaft AB of length L, having diameter d1 (or radius r1 ) at one end A and

diameter d2 (or radius r2 ) at the other end B, and is subjected to uniform torque T. consider

a strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the end A. the radius rx at this section is given by

Fig.11: Plan view of shaft of varying diameter

rx = r1 +
(r2 − r1 ) x
L

The polar moment of inertia of the elemental section is given by

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4
 4  4  r − r  
J= dx = rx = r1 +  2 1  x 
32 2 2  L  

If  is the angle through which the shaded element of length x is twisted, then

TL T.x
 = =
GJ  r − r  
4

G. r1 +  2 1  x 
2  L  

Hence the total angle of twist for whole shaft is

L L
T.x
 =  d =  4
0 0   r2 − r1  
G. r +   x
21  L  

L
2T dx
= 
G 0  x
4

r1 + (r2 − r1 ) L 

L
 
 
2T  1   L   1 
=  −   3
G  3   r2 − r1     r2 − r1   
 r1 +  L  x  
    0

2 TL 1 1
=  − 
3 G (r2 − r1 )  r13 r23 

32TL 1 1
=  3 − 3
3G ( d2 − d1 )  d1 d2 

Another convenient form of expression for  is as under.

TL  2 +  + 1 
=  
GJ1  33 

d14 d
where J1 = and  = 2
32 d1

If  = 1 (i.e. d2 = d1 = d ) the above expression reduces to

TL TL 32TL
= = =
GJ  d  Gd4
4
G 
 32 

5. COMPOSITE SHAFTS

(i) Series connection:

If two or more shaft of different material, diameter or basic forms are connected together in
such a way that each carries the same torque, then the shafts are said to be connected in
series & the composite shaft so produced is therefore termed as series connection.

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Fig.12: Shaft in Series

Here in this case the equilibrium of the shaft requires that the torque ‘T be the same throughout
the shaft.
for two shafts in series
T1 = T2 = T
And angle of twist in series connection is cumulative. i.e.
θAC = θAB + θBC
as we know,
TR G
=
J L
GJ
TR =
L
G1 J11 G2 J2 2
T = =
L1 L2

T.L2 T.L1
BC = , AB =
G2 J2 G1J1

θAC = θAB + θBC

 L L2 
⇒ AC = T  1 + 
 G1 J1 G2 J2 
From here we can see that total angle of twist is the sum of the angle of twist on each shaft.
(ii)parallel connection:
If two shafts are loaded in such a way that angle of twist on both the shaft is same then this
type of connection is known as parallel connection of shaft.

Fig.13: parallel Connection of shaft

For parallel connection of shaft
Torque is cumulative,
T = T1 + T 2

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And,
θ1 = θ 2
T1 L1 TL
⇒ = 2 2
G1 J1 G2 J2

for equal lengths, L1 = L2 (as is normally the case for parallel shafts)
T1 GJ
= 1 1
T2 G2 J2
(iii)statically indeterminate –
If two or more shafts are rigidly fixed together such that the applied torque is shared between
them then this type of configuration is statically indeterminate, because we do not know how
the applied torque is distributed in each segment.

Fig.14: Shaft fixed at both the ends

In this case,
Torque is cumulative, T = T1 + T2
And,
θ1 = θ 2
T1 L1 TL
= 2 2
G1 J1 G2 J2

Fig.15: STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SHAFT

Figure shows a statically indeterminate shaft ACB fixed at ends A and B, and subjected to a
torque T at an intermediate point C, distant a from A and b from B. The diameter for AC portion

is d1 and that for CB is d2 . Figure shows the reactive torques T1 and T2 at A and B.

From statically equilibrium

T1 + T2 = T

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the torque for AC is T1 = ( T − T2 )

and that for BC, it is −T2 .

The total angles of twist at B

TAC a TCB .b
B = AC + CB = +
GJ1 GJ2

B =
( T − T2 ) a + ( −T2 ) .b
GJ1 GJ2

where J1 and J2 are the polar moments of inertia for AB and BC respectively.

Since end B is actually fixed. Hence from the equation of compatibility equation,

B = 0

we have
T.a T2a T2b
− − =0
GJ1 GJ1 GJ2

 bJ1   aJ2 
T1 = T   and T2 = T  
 aJ2 + bJ1   aJ2 + bJ1 

Case 1 - If d1 = d2 = d (i.e. bar of uniform cross section),

Then, J1 = J2
we get

Tb Ta
T1 = and T2 =
L L

6. SHAFT OF TWO MATERIALS: COMPOSITE SHAFT

A composite shaft is made of concentric circular torsional bars that are firmly bonded tougher
to act as a single member.
Figure shows such a composite shaft where a hollow tube and a core are securely bonded to
act as a solid shaft. Such a shaft is statically indeterminate.

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Fig.16: COMPOSITE SHAFT

since both the hollow tube and the solid core have different properties.
Let us use suffix 1 for the core and 2 for the hollow tube.
Let the composite shaft be acted upon by a total torque T.
This is evidently resisted by the torque T1 and T2 developed in the core and the tube

respectively.
Hence from the condition of static equilibrium.
T = T1 + T2 (i)

Since both the parts are rigidly bonded together, they must rotate by the same amounts i.e.

the angle of twist must be the same.

Hence from the compatibility of rotations, we have

T1L TL
= = 2 (L1 = L2 =L)
G1J1 G2 J2

T1 G J
or = 1  1 (ii)
T2 G2 J2

thus from equation (i) & (ii)

 G1J1   G2 J2 
T1 = T   and T2 = T  
 G1J1 + G2 J2   G1J1 + G2 J2 
TL
Hence  =
G1 J1 + G2 J2

The maximum shear stresses 1 and 2 in the core and tube are given by

T1 (D1 / 2) T2 (D2 / 2)
1 = and 2 =
J1 J2

1 TD J G D
Hence = 1 1  2 = 1. 1
2 T2D2 J1 G2 D2

Example - A shaft transmits 300 kW power at 120 RPM and made up of material having

weight density 77 kN/m3 & allowable shear stress is 70 N/mm2 .

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Determine (a) the necessary diameter of solid circular shaft

(b) the necessary diameter of hollow circular section, the inside diameter being 2/3 of the

external diameter.

(c) calculate the % saving in the material if hollow shaft is used.

Solution:

Given:

P = 300 kN, N = 120 r.p.m.;  = 70 N/mm2

2 NT
P=
60

60P 60  300
Now T = = = 23.87 kN-m = 23.87  106 N-mm
2N 2 (120 )

 3
Per solid section T =  d
16

16T 16  23.87  106

 d3 = = = 1736935
 70 ( )

From which = 120.21 mm = 121 mm

2
For hollow circular section: d = D
3

  D4 − d4   3
  d 
4

T=   =  D  1 −  D  
16  D  16    


  2 
4

T=  D3 1 −    = 0.1576D3
16   3  


3 T 23.87  106
 D = = = 2.1642  106
0.1576 0.1576 (70)

 D = 129.35 mm = 130 mm

2 2
d= D =  129.35 = 86.2 mm  86.5 mm
3 3

Percentage saving of material

Weight of solid shaft per m length is

 
(121)  1  g = g (14641)
2
Ws =
4 4

Weight of hollow shaft per m length is

 
(130) − (86.5)   1  g = 4 g 9417.8
2 2
Wh =
4

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Ws − Wh 14641 − 9417.8
 % Saving =  100 =  100 = 35.7%
Ws 14641

7. STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION

Consider a solid shaft of length L, under the action of torque T.

The torsional strain energy of shaft is equal to the work done in twisting.
1
U= T. = Areaunder T −  diagram
2

Fig.17: Torques Vs θ diagram within elastic limit

2
Elastic energy in a material subjected to uniform shear stress τ is equal to per unit volume.
2G

Now consider an elementary ring of thickness r , at a radius r. The torsional strain energy of

this ring, for a length L, is given by

r 2
U =
2G
(2rr ) L
r  
But = or r = .r
r R R

2r2 2r3
 U = ( 2rr .L ) = 2Lr
2R 2G 2R 2G
R R
2 2L 3 2 L R 4 2
Hence total U =  dU =
2R2G 0
r dr =
R2G 4
 = (
4G
R2L )
0

2
U=  Volume of the shaft
4G

 TR TR
= = R
R J J

T 2L
U=
2GJ

Similarly, for a hollow shaft of internal diameter d and external diameter D,

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D
2 2
 L 3 2 L
Total U =
R 2G d
r dr =
64GR 2
(
D4 − d4 )
2

2  D3 + d2 
U=    Volume of the shaft
4G  D2 

For the thin tube, D  d

2
Hence U   Volume of the shaft
2G

Example. A hollow shaft, subjected to pure torque, attains a maximum shear stress of τ. Given
2
that the strain energy per unit volume is , calculate the ratio of shaft diameter. Also
3G
determine the actual diameter of such a shaft to transmit 5 MW at 120 RPM. When energy
stored is 25000 Nm/m3 and G = 8000 N/mm2 .
Solution:

2  D3 + d2 
U=    Volume of the shaft
4G  D2 

2  D3 + d2 
U/unit volume = U =  
4G  D2 

U f 2  D2 + d2 
=    for a hollow shaft
Volume 4N  D2 

U 2
But = (Given)
volume 3G

2  D2 + d2  2
  =
4G  D2  3G

D2 + d2 4 d 1
or = , from which =
D2 3 D 3
D
or = 3 = 1.732
d
Given,
2
= 25000 N-m/m3 = 2500  10−6 N-mm/mm3
3G

( )
1/2
 = 25000  10−6  3  8000 = 77.46 N/mm2

2 NT 60P
P= T=
60 2 N
60P 60  5  103
Also T = = = 397.89 kN-m = 397.89  106 N-mm
2N 2 (120)

R D/2 16DT
Now  = T. =T =
J 
(
D4 − d4 )
 D4 − d4 ( )
32

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Substituting the values of τ and T
d 1
& =
D 3

77.46 =
(
16D 397.89  106 ) = 2280  106

 1 D3
D4 1 − 
 9

From which D3 = 29.43  106 or D  309 mm

309
and d =  178 mm
3

8. TORSIONAL STIFFNESS (K)

Torsional stiffness is defined as the amount of torque or twisting couple required to produce a
twist of unit radian. And it represented by ‘K’.
It is important to note that the relative stiffness of two shafts is measured by the inverse ratio
of the angles of twist in equal lengths of shafts when subjected to equal torques.

T
K=


TL
=
GJ

GJ
K=
L
For a given twisting couple ‘T’
GJ
K=        induced  Chances of torsional failure 
L
Torsional Stiffness is used to compare angular twist of two different shafts which are subjected
to same twisting moment whereas Torsional Rigidity is used to compare angular twist of two
different shafts which are having same length and subjected to same torque.

9. COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION

When a shaft is transmitting torque or power, it is subjected to shear stresses. At the same
time the shaft is also subjected to bending moments due to gravity or inertia loads or due to
presence of belt and pully. Due to bending moment, bending stresses are also set up in the
shaft.
Consider any point on the cross-section of as shaft.
Let,
T = Torque at the section
D = Diameter of the shaft
M = B.M. at the section

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The torque T will produce shear stress at the point whereas the B.M. will produce bending
stress.
Let,
τ = Shear stress at the point produced by torque T and
σ = Bending stress at the point produced by B.M. (M)
The shear Stress at any point due to torque (T) is given by
 T
=
r J
T
⇒ = r
J

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The bending stress at any point due to bending moment (M) is given by
M  M y
= or  =
I y I

We know that the angle θ made by the plane of maximum shear with the normal cross-
section is given by
2
tan 2 =

(i) For a Solid Shaft
The bending stress and shear stress is maximum at a point on the surface of the shaft, where
D D
r =R = and y =
2 2
Let σb = Maximum bending stress i.e., on the surface of the shaft
M D M D 32 M
=  =  =
I 2  4 2 D3
D
64
τ = Maximum shear stress i.e., on the surface of the shaft
T T D 16 T
= R =  =
J  4 2 D3
D
32
16 T
2
2 2c D3 = T
∴ tan  = = =
 b 32M M
D3
Major principal stress

2 2
    
1 = +   + 2 = b +  b  + 2s
2 2 2  2 
2 2
32M  32M   16 T 
σ1 = +  +
3 3 
2  D  2  D   D3 

16 T  2 2
σ1= M + M + T 
D3  

and minor principal stress

16 
σ2 = M – M2 + T2 
3 
 
D
Maximum shear stress
Major principal stress – Minor principal stress
max =
2
16  2 2
max =  M +T 
D3  

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(ii)For a hollow shaft:
Major principal stress
16D0  M + M2 + T2 
1 =  
 4 4  
 D0 – Di
 
Minor principal stress
16 D0  M – M2 + T2 
2 =  
 D04 – Di4   
 
Maximum shear stress
16D0  M2 + T2 
max =  
 4 4  
 D0 – Di
 

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PRACTICE QUESTION

1. The shearing stress in a solid shaft is not to exceed 45/mm2 when the torque transmitted is 40000
N-m. Diameter the minimum diameter of the shaft.
Ans: 16.49 mm
2. Find the maximum torque transmitted by a hollow circular shaft of external diameter 30 cm and
internal diameter 15 cm if the shear stress is not be exceed 40 N/mm2 .
Ans - 198.8 kN
3. Two shafts of the same material and of same lengths are subjected to the same torque, if the first
shaft is of a solid circular section and the second shaft is of hollow circular section, whose internal
diameter is 0.7 times the outside diameter and the maximum shear stress developed in each shaft
is the same, ratio of the weights of the shafts.
Ans - 1.633
4. Find the maximum shear stress induced in a solid circular shaft of diameter 20 cm when the shaft
transmits 187.5 kW at 200RPM.
Ans: 5.7 N/mm2
5. A solid circular shaft is to transmit 375 kW at 150 RPM.
(i) Find the diameter of the shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed 65 N/mm2 .
(ii) What per cent saving in weight would be obtained if this shaft is replaced by a hollow shaft
whose internal diameter equal to 2/3 rd of its external diameter, the length, the material and
maximum shear stress being the same?
Ans: (i) 12.29 cm (ii) 35.71%
6. A solid aluminium shaft 1 m long and 40 mm diameter is to be replaced by a tubular steel shaft
of the same length and same outside diameter, so that either shaft could carry the same torque
and have the same angle of twist over the total length. Determine the inner diameter of the
tabular steel shaft. Take GS = 3Ga .

Ans- 36.14mm
7. A shaft is transmitting 100 kW at 180 RPM. If the allowable stress in the material is 60 N/mm2 ,
determine the suitable diameter for the shaft. The shaft is not to twist more than 1° in a length
of 3 meters. Take N = 80 N/mm2 .
Ans – 103.8mm
8. A hollow steel shaft of external diameter equal to twice the internal diameter has to transmit 2250
kW power at 400RPM. If the angle of twist has not to exceed 1° in a length equivalent to 16 times
the external diameter and the maximum turning moment is ¼ times the mean, calculate the
maximum stress and the diameter of the shaft. Assume the modulus of rigidly to be
0.8  105 N/mm2 .
Ans - D=203mm, d = 101.5mm , σ = 43.63N/mm2

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9. A steel wire of G = 85 GPa is to be proportioned such that the maximum shearing stress is 80
MPa for an angle of twist of 90 . Determine the length to diameter ratio.
Ans - 834
10. Find the power that can be safely transmitted by a solid steel shaft 100 mm dia. running at 250
RPM. without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 N/mm2 . If this shaft is to be replaced by a hollow

shaft of the same external dia. but with a permissible shearing stress of 72 N/mm2 , determine

the internal diameter to transmit the same power at the same speed as the solid shaft.
Ans – 308.43kW, 63.9mm
11. Calculate the ratio of the weights of equal lengths of hollow and solid shafts to transmit a given
torque for the same maximum shear stress if the inside diameter is 2/3 of the outside dimeter.
Ans. – 0.643
****

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

4 PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

1. INTRODUCTION

In many cases, a combination of different types of stresses acts at a point and it is possible
that the combined effect of these stresses in a particular direction is more than that of individual
stresses. If stresses on two mutually perpendicular plane are known, then stresses on any
inclined plane can be computed.

2. STATE OF STRESS

2.1. Stress tensor:

• A tensor is a multi-dimensional array of numerical values that can be used to describe
the physical state or properties of a material. A simple example of a geo-physically
relevant tensor is stress.

• The state of stress at a point described by three mutually perpendicular planes is

shown in figure above. In general, a complete state of stress is defined by nine stress
components σx, σy, σz, τxy, τyx, τyz, τzy, τzx and τxz.
The double script is necessary for the shear. The first subscript indicates the direction
of surface normal whereas the second subscript is the direction of shear stress.
For equilibrium, cross-shears are taken equal:
τxy = τyx, τyz = τzy and τzx = τxz

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xx xy xz 

 
  =  yx yy yz 
 
 zx zy zz 

2.2. Sign conventions:

While analysing a stress system, the general conventions have been taken as follows:
• A tensile stress is positive and compressive stress, negative.
• A pair of shear stresses on parallel planes forming a clockwise couple is positive and a
pair with counterclockwise couple, negative.
• Clockwise angle is taken as positive and counterclockwise as negative.
2.3. Methods to find stresses at a point:
The stresses on a point are determined by the following methods:
i. Analytical method, and
ii. Graphical method.
2.3.1. Analytical method:
The following cases are being considered:
(i). Direct stress condition (ii). Bi-axial stress condition
(iii). Pure shear stress condition (iv). Bi-axial and shear stresses condition
(i). Direct Stress Condition
Let a bar be acted upon by an external force P resulting in a direct tensile stress σ x along
its length (Fig.1a). The stress on any transverse section such as BCDE will have a pure
normal stress acting on it.

Fig.1: A bar subjected to uniaxial state of stress

While the stress acting on an arbitrary plane ACDF inclined at an angle θ with the vertical
plane will have two components:
(i). normal component known as direct stress component.
(ii). tangential component known as shear stress component.
The stress components can be determined from the consideration of force balance.
If the bar is imagined cut through the section ACDF, each portion of the bar is also in
equilibrium under the action of forces due to the stresses developed. For convenience, a
triangular prismatic clement ABCDEF containing the plane ACDF can be taken for the
force analysis.

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Figure.1 b shows the forces acting on the triangular element.
Let dy = the length of the side BC
ds = the length of the side AC
σx = P – normal stress acting on the plane BCDE
σθ = normal stress acting on the plane ACDF
τθ = tangential or shear stress acting on the plane ACDF
Assume a unit thickness of the prism and equate the forces along normal and tangential
directions to the plane ACDF of the prism for its equilibrium, i.e.:
.ds − x.dy.cos  = 0

xdy cos  xdy cos 

 = = = x cos2  ………………… (1)
ds dy / cos 
And
.ds + x.dy.sin  = 0 (assuming τθ clockwise as positive)

xdy sin   dy sin  1

 = − =− x = −x sin  cos  = − x sin2 ………………… (2)
ds dy / cos  2
The negative sign shows that τθ is counterclockwise and not clockwise on the inclined
plane.
• When θ = 0°, σθ = σx and Tθ = 0
• When θ = 45°, σθ = σx/2 and Tθ = σx/2 (maximum, counterclockwise)
• When θ = 90°, σθ = 0 and Tθ = 0
• When θ = 135°, σθ = σx/2 and Tθ = σx/2 (maximum, clockwise
Fig. 2 a and b show the planes inclined at different angles to the vertical along with the
stresses acting on them. The following can be noted from these figures along with the
above observations:

Fig.2 Shows stresses on the inclined plane at angle θ

• A plane at angle θ with the vertical also is the plane with angle (180°+θ). Thus, a plane
at angle 45° clockwise with the vertical can also be mentioned as the plane at 225°
clockwise or 135° counterclockwise.
• Similarly, a plane at angle –45° with the vertical would also mean a plane at angle 45°
counter-clockwise or angle 225° counter-clockwise or angle 135° clockwise.

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• The normal stress on the inclined plane decreases with the increase in angle θ, from
maximum on the vertical plane to zero on the horizontal plane.
• The shear stress is negative (counter-clockwise) between 0° and –90° and positive
(clockwise) between 0° and -90°. Remember that a plane at 135° to the vertical also
means; a plane at – 45° as described above.
• The maximum shear stress is equal to one half the applied stress. The resultant stress
on the plane ACDF (Fig.1c).

r = 2 + 2

r = x cos4  + sin2  cos2 

r = x cos  cos2  + sin2 

r = x cos  …………………. (3)

Inclination with the normal stress:

x sin  cos 
tan  = = tan 
x cos2 
= ……………………. (4)

i.e., it is always in the direction of the applied stress.

Example. Two pieces of wood of section 50 mm × 30 mm are joined together along a
plane at 60° with the x-axis. If the required strength of the joint is to be 7.5MPa in tension
and 4 MPa in shear. Determine the maximum force which the member on sustain.
Sol.
Given Two pieces of wood joined together at an inclined plane as shown in Fig. below.
σθ= 7.5 MPa
τθ = 4MPa

To find Maximum force P along x-axis:

Let the maximum stress along the x-axis be σx.
Angle with the plane of σx = 90°- 60° = 30°
Strength of joint in tension:
3
σθ = σx cos2θ = σx cos2 30° = 
4 x
3
7.5 = .
4 x
x = 10MPa ………………… (i)

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Strength of joint in shear:
1 1 3
 = − x sin2 = − x sin60 = − 
2 2 4 x
3
−4 = − 
4 x
σx = 9.24 MPa ………………… (ii)
From (i).and (ii), for safety of the joint, the maximum axial stress to be taken by the
member is 9.24 MPa.
Example. The wooden pieces 10 cm x 10 cm in cross-section are glued together along
line AB as shown in Figure below. What maximum axial force P can be applied lithe
allowable shearing stress along AB is 1.2 N/mm 2?

Sol.
Given:
Area of cross-section (A) =10 x 10=100 cm2
A = 100 x 100 min2 = 10000 mm2
Allowable shear stress (τθ) = 1.2 N/mm2.
Angle of line AB with the axis of axial force = 30°
∴ Angle of line AB with the normal cross-section, θ = 90° – 30° = 60°.
Let P Maximum axial force
σ = Maximum allowable stress in the direction of P.

 = sin2
2
 
1.2 =  sin(2  60) =  sin120
2 2
1.2  2 2.4
∴ = = = 2.771N / mm2
sin120 0.866
∴ Maximum axial force (P) = Stress in the direction of P x Area of cross-section
P = σ x 10000 = 2.771 x 10000 = 27.710 kN.
(ii). Bi-axial Stress Condition

Fig.3: Bi-axial stress and its components

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Let an element of a body be acted upon by two tensile stresses acting on two
perpendicular planes of the body as shown in Fig.3.
Let dx, dy and ds be the lengths of the sides AB, BC and AC respectively.
Considering unit thickness of the body and resolving the forces in the direction of σ θ:
σθ.ds – σx.dy.cosθ – σy dx.sinθ
xdy cos  ydx sin 
 = +
ds ds
 dy cos  ydx sin 
= x +
dy / cos  dx / sin 

 = x cos2  + y sin2  ……………………….. (1)

The expression may be put in the following form:

 1 + cos2   1 − cos2 
 = x   + y  
 2   2 
1 1
= (x + y ) + (x − y )cos2
2 2
Resolving the forces in the direction of τθ:
.ds + x.dy.sin  − y.dx.cos  = 0

xdy sin  ydx cos   dy sin  ydx cos 

 = − + =− x +
ds ds dy / cos  dx / sin 
 = −x sin  cos  + y sin  cos 

1
 = −(x − y )sin  cos  = − (x − y )sin2 ………………. (2)
2
Which indicates that it is counter-clockwise if σx is more than σy.

Resultant stress (r ) = 2 + 2

1/2
1 1 
2
 1  
2

r =   (x + y ) + (x − y )cos 2  + − (x − y )sin2  

  2 2   2  
1/2
1 1 1 1 
=  (x + y )2 + (x − y )2 cos2 2 + (x + y )(x − y )cos 2 + (x −  y )2 sin2 2 
4 4 2 4 
1/2
1 1 1 
=  (x + y )2 + (x − y )2 + (2x + 2y )cos 2 
4 4 2 
1/2
1 1 
=  (2x + 2y + 2x y + 2x + 2y − 2x y + (2x − 2y )cos 2 
4 2 
1/2
1 1 
=  (2x + 2y ) + (2x − 2y )cos 2 
2 2 
1/2
1 1 
=  2x (1 + cos 2) + 2y (1 − cos 2)
2 2 

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1/2
1 1 
=  2x .2 cos2  + 2y .2 cos2  
 2 2 
r = 2x.cos2  + 2y sin2  ………………….. (3)

Angle of inclination of the resultant with σθ:

 (−x − y )sin  cos 

tan  = =
 x cos2  + y sin2 

y − x
tan  = ………………………. (4)
x cot  + y tan 

For greatest obliquity or inclination of the resultant with the normal stress,
d(tan )
=0
d
−x cos ec2 + y sec2  = 0

x cosec2 = y sec2 

x
tan2  =
y

x
tan  = ……………………… (5)
y

y −  x
tan max =
x  y /  x +  y  x /  y

y −  x
tan max = ………………………. (6)
2 x y

The angle of inclination of the resultant with σx:

y.dx y.dy.tan 
tan  = =
x.dy x .dy

y
tan  = tan  .…………………….. (7)
x

The above results show the following:

• The normal stress on the inclined plane varies between the values of (σ x and σy as as
the angle θ is increased from 0° to 90°. For equal values of the two axial stresses (σ x =
σy) σθ is always equal to of σx or σy.
• The shear stress is zero on planes with angles 0° and 90° i.e. on horizontal and vertical
planes. It has maximum value numerically equal to one half the difference between given
normal stresses which occurs on planes at ± 45° to the given planes.

1
max =  (x − y ) ………………….. (8)
2

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and the normal stress across the same plane,
1 1
45 = ( + y ) + (x − y )cos 90
2 x 2

1
45 = ( − y ) ………………………. (9)
2 x
• Shear stress in a body subjected to two equal perpendicular stresses is zero (Refer
Eq.2).
• If any of the given stresses is compressive, the stress can be replaced by a negative
sign in the above derived expressions i.e. σx with –σy and σy with –σy.
• If σy is compressive, the maximum value of shear stress across a plane at 45° plane is

1 1
max = [(x − (−y )] = (x + y )
2 2
And if σx is numerically equal to σy:

max = x = y …………………. (10)

(iii). Pure Shear Stress Condition

Let an element of a body be acted upon by shear stresses on its two perpendicular faces
as shown in Fig. 4. Let dx, dy and ds be the lengths of the sides AB, BC and AC
respectively.

Fig.4: A body subjected to pure shear stress

Considering unit thickness of the body and resolving the forces in the direction of σ θ.

.ds − .dx.cos  − .dy.sin  = 0

dx cos  dy sin   dx sin   dy sin 

 = + = +
ds ds dx / sin  dy / cos 

 =  sin  cos  +  sin  cos  = .sin2 ……………… (1)

Resolving the forces in the direction of τθ.

τθ.ds – τ.dy. cosθ + τ.dx.sinθ = 0.

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dy cos  dx sin   1 + cos 2   1 − cos 2  

 = − =   −   =  cos 2 ………………. (2)
ds ds  2   2 

which shows that it is up the plane for θ < 45° and down the plane for θ > 45°.
The resultant stress on the plane AC:

σr = r = 2 + 2 =  (sin2)2 + (cos2)2

r =  ………………. (3)

Inclination with the direction of shear stress planes:

sin2
tan  = = tan2
cos2
 = 2 ……………….. (4)

The above results show that:

• The normal stress is positive (tensile) when θ is between 0° and 90° and negative
(compressive) between 90° and 180°. Maximum values being at 45° (= τ) and 135° (=
–τ).
• The shear stress is positive (clockwise) for θ < 45° and negative (counter-clockwise)
for θ > 45° and < 135° and again positive between θ > 135° and < 180°.
• The shear stress is zero at 45° and 135° where the normal stress is maximum.
These conclusions indicate that when a body is acted upon by pure shear stresses on two
perpendicular planes then the planes inclined at 45° are subjected to a tensile stress of
magnitude equal to that of the shear stress while the planes inclined at 135° are subjected
to a compressive stress of the same magnitude with no shear stress on these planes.
(iv). Biaxial and Shear Stresses Condition
Let an element of a body be acted upon by two tensile stresses along with shear stresses
acting on two perpendicular planes of the body as shown in Fig. 5. Let dx, dy and ds be
the lengths of the sides AB, BC and AC respectively.

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Fig.5: Combined stress and their components acting on a body

Considering unit thickness of the body and resolving the forces in the direction of σ θ:
.ds = x.dy.cos  + y.dx.sin  + .dy.sin  + .dx.cos 

x dy cos  y dx sin  dy sin  dx cos 

 = + + +
ds ds ds ds
 dy cos  ydx sin  dy sin  dx cos 
 = x + + +
dy / cos  dx / sin  dy / sin  dx / sin 
 = σx cos2θ + σy sin2θ + τ sinθcosθ + τ sinθcosθ
σθ = σx cos2θ + σy sin2θ + τ sin 2θ ……………………. (1)

 1 + cos2   1 − cos2 
 =  x   + y   +  sin2
 2   2 
1 1
 =
2
( )
x + y + ( )
 − y +  sin2
2 x
……………………… (2)

Resolving the forces in the direction of τθ:

.ds + x.dy.sin  − y.dx.cos  − .dy.cos  + .dx.sin  = 0

x dy sin  y dx cos  .dy.cos  .dx sin 

 = − + + −
ds ds ds ds

xdy sin  ydx cos  .dy.cos  .dx sin 

 = − + + −
dy / cos  dx / sin  dy / cos  dx / sin 
τθ = –σx sinθ cosθ + σy sinθ cosθ + τ cos2θ – τ sin2θ
1
= − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2 …………………. (3)
2
Equations 1, 2 and 3 can be used to determine the stresses on any inclined plane in a
material under a general state of stress.

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To determine the planes having maximum and maximum values of direct stress,
differentiate Eq.2 with respect to θ and equate to zero i.e.
d 1
= 0 − (x − y )2 sin2 + 2.cos 2 = 0
d 2
1
( − y )2 sin2 = 2.cos2
2 x
2
tan2 = ……………………. (4)
x − y
This equation provides two values of 2θ differing by 180° or θ by 90°, the planes along
which the direct stresses have the maximum and minimum values.
Note that the same values of θ are also obtained by equating τ to zero, which indicates
that shear stress is zero or does not exist on these planes. Thus, it is concluded that
shear stresses are zero on the planes with maximum or minimum values of direct stress
(they are known as principal planes and the corresponding stresses as principal stresses.
If σx and σy, are not alike i.e. if one of them is compressive (say σy is compressive),
corresponding expressions can be obtained by replacing σy with − σy.
Note the following in general:
• As the material as a whole is in equilibrium under the action of external forces and
internal resistances, an element of any shape at any point in a material will also be in
equilibrium under the internal or external forces.
• An element of any shape may be considered for force analysis. Usually, the choice is
made depending upon the requirements. For example, if the stresses on longitudinal and
transverse axes arc required, a rectangular element is a suitable choice whereas if the
stresses on some inclined plane are to be found, then a triangular element has to be
preferred.
Note.1:
Relations derived above for various cases are valid when:
• inclination is measured in the clockwise direction with the vertical plane
• compressive stresses are taken negative, and
• the direction of the shear stresses is clockwise on the vertical planes and counter-
clockwise on the horizontal planes.
• In case, these parameters are chosen differently, relations must be modified as below:
(i). If angle is measured counter-clockwise with the vertical planes (Fig. 2.2b), θ is
replaced by –θ or (180° – θ).
(ii). If angle is taken counter-clockwise with the horizontal plane, find out θ with the
vertical and use the relations as usual.
(iii). If the direction of the shear stresses is counter-clockwise on the vertical planes and
clockwise on the horizontal planes replace τ with –τ.
Thus, to use the derived relations directly, it must be ensured that the parameters are
taken in the proper way.

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3. SUM OF DIRECT STRESSES ON TWO MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR PLANES

Direct stress on an inclined plane at angle θ is given by:

1 1
 = ( + y ) + (x − y )cos2 + .sin2 …………….. (1)
2 x 2
Direct stress on an inclined plane at angle (θ + 90°) will be:
1 1
(+90) = (x + y ) + (x − y )cos2( + 90) + .sin2( + 90)
2 2
1 1
(+90) = (x + y ) − (x − y )cos2 − .sin2 ………………. (2)
2 2
On adding (1) and (2):
σθ +σ (θ + 90°) = σx +σy
Since the sum of direct stresses σx and σy is constant, the sum of direct stresses on two mutually
perpendicular planes at a point at angle θ and (θ + 90°) remains constant and equal to σ x +
σy.

4. PRINCIPAL STRESSES

• In general, a body may be acted upon by direct stresses and shear stresses.
• However, it will be seen that even in such complex systems of loading, there exist three
mutually perpendicular planes, on each of which the resultant stress is wholly normal. These
are known as principal planes and the normal stress across these planes, as principal stresses.
• The larger of the two stresses σ1 is called the major principal stress, and the smaller one σ 2
as the minor principal stress. The corresponding planes are known as major and minor principal
planes.
• In two-dimensional problems, the third principal stress is taken to be zero.
As shear stress is zero in principal planes:
1
 = − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2 = 0
2
1
( − y )sin2 =  cos2
2 x
2
tan2 = …………………… (1)
x − y

which provides two values of 2θ differing by 180° or two values of θ differing by 90°.
Thus, the two principal planes are perpendicular to each other.

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Fig. 6
From the above figure:
2
sin2 = 
(x − y )2 + 42

x − y
cos2 = 
(x − y )2 + 42

Right-hand sides of both the above equations should have the same signs, positive or negative
while using them. Substituting these values of sin2θ and cos2θ in equation:
1 1
1,2 = (x + y ) + (x − y )cos2 + .sin2
2 2
Then, two values of the direct stresses i.e. of principal stresses corresponding to two values of
2θ are obtained.

1 1 (x − y )2 2
1,2 = (x + y )  
2 2 ( −  ) + 4
2 2
(x − y )2 + 42
x y

2 2
1 1 (x − y ) + 4
1,2 = (x + y ) 
2 2 ( −  )2 + 42
x y

1 1
= (x + y )  (x − y )2 + 42 ………………… (2)
2 2
• Unless it is possible to know by inspection which of the two principal planes corresponds to
major principal stress, it is necessary to substitute one of the values of θ (inclination of principal
planes) into the equation:
σ = σx cos2 θ + σy sin2 θ + τ sin 2θ
to find which of the two values of angles corresponds to major principal stress.

5. MAXIMUM (PRINCIPAL) SHEAR STRESSES

• In any complex system of loading, the maximum and the minimum normal stresses are the
principal stresses and the shear stress is zero in their planes.
• To find the maximum value of shear stress and its plane in such a system, consider the
equation for shear stress in a plane i.e.
1
 = − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2
2
For maximum value of τθ, differentiate it with respect to θ and equate to zero
x − y
tan2 = − …………………… (3)
2
This indicates that there are two values of 2θ differing by 180° or two values θ differing by
90°. Thus, maximum shear stress planes lie at right angle to each other.
Now, as

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x − y
tan2 = − can be represented as shown in Fig.7 below.
2

x − y
sin2 = 
(x − y )2 + 42

2
cos2 = 
(y − x )2 + 42

Right-hand sides of both the above equations should have the opposite signs, if one positive
the other negative while using them. Substituting these values of sin2θ and cos2θ in Eq.
1
 = − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2 two values of the shear stress are obtained.
2
 x − y  x − y
1
∴  = −   (x − y )   .
 2 (x − y )2 + 42  (x − y )2 + 42
 
2 2
1 (x − y ) + 4
 = 
2 ( −  )2 + 42
x y

1
 =  (x − y )2 + 42
2
This provides maximum and minimum values of shear stress, both numerically equal. In fact,
the negative or minimum value indicates that it is at right angles to the positive value as
discussed above and the two are the complimentary shear stresses. Thus, magnitude of the
maximum or principal shear stress is given by:
1
max = (x − y ) + 42 ………………….. (4)
2
1 1
As maximum principal stress: 1 = (x + y ) + (x − y )2 + 42 ……. (i)
2 2
1 1
And minimum principal stress: 2 = (x + y ) − (x − y )2 + 42 ……... (ii)
2 2
Subtracting (ii) from (i):

1 − 2 = (x − y )2 + 42

1
∴ τmax = ( − 2 ) ………………………. (5)
2 1

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1 1
Thus, τmax = = (1 − 2 ) = (x − y )2 + 42
2 2
2
Now, principal planes are given by: tan2p =
x − y

x − y
and planes of maximum shear stress, tan2s = −
2
Multiplying the two:
tan2θp. tan2θs = –1
which means 2θs = 2θp + 90°
i.e. θs = θp + 45°.
This indicates that the planes of maximum shear stress lie at 45° to the planes of principal
axes.
• The above conclusion can also be drawn from the fact that the case of biaxial stresses on a
rectangular clement discussed in the previous section is a case of principal stresses, as no
shear stress acts on the horizontal or vertical planes. Thus, σ x and σy also denote principal
stresses in the element and as in case of biaxial stresses, the maximum value of shear stress
lies in the planes at 45° to the principal planes and is
1 1
max = (1 − 2 ) = (1 − 2 )2 + 42
2 2
• Unless it is possible to know by inspection which of the two planes corresponds to a particular
direction of principal shear stress, it is necessary to substitute one of the values of 0 into the
1
equation,  = − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2 to find which of the two values of angles
2
corresponds to a particular direction.

5.1. Normal stress on the planes of maximum shear stress

Direct stress on an inclined plane is given by:
1 1
 = ( + y ) + (x − y )cos 2 +  + .sin2
2 x 2
1 1 
= (x + y ) + cos2  (x − y ) + .tan2 
2 2 

1 1 x − y 
= (x + y ) + cos 2  (x − y ) − . 
2 2 2 

1
= ( + y ) ………………… (1)
2 x
Thus, normal stresses of magnitude (σx + σy)/2 act on each of the two planes of maximum
shear stresses.
Example. A. rectangular block of material is subjected to a tensile stress of 110 N/mm 2
on one plane and a tensile stress = of 47 N/mm2 on the plane at right angles to the
former. Each of the above stresses is accompanied by a shear stress of 63 N/mm 2 and

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that associated with the former tensile stress tends to rotate the block anticlockwise.
Find:
(i)the direction and magnitude of each of the principal stress and
(ii) magnitude or the greatest shear stress.
Sol.
Given:
Major tensile stress, σx = 110 N/mm2.
Minor tensile stress, σy = 47 N/mm2
Shear stress, τ = 63 N/mm2
(i) Major principal stress is given by equation:
2
x + y  x − y  2
Major principal stress = +   + 
2  2 

2
110 + 47  110 − 47  2
σ1 = +   + 63
2  2 
2
157  63  2
σ1 = +   + (63)
2  2 
σ1 = 78.5 + 31.52 + 632 = 78.5 + 992.25 + 3969
σ1 = 78.5 + 70.436 = 148.936N / mm2
Minor principal stress is given by equation:
2
 + 2   − 2  2
∴ Minor principal stress = 1 −  1  +
2  2 
2
Minor principle stress = 110 + 47 −  110 − 47  + 632 = 78.5 − 70.436
2  2 
 
=8.084 N/mm2.
The directions of principal stresses are given by equation:
2 2  63 2  63
tan2 = = = = 2.0
1 − 2 110 − 47 63
−1
∴ 2 = tan 2.0 = 6326 ' or 243 26 '

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∴  = 31 43' or 121 43'.
(ii) Magnitude of the greatest shear stress:
Greatest shear stress is given by equation:
1
( )max = (x − y )2 + 42
2
1 1 1
( )max = (100 − 47)2 + 4  632 = 632 + 4  632 =  63  5
2 2 2
( )max =70.436 N/mm2.
Example. The resultant stress on a plane at a point in a material under stress is 80 MPs
inclined at 30° to the normal to the plane as shown in figure below. The normal
component of stress on another plane at right angle to the first plane is 60 MN. Determine
(i). the resultant stress on the second plane
(ii). the principal stresses and their planes
(iii). the maximum shear stresses and their planes
Sol.
Given a stress system as shown in Fig.

The resultant stress on plane BC can be resolved into two components as shown below:

The normal stress = 80 cos 30° = 69.28 MPa

The tangential stress = 80 sin 30° = 40 MPa

Thus, on the plane BC, a shear stress of magnitude 40 MPa acts along with a normal

stress of 69.28 MPa. On the plane AB, a complimentary shear stress of the same

magnitude will act as shown in the figure.

Resultant stress on plane AB = 602 + 402 = 72.1 MPa

−1 40
Its inclination with the normal = tan = 33.7
60
Principal stresses

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1 1
Major principal stress, 1 = (x + y ) + (x − y )2 + 42
2 2
1 1
1 = (69.28 + 60) + (69.28 − 60)2 + 4(−40)2
2 2
=64.64 + 40.27 =104.91 MPa(tensile)

Minor principal stress = 64.64 – 40.27 = 24.37 MPa (tensile)

2 2  (−40)
tan2 = = = −8.6
x − y 69.3 − 60
2θ = –83.4°

θ1 = –41.7° and θ2 = –41.7° – 90° = –131.7°

The major principal stress 105 MPa occurs on the plane inclined at 41.7° with the plane

of 69.3 MPa tensile stress.

Maximum shear stress

1
Maximum shear stress (τmax) = (69.3 − 60)2 + 4  402 = 40.3MPa
2
Maximum shear stress occurs on plane at 45° to the principal planes i.e. on planes at

41.7° + 45° = 86.7° and 131.7° + 45° = 176.7°

On a plane at 86.7°, the direction of the shear stress is counter-clockwise.

Example. The stresses on two perpendicular planes through a point in a body are 160
MPa and 100 MPa, both compressive along with a shear stress of 80 MPa. Determine:
(i) The normal and the shear stresses on a plane inclined at 30° to the plane of 160
MPa stress. Find also the resultant stress and its direction.
(ii) The normal stress on a plane at 90' to the inclined plane mentioned in (i).
(iii) Show the results diagrammatically
Sol.
Given: A biaxial and shear stress system:
σx= –160 MPa
σy = –100 MPa
τ = 80 MPa
1 1
30 = (x + y ) + (x + y )cos2 + .sin2
2 2
1 1
30 = (−160 − 100) + (−160 + 100)cos 60 + 80 sin60 = – 75.7 MPa
2 2

1
30 = − ( − y )sin2 +  cos2
2 x
1
30 = − (−160 + 100)sin60 + 80 cos 60 = 66 MPa (clockwise).
2

r = 2 + 2 = (−75.7)2 + (66)2 = 100.4 MPa

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Inclination with σ30° :

30 66
tan  = = = 0.872
30 75.7

 = 41.1
Calculation of normal stress at 120°:
σ30° + σ (30° + 90°) = σx + σy
∴ –75.7 + σ (30° + 90°) = – 160 – 100
σ (30° + 90°) = – 184.3 MPa

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Diagrammatical presentation of results

6. MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE

The stress components on any inclined plane can easily be found with the help of a geometrical
construction known as Mohr’s stress circle.
6.1. Two Perpendicular Direct Stresses
Let the material of a body at a point be subjected to two like direct tensile stresses σx
and σy (σx > σy), on two perpendicular planes AD and AB respectively (Fig.8).

Fig.8: Mohr’s circle for the Bi-axial state of stress

Make the following constructions:
• On x-axis, take OF = σx and OE = σy, to some scale. A stress is taken towards the right
of the origin O (positive) if tensile and toward left (negative) if compressive.
• Bisect EF at C.
• With C as centre and CE (= CF) as radius, draw a circle.
The radius CF represents the plane AD (of direct stress σx ) and CE, the plane AB (of
direct stress σy). Note that the two planes AD and AB which are at 90° are represented
at 180° apart (or at double the angle) in the Mohr's circle. This indicates that any angular
position of a plane can be located at double the angle from any plane.
• Locate an inclined plane in this circle by marking a radial line at double the angle at
which the required plane is inclined with a given plane e.g. if the plane BD is inclined at
angle θ with plane AD in the counter-clockwise direction, then mark radius CR at an angle
2θ with CF in the counter-clockwise direction.

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• Draw LR ┴ x-axis. Join OR.
Now, it can be shown that OL and LR represent the normal and the shear stress
components on the inclined plane BD.
From the geometry of the figure:
1 1 1
OC = (OC + OC) = (OF − CF) + (OE + CE)
2 2 2
Since CE = CF
1 1
OC = (OF + OE) = (x + y )
2 2
1
CL = CR cos2 = CF cos2 = ( − y )cos2 since (CR = CF)
2 x
1 1
Thus, OL = OC + CL = (x − y ) + (x − y )sin2 = 
2 2
1
And LR = CR sin 2θ = CF sin2θ = ( − y )sin2 = 
2 x
(σθ and τθ as derived in Bi-axial state of stress case section).
A positive expression of τθ indicates it is clockwise for counter-clockwise angle θ. The
resultant of OL and LR is represented by OR at an angle φ with the OL i.e. with the
direction of σθ. Thus, the components OL and RL represent the normal and shear stress
components on the plane BA.
Note.2:
• Direct stress component on the inclined plane BD represented by OR is on the right side
of the origin, it is positive or tensile.
• Shear stresses giving a clockwise rotation are assumed positive and are above the x-
axis. In the present case, the shear component LR represents a clockwise direction.
• The stress components on a plane DG perpendicular to BD arc obtained by rotating the
radial line CR through double the angle i.e. 180° in clockwise or counter-clockwise
direction. Thus, CS represents the plane DG. OM indicates the tensile component and the
SM the shear component.
6.2. Two Perpendicular Direct Stresses with Simple Shear
• In the above-discussed case, CR and CS represent two perpendicular planes having
direct tensile stresses OL and OM and shear stresses LR (clockwise) and MS (= LR,
counter-clockwise) respectively.
• Now, if these happen to be the known stresses on two perpendicular planes, then
stresses on any other inclined plane can easily be found by locating that plane relative to
any of these planes.
• Let CR and CS represent two perpendicular planes BD and AB respectively so that OL=
σx, OM= σy and LR and MS each equal to τ in the clockwise and counter-clockwise
directions respectively (Fig.9). Now if it is desired to find stresses on an inclined plane at
angle θ clockwise with plane BD, a radial line CP may be drawn at angle 2θ in the

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clockwise direction with CR. Then ON and NP will represent the direct and shear
components respectively on the plane AD and the resultant is given by OP.
Thus, the procedure may be summarised as follows:
• Take OL and OM as the direct components of the two perpendicular stresses σx and σy.
• At L and M draw ┴ LR and MS on the x-axis each equal to τ using the same scale as for
the direct stresses. For the stress system shown in Fig.8, LR is taken upwards as the
direction on plane BD is clockwise and MS downwards as the direction on plane AB is
counter-clockwise.
• Bisect LM at C and draw a circle with C as centre and radius equal to CR (= CS).

Fig.9: Bi-axial state of stress with the simple shear

• Rotate the radial line CR through angle 2θ in the clockwise direction if θ is taken
clockwise and let it take the position CP.
• Draw NP ┴ on x-axis. Join OP.
It can be proved that ON and NP represent the normal and the shear stress components
on the inclined plane AD.
From the geometry of the figure:
1
OC = ( + y ) as before.
2 x
CN = CP cos (2θ – β)
CN= CR cos (2θ – β) since (CP = CR)
CN =CR (cos 2θcosβ + sin2θ sin β)
= (CR cos β) cos 2θ + (CR sin β) sin 2θ
= CL cos 2θ + LR sin 2θ
Since CL = OL – OM
1
= ( − y )cos2 + .sin2
2 x
1 1
Thus, ON = OC + CN= (x + y ) + (x − y ) +  sin2 = 
2 2
And NP = CP sin (2 θ – β)
= CR sin (2 θ – β)
= CR (sin2 θ cosβ – cos 2θ sin β)
= (CR cosβ) sin2θ – (CR sinβ) cos 2θ

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= CL sin 2θ – LR cos2θ
1
= ( − y )sin2 −  cos2 = 
2 x
As NP is below the x-axis, therefore, the shear stress is negative or counter-clockwise.
1  1
Mathematically, NP = −  (x − y )sin2 −  cos2 = − (x − y )sin2 +  cos2
2  2
6.3. Principal Stresses
As shear stress is zero on the principal plants, of represents the major principal plane
with maximum normal stress. In a similar way, OE represents the minor principal plane.
2 2
OF = OC + CF = OC +CR = OC + CL + LR

2
1 1 
= (x + y ) +  (x − y ) + 2
2 2 

1 1
= (x + y ) + (x − y )2 + 42 =Major principal stress
2 2
2 2
OE = OC – CE = OC – CR = OC − CL + LR

1 1
OE = (x + y ) − (x − y )2 + 42 = Minor principal stress
2 2
The angles of inclination of planes of major and minor principal stresses are β/2 and (90°
+β/2) respectively clockwise with the plane of stress σx.

7. STRAIN ANALYSIS

If direct and shear strains along x- and y-directions are known, normal strain (ϵθ) and the shear
strain ((φθ) in a direction at angle θ with the x-direction of a body can be found by the following
method:
7.1. Normal Strain
Let a rectangular clement OACB with angle of the diagonal θ with the direction of ϵx or x-axis
distorts to become a parallelogram OA'C'B' under the action of linear strains ϵx, ϵy and shear
strain φ as shown in Fig.10. Point C moves to C'. Let r be the length of the diagonal OC.

Fig.10: Strain analysis

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Now, elongation of the diagonal =C’’C’ = C’’D + DE +EC’
= (ϵx .r.cosθ)cos θ + (ϵy.r.sin θ)sinθ + (φ.r.sinθ.cosθ)
= ϵx .r.cos2θ + ϵy.r.sin2θ+ φ.r.sinθ. cosθ
Since strain of the diagonal: ϵθ = c’’c’/r
ϵθ = ϵx .cos2θ + (1 + cos 2θ) + φ.sinθ.cosθ ………………. (1)

1 1 1
 = x (1 + cos2) + y (1 − cos ) +  sin2
2 2 2
1 1 1
 = (x + y ) + (y − y )cos2 +  sin2 …………………… (2)
2 2 2
Compare the results with bi-axial and shear stresses conditions:

 1 + cos2 
• In a linear system:  = x .cos2  or x  .
 2 
• In a pure shear system and for θ = 45°, ꜫ45° = ϕ/2
7.2. Shear Strain
The shear strain at a point on a plane inclined at angle θ is the change in the angle
between two straight lines perpendicular to each other. As shown in Fig.11, if these lines
are OC and OE before distortion, they become OC' and OE' after distortion. Let the angle
between OC and OC' be α and between OE and OE' be  .

Fig.11: Shear strain Analysis

Thus, shear strain = co = change of angle of OC - change of angle of OE =  − 

As the angle α is small,   tan  = CC'/ r

CC’ = CF +FC’ = CF + (GE — GH)

CC' = (x.r.cos )sin  + [(.r.sin )sin  − (y.r.sin )cos ]

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= x.r.sin  cos  + .r.sin2  − y.r.sin .cos 

1
= (x − y )r.sin2 + .r.sin2 
2
1
= CC '/ r = (x − y )sin2 +  sin2 
2
Angle  can be found by inserting θ= − (90° −θ) = 270° +θ:
1
= ( − y )sin2(270 + ) +  sin2 (270 + )
2 x
1
γ= (x − y )sin(180 + 2) +  sin2 (270 + )
2
1
γ= − ( − y )sin2 +  sin2 
2 x
Shear strain =  =  −  = (x − y )sin2 + (sin2  − cos2 )

Shear strain (ϕθ)= (x − y )sin2 −  cos2 …………………... (3)

Compare the results with bi-axial and shear stress conditions.

7.3. Principal strains
The maximum and the minimum values of strains on any plane at a point are known as
the principal strains and the corresponding planes as the principal planes for strains.
To obtain the condition for principal strains, differentiating equation (1) with respect to
θ and equating to zero:
d d 1 1 1 
=  (x + y ) + (y − y )cos2 +  sin2
d d  2 2 2 
d 1
= 0 − (x − y )2 sin2 + .cos2
d 2
(x − y )sin2 = .cos2


tan2 = ……………………… (4)
x − y
Values of principal strains can be obtained in a similar way as for principal stresses:
1 1
Principle strains (1,2 ) = (x + y )  (x − y )2 + 2
2 2

As tan2 = ,
x − y
Thus,

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
sin2 = 
(x − y )2 + 2

x − y
cos2 = 
(x − y )2 + 2

Right-hand sides of both the above equations should have the same signs, positive or
negative while using them.
• In principal planes ( ) = (x − y )sin2 −  cos2

 x − y
 = (x − y ) − =0
(x − y )2 + 2 (x − y )2 + 2

• It can be shown that the planes of principal strains are the same as of principal stresses
as follows:
 /G
tan2 = =
x − y (1 / E)[(x − y − z ) − (y − z − x )]

.E
=
G[(x − y − z ) − (y − z − x )]

.2G(1 + ) 2
= = ………………… (5)
G(x − y )(1 + ) x − y

which is the same equation as that of principle stresses thus it is indicating that the planes
of principal strains are the same as of principal stresses and thus can simply be referred
as principal planes.
7.4. Principal shear strains
For shear strain to be maximum or minimum:
d d
= ( − y )sin2 −  cos2
d d  x
d
= (x − y )2 cos2 + .2 sin2 = 0
d
x − y
tan2 = − ………………… (6)

Equation (6) that the planes of maximum shear strain are inclined at 45° to the planes
of maximum shear strain as in case of maximum shear stress.
7.5. Sum of direct strains on two mutually perpendicular planes
Direct strain on an inclined Direct strain on an inclined θ is given by:

 = x.cos2  + y.sin2  + .sin .cos  ………………….. (i)

Direct strain on an inclined plane at angle (90° + θ) will be:

+90 = x.cos2(90 + ) + y.sin2(90 + ) + .sin(90 + ).cos(90 + )

+90 = x.sin2  + y.cos2  − .cos  sin  ………………… (ii)

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From (i) and (ii):
 + +90 = x + y

Since the sum of direct strains ϵx and ϵx is constant, the sum of direct strains on two
mutually perpendicular planes at a point at any angle θ and (90°+ θ) remains constant
and equal to ϵx + ϵy.

8. MOHR'S STRAIN CIRCLE

Since due to similarity in expressions of stress and strains, it can be observed that the Mohr's
circle used for the stress analysis can also be used for strain analysis. The linear strains can be
taken along horizontal axis and shear strain along the vertical axis, the magnitude of the shear
strain taken to be half. Thus, in the strain circle:
1
OC = ( + y )
2 x
1
And CR = (x − y )2 + 2
2

Fig.12: Mohr’s circle for the strains

The construction of the circle, when three coplanar linear strains in three directions at a point
are known is exactly similar to that for the case when three coplanar stresses are known.
8.1. Principal stresses from principle strains
(a). Two-dimensional System
In a two-dimensional system σ3 = 0, and
1 = 1 / E − 2 / E

1.E = 1 / E − 2

1 = 1.E + 2 …………….. (i)

And E2 = 2 / E − 2 / E

2.E = 2 − 1 ……………. (ii)

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Inserting the value of σ1 from (i) in (ii):

2.E = 2 − (1.E + 2 ) = 2 (1 − 2 ) − 1.E

E(1 + 2 )
2 = ……………………….. (1)
1 − 2

E(2 + 1 )
Similarly, 1 = ………………………… (2)
1 − 2

(b). Three-Dimensional System

Since 1 = 1 / E − 2 / E − 3 / E ………………. (i)

2 = 2 / E − 3 / E − 1 / E ……………… (ii)

3 = 3 / E − 2 / E − 1 / E ……………….. (iii)

From (i):

1 = E1 + (2 + 3 )

Inserting this value in (ii) and (iii):

E2 = 2 − 3 − [E1 + (2 + 3 )]

E(2 + 1 ) = 2 (1 − 2 ) − 3 (1 + ) ………………. (iv)

Similarly, E(3 + 1 ) = 3 (1 − 2 ) − 2 (1 + ) ………………(v)

Multiplying (iv) by (μ) and (v) by (1 – μ):

E (ϵ2 + μϵ1) μ = σ2 (1 – μ2) μ – σ3 (1 + μ) μ2 …………………(vi)

E (ϵ3 + μϵ1) (1 – μ) = σ3 (1 – μ2) (1 + μ) – σ2(1 – μ2) μ ………………... (vii)

Adding (vi) and (vii):

E(2 + 1 ) + (3 + 1 )(1 − )] = 3 (1 − 2 )(1 − ) − 3 (1 + )2

E(2 + 1 + 3 − 3 − 1) = 3 [(1 − 2 )(1 − ) − (1 + )2 ]

E(2 + 3 + 1 − 3 ) = 3[1 − 2 −  + 3 − 2 − 3 ]

E[(1 − )3 + (1 + 2 )] = 3[1 − 2 −  − 2 ]

E[(1 − )3 + (1 + 2 )] = 3(1 + )(1 − 2)

E[(1 − )3 + (1 + 2 )]

Thus, 3 =
(1 + )(1 − 2)

E[(1 − )2 + (3 + 1 )]

Similarly, 1 =
(1 + )(1 − 2)

E[(1 − )2 + (3 + 1 )]

and 2 =
(1 + )(1 − 2)

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9. STRAIN ROSETTE

• Strain in any direction can be measured by using an instrument known as strain gauge.
• In case, directions of principal strains are known (no shear strain), two strain gauges can
be used to measure the strains in these directions and thus the principal stresses can he
calculated.
• However, many times the directions of the principal stresses are not known. In such cases,
a set of three strain gauges, known as a strain rosette, can be used to find the strain in
three known directions in order to determine stress condition at a point under consideration.
Let ϵx and ϵy be the linear strains in x and y directions and ϕ be the shear strain at the point
under consideration. Then linear strains in any three arbitrary chosen directions at angles
θ1, θ2 and θ3made with the x-axis will be:
1 = x.cos2 1 + y.sin2 1 + .sin 1.cos 1

 2 = x.cos2 2 + y.sin2 2 + .sin 2.cos 2

 3 = x.cos2 3 + y.sin2 3 + .sin 3.cos 3

If three arbitrary directions are chosen in a set manner and ϵθ1, ϵθ2 and ϵθ3 are measured
along these directions, then ϵx and ϵy the linear strains in x- and y- directions, and φ, the
shear strain at the point can be calculated by using the above equations. Principal strains
and principal stresses can then be calculated.
9.1. Rectangular Strain Rosette
• In case, the three strain gauges are set at 0°, 45° and 90° with the x-direction, it is
known as a rectangular strain rosette or 45° strain rosette. Thus, in this case,

Fig.13: Rectangular strain Rosette

θ1 = θ °, θ2=45° and θ2 =90°
The above equations can be written:
ϵ0° = ϵx and ϵ90° = ϵy
1
45 = ( + y + )
2 x
From which:
ϵx = ϵ0°, ϵy = ϵ90° and Φ = 2ϵ45° – (ϵx + ϵy) ………………… (1)
On knowing these values, principal strains and principal stresses can be calculated.
9.2. Equiangular Strain Rosette (delta strain rosette)

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• If the three strain gauges arc set at 0°, 60° and 120° with the

x-direction, it is known as an equiangular strain rosette or delta strain rosette or 60°

strain rosette. Thus, in this case,

θ1= 0°, θ2 =60° and θ3 = 120°

Fig.14: Equiangular Strain Rosette

The above equations can be written as:

ϵθ° = ϵx ………………. (i)

1
60 = ( + 3y + 3 ) ………………. (ii)
4 x
1
120 = ( + 3y + 3 ) ……………….. (iii)
4 x
From which, ϵx = ϵ0°

And Subtracting (iii) from (ii):

2
= (60 − 120 ) ………………….. (2)
3
From (ii):

2
3y = 460 − x − 3 = 460 − 0 − 3. (60 − 120 )
3

1
y = (260 + 2120 − 0 ) ….…………….. (3)
3
On knowing these values, principal strains and principal stresses can be calculated.

Example. The following readings are recorded by a rectangular strain rosette (the angles

are with x-axis): ϵ0° = 400 × 10–6, ϵ45° = 200 × 10–6 and ϵ90° = –100 × 10–6. Determine

the principal strains and stresses.

Take E = 210 GPa and Poisson's ratio 0.3.

Sol.

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Given readings of a rectangular strain rosette:
ϵ0° = 400 × 10–6, ϵ45° = 200 × 10–6 and ϵ90° = –100 × 10–6
E = 210 GPa
μ = 0.3
To find Principal strains and stresses
Principal strains
For a rectangular strain rosette:
ϵx = ϵ0° = 400 × 10–6,
ϵy = ϵ90° = –100 × 10–6
and
 = 245 − x + y

 = 2  200  10−6 − 400  10−6 − 100  10−6 = −100  10−6

1 1
Principal strains: 1 , 2 = (x + y )  (x + y )2 + 2
2 2
10−6
= [(400 − 100)  (400 + 100)2 + (−100)2 ]
2

=404.95 × 10–6 and –104.95 × 10 –6

Principal stresses are given by:

E(2 + 1 ) 210000(−0.3  104.95 + 404.95)  10−6

1 = =
1 − 2 1 − 0.32

σ1 = 86.2 MPa

E(2 + 1 ) 210000(0.3  404.95 − 104.95)  10−6

2 = =
1 − 2 1 − 0.32

2 = 3.82 MPa

10. STRAIN TENSOR

Strain tensor is used to define the state of strain at a point (i.e., different strains developed on
three mutual perpendicular planes, passing through a point.
ϵ → [Normal Strain]
τ → [Shear strain]

 xy XZ 
 xx 
 2 2 
 xy YZ 
[]3D = yy 

Strain
 2 2 
Tensor  xz YZ 
at a point
 2 Zz 
in
3D.  2 3  3
For the 2-D:

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 xy 
xx 
[]2D = 2 
 xy 
 yy 
 2 
Let ϵ, ϕ are the normal & shear strain or an oblique plane passing through a point under bi-
axial state of strain.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A circular bar of steel is subjected to an axial pull of 50 kN. Find the diameter of the bar if the
maximum intensity of shear stress on any oblique plane is not to exceed 60 MPa.
2. A piece of material is subjected to two perpendicular tensile stresses of 300 MPa and 150 MPa.
Determine the normal and shear stress components on a plane the normal of which makes an
angle of 40° with the 300 MPa stress. Also, find the resultant.
3. The stresses on two perpendicular planes through a point are 120 MPa tensile, 80 MPa
compression and 60 MPa shear. Determine the normal and shear stress components on a plane
at 60° to that of the 120 MPa stress and also the resultant and its inclination with the normal
component on the plane.
4. Determine the position of the plane on which the resultant stress is the most inclined to the
normal in a system of two perpendicular compressive stresses of 120 MPa and 180 MPa. Also,
find the value of the resultant stress.
5. The normal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 100 MPa and 60 MPa respectively at
right angle to each other with a shearing stress of 50 MPa. Determine the principal stresses and
the position of principal planes if:
(i) both normal stresses are tensile, and
(ii) 100 MPa stress is tensile, and 60 MPa stress is compressive.
Also determine the maximum shear stress and its plane in the two cases.
6. The principal stresses at a point in a bar are 50 MPa tensile and 30 MPa compressive. Calculate
the normal stress, shear stress and the resultant stress on a plane inclined at 50° to the axis of
major principal stress. Also, find the maximum shear stress at the point.
7. The direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions are 300 MPa and 150 MPa both
tensile accompanied by complimentary shear stresses of intensity 225 MPa. Determine the
normal and tangential stresses on two planes equally inclined to the planes of the direct stresses.
8. At a certain point in a strained material, direct stresses of 120 MPa tensile and 90 MPa
compressive exist on two perpendicular planes. These stresses are also accompanied by a shear
stress on the planes. The major principal stress at the point due to these is 150 MPa. Determine
the magnitude of the shear stresses on the two planes. Also, find the maximum shear stress at
the point.
9. A rectangular bar of cross-sectional area 10000 mm2 is subjected to a tensile load P as shown
in Fig. The permissible normal and shear stresses on the oblique plane BC are given as 8 N/mm 2
and 4 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the safe value of P.

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10. A plane element removed from a thin-walled cylindrical shell loaded in torsion is subject to the
shearing stresses shown in Figure below. Determine the principal stresses existing in this
element and the directions of the planes on which they occur.

11. A plane element is subject to the stresses shown in Fig. Determine analytically (α) the principal
stresses and their directions and (b) the minimum shearing stresses and the directions of the
planes on which they act.

12. The readings of a strain gauge rosette inclined at 45° with each other are 4 ×10 −6, 3 ×10−6 and
1.6 ×10−6, the first gauge being along x-ais. Determine the principal strains and the planes.
Answers:
1. 23 mm
2. 237.5 MPa; 74 MPa; 248.8 MPa; 22.8°
3. 22 MPa; 116.5 MPa; 118.6 MPa; 79.3°
4. 39.23°; 147 MPa comp
5. (i). 133.8 MPa tensile, 26.2 MPa tensile, 34.1° and 124.1°, 53.8 MPa, 79.1°
(ii). 114.3 MPa tensile, 74.3 MPa comp., 16° and 106°, 94.3 MPa, 61°
6. 16.95 MPa, 39.4 MPa, 42.88 MPa; 40 MPa
7. 450 MPa, —75 MPa; zero, 75 MPa
8. 84.85 MPa, 135 MPa
9. 92.378 kN
10. 50 MPa at 45°
11. (a) σmax = 1.2 MPa at 50.7°, σmax = –126.2 MPa at 140.7'; (b) τmax = 63.7 MPa at 5.67°.
12. 4.04 ×10−6, 1.58×10−6, 5° and 95°

****

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

5 THIN AND THICK SHELLS

1. INTRODUCTION

Thin pressure vessel is defined as a closed cylindrical or spherical container designed to hold
or store fluids at a pressure substantially different from ambient pressure.
Thin pressure vessels can be classified as
(i) on the basis of ratio of diameter to its thickness
If the ratio of the of diameter to its thickness is greater than or equal to 20 then it is said to
be thin pressure vessel otherwise thick pressure vessel.

where, D is the inner diameter of the shell

& t is the thickness of the shell
(ii) On the basis of shape of the pressure vessel.
cylindrical and spherical shells are frequently used pressure vessel.

However, Spherical pressure vessels are better, but due to fabrication difficulty, cylindrical
pressure vessels are most commonly used.
Common examples of pressure vessels are steam boilers, reservoirs, tanks, working chambers
of engines, gas cylinders etc.
Since for thin shell, the thickness very small as compare to diameter thus for such shell, it is
assumed, that the normal stresses. which may be either tensile or compressive, are uniformly
distributed through the thickness of the wall.
On the other hand, the thickness of the wall of the shell is more than the above limit, then shell
is treated as a thick shell, the analysis of which is more complex, and the normal stresses vary
along the thickness of the wall of the shell.

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2. PROJECTED AREA THEOREM

Fig.1: PROJECTED AREA THEOREM

Figure shows a hemispherical vessel subjected to internal pressure P. Let us find the resultant
upward force F, usually known as bursting force, acting at C. Consider an element of surface
area A(= r), the normal of which makes an angle θ with the vertical centre line, the element

itself subtending an angle  at the centre.

Normal force on the dement = Fn = P.A = P(r)L

Where L is the length of the elementary ring

Vertical component of this force = Fv = Fn cos  = P.A cos  = P(r)L cos 

 2
∴ Total vertical force F =  Fv =  p.A cos  = 2  p(rL)cos 
0 0

F = 2Pr L = PdL = P  projected area

Hence
bursting force (vertical force) = P × Projected area of the surface on horizontal plane.

3. THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL SUBJECT TO INTERNAL PRESSURE

Consider a thin cylinder of internal diameter d and wall thickness t, subject to internal gauge
pressure P.
The following stresses are induced in the cylinder
(a)Circumferential tensile stress (or hoop stress) σH.
(b) Longitudinal (or axial) tensile stress σL.
(c) Radial compressive stress σR which varies from a value at the inner surface equal to the
atmosphere pressure at the outside surface.
3.1. Assumptions followed in thin pressure vessels
• Stresses are assumed to be distributed uniformly
• Area is calculated considering the pressure vessel as thin
• Radial stresses are neglected
• Biaxial state of stress is assumed to be applicable

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(a) Circumferential stress or Hoop stress, σH
There are normal stresses which act in the direction of circumference. Due to internal
fluid pressure these are tensile in nature.
In thin pressure vessels, hoop stresses are assumed to be uniform across thickness
whereas in thick pressure vessels they vary from maximum at inner surface to minimum
at outer surface.

The bursting will take place if the force due to fluid prrssure is more than the resisting
force applied by the cylinder along the length of cylider circumferentially.
Under limiting condition,
Pressure force by the fluid  resistance force offered by the circumferential stress

P  L  d  H (2Lt)

Pd
 H
2t

2H t
P 
d

For equilibrium,
Pd
H =
2t

In c is the efficiency of the circumferential riveted joint,

pd
L =
4tc

(b) Longitudinal stress (or axial stress) σL:

Since the cylinder is closed at the ends, the internal pressure on each end will give is to
 2
a bursting force F = P  d .
4

Due to the bursting force P on each end, the cylinder will have the tendency to get splitted
into two parts and this is resisted by the development of longitudinal stress σL,

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Under limiting condition,

Pressure force by the fluid  resistance force offered by the longitudinal stress

 2
P d  L dt
4
Pd
 L
4t
4L t
P 
d

For equilibrium,
Pd
L =
4t

From here, we can say that

H
L =
2
Thus, the magnitude of the longitudinal stress is one half of the circumferential stress,
both the stresses being of tensile nature.
NOTE – ratio of circumferential stress and longitudinal stress under given loading
condition is 2.
Pd
circumeferential stress 2t
= =2
longitudinal stress Pd
4t
In c is the efficiency of the circumferential riveted joint,

pd
L =
4tc

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Note: (i) In longitudinal joint, the circumferential stress is developed whereas in
circumferential joint, the longitudinal stress is developed.
(ii) Efficiency of a joint means the efficiency of a longitudinal joint.
(iii) If efficiencies of a joint are given, the thickness of the thin shell is determined from
stress in longitudinal joint.
(C)Radial compressive stress σR –
Since the internal pressure in thin cylinders must of necessity be low, the radial stress is
negligible as compare to the axial stress and hoop stress. Hence the third stress is
neglected.

3.2. Maximum Shear Stress

If radial stress is neglected, the state of stress in the wall of cylindrical shell simplifies to
a simple two- dimensional system with principal stresses H and L .

Then maximum shear stress in the plane of H and L

Pd Pd
L = , H =
4t 2t

H − L 1  Pd Pd  Pd
max = =  − =
2 2  2t 4t  8t

This is in plane shear stress

For calculating the shear stress at a point, we have to consider it as Triaxial state of
stress
Then,
Pd Pd
1 = , 2 = , σ3 = 0
4t 2t
Maximum Shear stress at a point or absolute τmax

  − 2 2 − 3 3 − 1 
Absolute max = max imumof  1 , , 
 2 2 2 

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Pd Pd
1 − 2 −
Pd
= 2t 4t =
2 2 8t
Pd
2 − 3 −0
Pd
= 4t =
2 2 8t
Pd
3 − 1 0 − 2t Pd
= =−
2 2 4t
 Pd Pd Pd 
Absolute max = max imumof  , , 
 8t 8t 4t 
Pd
Absolute max =
4t
3.3. Change in Dimensions:
The change in length of the cylinder may be determined from the longitudinal strain.
Since whenever the cylinder will elongate in axial direction or longitudinal direction, there
will also be contraction in diameter or the lateral strain will also take place.
Therefore, we will have to also take into consideration the lateral strain as we know that
the poisson’s ratio (μ) is
lateral strain
=−
longitudnal strain
Consider an element of cylinder wall which is subjected to two mutually perpendicular
normal stresses σL and σH.
Let E = Young’s modulus of elasticity

Since there is no shear stress in in cross section

Thus, maximum stress will be major principal stress
Pd
Thus, σ1 = H =
2t
minimum stress will be minor principal stress
Pd
σ2 = L =
4t

4. STRAIN

When a shell is subjected to internal pressure, hoop and longitudinal stress will be generated
and due to which hoop strain and longitudinal strain will be produced.

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4.1. Hoop strain or Circumferential strain -
Since hoop stress is major principal stress thus maximum principal strain will be hoop
strain.
1 
maximum or principal Strain, ϵ1= − 2
E E
1  1
1 = H = −  2 = (H − L )
E E E
Pd Pd
L = H =
4t 2t
1  Pd Pd 
1 =  −
E  2t 4t 
Pd
1 = [2 − ]
4tE
d Pd
Circumferential strain, = 1 = [2 − ]
d 4tE
if we are interested to find out the change in diameter then
Change in diameter = 1 . Original diameter

pd
Δd = [2 − ]  d
4t E
p  d2
Δd = [2 − ]
4  t E
p  d2
df - d = [2 − ]
4  t E
4.2. Longitudinal Strain or axial strain
Similarly, the Longitudinal Strain
1 1  Pd Pd 
L =2 = (L − H ) =  −
E E  4t 2t 
Pd
2 =L = [1 − 2]
4tE
L Pd
Longitudinal Strain = = 2 = [1 − 2]
L 4tE
NOTE – ratio of circumferential strain and longitudinal strain under given loading
condition is
Pd
circumeferential strain (2 −  ) (2 −  )
= 4tE =
1 − 2 ) (
longitudinal strain Pd 1 − 2 )
4tE
(
4.3. Volumetric Strain or Change in the Internal Volume:
When the thin cylinder is subjected to the internal pressure, strain will be generated in
longitudinal direction and circumferential direction.
As a result of which there will be change in the volume of the cylinder so its capacity to
store the fluid will change.

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change in volume or the volumetric strain.
The capacity of a cylinder is defined as
V = Area X Length
 2
V= dL
4
Let there be a change in dimensions occurs, when the thin cylinder is subjected to an
internal pressure.
(i) The diameter d change to “d + Δd”
(ii) The length L change to “L + ΔL”
Therefore,
Change in volume = Final volume – Original volume
 
V = [d + d]2  (L + L) − d2  L
4 4
Change volume
Volumetric strain =
Original volume

 
[d + d]2  (L + L) − d2  L
v = 4 4
 2
d L
4
{[d + d]2  (L + L) − d2  L}
v =
d2  L

{(d2 + d2 + 2d  d)  (L + L) − d2  L}

v =
d2 L
simplifying and neglecting the product and squares of small quantities, i.e., δd & δL
hence

2d  d  L + L  d2
= v =
d2L
L d
v = + 2
L d
Or
 2
V= dL
4
Taking log on both the sides

log V = log d2 + logL

log V = 2l og d + logL

Differentiating the above equation

V d L
=2 +
V d L

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By definition
L
= Longitudinal strain
L
d
= circumferential strain,
d
Thus, volumetric strain = longitudinal strain + 2  circumferential strain

on substituting value of longitudinal and hoop strains we get

Pd Pd
1 =H = [2 − ] & 2 =L = [1 − 2]
4tE 4tE
or Volumetric strain = V =1 + 2 2

Pd  Pd 
V = [1 − 2] + 2   [2 − ]
4tE  4tE 
Pd
v = {1 − 2 + 4 − 2}
4tE
Pd
Volumetric Strain = v = [5 − 4]
4tE
Therefore, to find Out the increase in capacity or volume,
V Pd
v = = [5 − 4]
V 4tE
Pd
Change in Capacity/Volume = V = [5 − 4]V
4tE

5. THIN CYLINDER WITH HEMISPHERICAL ENDS

Let t be the thickness of the cylindrical portion and t′ is the thickness of the hemispheric portion
of the shell.
The internal diameter may be taken as d both for the cylinder and for the spherical ends as
shown in figure

Stress in the Cylinder

Pd Pd
Hoop stress, H = and longitudinal stress, L =
2t 4t
Hoop strain,
1 1  Pd Pd  Pd
H = (H − L ) =  −  = (2 − )
E E  2t 4t  4tE

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Stresses in the Hemispherical Portion
Pd Pd
Hoop stress, h = , longitudinal stress, l =
4t ' 4t '
Hoop strain,
1 Pd
= (h − l ) = (2 − )
E 4tE
If there is no distortion of the junction under pressure,
H = 

Pd Pd
(2 − ) = (1 − )
4tE 4tE
2− 1−
=
t t
t 1 − 
=
t 2−
From the above expression, we can see that the thickness of cylindrical wall must be greater
than thickness of hemispherical ends.
Example - A closed cylindrical vessel made of steel plates 4 mm thick with plane ends, carries
fluid under a pressure of 3 N/mm2. The diameter of cylinder is 25 cm and length is 75 cm,
calculate the longitudinal and hoop stresses in the cylinder wall and determine the change in
diameter, length and volume of the cylinder. Take E = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and μ = 0.286.
Sol.
Given,
Thickness, t = 4 mm
Fluid pressure, P = 3 N/mm2
Diameter, d = 25 cm = 250mm
Length, L = 75 cm = 750 mm
Value of E = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio, μ = 0.286
Let σ1 = Hoop stress,
σ2 = Longitudinal stress,
δd = Change in diameter,
δL = Change in length, and
δV = Change in volume.
(i) Longitudinal stress is given by
Pd
L =
4t

3  250
σL = 46.875N / mm2.
44

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(ii) Hoop stress is given by equation

Pd
H =
2t

3  250
H = = 93.75N / mm2.
24

(iii) The change in diameter is given by

Pd2
d =
4tE
(2 –  )

3  2502
= (2 – 0.286 ) = 0.0956 mm
4  4  2.1  105

(iv) The change in length is given by

PdL
L =
4tE
(1 – 2 )

3  250  750
= (1 – 2  0.286 ) = 0.0716 mm
4  2.1  105  4

(v) The change in volume is given by

V Pd
V
=
4tE
(5 – 4 )

3  250
= (5 – 4  0.286 )
4  4  2.1  105

V 750 750  1.928

= (2.5 – 0.572) =
5
V 16.8  10 16.8  105

750  1.928
V = V
16.8  105

750  1.928  
V =    2502  750 
16.8  105 4 

  2  
 V= d  L =  2502  750 
 4 4 

V = 31680 mm3. Ans.

6. THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS

Figure shows a thin spherical shell of internal diameter ‘d’ and thickness ‘t’ and subjected to an
internal fluid pressure ‘P’.
The fluid inside the shell has a tendency to split the shell into two hemispheres along x-x axis.

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The force (F) which has a tendency to split the shell

 2
F =P d
4
Under limiting condition,
Pressure force by the fluid  resistance force offered by the circumferential stress

 2
P d  Hdt
4
Pd
 H
4t
4Ht
P
d
For equilibrium,
Pd
H =
4t
The fluid inside the shell is also having tendency to split the shell into two hemispheres along
Y-Y axis.
Then the tensile longitudinal stress will also be equal to

Pd
L =
4t
Example - A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell of 1.20 m internal diameter and 12 mm
shell thickness is subjected to pressure of 1.6 N/mm2. Determine the maximum stress induced
in the material of the vessel.
Sol.
Given:
Internal diameter,
d = 1.2 m = 1.2 × 103 mm
Shell thickness, t = 12 mm
Fluid pressure, P = 1.6 N/mm2
The maximum stress induced in the material of spherical shell is given by,

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Pd 1.6  1.2  103

1 = L = H = =
4t 4  12
σ1= 40 N/mm2 = 40MPa
Example - A spherical vessel 1.5 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 N/mm2.
Find the thickness of the plate required if maximum stress is not to exceed 150 N/mm2 and
joint efficiency is 75%.
Sol.
Given:
Diameter of shell, d = 1.5 m = 1.5 × 103 mm
Fluid pressure, P = 2 N/mm2
Stress in material, σ1 = 150 N/mm2
Joint efficiency,  = 75% or 0.75

Let t = thickness of the plate.

The stress induced is given by,

Pd
1 =
4t.

Pd 2  1.5  103

t= =
4t    1 4  0.75  150

t = 6.67 mm.

6.1. Maximum Shear stress

In case of spherical pressure vessel, the stresses σH and σL at any point are equal and
like.
Thus,
Pd Pd
L = H = 1 = 2 = , H =
4t 4t
In plane shear stress in a spherical pressure vessel
 −
Maximum shear stress = 1 2 = Pd − Pd =0
2 4t 4t

This is in plane shear stress

For calculating the shear stress at a point, we have to consider it as Triaxial state of stress
Then,
Pd Pd
1 = , 2 = , σ3 = 0
4t 4t
Maximum Shear stress at a point or absolute τmax
  − 2 2 − 3 3 − 1 
Absolute max = max imumof  1 , , 
 2 2 2 

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Pd Pd
1 − 2 −
= 4t 4t = 0
2 2
Pd
2 − 3 −0
Pd
= 4t =
2 2 8t
Pd
3 − 1 0 − 4t Pd
= =−
2 2 8t
 Pd Pd 
Absolute max = max imumof  0, , 
 8t 8t 
Pd
Absolute max =
8t
6.2. Strain
The stresses σ1 and σ2 are acting at right angles to each other.
∴ Strain in any one direction is given by,
1 
1 = − 2
E E
1   1  P  d
1 = −  1 = 2 =
E E  4t 
Pd
1 = (1 − )
4tE
In sphere, dimension in all direction is same i.e. R or d
then
strain in any direction is also
d R
1 = =
d R
d Pd
∴ 1 = = (1 − )
d 4tE
 dV 
6.3. Volumetric Strain in spherical shell  
 V 
The ratio of change of volume to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.
If V = original volume and dV = change in volume.
 dV 
Then   = volumetric strain.
 V 
Let V = Original volume
 3 4  
V= d  For a sphere, V = r3 = d3 
6  3 6 
Taking the differential of the above equation, we get

δV =  3d2  d
6

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
 3d2  d
V 6
Hence =
V 
 d3
6

d
= V = 3
d
 V = 31

Since

d Pd
1 = = (1 − )
d 4tE
Thus,

dV 3Pd
V = = (1 − ).
V 4tE
From here we can say that volumetric strain in spherical shell is thrice of the longitudinal

strain or hoop strain.

Example - A 600-mm long steel cylinder is made up of 4-mm thick plates. The inside
diameter of the cylinder is 120 mm. When it is subjected to an internal pressure of 5 MPa,

the increase in its volume is found to be 5000 mm3. Determine the value of Poisson’s

ratio and the modulus of rigidity. E = 205 GPa.

Solution

Given,

A steel cylinder

d = 120 mm t = 4 mm

l = 600 mm P = 5 MPa
ΔV = 5000 mm3 E = 205 GPa
As we know that
Volumetric strain,

V Pd
= (5 − 4)
V 4tE
Pd
ΔV = V  (5 − 4)
4tE
 5  120
5000 = 1202  600  [5 − 4]
4 4  4  205  103
μ = 0.243

E 205  1000
G= = = 82.462 GPa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0.243)

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7. STRENGTHENING OF CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL

A tube can be strengthened against the internal pressure by winding it with wire under tension
and putting the tube wall in compression. Since the vessel is in compression, as the pressure
is applied, the resultant hoop stress produced is much less as it would have been in the absence
of wire.
The analysis of wire wound cylinders is made on the assumption that one layer of wire of
diameter d is closely wound on the tube with an initial tension T. The procedure is as follows:

T 4T
Initial tensile stress in the wire, w = 2
=
( /4)d d2
Replace the wire by a wire of rectangular cross-section of thickness tw and width d having the
same cross-sectional area as of circular wire.
Thus
 2
twd = d
4
d
tw =
4
Now the cylinder is assumed to be wound with a rectangular wire of width d and thickness tw.
For unit axial length of the cylinder
The initial compressive hoop stress σH in the cylinder can be found by equating the compressive
circumferential force in the cylinder to tensile force in the wire for a unit axial length i.e.,
(t 1)  = (t w  1) w

t w w
= ……..(i)
t
Stresses due to fluid pressure alone
On applying an internal pressure P, let the stresses be σ′ tensile (hoop) in the cylinder and w

tensile in the wire due to fluid pressure alone.

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Then for equilibrium.
Resisting force in the cylinder and wire = Fluid force on projected area
(2t  1)  + (2t w  1) w = P  D  1

or 2t + 2t w w = pD ………..(ii)

as we also know that,

circumferential strain of the wire and the cylinder will be equal.
Thus,
( − t ) w
= ……..(iii)
E Ew
On solving Equations (i), (ii) and (iii) simultaneously,
  and w can be determined.

Final stresses are calculated by taking the algebraic sum of the initial stresses and stresses
due fluid pressure, i.e.,
Final stresses:
In the pipe =  − 

In the wire = w + w

Example - A cast-iron pipe of 240mm inside diameter and 15-mm thickness is closely wound
with a layer of 6-mm diameter steel wire under a stress of 35 MPa. Find the stresses
developed in the pipe and the steel wire when water is admitted into the pipe at a pressure of
3 MPa.
For steel E = 204 GPa; For cast iron E = 102 GPa; Poisson’s ratio = 0.3
Solution
Given,
A cast–iron pipe
D = 240mm t = 15mm
d = 6mm σw = 35MPa
P = 3MPa Es = 240GPa
Eci = 102GPa μ = 0.3
Initial stresses
Equivalent wire thickness,
d  x 6
tw= = = 4.712mm
4 4
tw 4.712
Initial compressive hoop stress in the tube, σ = w = x 35 = 11MPa
t 15
Stresses due to fluid pressure alone
On applying an internal pressure P,

let the stresses be σ’ tensile (hoop) in the tube 'w tensile in the wire due to pressure alone.

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Then for equilibrium.
2tσ’ + 2twσ’w = PD
2 x 15σ’ + 2 x 4.712 σ’w = 3 x 240
30σ’+9.424σ’w=720
σ’= -0.314 σ’w +24 (i)
Equating the circumferential strains of the wire and the tube.
( '− t )  'w
=
Eci Es
Es= 2Eci
PD 3 x 240
l = = = 12MPa
4t 4 x15

( − 0.3  12) 

∴ = w
Eci 2Eci
or  = 0.5 w + 3.6 …(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

0.5 w + 3.6 = – 0.3144 w + 24

or w = 25.1 MPa

and   = 0.5 × 25.1 + 3.6 = 16.1 MPa

Final stresses
In the pipe = 16.1 – 11 = 5.1 MPa
In the wire = 25.1 + 35 = 60.1 MPa

8. THICK PRESSURE VESSELS

If the ratio of the of diameter to its thickness is less than 20 then it is said to be thick pressure
vessel.
In thick pressure vessels they vary from maximum at inner surface to minimum at outer
surface.
(i) In thick cylinders hoop stress due to inside pressure is (a) Maximum inside (b) Minimum
outside (c) And tensile throughout.

(ii). In thick cylinders longitudinal stress due to inside pressure is constant and tensile
throughout the thickness.
(iii) Radial pressure is maximum inside, zero outside and compressive throughout.

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8.1. ANALYSIS OF THICK SHELLS USING LAME’S THEOREM
In this theorem the material is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic and the
longitudinal stress are assumed to be constant throughout.
(a) Longitudinal stress:

 PRi2 = L  (R 20 − Ri2 )

PRi2
L = 2
R o − Ri2

(b) Hoop stress

Hoop stress in thick cylinder pressure varies maximum at inside to minimum outside.
Hoop stress at a radial distance of R is
B
H = +A
R2
Where A & B are Lame’s constant and they and they are always positive.

(c) Radial Pressure

Radial stress at a radial distance of R is
B
PR = − A (Compression)
R2
Boundary condition are
at R = R O  PR = 0

B
∴ =A
R 20
At R = Ri ; PR = P
B
P= −A
Ri2
By solving these two conditions we can find out value of A & B.

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9. THICK SPHERE

Hoop and longitudinal stress are equal and varies from maximum at inner face to minimum at
outer face.
B
H = + A (Tensile)
R3
2B
PR = − A (compressive)
R3
at R = Ri PR = P 
 get A & B
R = R0 PR = 0 

Lame’s constants are both positive for inside pressure and both negative for outside pressure.

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PRACTICE PROBLEM

1. A 6-m long thin cylindrical shell is 800 mm in diameter and 10 mm thick. It is subjected to an
internal pressure of 4 MPa. Determine the change in diameter, change in length and change in
volume of the shell. E = 205 GPa and Poisson’s ratio 0.3.
Ans - 0.664 mm, 0.937 mm, 4.472 × 106 mm3
2. A mild steel water pipeline of 2-m diameter and of 10-mm thickness sustains an allowable stress
of 140 MPa. Find the maximum pressure in the pipe. What will be the change in the volume of
the pipe per metre length under the maximum pressure? E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.3.
Ans. 1.4 MPa; 4.18 mm3
3. A thin cylinder of 4-mm thickness and of 60-mm internal diameter is subjected to an internal
pressure of 2MPa along with a torque of 96 N-m, the axis of which coincides with that of the
cylinder. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at a point on the
surface of the cylinder.
Ans - 16.54 MPa, 5.96 MPa; 5.29 MPa
4. A thin spherical steel vessel having a diameter of 1.5m is of uniform thickness. After filling it
with water at a pressure of 2 MPa, a relief valve attached to the vessel is opened and water is
allowed to escape until the pressure falls to atmospheric. If the volume of water escaped is 4000
cc, find thickness of the plates of the vessel., E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.3 & Kwater =
2000MPa
Ans - 6.23 mm
5. A boiler is subjected to an internal steam pressure of 3 N/mm2. The thickness of the boiler plate
is 2.5 cm and the permissible tensile stress is 125 N/mm2. Find out the maximum diameter,
when efficiency of longitudinal joint is 90% and that of circumferential joint is 35%.
Ans. 145.83 cm
6. A boiler shell is to be made of 20 mm thick plate having a limiting tensile stress of 125 N/mm2.
If the efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are 80% and 30% respectively,
determine:
(i) The maximum permissible diameter of the shell for an internal pressure of 2.5 N/mm2, and
(ii) Permissible intensity of internal pressure when the shell diameter is 1.6 m.
Ans. (i) 120 cm, (ii) 1.875 N/mm2
7. A copper cylinder, 100 cm long, 50 cm external diameter and wall thickness 5 mm has its both
ends closed by rigid blank flanges. It is initially full of oil at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
additional volume of oil which must be pumped into it in order to raise the oil pressure to 4
N/mm2 above atmospheric pressure. For copper assume, E = 1.0 × 105 N/mm2 and Poisson’s
ratio = 0.3. Take bulk modulus of oil as 2.5 × 103 N/mm2.
Ans. 486.3 cm3

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8. A vertical cylindrical gasoline storage tank is 30 m in diameter and is filled to a depth of 15 m
with gasoline whose specific weight is 7260 N/m3. If the yield point of the shell plating is 250
MPa and a safety factor of 2.5 is adequate, calculate the required wall thickness at the bottom
of the tank.
Ans. H = 16.7 mm
9. A cylindrical shell, 0.8m in diameter and 3m long has a wall thickness of 10mm. If the shell is
subjected to an internal pressure of 2.5 N/mm2. Determine the change in diameter, change in
length and change in volume. Take E = 200GPa and μ= 0.25.
Ans. 0.35 mm, 0.375 mm, 1507000mm3
10. A thick hollow cylinder has an external diameter of 120 mm and a thickness of 40 mm. The
external pressure is 40N/mm2, and the internal pressure is 120N/mm2. Determine the
circumferential stress at the external and internal surfaces.
Ans. 168N/mm2, 88N/mm2
11. Calculate the thickness of shell required for a vessel of spherical shape, 500 mm in diameter,
to withstand an internal pressure of 25N/mm2, if the maximum permissible tensile in the shell
is 60N/mm2.
Ans. 53.5 mm

****

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6 THEORIES OF FAILURE

1. INTRODUCTION

Theories of failure are used to determine the safe dimensions of a component when it is
subjected to combined stresses due to various loads acting on the member.
• Theories of failures are used in the design of above components due to the unavailability of
failure stresses under similar loading conditions
• Theories of failures are used to establish a relationship between stresses induced under
combined loading conditions and properties obtained from tension test like Syt and Sut.
The various failure theories are:
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory [M.P.S.T.] or Rankine’s Theory
2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory [M.S.S.T.] Guest & Tresca’s Theory
3. Maximum Principal Strain Theory [M.P.St.T.] or St. Venant’s Theory
4. Total Strain Energy Theory [T.S.E.T.] or Haigh’s Theory
5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory [M.D.E.T.] or Von Mises & Hencky’s Theory
(i) Maximum Principal Stress Theory [M.P.S.T.]
According to this theory,
when principal stress developed at a critical point under combined loading condition exceeds
yield strength for ductile materials & ultimate strength for brittle materials in tension test,
failure is likely to occur.
Condition for failure
1  Syt or Sut

Condition for Safe Design

1  Syt or Sut

If Factor of safety is taken into consideration, then

Syt Sut
1  or
N N
Where N is the Factor of safety
Since As per this theory, material is failing because of the maximum value of normal stress
subjected to,
As the brittle material is week in tension so maximum principal stress theory is best suitable
for Brittle materials.

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Maximum Principal Stress Theory is not suitable for ductile material components under every
loading condition because ductile materials are weak in shear. But this theory of failure is
suitable for ductile materials components under following state of stress conditions
• Uniaxial State of stress condition (because shear stress will be half of the normal stress and
in general yield strength in shear of the material is also half of the yield strength in Tension)
• Biaxial State of stress condition when Principal Stresses are like in nature
• Hydrostatic State of stress condition [i.e. Shear Stress on every plane is zero]
(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory [M.S.S.T.]
According to this theory, when shear stress developed at a critical point under combined loading
conditions exceeds yield strength in tension test, failure is likely to occur.
Condition for Failure
Sys
Absolute max 
N
Syt
Sys =
2
Sys Syt
Absolute max  or
N 2N
Since for brittle material, Syt  Sut

Syt Sut
Absolute max  or
2N 2N
Condition for Safe Design
Syt Sut
Absolute max  or
2N 2N
Under Triaxial State of Stress
1 − 2 2 − 3 3 − 1
Absolute max = max of , ,
2 2 2

1 − 2 2 − 3 3 − 1 Syt
max of , , 
2 2 2 2N
For Biaxial State of Stress
σ3 = 0
1 − 2 2 1 Syt
max of , , 
2 2 2 2N
Since σ1 > σ2, thus we can remove σ2 from the above expression
So, for biaxial state pf stress
1 − 2 1 Syt
max of , 
2 2 2N

When σ1 and σ2 are like in nature then

σ1> σ2

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1 Syt

2 2N
1  Syt

When σ1 and σ2 are like in nature then

1 − 2 Syt

2 2N
1 − 2  Syt

Since As per this theory, material is failing because of the maximum value of shear stress
subjected to,
As Ductile materials are week in tension so maximum shear stress theory is best suitable for
Brittle materials.
This theory of failure is suitable for ductile material under every loading condition except under
hydrostatic state of stress condition.
M.S.S.T. and M.P.S.T. will give the same result for ductile materials under following conditions:
• Uniaxial state of stress condition
• Biaxial state of stress condition when Principal stress are like in nature.
(iii) Maximum Principal Strain Theory [M.P.St.T.]
According to this theory, when Principal strain developed at a critical point under combined
loading conditions exceeds yield strain under tension test, failure is likely to occur.
Condition for failure
Maximum normal Strain > strain at yield point in tension test
1   YP

Condition for Safe design

Syt
1   YP =
E
If factor of safety of material is also taken in consideration
Syt
1   YP =
NE
As we know
1
1 =
E
( 1 − (2 + 3 ))
1 Syt
E
( 1 − (2 + 3 ))   YP =
NE
1 Syt
E
( 1 − (2 + 3 )) 
NE
Syt
1 − (2 + 3 ) 
N
Under biaxial state of stress, σ3= 0
Syt
1 − 2 
N

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(iv) Total Strain Energy Theory
According to this theory, when total strain energy per unit volume at a critical point under
combined loading conditions exceeds yield strength in tension test, failure is likely to occur.
Condition for failure
StrainEnergy at yieldpoint
Total Strain energy / Volume 
Volume
Condition for Safe Design
StrainEnergy at yieldpoint
Total Strain energy / Volume 
Volume
1
Total Strain energy =  2 
1 1 1
Total Strain energy =
2E
( 1 − (2 + 3 )) +
2E
( 2 − (1 + 3 )) +
2E
( 3 − (1 + 2 ))
1 1 1
Total Strain energy =
2E
( 1 − (2 + 3 )) +
2E
( 2 − (1 + 3 )) +
2E
( 3 − (1 + 2 ))

Total Strain energy =

1
2E
((  1
2
)
+ 22 + 32 − 2 ( 12 + 23 + 31 ) )
Syt2
1
2E
(( )
12 + 22 + 32 − 2 ( 12 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) 
2E
)
( 1
2
)
+ 22 + 32 − 2 ( 12 + 23 + 31 )  Syt2

If factor of safety is also taken into consideration

2
 Syt 
( 1
2
+ 2
2
+ 3
2
) − 2 (   1 2 + 23 + 31 )   
 N 
Under biaxial state of stress, σ3 =0
2
2 2
 Syt 

1 + 2 − 212   
 N 
It represents an equation of ellipse
Syt
whose semi-major axis =
1−

Syt
whose semi-minor axis =
1+

(v) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory [M.D.E.T.]

According to this theory, when maximum distortion energy developed at a critical point under
combined loading conditions exceeds the yield strength in tension test, failure is likely to occur.
Condition for failure
max imum distortion energy / Volume  Deformation Energy / volume at yield point

Condition for safe design

max imum distortion energy / Volume  Deformation Energy / volume at yield point

total strain energy / Volume = max imum distortion energy / Volume

+ Deformation Energy / volume at yield point

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Deformation Energy / volume = Total strain energy / Volume
− max imum distortion energy / Volume
+
Deformation Energy / volume = Total strain energy / Volume
− max imum distortion energy / Volume

Total Strain energy =

1
2E
(( 
1
2
)
+ 22 + 32 − 2 ( 12 + 23 + 31 ) )
1
Volumetric strain energy / volume =  average stress  Volumetric Strain
2
1  1 + 2 + 3   1 − 2 
Volumetric strain energy / volume =
2

3
  ( 1 + 2 + 3 )
 E 

DefomationEnergy / volume =
1
2E
((  1
2
)  1 − 2 
+ 22 + 32 − 2 ( 12 + 2 3 + 31 ) − 
 6E 
 ( )
1 + 2 + 3 )
2

1+
DefomationEnergy / volume =
6E
(
(2 − 2 )2 + (2 − 3 )2 + (3 − 1)2 )
Syt
By substituting 1 = , 2 = 3 = 0 in above equation will give deformation energy per unit
N
volume at yield point under tension test
2
1 +   Syt 
DefomationEnergy / volume =  
3E  N 
For safe design
2
1+ 1 +   Syt 
6E
(
(2 − 2 )2 + (2 − 3 )2 + (3 − 1)2  
3E  N
) 

2
 Syt 
((  2
2
− 2 ) + (2 − 3 ) + (3 − 1) 2 2
)  2  
 N 
Under biaxial state of stress condition, σ3 = 0
2
2 2
 Syt 
 1 +
2 − 12   
 N 
Which is an equation of an ellipse

whose semi major axis = 2Syt

2
semi minor axis = Syt
3

2. IMPORTANCE OF VARIOUS THEORIES OF FAILURE

Maximum Principal Stress Theory [M.P.S.T.]

• Best theory of failure for brittle materials, under any state of stress condition
• It is suitable for ductile materials under
• Uniaxial state of stress condition
• Biaxial state of stress condition when σ1, σ2 are like in nature
• Hydrostatic state of stress

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Maximum Shear Stress Theory [M.S.S.T.] and Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
[M.D.E.T.]
These theories of failure are suitable for ductile materials under every state of stress condition
but except under hydrostatic state of stress condition
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory [M.D.E.T.]
It is the best theory of failure for Ductile materials [Since it gives safe and economic design]
Maximum Shear Stress Theory [M.S.S.T.]
It gives over safe design for ductile materials [Since it gives safe and uneconomic design]
For Hydrostatic State of Stress Condition
Maximum Principal Stress Theory [M.P.S.T.], Maximum Principal Strain Theory [M.P.St.T] and
Total Strain Energy Theory [T.S.E.T] can be used for brittle material.
[Total Strain Energy Theory (T.S.E.T.) is the best theory of failure for Hydrostatic state of stress
condition]

3. BY USING THEORIES OF FAILURE FOR TORSION TEST (OR) PURE SHEAR STATE OF
STRESS CONDITION, 𝑺𝒚𝒔 CAN BE OBTAINED

For that we have to replace σ1 with τ and σ2 with -τ

Maximum Principal Stress Theory [M.P.S.T]
σ1 = Syt
or  = Syt

When yielding occurs,

Sys = Syt
Maximum Shear Stress Theory [M.S.S.T]
Syt Syt
1 = , or 1 − 2 =
N N
Syt
 − ( − ) =
N
Syt
2 =
N
When yielding in shear occurs
 = Sys

Syt
2Sys = (N = 1)
N
Syt
Sys =
2
Maximum Principal Strain Theory [M. P. St. T]
Syt
1 − 2 = (N = 1)
N
1 − 2 = Syt

 − ( − ) = Syt

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Syt
=
1+
Syt
Sys =
1+
Total Strain Energy Theory [T.S.E.T]
2
 Syt 
12 + 22 − 212    (N = 1)
 N 
12 + 22 − 212  Syt2

2 + ( − ) − 2 ( − )  Syt2
2

22 (1 + ) = Syt2

Syt
=
2 (1 +  )

Syt
Sys =
2 (1 +  )

Syt
When yielding in shear occurs, Sys =
2 (1 +  )

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory [M.D.E.T.]

2
 Syt 
12 + 22 − 12    (N = 1)
 N 

12 + 22 − 12  Syt2

2 + ( − ) −  ( − )  Syt2
2

32  Syt2

3Sys 2  Syt2

Syt
Sys =
3
Syt
When yielding occurs in shear, Sys =
3
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory [M.D.E.T.] is the best theory of failure because results
obtained from torsion test are similar to that obtained from Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
[M.D.E.T]

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4. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THEORIES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM

(i) Maximum principal stress theory

(ii) Maximum principal strain theory

(iii) Maximum shear stress theory

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(iv) Maximum strain energy theory

(v) Maximum shear strain theory

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PRACTICE QUESTION

Problem 1: What do you understand by theories of failure. Enumerate major theory of failures. Also
explain maximum distortion energy theorem in detail.
Problem 2: A shaft is subjected to following stresses
σx = 60 MPa, σy = 45 MPa and τxy = 30 MPa.
Calculate factor of safety if yield stress of the material is 353 MPa as per
(a) Maximum Principle stress Theory
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Maximum strain energy theory
Take Poisson ratio of material as 0.3
Ans. 4.23, 5.71, 4.59
Problem 3: A body is subjected to stresses σx = 150 Mpa and τxy = 24 MPa. Find the equivalent stress
as per
(a) Shear stress theory
(b) Von Mises theory
Ans. 157.49 MPa, 155.65 MPa
Problem 4: Find the diameter of a rod subjected to a bending moment of 3 KNm and twisting moment
of 1.8 kNm as per shear stress theory of failure. Assume yield stress of material to be 420 N/mm2 and
factor of safety to be 3.
Ans. 63.376 mm

****

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

7
SHEAR FORCE &
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

1. INTRODUCTION

(i) Beam:
A Beam is defined as a structural member subjected to transverse shear loads during its
functionality. Due to those transverse shear loads, beams are subjected to variable shear force
and variable bending moment.
(ii) Shear force:
Shear force at a cross section of beam is the sum of all the vertical forces either at the left side
or at the right side of that cross section.
(iii) Bending moment:
Bending moment at a cross section of beam is the sum of all the moments either at the left
side or at the right side of that cross section.

2. TYPES OF RIGID SUPPORTS

• Simple Supports
➢ Roller Support
➢ Hinge Support (or) Pin Support
• Fixed Supports
➢ Clamped Supports (or) Built-in Supports
(i)Roller Support –
In such a case, the end of a beam is supported on rollers, and the motion is restricted to the
normal of the roller support and the moment about the roller support is zero because it does
not restrict the moment.
Since,
Number of restricted motions by support = Number of reactions at any support
Hence, number of rection in any roller support is 1.

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(ii) Hinge Support (or) Pin Support
In such a case, the end of a beam is hinged at the end, and the motion is restricted to the

normal of the hinge support as well as in transverse direction and the moment about the roller

support is zero because it does not restrict the moment.

Since,

Number of restricted motions support = Number of reactions at any support

Hence, number of rection is any hinged support is 2.

R = (R AH )2 + (R AV )2
R AV
tan  =
R AH

(iii)Fixed Supports –

It is also known as built in support or clamp support.

In such case, beam is fixed & immovable in any direction. It restricts Vertical movement,
horizontal movement as well as moment, Thus, in total it restricts 3 motion.
Since,

Number of restricted motions by that support = Number of reactions at any support

Hence number of rection in fixed support is 3.

Axial Load at any support = R H at that point

Shear force at any support = R V at that point

Moment reaction at any support =  Moment reaction at that support

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3. TYPE OF BEAMS

(i) Simply Supported Beam

A beam supported or resting freely on the supports at its both ends is known as simply

supported beam.

(ii) Overhanging Beam

If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, such beam is known as

overhanging beam.

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(iii) Cantilever Beam
A beam which is fixed at one end one end and free at the other end is known as cantilever
beam.

(iv) Fixed Beams

A beam whose both ends are fixed or built-in walls, is known as fixed beam. A fixed beam is
also known as a built-in or encased beam.

(v) Propped Cantilever Beams: Cantilever beams which are supported at free ends also.

(vi) Continuous Beam

A beam which is provided more than two supports is known as continuous beam.

4. TYPES OF LOAD

The following are the important types of load acting on a beam,

1. Concentrated or point load,
2. Uniformly distributed load, and
3. Uniformly varying load.
(i) Concentrated or Point Load
A concentrated load is one which is considered to act at a point, although in practice it must
really be distributed over a small area.

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(ii) Uniformly Distributed Load
A uniformly distributed load is one which is spread over a beam in such a manner that rate of
loading w is uniform along the length (i.e., each unit length is loaded to the same rate). The
rate of loading is expressed as w N/m run. Uniformly Distributed Load is represented by UDL.

The total uniformly distributed load is assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the load for all
sorts of calculations.
(iii) Uniformly Varying Load
A uniformly varying load is one which is spread over a beam in such a manner that rate of
loading varies from point to point along the beam. It is represented by UVL.

The total uniformly Varying load is assumed to act at the centre of gravity of the load for all
sorts of calculations. In this case load will act at 1/3rd of total length from right support.

5. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS

A shear force diagram (SFD) is a graphical representation of the variation of shear force (SF)
along the length of the beam. The ordinate (Y-axis) of the SFD at any section gives the value
of the SF at that section, due to the fixed load positions on the beam.
Similarly,
beading moment diagram (BMD) is a graphical representation of the variation of bending
moment (BM) along the length of the beam. The ordinate of the BMD at any section gives the
value of the BM at the section, due to the fixed load positions on the beam.
5.1. SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
Shear force: If moving from left to right, then take all upward forces as positive and
downward as negative.
Or if the shear force tries to rotate the element clockwise then it is takes as positive & if
the shear force tries to rotate the element anticlockwise then it is takes as negative.

Left to right Right to left

↑ (+ve) ↓ (+ve)

↓ (–ve) ↑ (–ve)

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Bending moment: If moving from left to right, take clockwise moment as positive and
anticlockwise as negative.
Or if forces are forming sagging moment then it is taken as positive and if forces are
forming hogging moment then it is taken as negative.

Left to right Right to left

(+ve) (+ve)
(–ve) (–ve)

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5.2. IMPORTANT POINTS FOR DRAWING SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAMS
The following are the important points for drawing shear force and bending moment
diagrams,
(i) Consider the left or the right portion of the section.
(ii) The positive values of shear force and bending moments are plotted above the base
line, and negative values below the base line.
(iii) The shear force diagram will increase or decrease suddenly i.e., by a vertical straight
line at a section where there is a vertical point load.
(iv) The shear force between any two vertical loads will be constant and hence the shear
force diagram between two vertical loads will be horizontal.
(v) The bending moment at the two supports of a simply supported beam and at the free
end of a cantilever will be zero.

Loading Shape of SFD Shape of BMD

No load Straight line Inclined straight line

UDL Inclined straight line 2° Curve (parabola)

UVL 2° curve (parabola) 3° curve (cubic)

6. DIFFERENT CASES OF BEAM AND LOADINGS & THEIR SFD AND BMD

1. Cantilever: Point load at the end

Shear Force Calculation

Consider a section at X-X, distance x from the cantilever end B. By definition the Shear Force
(SF) at a section is the algebraic sum of all the forces to one side (either left or right side) of
the section.
Hence
FV = +W (Right side downward)

The SF is positive since it is downward to the Right Hand Side of the section. In other words,
clockwise shearing force is positive.
Also, the above equation for Shear force. indicates that shear force does not depend on x and
hence is constant along the length.
The SFD will therefore be rectangle of height W. At the end A. the vertical reaction RA will
evidently be equal to W, acting upwards.

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Bending Moment Calculation
Similarly, the bending moment at the section X is given by
Mx = −W.x

x0→L
The minus sign used because the B.M. is of hogging nature, bending the beam convex upwards.
BM at x = 0  Mx =0 = −W  0 = 0

BM at x = L  Mx =L = −W  L = −WL

From the above equation we can see

M x
Thus, variation of bending under point load is linear.
Hence the BMD will be a triangle as shown in figure.
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below -

2. Cantilever: UDL over whole length

Figure shows a cantilever AB of length L, subjected to uniformly distributed load (UDL) of

intensity w/unit length.
Total load = Area of loading diagram
Total load = weight per unit length  total length = w  L = wL
Shear force calculation
F: At any section x-x, distance x from the free end B.
Fx = + wx (Linear)
x0→L

SF  SFx =0 = +w  0 = 0

SF  SFx =L = +w  L = wL

Thus, SFD will consist of a triangle as shown in figure).

At A, RA = wL(  ), which is equal to SFA.

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Bending moment calculation
For ease of calculation the uniformly distributed can be assumed as point load (Total load)
acting at its center of gravity.

Bending moment at a distance of x from the free end

Mx = total load  distance between end point and center of gravity

x wx2
Mx = −wx    = − (Parabolic variation)
2 2

x0→L

wx2
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MB = − =0
2
wx2 wL2
At x = L  Mx =L = − =− = MA
2 2
The BMD will be a parabola.
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

3. Cantilever: UVL over whole length

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Figure shows a cantilever AB of length L, subjected to uniformly varying load (UVL) of having
intensity zero at free end & w/unit length at fixed end.
1 wL
Total load = Area of loading diagram =  w L =
2 2
Shear force calculation
F: At any section x-x, distance x from the free end B.
wx
Fx = + (Linear)
L
x0→L
w
SFB  SFx =0 = + 0 = 0
L
w  L wL
SFA  SFx =L = + =
2 2
Thus, SFD will consist of a triangle as shown in figure).
wL
At A, RA = (  ), which is equal to SFA.
2
Bending moment calculation
For ease of calculation the uniformly Varying load can be assumed as point load (Total load)
acting at its center of gravity.

Bending moment at a distance of x from the free end

Mx = total load in that section × distance between center of gravity & section
1 w x
Total load = Area of loading diagram =  wx  x = x
2 2
From the similar triangle,
wx w wx
=  wx =
x L L

1 1 wx wx2
Total load =  wx  x =  x
2 2 L 2L
Thus
wx2  x  wx3
Mx = −   = − (Cubic variation)
2L  3  6L

x0→L

w  03
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MB = − =0
6L

w  L3 wL2
x = L  Mx =L = MA = − =−
6L 6

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wx3 wL2
At x = L  Mx =L = − =− = MA
6L 6

The BMD will be a cubic curve.

Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

4. Cantilever: U.D.L. on part span from the support

Shear force calculation

SF From B to C,
There is no load
Hence
Fx = 0

 SFB = 0 and SFC = 0

SF From C to A,
measuring x from C,
Fx = +w.x (linear variation)
x0→a
SFC  SFx =0 = +w  0 = 0

SFA  SFx =a = +w  a = wa
Thus, SFD will consist of a triangle as shown in figure.

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Bending moment calculation
BM between B & C
Since there is no load, thus there will no bending moment.
So Bending Moment diagram will be a straight-line having magnitude 0.
BM between C & A.
Bending moment at a distance of x from C
x wx2
Mx = −wx    = − (Parabolic variation)
2 2
x0→a
wx2
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MC = − =0
2
wx2 wa2
At x = a  Mx =a = − =− = MA
2 2
The BMD will be a parabola.

5. Cantilever: U.D.L. on part span from the free end

Shear force calculation

SF From B to C,
measuring x from B,
Fx = +w.x (linear variation)
x0→a
SFB  SFx =0 = +w  0 = 0

SFC  SFx =a = +w  a = wa
Thus, SFD will consist of a triangle
SF From C to A,
There is no load between C & A,
Thus, same shear force will continue to fixed end
Hence, SFA = SFC = Wa

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Bending moment calculation
Bending moment at a distance of x from B

x wx2
Mx = −wx    = − (Parabolic variation)
2 2

x0→a

wx2
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MC = − =0
2
wx2 wa2
At x = a  Mx =a = − =− = MA
2 2
The BMD will be a parabola.

BM between C & A
Since there is no load,

 a
For CA, Ma = -wa  x −  (linear variation)
 2

xa→L

wa2
At x = a, MC = −
2

 a
At x = L, MA = -wa  L − 
 2

The BMD will be parabolic from B to C and linear from C and A.

Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

6. Cantilever: UDL somewhere on the beam

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Shear force calculation
SF From B to C,
Since there is no load,
Thus,
Fx = 0
SF from C to D
measuring x from C,
Fx = +w.x (linear variation)
x0→a

SFC  SFx =0 = +w  0 = 0

SFD  SFx =a = +w  a = wa

SF from D to A
Since there is no load between D & A.
So, SF will Remains Constant.
SFD = wa
SFA = wa
Thus,
SFD will have zero ordinate from B to C, triangular from C to D and rectangular from D to A.
Bending Moment Calculation
BM From B to C,
Since there is no load,
Thus,
BMx = 0
BMB = 0
BMC = 0
BM from C to D
measuring x from C,

x wx2
Mx = −wx    = − (Parabolic variation)
2 2

x0→a

wx2
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MC = − =0
2
wx2 wa2
At x = a  MD = Mx =a = − =− = MA
2 2
Bending moment is parabolic in between C & D
BM from D to A
Since there is no load between D & A.
So, BM will become linear.

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 a
Mx = wa  x − 
 2 
x  0 → L −b

 a wa2
MD = Mx =0 = wa  0 −  = −
 2 2

 a
MA = Mx =L −b = wa  L − b − 
 2

Thus, BMD will have zero ordinate from B to C, parabolic from C to D, and linear from C to A.
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

7. Simply supported beam: Point load at the centre

Reactions
Due to symmetry
W
R A = RB = ()
2
Shear force calculation
From A to C
At section x, distance x form A.
L
x0→
2

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W
SFA = +R A = + (constant )
2
W
SFC = + (constant )
2
From C to B
At section x, distance x form A.
L
x →L
2
W W
SFx = +R A − W = + − W = − (constant )
2 2
W
SFC = − (constant )
2
W
SFB = − (constant )
2
W W
Hence FC(right) = − and FA = − . The SFD will therefore consist of two rectangles, with SF
2 2
suddenly changing sign at C (position of point load),
Here, there are two values of shear force at C means there is presence of point load at C and
height of the drop in shear force (difference in the value of the shear force) will give the
magnitude of shear force.
Bending Moment Calculation
BM for portion A to C,
W
Mx = R A .x = .x (Linear)
2
L
x0→
2
W
Mx =0 = MA = .0 = 0
2
W L WL
M L = MC = . =
x=
2
2 2 4

For portion C to B,
 L W  L  WL Wx
Mx = R A .x − W  x −  = x − W x −  = − (linear)
 2 2  2 2 2

L
x →L
2
L
W
WL 2 = WL
M L = MC = −
x=
2
2 2 4

WL W  L
Mx =L = MB = − =0
2 2
The BMD in simply supported beam under the point load will be a triangle, having maximum
WL
value of +
4
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

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8. Simply support beam: Eccentric point load

Reaction:

RA + RB = W

Taking moments about B,

RA  L − W  b = 0

Wb
RA = ()
L

Thus,

Similarly, taking moment about A,

RB  L − W  a = 0

Wa
RB = ()
L

Shear force calculation

From A to C
At section x, distance x form A.
SFx = +R A

L
x0→
2

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Wb
SFA = +R A = + (constant )
L
Wb
SFC = + (constant )
L
From C to B
At section x, distance x form A.
SFx = +R A − W

L
x →L
2
Wb Wb − WL
SFx = +R A − W = + −W = (L = a + b)
L L
Wb − W(a + b) Wa
SFx = =−
L L
Wa
SFC = −
L
Wa
SFB = −
L
The SFD, will therefore consist of two rectangles with S.F. Suddenly changing sign under the
point load.
Bending Moment Calculation
BM for portion A to C,
Wb
Mx = R A .x = .x (Linear)
L
L
x0→
2
Wb
Mx =0 = MA = .0 = 0
L
Wb Wab
M L = MC = .a =
x=
2
L L

For portion C to B,
Wb Wbx
Mx = R A .x − W ( x − a) = x − W ( x − a) = − Wx + wa
L L
xa→L
Wba Wab
Mx =a = MC = − Wa + wa =
L L
WbL
Mx =b = MB = − WL + wa = Wb − WL + Wa (L= a + b)
L
Mx =b = MB = WL − WL = 0

Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

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Fig 9.14
9. Simply supported beams: UDL over the whole span

A simply supported beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load (w per unit length)
Reaction:
Due to symmetry,
wL
R A = RB = ()
2
Shear Force Calculation
Shear force between A & C
w.L
SFx = R A − w. x = − w.x (linear variation)
2
L
x0→
2
wL wL
at x = 0  SFx =0 = SFA = −w0 =
2 2
L wL L
at x =  SF L = SFB = −w = 0
2 x=
2
2 2

Shear force between C & B

L
x →L
2
w
SFx = R A − w.x = − w.x
2

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L wL L
at x =  SF L = SFC = −w = 0
2 x=
2
2 2

wL wL
at x = L  SFx =L = SFB = − wL = −
2 2
The SFD is shown in figure with SF changing sign gradually, at mid span
Bending Moment Calculation

wL wx2
Mx = x− (Parabolic variation)
2 2
At x = 0  Mx =0 = MA = 0;
2
L wL L w  L  wL2
At x =  M L = MC = . −   =+
2 X=
2
2 2 2 2 8

wL w
At x = L  Mx =L = MB = .L − L2 = 0
2 2
For bending to be maximum
dMx
=0
dx

wL wx2
Mx = x−
2 2

dMx d  wL wx2 
=  x− =0
dx dx  2 2 

wL 2wx
 − =0
2 2
L
x=
2
From above we can observe that, at the point of maximum bending moment shear force is
zero.
So we can say that at bending moment will be maximum at point where shear stress is zero.
wL2
And the maximum value of bending moment is M =
8

wL2
The BMD will be a parabola, with a maximum ordinate of + at the midspan as shown in
8
figure.
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

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10. Simply supported beam under uniformly varying load

Reactions
It is uniformly Varying load, to find the reaction we have to convert this uniformly varying
load into point load.
For which, total load is assumed to be act at its center of gravity which will be L/3 distance
from the right support.

1 wL
Total load = area of the loading diagram = wL =
2 2
This will act at a distance of L/3 (center of gravity) from the right support.
Taking moment about A
wL 2L
−RB  L +  =0
2 3
wL
RB =
3
wL
RB + R A =
2
wL
RA =
6

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Shear Force calculation

Consider any section at a distance of x from A.

Then, Rate of loading

Wx
Wx =
L

1 1 Wx wx2
Total load in x length of loading = Wx  x = x = =
2 2 L 2L

SF between A & B

1 wL 1 wx wL wx2
SFx = R A − Wx  x = − x = − (Parabolic variation)
2 6 2 L 6 2L

X0→L

WL w WL
At x = 0  SFx =0 = SFA = R A = − 0 =
6 2L 6

WL w wL
At x = L  SFx =L = SFB == −  L2 = −
6 2L 3

Bending Moment Calculation

1 x wL 1 wx x
BMx = +R A  x − wx  x  = x− x
2 3 6 2 L 3

wL wx3
BMx = x− (Cubic Variation)
6 6L

X0→L

wL w  03
BMx =0 = BMA = 0− =0
6 6L

wL w  L3
BMx =L = BMA = L − =0
6 6L

Point of maximum bending moment or zero shear force

For maximum bending moment,

dMx
=0
dx

d d  wL wx3 
dx
(BMx ) = 
dx  6
x−
6L 
=0

wL wx2
− =0
6 2L

L
x=
3

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Maximum bending moment
wL wx3
BMx = x−
6 6L
3
wL  L  w  L 
BMmax = BM L =  −  
x=
3
6  3  6L  3 
wL2
BMmax = BM L =
x=
3 9 3
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

Example - A beam of span L, simply supported at the ends is loaded with distributed load of
intensity zero at the end w per unit length at the centre. Plot the SF and BM diagrams, indicating
principal values.
Solution:

Reactions
It is uniformly Varying load, to find the reaction we have to convert this uniformly varying
load into point load.
For which, total load is assumed to be act at its center of gravity which will be L/3 distance
from the right support.

1 L wL
Load due to each varying loading = w =
2 2 4
This load will act at 2L/3 distance from both the support.

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1 L 1 L wL
Total load = area of the loading diagram = w + w =
2 2 2 2 2
Taking moment about A
L  L
2  1 
wL 2 + wL L 2 = 0
−R B  L +   +
4 3 4 2 3 
 
 
wL
RB =
4
Due to symmetricity
wL
RA =
4
Shear Force calculation –
Consider any section at a distance of x from A.
Then, Rate of loading
wx 2wx
Wx = =
L /2 L
SF between A & C
1 wL 1 2wx wL wx2
SFx = R A − Wx  x = − x = −
2 4 2 L 4 L
(Parabolic variation)
L
X0→
2
wL w  0 WL
At x = 0  SFx =0 = SFA = R A = − =
4 L 4
2
L
w
L wL 2 =0
At x =  SF L = SFC = −
2 x =
2
4 L

SF between C & B
1 wL 1 2wx wL wx2
SFx = −RB + Wx  x = − + x = − +
2 4 2 L 4 L
(Parabolic variation)
L
X0→ (from right to left)
2
wL w  0 WL
At x = 0  SFx =0 = SFB = − + =−
4 L 4
2
 L
w  − 
At x = −
L
 SF L = SFC = −
wL
+  2 = 0
2 x =−
2
4 L

Point of zero shear force

wL wx2
SFx = − =0
4 L
L
x=
2
Bending Moment calculation

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BM between A & C

1  x wL 1 2wx x wL wx3
BMx = R A x −  Wx  x  = x− x = x−
2 3 4 2 L 3 4 3L

L
X0→
2

wL w  03
BMx =0 = BMA = 0− =0
4 3L
3
L
w 2
wL L 2 = wL
BM L = BMC =  −
x=
2
4 2 3L 12

BM between C & B

1 x wL 1 2wx x wL wx3
BMx = −R A x +  Wx  x  = − x+ x = − x+
2 3 4 2 L 3 4 3L

L
X0→ (Right to left)
2

wL w  03
BMx =0 = BMB = − 0+ =0
4 3L
3
 L
w  −  2
BM = BMC = −
wL  L 
 −  +  2  = wL
L
x =−
2
4  2 3L 12

Maximum Bending moment

Bending moment will be maximum where shear force is zero.
SFx = 0 at x = L/2
So maximum bending moment
3
L
w 2
wL L 2 = wL
BM L = BMC =  −
x=
2
4 2 3L 12

11. Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated moment at centre

26
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Reaction
Since there is no point load
RA + RB = 0
Taking moment about ‘A’
RB  L + M = 0

M
RB = −
L
M
RA =
L
Shear Force Calculation
M
SFx = R A =
L
x  0 → L (due to no load)
M
SFA = SFX =0 =
L
M
SFB = SF L =
X=
2
L

M
SFC = SFX =L =
L
Bending Moment Calculation
BM between A & B
Mx
BMx = R A  x =
L
L
x0→
2
M 0
BMA = BMX =0 = =0
L
L
M
BMB = BM = 2 =M
L
X=
2
L 2

BM between A & B
Mx
BMx = R A  x − M = −M
L
L
x →L
2

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L
M
BMB = BM = 2 −M = −M
L
X=
2
L 2

ML
BMC = BMX =L = −M = 0
L
Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

7. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR OVER-HANGING BEAMS

If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, such a beam is known as
overhanging beam. The BM is positive between the two supports, whereas the BM is negative
for the over-hanging portion. Hence at some point, the BM is zero after changing its sign from
positive to negative or vice-versa. That point is known as the point of contraflexure or point of
inflexion.
Point of Contraflexure: It is the point where the B.M. is zero or changes its sign from positive
to negative or vice versa.
1. Simply supported beam with one side overhang:

Reaction
taking moments about B,

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RA  L − W  a = 0

Wa
RA = ()
L
Wa W(a + L)
RB = R A + W = +W= ()
L L
Shear Force Calculation

SF between A & B

Wa
SFX = −R A = −
L

x0→L

Wa
SFA = −R A = −
L

Wa
SFB = −R A = −
L

SF between B & C

Wa W(a + L)
SFX = R A + RB = − + = +W
L L

xL →a

SFB = +W

SFC = +W

The SFD is shown in figure.

Bending Moment Calculation

BM between A & B

Wa
Mx = R A .x = − x
L

x0→L

Wa
Mx =0 = MA = − 0 = 0
L

Wa
Mx =L = MB = −  L = −wa
L

BM between B & C

Wa W(a + L)
Mx = R A x − RB ( x − L ) = − x+ (x − L)
L L

x  L → a+L

Wa W(a + L)
Mx =L = MB = − L+ (L − L) = −wa
L L

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Wa W(a + L)
Mx =a = −
L
( a + L) +
L
(a + L − L) = 0

Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

2. Simply supported beam with one side overhang UDL

Reaction:
Taking moment about A.
We get
w(L + a)2
RB = ()
2L
RA + RB = w(L + a)
Hence
w(L + a)2
R A = w(L + a) −
2L
w(L + a)(L − a)
RA = ()
2L
If L > a, RA will act upwards
If L < a, RA will act downwards.
If L = a, RA = 0
Example - Hence for plotting SFD and BMD,
let us take a numerical example,
taking L = 5m, a = 3 m and w = 2 kN/m
2(5 + 3)(5 − 3)
RA = = 3.2kN() and
25
2(5 + 3)2
RB = = 12.8kN()
25
Shear force calculation
For AB,

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SFx = 3.2-2x
x0→L 0→5
At x = 0
SFA =+3.2 kN;
At x = L = 5 m,
SFB (left) = 3.2-2×5 = - 6.8 kN
Since SFA is positive and SFB is negative thus there will be a point where shear force become
zero
SFx = 3.2-2x = 0
3.2
X= = 1.6m from left support A
2
For BC,
Fx = 3.2 − 2x + 12.8 = 16 − 2x

xL →L+a5→8
At x = 5 m
SFx =5 = SFB = 16 − 2  5 = +6kN

At x = 8 m,
SFx =8 = SFC = 16 − 2  8 = 0

Bending Moment Calculation

Bending moment for AB,
2x2
Mx = 3.2x − = 3.2x − x2
2
x0→L 0→5

At x = 0,Mx =0 = MA = 0

At x = 5m  Mx =5 = M B = 3.2  5 − 52 = −9 kN.m

For max B.M,

dMx
=0
dx
d
dx
( )
3.2x − x2 = 0 ,

3.2 − 2x = 0
x = 1.6 from left support A
Hence the BM is maximum where SF is zero.
Mmax = Mx =1.6 = 3.2  1.6 − (1.6)2 = +2.56 kN.m

For BM to be zero in AB,

Mx = 3.2x − x2 = 0

x = 3.2 m from left support A

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For BC,

2x2
Mx = 3.2x − + 12.8(x − 5) = 16x − x2 − 64
2

xL →L+a5→8

At x = 5  MX =5 = MB = 16  5 − 52 − 64 = −9kNm

At x = 8  MX =8 = MC = 16  8 − 82 − 64 = 0kNm

The BMD is shown in figure from which we find that Mmax is B. where SF changes sign and this

point is known as point of contraflexure.

3. Simply supported beam with both side overhangs: UDL

Reaction Let both overhangs be equal

Then

wL
R A = Rs = ()
2

Example
Let us take a numerical example. Taking a = 1 m, L = 6 m and w = 2 kN/m.

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26
Then R A = R S = = 6kN
2
Shear Force Calculation
SF For between C & A,
Fx = -2x
x  0 →1

SFC = 0

SFA (left) = −2  1 = 2kN

SF For between A & B,

SFx =-2x + 6
x 1→5

SFA = SFx =1 = −2  1 + 6 = 4kN

SFB = SFx =5 = −2  5 + 6 = 4kN

Here shear force is changing its sign thus there will be a point where shear force will be zero.
SFx =-2x + 6 = 0  x = 3

SF For between B & D,

SFx =-2x + 6 + 6 = -2x + 12
x5→6

SFB = SFx =5 = −2  5 + 12 = 2kN

SFD = SFx =6 = −2  6 + 12 = 0kN

Bending moment calculation

BM between C & A

2x2
Mx = − = −x2 (parabolic)
2
x  0 →1

BMC = BMx =0 = −02 = 0

BMA = BMx =1 = − 12 = −1kN − m

BM between A & B

−2x2
Mx = + 6(x − 1) = −x2 + 6x − 6 (Parabolic)
2
x 1→5

BMA = BMx =1 = −12 + 6  1 − 6 = −1

BMB = BMx =5 = −52 + 6  5 − 6 = −1kN − m

BM will be maximum at x = 3 m where SF is zero

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BMx =3 = Mmax = −32 + 6  3 − 6 = 3kN − m

This shows that BM changes sign from -1 kN.m at A to +3 kN.m at x = 3 m

(ie at midspan)
Point of zero bending moment
BMx = –x2 + 6x-6 = 0
X = 1.268 m and 4.732 m
thus, bending moment is zero in two points in entire beam.
BM between B & D

−2x2
Mx = + 6(x − 1) + 6(x − 5) = −x2 + 12x − 36 (Parabolic)
2
x5→6

BMA = BMx =5 = −52 + 12  5 − 36 = −1kN − m

BMA = BMx =6 = −62 + 12  6 − 36 = 0

Shear force & Bending Moment Diagram are shown below

8. RELATIONS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

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A beam is carrying a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length. Consider the equilibrium
of the portion of the beam between sections 1-1 and 2-2. This portion is at a distance of x from
left support and is of length dx.

F = Shear force at the section 1-1

F + dF = Shear force at the section 2-2,
M = Bending moment at the section 1-1,
M + dM = Bending moment at the section 2-2.
The forces and moments acting on the length ‘dx’ of the beam are:
i. The force F acting vertically up at the section 1-1.
ii. The force F + dF acting vertically downwards at the section 2-2.
iii. The load w × dx acting downwards.
iv. The moments M and (M + dM) acting at section 1-1 and section 2-2 respectively.
The portion of the beam of length dx is in equilibrium. Hence resolving the forces acting on this
part vertically, we get
–dF = w.dx, or,
dF
= −w
dx

The above equation shows that the rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading.
Taking the moments of the forces and couples about the section 2-2, we get
dx
M − wdx. + F.dx = M + dM
2

dx2
w + F.dx = dM
2

Neglecting the higher powers of small quantities, we get

F.dx = dM
dM
F =
dx

The above equation shows that the rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear
force at the section.

dV
Loading Shear Force diagram, =w Bending Moment diagram,
dx

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dM
=V
dx

• Loading is (–) ve and constant ⇒ SF slope is (–) and constant

• SF is (+) ve decreasing ⇒ Bending moment slope is (+) ve decreasing
• If load intensity is udl ⇒ SFD is learner → BMD is parabolic
• Slope of BMD at any section is equal to SFD ordinate at that section
• Slope of SFD at any section is equal to load intensity at that section
• If load intensity is n-degree curve, SFD will be (n + 1) degree curve and BMD will be (n + 2)
degree curve.

• Loading is (–)ve and increasing ⇒ SFD slope is (–)ve and increasing

• SF is (+) ve and decreasing ⇒ BMD slope is (+) ve and decreasing
• If load intensity is uvl (uniformly varied load) SFD is parabolic and BMD is cubic

• SF is (+) ve and decreasing ⇒ BMD slope is (+) ve and decreasing

• Loading is (–) ve and decreasing ⇒ SFD slope is (–) ve and decreasing

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PRACTICE QUESTION

Problem 1: A cantilever beam of span 6m carries a uniformly distributed load of span 2m and intensity
2kN/m at the free end. Draw the SFD and the BMD.
Problem 2: A cantilever beam of span 6m, carries two point loads of equal value. One downwards at
mid-span and another upwards at the free end. Draw the SFD and BMD and find the distance of the
point of contraflexure, if any, from the free end.
Ans. No PoC
Problem 3: A simply supported beam of span 9m carries two points loads of intensity 10kN each at
a distance of 3m and 6m from the left end. Analyse the beam and draw the SFD and BMD. Determine
the location of the point of contraflexure.
Ans. No PoC, however, SF stays zero for the middle third of the beam.
Problem 4: An overhanging beam with a central span of 8m and left and right overhangs of 2m and
3m respectively is loaded as shown in the figure. Draw the SFD and BMD. Find the location of the
maximum bending moment.
Ans. Maximum BM of 20.5 kNm occurs below 15 kN load.

Problem 5: A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in the figure. Analyse the beam and draw
it’s SFD and BMD.

Problem 6: The shear force diagram of simply supported beam with no overhangs is shown in the
figure. Draw the loading diagram and the BMD.

Problem 7: Derive the relationship between the loading intensity, shear force and the bending
moment at a beam section.
Problem 8: A simply supported beam is subjected to a uniformly varying moment of intensity -M at
the left end to +M at the right end. Analyse the beam and draw the SFD and BMD.

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