Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

Chapter 6

Quantitative
Methods
Introduction 309

6.1 Quantitative Methods 310

How and why do researchers use quantitative methods in
psychology?
(a) True Experiments 310
(b) Experimental Designs and Controls 312
(c) Field Experiments 314
(d) Quasi-Experiments 316
(e) Natural Experiments 318
(f) Correlational Studies 320
(g) Case Studies 322

6.2 Techniques to Study the Brain 324

How and why is technology used to study the brain?
(a) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 324
(b) Functional MRI (fMRI) 327

6.3 Sampling Methods 330

How do we gather participants for quantitative studies?
(a) Random Sampling 330
(b) Self-selected/Volunteer Sampling 332
(c) Opportunity/Convenience Sampling 334

6.4 Ethical Considerations 336

Why are ethics important in psychological research?
(a) Ethics in the Approaches 336
(b) Ethics in the Options 338
(c) Discussing Ethics 340

6.5 Evaluating Studies 343

How do we evaluate studies in psychology?
(a) External Validity 343
(b) Internal Validity 346

Conclusion 348

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 Introduction

Understanding how and why psychologists use particular methods and techniques
when conducting research is at the heart of the IB Psychology course. There may be a
lot of new terms and ideas that will be introduced in this chapter, so it’s recommended
that this material is approached after you have a solid grounding in the subject and
knowledge of a range of different studies. If you have been reading the summaries of
research methods and ethics at the end of each topic, this chapter will help consolidate
your learning and prepare you to apply what you’ve learned in your own explanations
and evaluations of research.

Research in psychology can be roughly categorized into two broad categories:

quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistical
analyses. It enables researchers to draw conclusions about relationships between
variables by turning behaviour into measurable quantities. Qualitative research, on
the other hand, gathers data that is descriptive and cannot be analyzed using statistical
tests. Qualitative methods and related concepts will be addressed in chapter nine.

One of the aims of this course is to help you develop an understanding of the range
of possible options psychologists have when designing and carrying out research. It’s
recommended that all IB Psychology students learn about the quantitative methods in
this chapter as understanding these methods will provide you with a range of possible
options for addressing exam questions - you may be asked about the use of research
methods in any of the topics in the core and the options. This chapter is also designed
to help you understand core concepts involved in conducting your own experimental
research for your Internal Assessment.

Another aim of this chapter is to encourage you to reflect on the nature of the three
different approaches to understanding human behaviour that are integral to the IB
Psychology course. These are the biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches.
In order to help encourage reflection on these different approaches, each quantita-
tive method in the first topic is explained in relation to one of these approaches. For
example, there’s a particular focus on how and why laboratory experiments are used
in the cognitive approach, and why correlational studies are used in cross-cultural
research in the sociocultural approach. This is not to say that these methods are not
used in other areas of study. This has been done to provide you with guidance on how
to relate research methods with particular topics.

By the end of this chapter it is hoped you will be able to independently analyze and
discuss the use of research methods in relation to different areas of study in psychology.
You will also be ready to carry out your own experiment for the Internal Assessment.

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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

6.1 Quantitative Methods

How and why do researchers use quantitative methods
in psychology?

(a) True Experiments

The term experimental method encompasses a range of types of experiments

Manipulate: Control, handle,
manage. In experiments, the
that measure relationships between independent and dependent variables, including
researchers manipulate the natural experiments, quasi-experiments and field experiments (which will be explained
IV by managing it carefully later in this topic). In psychology the term experiment has a rather precise definition,
to create different conditions whereas in mainstream media the term is often used to describe a study that wasn’t an
for comparison. It’s best
to understand this term by
experiment at all.
looking at examples of IVs in
experiments. A true experiment (also known as a laboratory experiment) is a type of experi-
mental method that involves the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) and a
measurement of the effect of this on a dependent variable (DV). The conditions created
by the manipulation of the variable happens in a controlled environment so cause and
effect relationships can be investigated. The true experiment is a common method
True Experiment: a
across all areas of psychology. In this section we’ll explore how and why it’s used in the
quantitative research method
that involves the manipulation cognitive approach to understanding behaviour.
of an independent variable in
order to measure the effects An integral part of the cognitive approach is understanding how variables can
on the dependent variable.
influence our cognitive processes. In order to measure this, researchers design experi-
The aim of an experiment is to
isolate extraneous variables ments that involve the manipulation of an IV that is hypothesized to have an effect on a
and investigate cause and particular cognitive process. Here we can see that one way laboratory experiments are
effect relationships. used in the cognitive approach is to have a cognitive process as the dependent variable.
For example, in studies related to stereotypes and memory, the independent variable is
the information given to the participants prior to processing and interpreting a piece
of information. They are then given a recall test and the effects of this information on
memory are measured. For example, in Stone et al.’s (2010) experiment the IV was the
race of the basketball player in the photo they showed the participants. The DV was
how they perceived and remembered the player’s performance.

Bransford and Johnson’s (1972) experiment is another example of how an inde-

pendent variable (prior knowledge) is manipulated in order to test the effects on
cognition. In their case the dependent variables were comprehension and recall. By
manipulating an IV and creating different conditions, the researchers can measure the
effects of this and compare the results to draw conclusions about the effects of variables
on particular cognitive processes.

Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) experiments on the misinformation effect provide

further examples of how experimental designs can be used to measure the effects
of external variables on cognitive processes. In these experiments the independent
variable was the wording of the leading question and the dependent variable is
memory. By manipulating the presence of misinformation (e.g. in the form of a leading
question) the researchers were able to compare the results of the groups and draw
conclusions about the effects of leading questions and misinformation on memory.

While experiments at the cognitive level of analysis might have the cognitive
process as the dependent variable, they also include studies that measure the effect
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of cognition. In this way, the cognitive approach involves experiments that include
cognition as the independent variable. Many studies that investigate neuroplasticity
fall in this category. In these studies, participants are required to perform different
cognitive processes while the effects on physiology (e.g. brain structure and/or
function) are measured. For example, Desbordes et al.'s (2012) study involved the
manipulation of an independent variable (the type of cognitive practice) and measured
the effects this had on a dependent variable (the brain function during processing of
emotional stimuli).

This experiment is an interesting example of how the term ‘laboratory experiment’

might be misleading. While many laboratory experiments do take place in laborato-
ries, others may not. The goal of a true experiment is to investigate cause and effect An extraneous variable (also
relationships between the IV and the DV. In order to do this, all other extraneous called a nuisance variable) is
variables must be controlled for as much as possible. Having an experiment take place any variable other than the IV
that may affect the DV.
in a controlled environment (e.g. a laboratory) is just one way that researchers can
isolate the independent variable as the only factor influencing the dependent variable.
How researchers design experiments to control for extraneous variables will be
explained in the next section.

Examples of True Experiments in the Approaches

Independent
Approach Study Dependent Variable
Variable
Biological Radke et al. (2012)Testosterone levels Brain activity
while perceiving
faces with different
emotion
Cognitive Cohen (1981) Information Memory: the
provided about amount of stere-
the "women’s" otype consistent
job (waitress or information
librarian) remembered
Sociocultural Asch’s Experiments Group size (is just Rate of conformity
one variable he
manipulated)

In summary, key characteristics of a true experiment include:

• Manipulation of the independent variable and measures the effect/s on a

dependent variable.
• Extraneous variables are controlled for as much as possible.
• The aim is to investigate cause and effect relationships between variables.

Guiding Question:
How and why are experiments used in the cognitive approach to understanding
human behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Limitations: What do you think are the limitations of conducting research on
humans using laboratory experiments? See if you can come up with some examples
to support your evaluation. You also may want to try to practice on your own the
ability to identify the use of a laboratory experiment and explain why it was used.
Another way of extending yourself is to choose another topic and explain how and
why laboratory experiments are used in that topic.
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 If you’re interested…
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

One of the most famous experiments in social psychology is Zimbardo’s

Stanford Prison Experiment. You can see Zimbardo’s Ted Talk called “The
Psychology of Evil.” As you’re watching this video, you may want to be asking
yourself, “is this really an experiment?”

(b) Experimental Designs and Controls

As you’ve seen in the previous section, the primary aim of a true experiment is to
Participant expectancy
effect is when the participant
investigate a cause and effect relationship. The validity of the conclusions from exper-
suspects a particular result in iments regarding cause and effect relationships can be enhanced by controlling for
the experiment, and so their extraneous variables. This can be achieved through the use of experimental designs
behaviour changes, which and controls. As you will be conducting an experiment for your internal assessment,
affects the validity of the data.
you need to know and be aware of these concepts when designing an experiment.

To begin with, there are three main experimental designs: independent samples
(aka independent groups), repeated measures and matched pairs. These terms refer
to how participants experience the conditions of the experiment. In an experi-
ment subjects may be randomly allocated to the treatment condition or the control
of these key terms.
condition (also known as the treatment and control groups). When participants expe-
rience different conditions, the research design is an independent samples design. For
example, in Desbordes et al.’s (2012) study on the effects of meditation on the brain
there was one treatment group who received mindfulness training, another group
who received another form of cognitive training and a control group. These groups
are independent and provide different samples of data, hence this experimental design
is called independent samples. The researchers randomly allocated the participants to
one of the conditions.

By being able to use random allocation to assign participants to the conditions,

The order effect is when the researchers can control for extraneous variables like the participant expectancy effect
order of the task asked to
do in a repeated measures or order effects and increase the likelihood that their results are from the effects of the
independent variable, not these other variables. For example, if Loftus and Palmer’s
results. participants experienced both conditions (e.g. reading “smashed” on one day and then
“hit” on another), they may have guessed the aim of the experiment, which may cause
the participant expectancy effect.

Sometimes it might not be desirable to use independent samples, as participant

variability may confound your results. Participant variability refers to the differences in
your participants that could influence the results. For example, in Bandura’s Bobo Doll
study, he might have ended up with more naturally aggressive children in one of the
groups if he used random allocation. This could distort the results. One way of avoiding
this is to have large sample sizes to decrease the chances of this happening. Bandura
A confounding variable is any
had around 50 kids for four conditions and to control for participant variability he
variable other than the IV that used a matched pairs design. This is where participants are matched on some relevant
criteria and then they are allocated to different conditions. Bandura had the kids’ levels
of natural aggressiveness rated (by teachers and daycare supervisors) and then he split
them according to their ratings. Other experiments often match participants based on
characteristics such as age, gender or occupation.

A third design possibility is called repeated measures. This is when all participants
experience all conditions of the experiment. For instance, in Passamonti et al.’s (2012)
study on the effects of tryptophan depletion (i.e. low serotonin) on the functioning of
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the brain they had participants come into the lab on two different days. On one day If you’re evaluating research
they drank a placebo and on the other they drank the tryptophan depleting drink. in an essay, remember that
part of an evaluation includes
The researchers used counterbalancing to control for order effects, which means strengths. If you know that
randomizing in what order the participants drank the treatment/placebo (e.g. half a study employed particular
would drink placebo first and then tryptophan depletion drink, and the other half controls, you could include
would do it in the opposite order). these in your evaluation and
explain how they help to
increase the validity of the
They also used a double-blind design, which is when neither the researchers nor experiment’s conclusion.
the participants know who is experiencing which condition of the experiment. A
single-blind design is when only the participant doesn’t know which group they belong
to. The use of blind designs can help to control for researcher bias. Researchers may
Internal Validity: the extent
unconsciously interpret results differently if they have a particular hypothesis, or they to which the experiment
may give off subconscious cues towards the participants about how to act during the accurately investigates a
experimental procedures that may also affect the results. particular relationship.

To summarize, there are a number of

controls that researchers can use when
designing experiments. These controls help to
reduce the influence of confounding variables
such as order effects, participant variability,
participant expectancy effects, and researcher
bias. The use of blind designs, counterbal-
ancing and research designs (e.g. MP, RM, IS)
can help control for extraneous variables and
improve the internal validity of an experiment.

When you are designing your own experi-

ment for your IA, you will need to apply your
understanding of some of these key concepts
in your own work. Understanding the experi-
mental design and the use of controls can also
enhance your ability to evaluate experiments Clinical drug trials need to employ a variety of controls to ensure the validity of the
conclusions regarding the effects of new drugs.
that you may use in other parts of the course.

Guiding Question:
Why are controls used in experimental research?

Abstraction Extension:
In the following sections you will learn about other research methods. Can you
think of any subjects of study where allocation into different conditions is impos-
You may want to be referring
sible? (Hint: think about studies investigating brain function). You can also extend
back to the terms and
yourself by revising some key studies you have learned about. Can you identify
possible extraneous variables that might influence the results? How could the you are conducting your IA.
researchers control for these?

If you’re interested…
One of the guys from the Crash Course channel also hosts a video on the
SciShow channel called “Human Experimentation: The Good, The Bad, & the
Ugly.” Do you think Jenner’s “experiments” were really “experiments?”
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 (c) Field Experiments
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

The primary benefit of conducting a laboratory experiment is that extraneous

variables can be controlled for and the independent variable can be isolated as the only
variable that is operating on the dependent variable, which allows conclusions to be
drawn regarding cause-effect relationships. But an obvious critique of the laboratory
Field Experiment: an experiment is that this might not reflect what happens in real life, and psychologists
experiment (with the are interested in understanding real life human behaviour, not only what happens in
manipulation of an IV and
a laboratory.
effects on DV measured)
conducted in a naturalistic
setting. This is why conducting a field experiment is often a valuable type of experiment
to conduct because behaviour in real-life environments (the “field”) can be studied. A
field experiment is when there is a manipulation of the independent variable by the
researcher, but this happens in a naturalistic environment. Field experiments are often
used to investigate social influences on behaviour.

A classic example of a field experiment was conducted on a university campus in

SL and HL students need to Florida by Clark and Hatfield (1989). In this study the researchers wanted to investigate
be able to explain the use the differences in responses to sexual offers by men and women. The researchers had a
of research methods when
range of confederates approach students on campus and ask a question along the lines
studying particular topics
for the core and the options of, ‘would you like to go to bed with me tonight?’ 0% of females agreed to this request
(Paper One and Two). by males, whereas around 70% of males agreed to go to bed with an unknown female.
This is an example of a field experiment as the independent variable (the gender pairing
of the proposer/receiver of the offer) is being manipulated by the researchers as they
have chosen the confederates and given them the instructions to approach attractive
subjects of the opposite gender. It also happens in a naturalistic environment, which is
in a central outdoor area in a large college campus. The dependent variable is the rate
of acceptance of the offer.

Perhaps a better example of a field experiment being used in social psychology is

Sherif et al.’s classic experiment at the Robber’s Cave Summer Camp. In this experi-
ment we can see the benefits of manipulating the independent variable (e.g. conditions
of competition and cooperation) in a real-life setting. The researchers deliberately
chose participants that were quite similar in characteristics to control for participant
variability. By manipulating the conditions within the summer camp, they were able to
test the hypotheses about factors that influence levels of conflict (i.e. competition and
cooperation).

Studies on bystanderism also use field

experiments. A famous study by Piliavin et
al. (1969) involved a confederate collapsing
on a train. One independent variable in
this experiment was the appearance of the
confederate. In one condition he held a
cane for the purposes of appearing injured.
In another condition he held a bottle
and smelled of alcohol. The researchers
found that people were more likely to
help an injured person over a drunk one.
Another variable they tested was the race
of the person in need: on some trials the
confederate was a black man, and in others
a white man. This research furthered our
understanding of bystanderism in real life
Field experiments take place in naturalistic settings, like a busy train station.
situations.
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 In order to determine the particular research method used, you need to know the
definition of the method and methodology of the study in question. You may need
to write down on paper the definition and the method and make sure they match.
For example, I may think that Cialdini’s experiment on re-using hotel towels is a field
experiment because this happens in a naturalistic setting (i.e. a real hotel). It meets
one of the criteria, but I need to ensure that it’s an experiment as well or else I might
get caught out. I can make sure it’s a field experiment by asking myself, “What was
the independent variable and was it manipulated by the researchers?” In this case, the
IV was the wording of the card asking people to re-use their towels. There was a clear
IV, and it was manipulated by the researchers as they wrote the different cards and
randomly assigned them to various rooms.

By following the above thought processes, I can make sure that I have a clear expla-
nation of how a field experiment was used in a particular study. I now need to make
sure that I can clearly explain why it was used in relation to a topic. Cialdini’s field
experiment is relevant to “Social Responsibility” (Human Relationships) and “The
individual and the group” (Sociocultural level of analysis). The explanation of why
a particular method was used needs to include the characteristics of the method and Be careful when identifying
why they were useful in relation to the particular topic. In the case of field exper- research methods and
iments, this involves focusing on why a naturalistic setting for the experiment was examples of studies: make
valuable, and why it was beneficial to manipulate the independent variable. In both
characteristics of the method
cases, my explanation would focus on the benefits of being able to manipulate the you are explaining.
level of perceived social influence. By comparing the effects of differing levels of social
influence the researchers can draw conclusions about the effects this might have on
behaviour. By conducting this experiment in a naturalistic setting, it allows stronger
evidence for the applicability of using such compliance techniques to encourage people
to act in a socially responsible manner in real life situations.

If I was applying this to “Social Responsibility,” I would focus on this aspect of

the research in my explanation. For instance, I might conclude that Cialdini’s field
experiment helped support the argument that social influence can be used in real life
situations to promote prosocial behaviour and to encourage people to act in a socially
responsible manner.

On the other hand, when applying it to “The individual and the group,” I would
focus on this concept in my explanation and how the field experiment relates to this
idea. I might say, for instance, that the use of a field experiment design in Cialdini’s
study enables the researchers to show that individual behaviour can be influenced by
the group (e.g. social influence).

While both explanations would be very similar, the application to the particular
question and topic would be slightly tweaked. Application is an essential part of an
excellent explanation because it shows your understanding. By practicing your ability
to apply studies to demonstrate a range of concepts you will develop a deeper under-
standing of core concepts in psychology, like how and why certain research methods
are valuable in particular areas of study.

To summarize, the key characteristics of a field experiment are:

• There is an independent variable and a dependent variable.

• The IV and DV have been manipulated in a naturalistic setting.
• Because of the environment it’s harder to control for extraneous variables.

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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

Guiding Question:
How and why are field experiments used to study social influences on human
cognition and behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
As with the previous section, there are two key ways that you need to try to extend
your thinking when studying research methods. The first is to think of potential
limitations of using the particular method in that field of study. Can you think of
(and explain) any limitations in using field experiments to study social influences
on behaviour? Can you think of any other field experiments you are familiar with
and apply an explanation of how and why this method was used in that particular
context?

If you’re interested…
Field experiments tend to be interesting in their design as it’s easy to imagine
what we might do if we were in a similar situation. Aron and Dutton’s (1974)
“shaky bridge study” is a classic in the field of attribution and arousal. You can
find a summary of this study on our blog. Have a read and see if you think this
is an example of a “field experiment.”

(d) Quasi-Experiments

In a true experiment researchers can randomly allocate participants to different

conditions, which may help to control extraneous variables and help to establish cause
and effect relationships. Being able to randomly allocate participants can help control
for participant variability and increases the chances of the measures of the dependent
variable being a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. The ability to
randomly assign participants to a condition of the experiment is one of the defining
characteristics of a true experiment. While the true experiment is valuable in psycho-
logical research, it does have some limitations.

When studying human behaviour, there are often times when a variable might be
A quasi-experiment might
investigate relationships influencing behaviour but participants cannot be randomly allocated to a condition.
between IVs and DVs, but Sometimes there is clearly a situation when a particular variable is influencing
other conditions of a true behaviour and comparisons can be made. This is where a quasi-experiment is used. A
experiment cannot be met
quasi-experiment is when a study meets some of the criteria of a true experiment, but
(e.g. participants cannot
be randomly allocated to a not all of the criteria can be met. For example, there might be an investigation into the
treatment or control group.) effects of one variable on another, but the participants cannot be randomly allocated
to a particular condition.

Numerous studies that investigate neuroplasticity by measuring and comparing the

effects of practice on brain structure use a quasi-experimental design. These studies
are investigating the effects of a particular treatment or experience on the brain, but
participants cannot always be randomly allocated to a particular condition in the
study. For example, in Lazar et al.’s 2005 study mentioned in the Criminology chapter,
the effects of mindfulness were investigated. This study had a treatment group that
went through a mindfulness training programme. The effects this mindfulness had on
changes in grey matter were compared to a control group. In this particular study, the
mindfulness participants were enrolled in a programme while the control group were
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on a wait list. In this particular case, it was not the researchers who were
able to randomly assign participants to either condition as they already
existed, yet they were clearly investigating the effects of an IV (mindful-
ness training) on a DV (grey matter in the brain). This is a good example
of a study that follows the strict definition of a quasi-experiment.

Another quasi-experiment that investigated the effects of experience

on brain development was carried out by Elizabeth Maguire (Maguire,
2006). This study compared the brain structures of London taxi drivers
and bus drivers. In order to become a taxi driver you have to train for years
and memorize all the street maps of London. An earlier study by Maguire
had found that there were significant differences in the structure of the
hippocampus when taxi drivers were compared with a control group.
However, there were multiple possible explanations for this difference,
so Maguire conducted this follow-up study to control for those variables.
By comparing taxi and bus drivers, variables like driving experience, job
experiences, age and education could be controlled for. The experience
of training to become a taxi driver and doing this for a job is the variable
that Maguire wanted to investigate the effects of. While other variables
could be controlled and a cause-effect relationship is being studied, the
participants cannot be randomly allocated to either condition. For these
A quasi-experiment still involves some type of
reasons this study could be considered a quasi-experiment.
"treatment" or experimental condition (e.g. yoga
therapy) but one or more characteristics of a true
From these and other examples we can see the value of quasi-experi- experiment can't be met (e.g. random allocation to
a condition).
ments in the biological approach. It enables researchers to investigate rela-
tionships between variables, even when participants cannot be randomly
allocated to conditions in the experiment. Identifying grey areas in
distinguishing methods and
In summary, key characteristics of quasi-experiment include: studies would make for
valuable “critical thinking” in
essays.
• The presence of an IV and a DV (there is typically some sort of “treatment” being
studied).
• The IV is not manipulated by researchers (i.e. it’s pre-existing) so extraneous
variables cannot always be controlled.
• Participants cannot be randomly allocated to a treatment or control condition.

Guiding Question:
How and why are quasi-experiments used in the biological approach to under-
stand human behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Applications: When a study investigates the relationship between biology and
cognition, it’s possible to apply this study to multiple possible questions from
different topics. How could you use the same study to explain how and why a
quasi-experimental design is used in two different topics? E.g. one from biological
approach and one from the cognitive?

If you’re interested…
Research methodologies is not every student’s favourite aspect of the IB
Psychology course. However, if this area of the subject does interest you I
higly recommend Hugh Coolican’s informative book, Research Methods and
Statistics in Psychology.
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 (e) Natural Experiments
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

As we saw in the previous lesson, sometimes there are interesting variables that
have occurred naturally that may be of interest to the researchers. The term quasi-
experiment was created to explain an experimental study that does not meet all the
criteria of a “true” experiment, but there is an effect of some kind of treatment. Similar
to the quasi-experiment is the natural experiment.

A natural experiment is when a researcher investigates the effects of an independent

variable that is occurring naturally. The independent variable in a natural experiment
When identifying a study is usually an environmental factor. For example, Becker et al. (2002) conducted a
as a natural experiment be natural experiment in Fiji after the introduction of television. In 1995 TV was intro-
sure you identify clearly the duced for the first time on one of Fiji’s islands. The researchers wanted to investigate
independent variable that is
naturally occurring.
the effects this might have on eating disorders and attitudes in young women on the
island. In this case, the naturally occurring independent variable (the introduction of
TV) was of interest to the researchers as they could investigate the effect this had on
eating behaviours and attitudes of the Fijian girls. This research can help develop our
understanding of how media influences may play a role in eating disorders.

Because natural experiments often include the introduction of a variable in the

environment, they are often used to study the effects of social influences on behaviour.
The introduction of TV (and other media) is a social variable influencing behaviour.
The effects of media on behaviour is a common variable in natural experiments and
can be compared with Bandura’s experimental research from the 1960s. The benefits
of laboratory experiments in this area of study is that extraneous variables can be
controlled and the study is quite straightforward. But could these results be applied to
naturalistic settings?

An example of a natural experiment investigating a causal relationship between

media and violence was carried out by Dahl and DellaVigna in 2009. In their natural
experiment they measured the effects of the release of violent blockbuster movies on
acts of violence. They found that on the days that a violent movie is released, violent
crime is actually reduced between 6pm and midnight (by a small margin – just over
1%) and further reduced between midnight and 6am. There explanation for this is
that people who are prone to
committing acts of violence are
in the movie theatres and are
preoccupied with this, so they
are not in a place to commit an
act of violence. Being in a movie
theatre also reduces alcohol
consumption, which could
further reduce violent acts. By
studying the naturally occurring
variable of the release of block-
buster movies, these researchers
were able to investigate rela-
tionships between media and
violence.

Cialdini et al.’s 1976 study on

the effects of the football team’s
success is another example of
a natural experiment. In this
The introduction of TV in Fiji is an example of a naturally occuring independent variable that researchers
wanted to investigate.
case the independent variable
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was whether or not the college football team won. This is a variable that is naturally When explaining natural
occurring, but still might influence behaviour (wearing the clothing with the name experiments in relation to a
particular topic make sure your
of the college). This variable’s influence on behaviours related to social identity could explanation is clearly focused
not be manipulated in a laboratory, so the researchers make the most of naturally on why the study of a naturally
occurring environmental variables. occurring variable is useful in
that particular context.
It’s important to note that the difference between a quasi- and natural experiment
is very slight and it’s not always possible to make a black-and-white distinction. In
fact, natural experiments are considered a type of quasi-experiment. The definition
of quasi-experiment has also become much broader than its original definition. To
make matters even more confusing, field experiments might also be considered a
quasi- experiment. It’s very easy to get confused and frustrated at trying to categorize
studies and label them as using a particular method. If you are unsure if a study is a
natural experiment or a quasi-experiment, you can identify it as a quasi-experiment
(since a natural experiment is a type of quasi-experiment). When identifying the use
of a quasi-experiment you can keep it simple and see if the study:

• Is investigating a causal relationship between an IV and a DV, and…

• Lacks one or more characteristics of a true experiment (e.g. participants cannot
be randomly allocated to conditions).

If the study meets these criteria, it can be accurately labelled a quasi-experiment.

But don't get too hung up on categorization - the key concept for you to understand
about research methods is that there are multiple possible ways for researchers to study
human behaviour, and each method has its own strengths and limitations.

In summary, key characteristics of a natural experiment include:

• The presence of an IV and a DV.

• The IV is a naturally occurring variable in the environment.
• The IV is not manipulated by researchers (i.e. it’s naturally occurring) so extra-
neous variables cannot always be controlled.

Guiding Question:
How and why are natural experiments used in the sociocultural approach to
understand human behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Areas of Uncertainty: Categorizing studies and labelling them as using one method
or another can be a difficult and often an impossible task. Can you think of studies
that could fit the description of a field, natural and quasi experiment?

If you’re interested…
An interesting natural experiment was carried out on the small island of St.
Helena. TV was introduced in the 1990s and the researchers wanted to see if
this would have an effect on the level of violence displayed by the school kids
on the island. You can read more about this study on our blog.
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 (f) Correlational Studies
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

In previous sections you’ve seen how laboratory experiments are carefully designed
in order to control for extraneous variables and isolate the independent variable as
Remember that studies may being the only variable that is operating on the dependent variable. If this can be
be relevant to the biological,
cognitive and/or sociocultural
successfully achieved, a cause and effect relationship may be established. But it’s not
approach. There aren’t always always possible to manipulate important variables that are of interest to researchers.
clear distinctions between For example, the introduction of TV, treatments or particular experiences are naturally
these three approaches. occurring variables that psychologists want to investigate. This is where quasi experi-
mental methods can be valuable.

In this section we’ll explore a non-experimental quantitative research method, the

correlational study. Correlational studies do not have IVs and DVs as such. They have
two (or more) variables that can co-vary, which means they can both vary along a
scale. For this reason, they are not investigating the effect one variable has on another.
Instead, they are measuring the strength of a relationship between the variables.

Data is gathered in a correlational study using different techniques, such as ques-

:a tionnaires, interviews, observations or brain imaging technology. Statistical tests are
number that denotes the applied to the data to determine the correlations between the variables. A perfect
strength of the correlation
positive correlation has a correlation coefficient 1.0 and a perfect negative correlation
between variables.
is -1.0. The closer the scores are to 1.0 or -1.0 the stronger the correlation. For example,
a positive correlation of 0.24 is not as strong as a correlation of 0.76. A correlation
coefficient of 0 in the statistical analysis means there is no correlation. When assessing
the strength of correlations in research it can be beneficial to know the value of the
correlation coefficient.

Because they may not be able to control for all extraneous variables, quasi experi-
ments may only provide insight into correlational relationships, not causational ones.
For this reason, correlational studies are very closely related to quasi experiments and
often their distinction is blurred. There is one way that may help you to distinguish a
quasi experiment from a correlational study. A correlational study doesn’t necessarily
have an independent and a dependent variable. The relationship between the two does
not work in one particular direction and there may be a bidirectional relationship. This
is why it’s considered a non-experimental method.

Research on cultural influences on cognition and behaviour provide good examples

of the use of the correlational study. In these studies both variables can exist along a
range of values. Cultures are not 100% individualistic or collectivist - their scores on
this scale can vary along a range. The other variable (the behaviour) in these studies
can also vary. For example, in Levine’s research on prosocial behaviour he gathered
data to determine the extent
to which cultures were on the
individualism/collectivism
scale. This variable could
range along the continuum
y y y of Hofstede’s scale with 120
at one end and 0 at the other.
The extent to which people
from different cultures
x x x helped also varies. So while
Strong Positive Strong Negative Weak Positive the cultural values of the
Correlation Correlation Correlation participants is a naturally
occurring variable, because it
A positive correlation is when as one variable increases, so does the other. A negative correlation is when as one can vary along a continuum
variable increases, the other decreases.
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and so can the other variable it’s related to, it’s a better example of a correlational study Surveys and questionnaires
than a natural or quasi experiment. are used in correlational
studies. You can read more
about these methods on
Correlational studies are often used in the biological approach as well. A biological ThemEd’s IB Psychology blog.
factor is one variable and the other is behaviour. Data is gathered from participants
using various methods and then the statistical tests are conducted to determine the
strength of the relationship between the two variables. For instance, when studying
what might cause a disorder like PTSD, correlations between particular aspects of the
brain (e.g. function in a particular area) and symptoms are determined.

In summary, correlational studies are of particular value when both variables can
vary along a range. By gathering data and conducting statistical tests to determine
the existence and strength of correlations between variables, researchers can provide
possible explanations for the existence of the relationship. Correlational studies might
also inspire further research in a particular area and experimental methods may be used Visit our blog for examples
to further understand the nature of the relationship between variables. For example, of exam answers and other
numerous studies have revealed a negative correlation between hippocampus volume resources that address
and PTSD symptom severity. This inspired a twin-study that sought to determine if research methods (http://
ibpsych.themantic-education.
this brain abnormality in people with PTSD was a cause or a symptom. The results com)
suggested that low volume in the hippocampus is a pre-existing risk factor that may
increase the likelihood of developing PTSD after being exposed to trauma. Early
studies that deduced the correlation led to research that developed our understanding
of the relationship between the hippocampus and PTSD.

To summarize, the characteristics of a correlational study are:

• There is not an IV or a DV as such, but two variables that can co-vary.

• Statistical analysis is conducted in order to determine the correlation coefficient
(the strength of the correlation between variables).
• Questionnaires, technology and other tools are used to gather data in order to
measure correlations.
Check out our blog for more
detailed explanations of how
and why correlational studies
are used in different areas of
study.
Guiding Question:
How does a correlational study differ from an experiment?

Abstraction Extension:
Areas of Uncertainty: As you’ve seen, it’s not always easy to classify experiments.
For example, would you call Desbordes et al.’s study on mindfulness a laboratory
experiment, field experiment or a correlational study? Could you describe this
study in a way that shows that it’s one method, or another? Or all?

If you’re interested…
Correlation definitely does not mean causation. Tyler Vigen demonstrates
this concept to the extreme on his website (and in his book) where he explores
spurious correlations, like the amount of deaths by drowning in a pool per
year correlating with the number of films that Nicolas Cage appears in.
(tylervigen.com)

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 (g) Case Studies
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

In the previous sections you’ve been introduced to the idea that categorizing
research methods is not a black-and-white process and there is often not a clear
distinction between methods. It’s hoped that instead of finding this frustrating you
can appreciate the deeper conceptual understanding that this course is trying to help
you to develop: researchers have a range of research techniques and methods at their
Case studies use a mixed- disposal and their choice will depend on their aims and the context of their research.
methods approach - they use
quantitative and qualitative
methods. The research method in this section, the case study, is an interesting one in that
it combines qualitative and quantitative methods. The definition of a case study is an
in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organization. Case studies use
quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data and draw conclusions and may also
be carried out over a long period of time.

In this text we explore two important case studies: SM and HM. The use of a case
study on patients with brain damage was especially useful before the invention of
modern brain imaging technology, such as fMRIs and MRIs. With fMRIs we can now
see what areas of the brain are functioning when particular tasks are being performed.
Case studies like HM’s (covered in the PTSD chapter) existed before this technology,
which is why they were particularly valuable. Having said that, Corkin et al. (1997) used
MRIs to measure the extent of HM’s brain damage. This later research still contributed
to the case study of HM and developed our understanding of the relationships between
neurology and cognition.

Feinstein et al.’s case study on SM was the first that investigated the role of the
amygdala in the induction of fear. SM’s bilateral amygdala damage was rare because
it was isolated to the amygdala and other parts of her brain were unaffected. Because
of the unique damage to her amygdala, she has become a valuable case to study. If
researchers were to use brain scanners in an experimental design, they would only
be able to correlate the amygdala function with perception of frightening stimuli. By
gathering observation data in field studies like taking her to a haunted house or exotic
pet store, the researchers could actually observe her behaviour. The self-report quan-
titative surveys they used also helped to triangulate their observational findings. In
order to actually measure fear responses, behavioural observations may
be of more value in this case than brain imaging.

SM’s study is also a good example of how researchers apply a range

of data gathering techniques to draw conclusions from case studies. She
filled out quantitative questionnaires that had questions based on how
much fear she experienced during the pet store visit and the haunted
house. The researchers also gathered observational and interview data.
This use of methodological triangulation is often a key feature of case
studies in psychology and is part of what makes them an in-depth
investigation.

SM’s case study was carried out after the development of brain
imaging technology but is still an example of how case studies on
patients with abnormalities in the brain can provide an insight into the
functions of the human brain. One reason for this is because “whereas
functional imaging typically reveals activity in distributed brain regions
that are involved in a task, lesion studies can define which of these brain
regions are necessary for a cognitive process” (Muller and Knight, 2006).
Brenda Milner was one of the cognitive psychologists
who studied HM for decades.

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 It is important to note that case studies are used in many areas of psychology, not
just on patients who have brain abnormalities. It just so happens that in this text two of
the prime examples of case studies happen to be about such patients.

To summarize, the key characteristics of a case study are:

• They’re an in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organization.

• Multiple methods are used to gather data.
• Quantitative and qualitative data is gathered and analyzed.

The purpose of this topic is to provide you with a chance to reflect on how and why
particular quantitative methods are used. As you continue to learn about new studies,
you can be reflecting on their methodology and thinking about the choices behind
using such methods.

Guiding Question:
How and why are case studies used when investigating the brain and behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Limitations: One of the major critiques of case studies is that because of their small
sample sizes, the findings may not be able to be generalized to a wider population.
As you’ll know by now, this evaluation is limited and needs explanation, including
reasons and/or examples. Can you think of specific reasons why HM’s and/or SM’s
results might not be generalizable?

If you’re interested…
The British Psychological Society has an online article called “Psychology’s
10 Greatest Case Studies – Digested.” This list includes Phineas Gage and HM,
as well as some others that might be new for you as they’re not included in
this text. If you’re interested in the psychology of childhood development,
you may be interested in learning about the case of a girl named “Genie.”
Do be warned, the details of Genie’s story and why she was studied may be
distressing.

Relevant Topics

• All topics in core and options

Practice Exam Questions

• Describe how one research method is used to study cognitive processes.

• Explain the use of one research method in investigating the individual and the
group.
• Evaluate the use of one or more research methods involved in the study of
cultural origins of behaviour.
• Discuss the use of one or more research methods used to study prosocial
behaviour.
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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

6.2 Techniques to Study the Brain

How and why is technology used to study the brain?

(a) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRIs and fMRIs are big machines where participants lay down and have their brain activity measured. You can
probably see why the right to withdraw is a key ethical consideration.

With modern brain imaging technology (e.g. MRIs, fMRIs, etc.) psychologists can
investigate correlations between the brain and behaviour using a range of new techno-
logical techniques that don’t involve harming animals. Case studies and animal studies
are useful for some purposes, but brain scanning devices allow researchers to actually
see the structure and activity of the brain. These machines perform slightly different
functions and produce different types of images of the brain, so it’s important to know
in particular the key difference between what a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scan shows compared with a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan. It’s
also essential that you can explain how and why these technologies are used to study
the brain and behaviour, using examples of research to support your answer.

An MRI scanner is used to take images of the structure of the brain. If you’ve had
an injury you might have been in an MRI yourself; they are also used to look at muscle
damage when people have injuries. You don’t have to know how an MRI works, but you
do need to know how and why MRI is used in psychological research.

Some of the studies we’ve looked at that used an MRI scan were:

• Vietnam Head Injury Study (Grafman et al., 1996).

• Neglected Children and Brain Development (Perry and Pollard, 1997).
• SM’s Case Study (Feinstein et al., 2012).
• The Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara et al., 2000).
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 • Meditating Monks (Lazar et al., 2005).
• Studies on poverty and neglect in children (Luby et al., 2013).

MRI’s are useful in a few general areas of the biological and cognitive approaches
to understanding behaviour because they enable conclusions to be drawn about rela-
tionships between brain structure and behaviour. In many studies, the MRI is used
to identify and determine differences in brain structure that may be correlated with
changes in behaviour. The damage to a particular area of the brain is hypothesized to
be a cause of difference and participants are grouped by this characteristic (with the There are numerous ways
you can explain how and
help of the MRI). For instance, in the Iowa Gambling Task and the Vietnam Head
why MRIs are useful to study
Injury Study, MRIs can be used to find people with damage to the areas of the brain the brain and behaviour.
that are relevant for the study by helping to identify the exact location and extent of It’s important that you
damage. Those participants are then asked to perform certain tasks (e.g., participate try to develop your own
in the gambling game, complete questionnaires that measure aggressiveness, etc.).
right studies to support your
From their performance on the tasks and comparisons with control groups who have argument.
healthy, undamaged brains (as shown in MRI scans) conclusions can be made about
the role of different parts of the brain in particular behaviours. The MRI scan facilitates
the investigation of the role of particular areas of the brain in behaviour.

On the other hand, MRIs can also measure the effects of behaviour on brain
structure in experimental research. This can be seen in studies that use MRIs in the
investigation of neuroplasticity. The studies investigating poverty and neglect on the
brain structures of children are examples of how MRIs can help researchers study
relationships between naturally occurring variables and the development of the brain.
These are examples of how MRIs are very useful when conducting quasi experiments
and correlational studies.

MRIs can also be used in true experiments. One interesting study that also demon-
strates neuroplasticity compared the brains of people who couldn’t juggle. Half the
participants trained for three months at juggling and the other half didn’t. Before the
study their brains were similar, but after three months of learning how to juggle they
found a difference in the brain structures (using MRI) between the two groups. In
particular, the juggling group had a change in the structure (increased grey matter) in
parts of the brain involved in processing and storing complex visual motion (Draganski
et al., 2004).

Researchers can also use

MRIs in correlational studies.
This can be seen in criminology
studies that take groups of
particular types of criminals
and scan their brains to see
if there are similarities. They
can also compare the scans to
healthy controls. Raine was
part of such a study that corre-
lated childhood aggressiveness
and early psychopathic traits
with smaller amygdala volume
(Pardini et al., 2014). The use
of MRI scans in studies like
these enable researchers to
identify particular behaviours
This is an image from an MRI. You can see a large tumour
(e.g. aggressiveness) and see if
by the white space on the bottom right. MRIs show the
there are correlations with the structure of the brain.
structure of particular areas of
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 the brain. By finding out that the amygdala volume is different in the participants in
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

the above study, researchers can conclude that the amygdala may play a role in behav-
iours like aggressiveness, violence and psychopathic traits. This is of interest in and of
itself, and may also spark further research into this relationship.

In summary, MRIs can play integral roles in experimental and non-experimental

methods in two key ways. One involves using the MRI to measure existing damage
or structural abnormalities in the brain. Behavioural measures are recorded and so
correlations can be deduced about relationships between particular parts of the brain
and behaviour. Another way that MRIs might be used is to measure the changes
in the brain as a result of particular experiences, as shown in studies investigating
neuroplasticity.

Guiding Question:
Why are MRIs useful when studying the brain and behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Evaluation: MRIs can only show static images of the brain; they cannot display
ongoing brain activity like fMRIs and PET scans. This limits the use of MRIs to
particular types of studies. What particular areas of study is the MRI not very
useful for investigating? Another limitation of brain imaging is that they often only
explain correlations. Can you use one of the studies above to explain how the study
can only show correlation and not causation?

If you’re interested…
Can we measure all behaviours in a brain scanner? In his TED talk, “What
if we could really read the brain?” Matt Wall explains some existing uses of
MRI and other brain imaging technologies, but more importantly he provides
an insight into the possible future of brain imaging technology. In 50 years’
time when you’re very old and needing a brain scan, MRIs and fMRIs will be
thought of as ancient devices.

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 (b) Functional MRI (fMRI)

While MRIs measure the structure of the brain, fMRIs enable researchers to inves-
tigate the function of the brain. The MRI shows a still image, whereas fMRI machines
enable us to see which areas of the brain are activated when performing certain Whereas MRIs measure
tasks. As with MRIs, fMRIs can investigate brain function as a potential influence on structure, fMRIs measure
behaviour, as well as measuring the effects behaviour can have on the brain. function and activity.

In fMRI scans, images are produced of the parts of the brain that are activated at
any one time while the participant is in the machine. When neurons in a particular
part of the brain are firing, more blood is sent to that area of the brain. The fMRI
detects this change in blood flow, allowing correlations between areas of the brain that
are active and the particular tasks being investigated. The areas that are activated can
be seen onscreen, so researchers can measure areas of the brain that are functioning
during particular behaviours and cognitive tasks.

Here are some of the studies that have used fMRI scans:

• Phobias and the amygdala activation (fMRI) (Ahs et al., 2009).

• Brain activation on perception of emotional stimuli, e.g. serotonin and testos-
terone studies (Passamonti et al., 2012; Radke et al., 2015).
• Mindfulness and meditation (Desbordes et al., 2012).
• There are numerous studies in the PTSD chapter that also use fMRIs.

fMRI has been used extensively in studies investigating the perception and
processing of emotional stimuli. Many studies throughout the chapters on Criminology
and PTSD, for instance, use the similar methodology whereby a participant is placed in
an fMRI machine and they are exposed to emotional stimuli.

fMRI scans can be useful in experimental studies that measure the effects of
changes in biochemistry on brain function. For example, Passamonti et al.’s (2012)
experiment manipulated the levels of serotonin in participants and used fMRI
to measure the effects this had on the function of the prefrontal cortex during the
perception of emotional stimuli. Radke et al.’s (2015) experiment on testosterone did
something similar, although they manipulated testosterone through injections. Both
of these experiments manipulated the participants’ biochemistry and then used the
fMRI scans to measure the effects this had on the functions of particular areas of the
brain during perception of different faces. In these examples we can see how the brain
function is the dependent variable and the fMRI enables researchers to record changes Another common brain
in brain function as a result of the manipulation of an independent variable. The use imaging technology is PETs.
These work in a similar way
of fMRIs in this experimental procedure can help further our understanding of the
to fMRIs. Raine (1997) used a
possible role biological factors (e.g. serotonin and testosterone) may play in behaviours PET to compare brain function
such as aggression and violence, because we can see how they impact brain function in criminals with controls.
during particular tasks. In this way they further our understanding of relationships
between the brain and behaviour.

Another use of fMRIs in criminology is to detect abnormalities in brain function

during particular tasks in people prone to aggressiveness or violence. Kiehl et al.
(2001) conducted one such study where they compared the brain function of criminal
psychopaths with criminal non-psychopaths and non-criminal controls. In this
study they asked participants to perform a memory task involving remembering
emotional words (e.g. hate) and non-emotional words (e.g. chair). They found that
there was reduced activity in the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, etc.) of the
psychopaths compared to the other groups. The use of fMRI in this study allowed the
researchers to measure cognitive processing and its relationship with particular areas
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 of the brain (including the hippocampus and the amygdala). The fact that psychopaths
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

had reduced functioning in these areas could help explain why psychopaths tend to
have reduced emotional reactions: they lack the proper functioning in the parts of the
brain responsible for emotional reactions to stimuli.

In experimental research the effects of variables on brain function can also be

measured using fMRIs. As with MRIs that can measure structural changes as a result
of treatment or repeated practice of something, fMRIs can measure changes in the
function of particular areas of the brain as a result of treatment. Desborde et al.’s (2012)
study on the neurological effects of meditation and mindfulness is an example of how
fMRIs can be used in experimental procedures to gather before and
after data on brain function and determine the effects of particular
tasks on the brain. When studying PTSD you will see many examples
of how fMRIs are used to measure the effects of treatment on brain
function.

To summarize, while the MRI can allow correlations to be studied

between brain structure and behavior, the use of fMRI facilitates the
study of correlations between brain function and behaviour.

It is important to note that if you are asked in exams about the

use of “techniques” to study the brain and behaviour, you should
focus on technological techniques such as MRI and fMRI scans. If
you are asked about “methods,” you should focus on the quantitative
methods that use these techniques (e.g. quasi experiments, labora-
Here you can see how an fMRI image enables the tory experiments, correlational studies, etc.)
function of particular areas of the brain to be shown.
Included in this image is the ACC and the SMA, which
are relevant to the studies in PTSD.

Guiding Question:
Why are fMRIs useful when studying the brain and behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Evaluation: While technology can be useful, there are significant limitations. What
are the limitations of using brain imaging technology to investigate particular areas
of behaviour? Are brain imaging studies fundamentally limited by a lack of ecolog-
ical validity?

If you’re interested…
Another type of technology used to study the brain is called SPECT. Dr.
Daniel Amen uses this type of technology extensively in his research and he
delivers an interesting TED talk that summarises his findings called “Change
your brain, change your life.”

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Relevant Topics

• Techniques used to study the brain and behaviour

• Ethics and research methods

Practice Exam Questions

• Describe one technique used to study the brain and behaviour.

• Contrast two techniques used to study the brain and behaviour.

Research Methods

Technology can be used as part of correlational studies and laboratory exper-

iments, as well as case studies. The type of research design they are applied to
depends on the aims of the research.

Ethical Considerations

The right to withdraw is an important consideration when using technology

because of the nature of the machines.

Debriefing is also important because participants would naturally be very

curious about what the researchers found out about their brains. In some studies
where the aims are not obvious (e.g. viewing angry/sad/happy faces) the partici-
pants would naturally be curious about the research and the results and so it would
be important to debrief them so they could leave the study without any possibility
of anxiety or stress as to why they were being studied in the first place. Anonymity
is also important to consider because participants may not want others to know
about their brain structure or function, especially if they have abnormalities.

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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

6.3 Sampling Methods

How do we gather participants for quantitative
studies?

(a) Random Sampling

When designing and carrying

out research, psychologists need
to consider multiple factors. One
of these includes who will actually
participate in the study and how
these participants will be found. The
term used to describe the group of
When you carry out your participants in a study is a sample.
internal assessment you
will also need to gather The sampling method refers to how
participants for your sample those participants are gathered. In
and so you’ll need to think this topic you’ll be introduced to the
carefully about what sampling Sample sampling methods that are commonly
method you’ll use and why.
used in quantitative research. This
topic is most relevant to your internal
assessment.
Target Population
One of the most commonly
misused terms by IB psychology students is random sampling. A random sample is
when every member of the target population has an equal chance of being asked to
participate in the study. The reason why students misuse the term random sampling is
because they do not think of random in a mathematical sense. A common inaccurate
description of random sampling in student experiments is something along the lines
of, “we walked into the classroom and randomly asked who was there to participate in
our study.” As the following explanation should show you, this is not random sampling.

The target population refers to the wider group to which the researchers are
expecting their results can be generalized to. The sample is a small selection of that
larger population. For example, after the September 11th terrorist attacks in the United
Generalize: in psychological
States in 2001, researchers conducted studies on US citizens to investigate the psycho-
means you can take the logical effects of the attacks. One study (Schuster et al., 2001) used phone interviews to
results from your sample and gather their data. In this case the target population was adult-aged American citizens.
presume the same would There are around 400 million US citizens which would make it impossible to ask each
apply to a larger group.
and every one to participate, which is why a sample is collected in with the intention
that the sample represents the target population and the results can be generalized.
This particular study used a telephone interview and random-digit dialing to gather a
sample of 560 adults. This is an example of random sampling, as every phone number
in the US would have an equal chance of being called and so all members of the target
population would have an equal chance of participating. The use of technology or a
random number generator is one way to ensure that the sample is statistically random,
and not just haphazard.

The primary benefit of using a random sample is that it has a high probability of
being a representative sample. When conducting psychological research, one major
aim is to ensure that your sample is an accurate representation of the wider group you
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are studying (i.e. the target population) so you can accurately generalize findings. The A large sample reduces the
larger the sample size the more probable it is that the results will be generalizable as a chances of sampling bias,
which is when the sample
large sample size will minimize the effects of participant variability.
of the wider population to
Random sampling may also reduce the chances of researcher bias. Researcher bias which the conclusions will be
is when the attitudes, values or beliefs of the researcher may interfere with the research generalized.
process. If a researcher has a particular hypothesis, they may unconsciously wish to
gather results that will support their hypothesis. This could lead to obtaining a sample
that might be more likely to produce the desired results, as opposed to producing repre-
sentative results. The use of random sampling can reduce the possibility of researcher
HL students will also need to
bias influencing the results because they will not select the participants, their random be aware of sampling methods
generator will. for Paper Three.

When conducting psychological research, one must also consider the practical
elements as well. Gathering a true random sample can be rather difficult as it means
getting the contact details of every member of your target population so that they
can be included in the random sample generator. There are alternative methods for
sampling, and these will be explained in the following sections.

In summary, characteristics of a random sample include:

• Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being asked to
participate.
• The aim is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population.
• It might have practical limitations, such as gathering the contact details of all
members of the population.

Guiding Question:
How might a random sample increase the possibility of generalizability?

Abstraction Extension:
Area of Uncertainty: What is a target population? Defining a target population
can be troublesome. It also raises the question, why bother defining it at all? Is the
purpose of psychological research not to understand all human behaviour? Can
you think of a study that you’ve learned about that might have a particular target
population?

If you’re interested…
Be sure to regularly check our blog for new “Two Minute Tutorials.” These
aim to provide you some guidance on a range of concepts, including random
sampling.

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 (b) Self-selected/Volunteer Sampling
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

As you learned in the previous section random sampling can be an effective means
of gathering a representative sample. The major limitation though is that it can be time
consuming. It might also be difficult to get all the contact details of members of the
target population in order to ensure that each of them has an equal chance of being
able to participate in the study.

Random sampling involves generating a list of possible participants and then

approaching them to ask to participate in the study. Another way of gathering a sample
is to reverse this: have people approach you and volunteer to participate in the study.
This is called self-selected sampling, or volunteer sampling.

Self-selected sampling naturally relies on the use of some form marketing or adver-
tising in order to let people know that there is a study that they could participate in.
Posting a flyer on a noticeboard, advertising in a magazine or sending out a message
via social media are all possible methods of attracting volunteers to your study.

Self-selected sampling is commonly used when the

course of the study might take some time. For example,
studies investigating how changes in female hormone
levels may influence attraction to particular facial
characteristics (as discussed in the chapter on Love
and Marriage) often require gathering data at several
different points. Self-selected sampling may be beneficial
in studies like these that require a lot more involvement
than something simple like filling out a questionnaire
or a one day commitment. Because participants have
to give up more time, one would expect less people to
be willing to participate. If a random sample was used,
researchers might waste a lot of time asking lots of people
Using a notice board to advertise for a study is a common way of who would say no, or who may sign-up and then drop
gathering a self-selected/volunteer sample. out later. Asking for volunteers ensures that people are
willing to commit to the time involved in the study and
that they actually want to participate in the research in
the first place. If there are particular participant characteristics that the researchers are
looking for, they can list these in their marketing.
Sampling bias: when some
members of the target
population are less (or more) But this particular method is not without its downsides. By having participants
likely to be included in the decide who participates there is the chance of sampling bias. People may only volunteer
sample. if they have particular beliefs or opinions relating to the subject being studied. For
example, if volunteers were asked to participate in a study relating to issues of gender
and identity, it might attract people that felt strongly about this particular topic. This
might not provide a representative sample and so it could affect the validity of the
results.

Depending on the specifics of the study, it might also be that only extroverted
people who have a lot of confidence might sign-up, as it could be outside a lot of
people’s comfort zones to agree to participate in a study.

As you can start to see, there are a number of factors that researchers need to
consider when planning their research. It often involves doing a cost-benefit analysis
that includes issues of validity as well as practicality. You will need to go through these
same planning and thought processes as you design your experimental research for
your IA.
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 If you decide to use volunteer sampling it is essential that you carefully describe
how your sampling method falls into this category. Many students make the mistake
of oversimplifying their description by saying something like: “we used a volunteer
sampling method because all participants volunteered to be in our study.” While this
isn’t incorrect, it doesn’t provide sufficient context for how this is a volunteer/self-se-
lected sample because all participants in IB Psychology experiments will be volun-
teers regardless of the sampling method – for ethical reasons you cannot research
on someone against their will or without their knowledge. Be sure to describe your
procedure carefully, including how participants self-selected themselves to participate
in your study.

To summarize, characteristics of a self-selected/volunteer sample include:

• Participants are the ones that approach the researchers as volunteers to participate
in the study.
• There is typically some form of advertising by the researchers that calls for
participants.
• The sample may not be representative as sampling bias may occur.
• Participants may have more commitment to the study, especially those requiring
multiple data points.

Guiding Question:
How does a self-selected/volunteer sample differ from a random sample?

Abstraction Extension:
Areas of Uncertainty: Distinguishing between different sampling methods can
be very difficult. Read the description of a “purposive sample” in the Qualitative
Methods chapter and see if you can clearly identify a difference between self-se-
lected sampling and purposive sampling.

If you’re interested…
You could design an experiment to test the effectiveness of self-selected
sampling. You could try using two different mediums of advertising (e.g.
Facebook versus bulletin board sign-up) or maybe try two different types of
studies in the same place. Do you get the same or different people signing up?
Could this be an issue in research?

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 (c) Opportunity/Convenience Sampling
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

Before we look at another common sampling method in quantitative research,

remember that you do not need to discuss sampling methods in Paper One or Two.
For Paper Three (HL students only) you need to be able to identify the sampling
method used in an example study and state at least two characteristics of the sampling
method. All students need to use one particular sampling method when conducting
your experimental research for the IA, and you need to be able to describe and explain
the method you have chosen.

You’ve probably noticed already

in this course that a vast majority
of psychological studies take place
using college participants. The reason
for this is a simple one: convenience.
College campuses are often where
the studies happen and researchers
are primarily psychology professors
working on college campuses where
there are thousands of potential
participants, many of whom would
be willing to give up their time for
a few dollars or even simply for the
experience of being in a study.

It's not surprising, therefore,

that opportunity sampling is a very
common technique used to gain a
Finding a whole class that is available at a convenient time to run an experiment is a common
way of gathering a sample for IB Psychology IA experiments. sample. This is when a researcher
gathers their participants by simply
asking people who are available at
the time that is convenient for the participant and researcher. For this reason it’s also
known as convenience sampling.
Opportunity sampling is the
most common sampling Opportunity sampling is also the most common form of sampling method for
method used in IAs. IB Psychology students’ internal assessments. This is primarily because of practical
reasons: you have a limited amount of time to conduct your research and you want
to gather a suitable amount of participants as conveniently as possible. The primary
advantage of using an opportunity sample, therefore, is that it’s far more convenient
than random sampling and ensures you can gather a sufficient sample. Also, with
self-selected sampling if you post a sign-up or send out a message on social media
announcing the time and place of your experiment, you may end up with a sample that
is too small. These are the practical factors you need to take into consideration when
planning your study. Using an opportunity sample may be a way to overcome these
problems.

A common form of opportunity sampling is when people stand in a busy area with
lots of foot traffic and stop people and ask if they would spare a few minutes to fill out a
questionnaire. The participants just happen to be walking by and the time is convenient
for them. It’s obviously an opportune time for the researcher as well, because they’re
standing there with the clipboard with the sole purpose of gathering data.

Levine’s study on prosocial behaviour is another example of an opportunity sample.

If you’ll remember, Levine’s confederates were in public places and required the help of
strangers. They would do things like pretending to be blind and needing help crossing
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the street. The participants in this case are not aware that they are in fact the subjects of
experimental research, they just happen to be in the area at the time of the study. Thus,
they’re part of an opportunity sample.

A potential limitation in using an opportunity sample is that there could be an

increased chance of researcher bias. If a researcher is gathering data on individual
participants, they may only ask participants whom they think will provide data that
is consistent with their hypotheses. For example, if a study was investigating attitudes
towards college spending on sports versus academics, a researcher might believe that
the college is spending too much on sports and ignoring investment in other areas
of the school. If they were conducting a survey on campus they may (consciously or
unconsciously) approach students whom they think would be likely to provide the
data consistent with their views and avoid those that might think otherwise.

In summary, an opportunity sample:

• Gathers participants who happen to be available at a given time.

• Is based on convenience, both for the participant and the researcher.
• Depending on the nature of the study, there may be a chance of researcher and/or
sampling bias.

These sampling methods are commonly used in studies that gather quantitative
data. They tend to have large sample sizes and aim to gather representative data with
the goal of generalizing findings to a wider population beyond the sample. Like other
elements of research design, decisions have to be made by weighing up issues of
validity and practicality. While it’s probable that you will use one of the above sampling
methods for your IA, you may want to read about purposive sampling (in Qualitative
Methods) as well, especially if you are in a small school.

Guiding Question:
Why do you think IB Psychology students tend to use opportunity sampling?

Abstraction Extension:
Area of Uncertainty: Blurred Boundaries: What if you approach a classroom filled
with students that you think would be valuable for your study? Is this purposive
or opportunity? For example, if a researcher investigating alcoholism went to an
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meeting and gave out questionnaires to AA members
in a meeting, would this be purposive or opportunity? This is a grey area and
highlights the importance of description. How could you describe this sampling
method in one way to show that it was purposive, and in another to show that it
was opportunity?

If you’re interested…
A fun way to learn about different sampling methods is to use skittles or
M&Ms. Have a bowl of about 100 multi-coloured lollies (candy) and the bowl
represents your target population. How would you gather a sample of 20 from
the bowl using the different methods? The fun part about this exercise is you
get to eat your participants afterwards. Not many ethics review boards let you
do that (credit to Joseph Sparks from tutor2u for this idea).
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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

6.4 Ethical Considerations

Why are ethics important in psychological research?

(a) Ethics in the Approaches

You’re hopefully starting to get an idea of how psychologists must consider multiple
factors when planning, designing and conducting studies. Practical issues, such as the
research design and sampling methods, must be considered in relation to validity. As
well as these issues, at the heart of psychological research are ethical considerations.
An ethical consideration can be broadly defined as any aspect of research that must be
considered in relation to appropriate conduct and procedures, especially relating to
the psychological and physical health and well-being of others. This includes thinking
Ethics refers to guiding about those immediately affected by the research (participants) and the potential for
principles of behaving in a others to be affected in the long-term as a result of publication, interpretation and/or
way that is considered “right” application of the findings.
or “appropriate.” Researchers
follow ethical guidelines
to ensure their research is Another important ethical consideration relates to researcher integrity. In other
ethically appropriate. words, researchers must be honest in their recording and reporting of results, with
absolutely no fabrication or misleading data. This particular consideration provides
less room for discussion in our course than others, so others have been the focus.
For Paper One and Two it
Ethical considerations are closely associated with ethical guidelines and you can
an expert in two or three
ethical considerations so you read more about these in the introduction. This section provides you with the oppor-
can discuss them in-depth tunity to reflect on some of the major ethical considerations that you can observe in
across a range of topics. particular areas of study through the core and the options.

The following ethical guidelines are quite common across

various psychological associations around the world:

• Informed consent
• The right to withdraw (including withdrawing data)
• Debriefing
• Considerations regarding deception
• Anonymity
• Appropriate justification (for any harm or potential harm
caused)
• Researcher integrity
• Review and approval by ethics review committees
To consider ethics means to think about how research may impact
others and make decisions based on an understanding of these As with all topics in psychology, to demonstrate your
potential effects. This includes thinking about the effects of research
on animals. understanding of ethical considerations you need to have
accurate descriptions and clear explanations. This requires
being able to clearly define the ethical guideline or consider-
ation that is relevant to a particular topic, as well as being able to provide a general
description of common methodological procedures relevant to a particular topic. This
accurate and detailed description will enable you to provide a clear explanation of
the relationship between the ethical consideration and the topic. This is what will be
required for short answer responses.

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 For example, a common procedure used to study the brain and behaviour is the use
of technology such as MRIs and fMRIs. Because of the nature of these machines the
right to withdraw is an important consideration because they’re noisy, uncomfortable,
require being still for long periods of time, and people may become claustrophobic.
Here we can see a clear relationship between the methodology used in this area of
study and the ethical consideration. However, this might not be a great example to
explain because finding a particular study that demonstrates this might be difficult Remember you can use
because it could end up with a rather generic explanation that can make little use of ThemEd’s IB Psychology
Facebook page for students
evidence (i.e. a study) to support your explanation. to post any questions you
have about the IB Psychology
Perhaps a better example would be to discuss the consideration of anonymity when course.
using brain imaging technology. This provides us with a better opportunity to relate
the methodology, the consideration, and the desire to reduce psychological harm. It’s
natural to assume that people would be sensitive about information regarding their
brain being published and having others aware of such personally relevant informa-
tion. Keeping their data anonymous, and their participation in the study confidential,
would be an important consideration for researchers. Here we see again the relation-
ship is explained between the consideration, the methodology and the topic. I can
now go further to explain this in relation to a range of possible studies that gather
information about brain function. For example, in Bechara et al.’s study using the Iowa
Gambling Paradigm, participants who have lesions in the vmPFC may not wish others
to know about their tendency to act on impulse. In extreme circumstances this could
lead to individuals being manipulated. Another important consideration in this study
would be debriefing. The researchers would need to be very mindful of the partici-
pants’ feelings as they revealed the results of the research. It might be quite unnerving
to find out that one’s brain injury could have such an effect on behaviour. But it might
be important to reveal this information so the participants can be aware of this and Remember that the
how it might affect them. approaches are merely a
general theme of research and
studies could be applied to
As you can see, it’s essential that you are connecting the ethical consideration to the
more than one approach.
methodology of the study. Another example would be relating to Loftus’ research on
false memory. There are particular ethical implications of implanting false memories
in participants of potentially traumatic events. Debriefing would be important to
consider in studies on the misinformation effect and false memories because part of
the ethics of psychological research is that participants should finish a study in the
same (or improved) psychological and/or physical health as they were in when they
Loftus explains the ethics
began the study. It would be important in these designs that debriefing occurred so
issue in one of her Ted Talks,
that participants would understand what happened and that the memory is false. This “Eyewitness Testimony.” In
might help ensure that they wouldn’t have any undue future suffering from memories this talk you can see how
of traumatic incidents. ethics is not a black-and-
white judgement. Often the

It’s important to remember that you are not required to make a definitive judgement outweigh the short-term ethical
about whether or not a study is ethical. This is a common misconception that many dilemmas. This is one role of
students have. You need to demonstrate your understanding of ethics and research an ethics review committee:
to weigh these pros and cons
in relation to particular topics; you are not required (and are not advised to) make
and to make a decision to
definitive judgements about how ethical a study was. You are to explain possible approve or deny the research
ethical considerations and/or guidelines that are relevant to particular topics based on proposal accordingly.
common methodologies used in those topics of study.

It is not expected that from this one section you can explain ethics across all topics.
It is hoped that as you are reading and analyzing studies throughout the course you can
bear in mind relevant ethical issues associated with these studies.

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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

Guiding Question:
How can you demonstrate understanding of an ethical consideration related to
a particular topic in the core approaches to understanding behaviour?

Abstraction Extension:
Other Ethical Considerations: The term “ethical considerations” is often used
synonymously with “ethical guidelines” in IB Psychology. Can you think of
something that researchers might need to consider in relation to ethics that is not
related to one of the considerations stated in this section? Alternatively, can you
think how following ethical guidelines might influence the validity of a study?

If you’re interested…
The International Union of Psychological Science has published four guiding
principles for conducting research of the highest ethical standards. You can
view these principles online at www.iupsys.net.

(b) Ethics in the Options

There is little difference in the nature of ethical considerations in the options

as there are in the approaches. When considering which ethical considerations are
relevant to a particular topic, try to find common characteristics of the methodologies
used in the research, including the procedures and the participants. For instance, in
studies investigating PTSD the participants are those who are experiencing symptoms
of a disorder. These characteristics could be relevant to particular ethical considera-
tions, especially when considered in relation to the procedures. As well as procedures
and participants, the findings and conclusions of studies are another aspect that could
be considered in relation to ethical considerations.
Ethical considerations in
research are similar across Preparing for essay questions addressing the options (i.e. in Paper Two) requires a
topics in the core and the general understanding of the interaction of biological, cognitive and/or sociocultural
options.
factors. Therefore, if you’re careful enough you can also identify studies that overlap
the approaches and the options. In order to maximize the effectiveness of your exam
preparation, it would be advisable to focus on studies and their relevant methods and
ethical considerations that can be applied to the core topics and the options topics.
Finding these overlaps is one valuable way of managing your workload when it comes
to revision time.

Let me give you an example that may make more sense after you’ve studied the
PTSD chapter. Understanding the etiologies (origins) of PTSD involves careful
examination of the interaction of biological, cognitive and environmental factors. To
provide some context first, it might be useful to know that research has shown that the
ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) can influence the function of the amygdala: a
healthy functioning vmPFC may reduce the activation of the amygdala in response to
fear-inducing stimuli. This is because the vmPFC allows people to perform a cognitive
process called cognitive reappraisal, which means reassessing the potential harm of a
particular stimulus. If someone can reappraise their initial emotional response (using
their vmPFC), the activation of their amygdala can be reduced, resulting in a reduction
in the stress response.
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 Studies that investigate the role of the vmPFC in cognitive reappraisal and their
connection to PTSD can be used to discuss ethical considerations and/or research Excellent explanations
methods relevant to the following topics: of ethical considerations
involve relating the particular
consideration/s to the
• The brain and behaviour (Biological approach) common characteristics of
• Cognitive processing (Cognitive approach) research methodologies (e.g.
• Emotion and cognition (Cognitive approach) participants, equipment and
procedures) for a certain topic.
• Etiology of disorders (Abnormal Psychology)
• Treatment of disorders (Abnormal Psychology)

For example, Felmingham et al. (2007) investigated the effects on the functioning
of the vmPFC as a result of therapy involving cognitive restructuring (learning how
to change thought patterns). They found that cognitive therapy could increase the
activation of a specific area within the vmPFC. You could potentially use this study
to demonstrate your understanding of important ethical considerations in psycho-
logical research across a range of topics. This would require careful description and
very clear explanation that involved application to the particular topic. For example,
applying an explanation to the topic of the brain and behaviour might focus on the
anonymity aspect as participants may not want information about their brain function
shared, including changes as a result of treatment. On the other hand, you might
choose to emphasize the debriefing element when discussing treatment as some
people may not have experienced the same level of improvement as others and this
may be disconcerting, especially for people already suffering from PTSD. That is to
say, sensitivity during the debriefing process and care for the potential impact of the
debriefing on participants would be important to consider. Similarly, if applying this
study to the topic of emotion on cognition the emphasis should be placed on how the
ethical consideration relates to the influence of emotion on cognition. For example,
researchers may have an ethical obligation to debrief their participants at the end of the
research (if they didn’t inform them at the beginning) that the cognitive training might
be able to reduce their cognitive symptoms of PTSD relating to memory problems
and improve their general cognitive functioning through reducing the impact of their
emotional reaction to stimuli. The patients may not have been aware of this and it
might be ethically questionable to withhold this information from the participants,
even after the study has concluded.

In summary, the nature of explanations and discussions of ethical considerations

is similar across the options and the approaches. What is important is that you can
clearly apply your explanations to the relevant topic you are addressing.

Guiding Question:
How can one study be used to highlight one or more ethical considerations
related to topics in the core and options?

Abstraction Extension:
Limitations: Using the study you have chosen to answer the guiding question, can
you suggest possible limitations of following this ethical consideration? For instance,
how might this affect the validity or reliability of the study? When discussing ethics
in research, explaining how following ethical guidelines may impact validity of
research is an excellent way to demonstrate critical thinking.
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 If you’re interested…
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

When we’re reading results in research we need to trust that the researchers
maintained their integrity and were truthful in the gathering and recording of
their data. One former social psychologist, Diederik Stapel, was discovered to
have fabricated results in numerous studies. You can find articles about this
online, including one by the New York Times by Yudhijit Bhattacharjee called
“The Mind of a Con Man.”

(c) Discussing Ethics

If you are asked to write an essay on ethical considerations in relation to a particular

topic in the core (Paper One, Part B) or the options (Paper Two) it is important that
It’s most likely that you will you can go beyond explanation and demonstrate “critical thinking.” Essay questions
be asked to “Discuss” ethical
considerations in essay
will use one of four command terms (discuss, contrast, evaluate or to what extent)
questions. and these all require you to critically reflect on your own explanation, including the
evidence upon which your explanation is based. Many students make the mistake of
critically evaluating studies based on validity in essay questions that ask students about
ethical considerations. This section provides you with some ideas on how you can go
beyond explanation of ethical considerations and demonstrate critical thinking in
essays.

Regardless of the topic in question, you’re likely to be explaining why particular

ethical guidelines are important to consider in relation to a particular topic. It’s advisable
to focus on why following those guidelines would be an important consideration in
order to maintain the ethical standards of psychological research. As essays require
you to go beyond explanation, one way of doing this is to reflect on how following
particular guidelines might have an impact on the validity of the study.

For example, when providing informed consent researchers would need to consider
just how much information to reveal to the participants. They need to strike a balance
between making sure that participants are comfortable and confident in the method-
ology of the study, while ensuring that they haven’t revealed so much information that
the participant expectancy effect may influence their
results. If researchers reveal too much information,
participants may alter their behaviour and damage
the validity of the conclusions.

Similarly, in conformity studies such as Asch’s, if

the participants were fully informed about the nature
of the study and told that the rest of the group were
confederates, the entire validity of the study would
be jeopardized as the effects of normative social
influence would be nullified. In this case, deceiving
participants in believing that the confederates are
genuine participants is quite necessary.

Another potential confounding variable relevant

to informed consent is known as the social desira-
Following some ethical guidelines could impact the validity of research.
How much these psychologists reveal to the participant before the study
bility effect. People have a natural tendency to want
needs to be carefully considered. to be liked and to be viewed favourably by others,
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so if researchers reveal too much about the aim of the study the participants might
alter their behaviour so they’re seen as a good person. For example, in the minimal
Deception is purposefully
group paradigm studies if the researchers told the full aims of the study and how they leading someone to believe
wanted to see if participants were going to award points based on fairness or if they something is true when it isn’t.
were going to demonstrate in-group bias, this information may lead the participants
towards awarding points based on fairness, as this is seen as a more socially acceptable
behaviour.

In any experiment involving a placebo or control group, an element of deception

may also be necessary. An initial explanation of ethics involved in studies using placebos
could focus on how this necessitates adequate debriefing. To go further might include
explaining a possible downside involved in debriefing after studies using placebos,
especially those focused on treatments of psychological disorders. For example, if a
researcher hypothesizes that a particular course of treatment might help (e.g. SSRIs,
cognitive restructuring or exposure therapy) to treat a disorder, some participants will Remember that withholding
miss out on this actual treatment and will be unknowingly allocated to a control group information and deception
are two different things. Just
that is hypothesized to have no effect on treatment. During debriefing this might be because a researcher doesn’t
made clear to participants and it’s possible that researchers might experience some provide all the information
emotional backlash from participants because they may feel they were “duped.” One regarding the aims of the
possible way of avoiding this is to inform participants in the beginning that the condi- study, doesn’t necessarily
make it deceitful.
tions of the experiment are randomized and they may be in a control or the treatment
condition. Then again, this information might affect the way participants engage with
the treatment throughout the study and could also influence the results as they may
continually try to figure out what group they’re in.

If you are asked to “contrast” ethical considerations, you need to think carefully
about significant ways in which the guidelines differ. One way to do this would be
to focus on the different ways in which a particular guideline attempts to reduce or
minimize psychological harm. For example, informed consent may aim to reduce the
stress of a participant during the course of the research and enable them to partic-
ipate knowing that their psychological well-being is not in fear of being damaged.
Debriefing, on the other hand, attempts to reduce the chances that there will be any
enduring effects after the study is completed.

For Paper One and Two it’s enough to be able to explain and discuss ethical consid-
erations related to the methodology of the studies used. For Paper Three, HL students
will also need to understand how these guidelines may be relevant to the reporting
of results and the application of findings, which will be explained in the chapter on
qualitative methods.

Guiding Question:
How might following ethical guidelines influence the validity of a study?

Abstraction Extension:
Independent Application: It would be impossible for this textbook to provide you
with every possible way of explaining ethical considerations or research methods
relevant to particular topics. All I can do is provide you with the information and
the guidelines – it is up to you to be able to independently apply your under-
standing to a range of possible questions. With this in mind, can you apply what
you’ve learned from this section to a study you’ve learned about? For instance, can
you explain how following a particular ethical consideration in one study might
jeopardize its validity?
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 If you’re interested…
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

The UK comedy “Freshers” has an episode where university students sign

up for a clinical drug trial. Things go awry when the temptation to find out if
they’re in the placebo or treatment group becomes too much to bear. While
this is a fictional comedy, it does actually provide a glimpse into the possible
mentality of people in a clinical trial.

Relevant Topics

• All topics in core and options

Practice Exam Questions

• Describe one ethical consideration relevant to the study of cognitive processes.

• Outline one ethical consideration relevant to the study of genetics and
behaviour.
• Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to the study of cultural
origins of behaviour.

Available now in the online store

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 6.5 Evaluating Studies
How do we evaluate studies in psychology?

(a) External Validity

One of the major aims of the IB Psychology course is to develop your ability to
independently analyze and critically evaluate evidence. This is why all your exam
answers require you to use evidence to support your arguments and explanations.
Evidence in psychology comes from research, which means studies and/or theories.

It’s essential that you can use studies and theories to demonstrate relationships
between:

• Variables and behaviour.

• Ethical considerations and research methodology.
• Research methods and areas of study (i.e. “topics”).

By now in the course you should have a sound grasp of the study of psychology, Don’t forget that evaluation
including its structure and general patterns. It’s important that you are working includes strengths, so you
can explain the strengths of
towards being able to regularly move past knowing and understanding and that you a study based on its designs.
can critically reflect upon your own understanding, including evaluating the evidence It’s likely that you will be able
upon which you’ve based your understanding. This is an essential transferable skill and to explain strengths of a study
a key goal for this course. in relation to internal validity
and offer one or more critiques
based on generalizability.
With this in mind, it’s important to revisit one of the key concepts related to
critically evaluating studies in psychology: external validity. One major goal of the
abstraction extensions is to be able to push you beyond explanation of relationships
and to consider the extent to which these can be applied to a different context. This
idea is the crux of external validity: to what extent can the findings be applied beyond
the immediate context of the study? The purpose of conducting quantitative research
is to generalize findings. Therefore, going beyond explanation requires determining
the extent to which the findings can be generalized. As with ethical considerations, Generalizability: the extent to
it’s important to focus on specific details of the methodology used in studies during
critical evaluation. In this section, you’ll see how three key concepts can relate to criti- beyond the context of the
cally evaluating methodology based on procedures and participant characteristics. study.

Earlier in this chapter you were introduced to the idea of representative sampling:
gathering a sample that is representative of a wider population. One way of evaluating
a study is to analyze the characteristics of the participants. The extent to which the
characteristics of the sample will enable the conclusions to be applied beyond the
context of the study is known as population validity. When revising studies, it might
help to make a note of one or two key characteristics of the participants, including
age, gender, nationality or ethnicity. This can help demonstrate your knowledge of the
study, and might also be useful for a critical reflection. For instance, many studies
related to PTSD that have been used in this book use war veterans as participants. You
could ask questions or even explain possible characteristics of war veterans that might
limit the extent to which these findings could be generalized to people who suffer from
PTSD as a result of other traumatic stressors. Or if the mean age was quite young in
a particular sample, is there a reason to suspect these findings might not apply to an
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 older population? Or consider culture. Most studies happen in the US and a critical
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

reflection of population validity might take into consideration possible factors that
might limit the ability to generalize the findings from one particular culture to another.

Another way to determine the external validity of a study’s results and conclusions
is to consider its ecological validity. To assess ecological validity, you must consider
Do not be fooled – providing the extent to which the environment of the study reflects other situations. The most
a strong explanation of
ecological validity is very common error students make when discussing ecological validity is to make an over-
simplified claim such as: “this study was carried out in a laboratory and so it lacks
ecological validity.” Your critical reflections and counter points in essays still require
description and explanation. The above statement shows knowledge of a key term, but
does not suggest that a student knows how to apply it.

You need to make it clear in your description what about the environment was
unnatural and explain how that might not reflect a particular real life environment that
you’re trying to generalize the conclusions to. For example, you might argue that the
Critical thinking requires
in-depth knowledge and
results from Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment might lack ecological validity because of
understanding. the fact that young kids were in a controlled environment with a set amount of toys. In
their own homes they may have a larger array of toys to choose from and more distrac-
tions. These distractions could reduce the chances that they’d opt to play with the doll
that they’ve just observed the researcher play with. This could reduce the chances of
the behaviour being reinforced so quickly. Similarly, if using the study to show how
violence might be learned from TV, it could be argued that children don’t always have
a really obvious target (e.g. the big inflatable doll) that matches perfectly what they’ve
just seen modelled on the television. Often the violence seen on TV isn’t immediately
and directly practicable. For instance, a child may see a cartoon where one character
drops a large anvil on another (a classic weapon in old cartoons), but they probably
wouldn’t have a big anvil around that they could use to replicate this behaviour. As you
Make sure you understand
can see, an effective assessment of ecological validity still requires explanation – you
are showing how the methodology of the study might not relate to a particular “real
life” environment.

Similar to ecological validity is the concept

of mundane reality, which refers to the extent
to which the task that participants are asked to
perform is representative of a real life situation.
Like population and ecological validity,
explaining possible limitations of a study based
on mundane reality requires you to first fully
understand the relationship that the study is
demonstrating and how it might be applied in
the immediate context first.

Studies like Radke et al.’s that use fMRIs might

be critiqued based on the mundane reality of
their procedures. Observing images on a screen
as we lay motionless in a small space within a
massive machine is not an everyday activity. A
good critique needs to go further than this and
relate the task to the particular applications of
When explaining generalizability, you need to ask questions related to the the study. For example, if you are using this study
relationship between the methods of the study and the context the results are
being generalized to. For example, you should go further than simply saying,
on testosterone and its influence on the amygdala
"brain imaging machines are an unnatural environment so they affect ecolog- to explain the correlation between violent crime
ical validity." and testosterone, you should try to provide a clear
explanation of how observing angry faces might
not reflect a real life situation that could lead to
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a violent crime being committed. Or if you’re looking at fMRIs and PTSD studies and
the activity in the amygdala you need to think about how viewing these unpleasant
stimuli might be different to viewing unpleasant stimuli in real life and how this might When critiquing a study, bear
affect the possibility of generalizing the findings beyond the laboratory. You may be in mind any aspects that may
able to see that ecological validity and mundane reality are closely related, but whereas
ecological validity refers to the environment, mundane reality refers to the task.

You can see that evaluation requires high levels of abstract thinking. If you can’t
explain how it’s applicable to one context, there’s little chance you’ll be able to critique
a study based on its external validity. This is why it’s essential to understand first before
you try to go beyond and evaluate studies. For example, if you don’t understand how
Radke et al.’s study can be used to explain the correlation between testosterone and
aggression, you will not be able to critique the mundane reality of the procedures
effectively.

As you develop your confidence in evaluating psychological studies based on

external validity, it might help to focus on the general concept of generalizability first
before trying to apply specific terms such as ecological and population validity and
mundane reality. If you cannot fully explain how a study may lack generalizability,
simply asking questions relating to generalizability can also be a good way to show
critical thinking.

Guiding Question:
Why is it important to understand a study before you try to evaluate it?

Abstraction Extension:
Independent Practice: Can you find one study that you have learned about so far
and try to evaluate it based on concepts related to external validity?

If you’re interested…
You can read further explanations of how to explain limitations related to
generalizability on ThemEd’s IB Psychology blog. These explanations include
more examples as well

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 (b) Internal Validity
Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

The previous section provided you with a general outline of how to critique psycho-
logical studies based on their generalizability. If a study’s methodology is such that the
results might not be applicable to different people, situations or scenarios, the validity
of the results and/or conclusions might be questioned.

There are a few important things to remember, though. First of all, you may not
need to critically evaluate any study based on validity in your exams. You need to
apply your critical thinking to the demands of the question and some questions can be
answered without an in-depth explanation of issues related to validity. For example, if
you were asked to discuss ethical considerations in relation to a particular topic, the
validity of the study’s findings would be largely irrelevant to this question. Similarly, if
you were asked to evaluate the use of research methods used in relation to a particular
topic, your evaluation should focus on the characteristics of the method – not neces-
sarily on the validity of the conclusions of the study you’re explaining.

When questions ask something along the lines of “to what extent does one variable
influence a particular behaviour?” you may also be able to write excellent answers
without evaluating the validity of the evidence you have used. Your reflection on
your explanation might include explaining evidence that suggests there’s a completely
different variable that might affect the same behaviour. For example, if you were asked
The more you understand the “To what extent does one hormone influence one behaviour?” you could explain how
higher the probability you’ll be
able to demonstrate critical
testosterone might influence aggression and support your explanation with evidence.
thinking in response to the While you could evaluate the study, a more relevant way to address the question
wide range of potential exam might be to explain that testosterone alone may not explain aggressive behaviour and
questions that may be asked. other variables like serotonin and cultural values (e.g. culture of honour) may also be
influential. Many students make the mistake of trying to evaluate all studies in essays,
regardless of their relevance to the question. This is not an advisable strategy because
your answer needs to be focused on the question.

Asking you to independently Having said that, understanding external validity and its related concepts is an
and critically evaluate the important part of being able to critically evaluate studies. Whereas external validity
internal validity of a peer-
refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized beyond the immediate
reviewed study’s results would
be like asking you to evaluate context to new situations, people or scenarios, internal validity refers to the extent to
Shakespeare’s use of iambic which the results of the study were actually because of the manipulation of the inde-
pentameter. pendent variable. In a true experiment, for example, internal validity of the results can
be assessed by determining to what extent the researchers successfully controlled for
extraneous variables and isolated the rela-
tionship between the IV and the DV. If the
methods they used allowed some chance
that extraneous variables confounded the
results, the internal validity of the results
may be questioned.

The practical reality of this course is

that we do not always have sufficient time
to devote to the scrutiny of the method-
ology of studies in order to assess internal
validity. Also, quantitative studies cited
in this text employed numerous controls
and have been published in peer-re-
viewed journals; it might be difficult to
Mistakes made during the design or conducting of an experiment could be a threat to
the internal validity of the results. independently critique a study based on
internal validity. But don’t forget that an
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evaluation includes strengths as well as limitations. In order to be able to explain the
strengths of a particular study, it is necessary to know a few details about its method-
ology, especially any controls that were employed. If you know a study used one of the
following controls, you could explain how this might enhance the validity of the results
in the context of the area of study:

• Triangulation (data, researcher, methodological)

• Experimental design (e.g. independent samples, repeated measures, matched
pairs)
• Random allocation
• Counterbalancing descriptions of key studies on
• Blind designs our blog. These descriptions
may include more details of
methodology.
For example, Bandura used a matched pairs design for his experiments. This
reduced the possibility of participant variability and helped to isolate the effect of the
observation of the model that was causing the observed aggressive behaviour.

Another example would be Passamonti et al.’s study on tryptophan and serotonin,

which used a repeated measures design and counterbalancing. The repeated measures
would control for participant variability in terms of brain function and the counterbal-
ancing would have controlled for order effects. If all participants began with the same
condition this may have affected the results because their first trial might have been
their first time in an fMRI. They may have been more comfortable during the second
trial and their results could have reflected this. By counterbalancing the researchers
could control this potential confounding variable.

While critiquing the internal validity of an existing study’s results may be difficult
and unnecessary, you will need to be able to offer a thorough evaluation of the
strengths and limitations of your own experiment. This can include factors related
to external and/or internal validity. With that in mind, it is hoped that what you’ve Another concept similar to
learned throughout this chapter will be valuable in helping you to thoroughly plan, internal validity is construct
validity. This refers to how
design, conduct and analyze your own experimental research. close the variables in a study
resemble what they're actually
measuring. For example, is

Guiding Question: angry face on a screen similar

to social threat in real life?
How does internal validity differ to external validity?

Abstraction Extension:
Independent Practice: Can you find one study that you have learned about so far
and try to evaluate it based on concepts related to internal validity?

If you’re interested…
A “study” that I like to use when introducing the concept of internal validity
comes from a commercial for a type of chewing gum. Identical twins were
paired in an art gallery and participants made ratings of the twins, but one
was chewing gum and the other wasn’t. See if you can explain all the factors
that make the internal validity of this study highly dubitable.

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Chapter 6: Quantitative Research Methods

Conclusion

Our knowledge and understanding in psychology is based on evidence. In other

words, how we know what we know comes from research. In the beginning of this
course you were introduced to some basic concepts of research in psychology. The aim
of this chapter was to explore concepts related to quantitative methodology in a little
more detail.

As with all the content in this book, the ultimate goal is that you can transfer what
you’ve learned in this chapter beyond the classroom. Understanding research method-
ology, for instance, could be relevant in numerous ways. Whether or not you continue
studying psychology beyond IB, there’s a high probability that at some point in your
life you will have to gather data and draw conclusions based on that data. You’ll be
forced to make decisions on how best to carry out your research so you can draw
reliable conclusions. This practice also transcends a range of academic disciplines.

With that in mind, alongside any research is a necessity to consider the ethics and
possible implications your actions may have on others. It is hoped that an ability to
identify ethical considerations in existing research will prepare you to carry out your
own ethically sound experiments for your IA, as well as strengthen your ability to
consider the effects particular actions may have on others.

Psychology is an inherently interesting subject because much of what we learn

is immediately and directly relevant because understanding how and why we think
and act the way we do can enhance our lives. But it’s equally crucial that we know
upon what evidence we’re basing our understanding. Being able to critically evaluate
research is another essential transferable skill that is hoped you will have acquired if
not by now, at least by the end of the course. This is not an easy skill and will require a
lot of practice. Remember that it’s far less important for you to know the strengths and
limitations of the individual studies used in this text, as it is for you to be able to inde-
pendently scrutinize and critique evidence for yourself. This is why the studies have
not been evaluated for you, but rather the abstraction extensions provide you with
regular prompts to guide your critical thinking practice and this chapter has provided
additional practice at performing this challenging task.

When revising and preparing for your exams, I recommend selecting key studies
that can be used across a range of topics in the course to support an explanation of a
variety of concepts. You may find around 10 or 15 key studies that could be used in
multiple topics, including research methods and ethics. Focusing on a smaller number
of studies that can be used as evidence to support a range of arguments can increase
the effectiveness of your revision. It will also give you the time to practice performing
your own thorough independent evaluations of these studies based on their internal
and external validity.

As you read and apply future studies, it is hoped that you will start to independently
apply your critical thinking skills to the evidence and begin challenging assumptions
and raising questions on your own. Practicing this independently will help you further
develop your skills as a psychologist.

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