Course Title Cost Accounting For Decision Making
Course Title Cost Accounting For Decision Making
Professional Development Programme on Enriching
Knowledge of the Business, Accounting and Financial Studies
(BAFS) Curriculum <Elective Part>
1
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, teacher participants should
be able to:
•apply cost‐volume‐profit analysis techniques to ascertain
the inter‐relationships among costs, selling price, units sold,
breakeven point, target profit and margin of safety;
•state the assumptions and limitations of cost‐volume‐
profit analysis;
•identify and differentiate relevant costs and irrelevant
costs in different business scenarios; and
•make recommendation to short‐term business decisions.
2
Syllabus in HKDSE Examination
• Identify the nature of various cost items and their
relevance to decision‐making: sunk costs, incremental
costs and opportunity costs.
• Apply costing concepts and techniques in business
decisions, e.g. “hire, make or buy”, “accept or reject an
order at a special price”, “retain or replace equipment”,
“sell or process further” and “eliminate or retain an
unprofitable segment”.
• Conduct cost‐volume‐profit analysis to assess the effects
of changes in costs, selling price and units sold on the
breakeven point and target profit. What‐if analysis
3
Contents
• Breakeven point
• Sale level required to achieve target profit
• Margin of safety
• What‐if analysis (Illustrations 1 & 2)
• Sales mix (Illustration 3 & 4)
• Relevant costs vs. irrelevant costs (Illustrations 5 & 6)
• Accept or reject an order (Illustration 7)
• Hire decision (Illustration 8)
• Make or buy (illustration 9)
• Retain or replace equipment (Illustration 10)
• Sell or process further (Illustration 11)
• Eliminate or retain an unprofitable segment (Illustration 12)
4
Prior Knowledge Required
5
Cost‐Volume‐Profit Analysis
(C‐V‐P Analysis)
(Breakeven Analysis)
6
What is it?
• Breakeven = no profit, or loss, that is,
– Total Sales Revenue = Total Costs (Variable Costs +
Fixed Costs)
– Total Contribution = Fixed Costs
• It studies how cost, revenue and
production/sales volume affect profit
• Two approaches:
– By Formula
– By Graph
7
Breakeven Point – By Formula
or
where
8
Sales Level Required to Achieve
Target Profit
or
9
Margin of Safety – By Formula
10
What‐if Analysis
• It studies how the result will change if the
original data changes.
• It answers questions such as:
– What will be the breakeven point if variable cost
per unit increased by 5%?
– What will be the profit if sales volume increases
by 5%?
11
Effects of Changes in Costs, Selling Price
on the Breakeven Point
12
Illustration 1
Effect of Changes in Costs on Breakeven Point
• A manufacturing company produces and sells
a single product as follows:
Selling price per unit $250
Variable costs per unit $150
• The fixed cost per annum is estimated to be
$600,000.
13
Illustration 1
Effect of Changes in Costs on Breakeven Point
• The sales manager would like to propose a
change to pay a salesman on commission
basis of $10 per unit sold rather than on fixed
monthly salaries of $8,000 per month.
• What would be the breakeven points in units
for the situations before and after the
change?
14
Illustration 1
Effect of Changes in Costs on Breakeven Point
Breakeven point before change:
$600,000/($250‐$150)
= 6,000 units
Breakeven point after change:
($600,000 ‐ $8,000 x 12)/[$250‐($150+$10)]
= 5,600 units
15
Illustration 1
Effect of Changes in Costs on Breakeven Point
• It does not mean that the proposed scenario
is better than the original scenario because of
lower breakeven point.
• It all depends on the actual sales volume.
• For example, if the sales volume is 10,000
units, the profit in the original scenario will be
$400,000 (10,000 x $100 ‐ $600,000) while
that in proposed scenario it will only be
$396,000 (10,000 x $90 – $504,000).
16
Effects of Changes in Costs, Selling Price
and Units Sold on the Profit
17
Illustration 2
Effects of Changes in Costs and Units Sold on the Profit
• A company produces and sells a single
product. In the current year, 20,000 units will
be sold at $50 each. The fixed cost is $300,000
and the profit is $100,000.
• The company is considering spending $30,000
to launch a promotion campaign in the next
year to boost the sales volume by 5%.
• The selling price and other fixed overhead will
keep constant over the two years.
18
Illustration 2
Effects of Changes in Costs and Units Sold on the Profit
Required
1)For the current year, calculate:
a) the breakeven point in units, and
b) the margin of safety in %
2)Prepare the income statements for both
current year and next year.
3)Explain whether the promotion campaign
should be launched.
19
Illustration 2
Effects of Changes in Costs and Units Sold on the Profit
1) a) Total contribution = $300,000 + $100,000 = $400,000
Contribution per unit = $400,000/20,000 = $20
Breakeven point in units = $300,000/$20 = 15,000 units
b) Margin of safety in % = (20,000‐15,000)/20,000 x 100%
= 25%
20
Illustration 2
Effects of Changes in Costs and Units Sold on the Profit
2)
Contribution Income Current Year Next Year
Statements $ $
Sales ($50 per unit) 1,000,000 1,050,000
Variable cost ($30 per unit) 600,000 630,000
Total contribution 400,000 420,000
Less: Fixed cost 300,000 330,000
Net Profit 100,000 90,000
21
Illustration 2
Effects of Changes in Costs and Units Sold on the Profit
3) The promotion should not be launched as
it would lower the net profit.
22
Activity 1
Illustrative Integrated Question
Cost‐Profit‐Volume Analysis
23
Question (1)
• A manufacturing company produces and sells a
single product. The accountant has just prepared the
company’s budget for the coming year. The
budgeted data is extracted as follows:
Sales volume 90,000 units
Fixed costs $440,000
Variable costs per unit $10
Loss $80,000
24
Question (2)
• The directors are dissatisfied with the budgeted loss
and suggest proposals for improvement.
• Director A suggests spending $50,000 on advertising
to increase sales. He wishes to achieve a target profit
of $100,000.
• Director B suggests reducing selling price by $1 per
unit to increase sales. He expects that the sales
volume would increase by 80%.
• Director C suggests buying a more efficient machine
which would reduce unit variable costs by 50%. The
useful life of the machine is 1 year.
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Question (3)
Required
a) For Director A’s proposal, what is the percentage
increase in sales required to achieve the target
profit?
b) For Director B’s proposal, what would be the profit
or loss?
c) For Director C’s proposal, what would be the
maximum cost of the machine for breakeven?
26
Answers
a) 50%
b) Profit $46,000
c) $370,000
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By Graph – Breakeven Chart
Sales revenue/Costs
Profit
s
Break-even
le
Sa
point Profit
Variable
o sts Fixed costs
a l c
Tot costs
Loss
Fixed
costs
28
Activity (Sales units)
By Group – Contribution Graph
Sales revenue/Costs
Profit
es
Break-
Contribution
l
Sa
even point Profit
Fixed
l co sts costs
Tot a
Loss
c os ts
ia b le
V ar
0
29 Activity (Sales units)
By Graph – Profit‐Volume Graph
Profit / Loss ($’000)
Break-even
point
Profit Profit
Contribution
Activity
0
(Sales
units)
Loss
Fixed
costs
30
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
When a company produces multiple products, it
is assumed that the relative combination of the
products sold (sales units) will be constant.
31
Illustration 3
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
• Product X and Product Y are sold in sales mix of 3:1.
Details about the two products are:
Product X Product Y
Selling price per unit $5 $10
Variable cost per unit $4 $3
Unit contribution $1 $7
• The fixed cost is $30,000.
• What is the breakeven point in units and dollars?
32
Illustration 3
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
Since 1 standard batch consists of 3 units of product X
and 1 unit of product Y, the breakeven point is 9,000
units of product X and 3,000 units of product Y.
33
Illustration 3
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
Breakeven point (in $)
Sales $
Product X: 9,000 x $5 45,000
Product Y: 3,000 x $10 30,000
Breakeven point 75,000
34
Illustration 3
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
Alternatively, the breakeven point in $ can be
calculated by using the contribution margin
ratio:
Contribution in standard sales mix
= $1 x 3 + $7 x 1 = $10
Selling price in standard sales mix
= $5 x 3 = $10 x 1 = $25
35
Illustration 3
Breakeven Point for Sales Mix
• Hence, the contribution margin ratio is
• The breakeven point in $ is
36
Illustration 4
Effect of Change in Expenses on Sales Mix
• Continue with illustration 3. As the marketing
manager observes that Product Y is more
profitable, he is considering spending
additional $5,000 on marketing campaign to
boost the sales of Product Y. It is estimated
that sales volume of Product Y can be
increased by 1/3.
• How many units of Product X should be sold
at least in order to achieve breakeven?
37
Illustration 4
Effect of Change in Expenses on Sales Mix
$
Original fixed cost 30,000
Marketing expenses 5,000
Contribution from Product Y ($7 x 3,000 x 4/3) (28,000)
Uncovered fixed cost 7,000
Hence, number of units of Product X to be sold for
achieving breakeven =
38
Assumptions of C‐V‐P Analysis
• Selling price per unit and variable cost per unit
are constant.
• Fixed cost per period is constant.
• Production units equal sales units.
• A single product is sold or the sales mix is
constant.
39
Limitations of C‐V‐P Analysis
• Unit selling price may vary, e.g. due to bulk
discounts offered to customers.
• Unit variable costs per unit may vary, e.g. due
to economies of scales or overtime premium
etc.
• Fixed costs may change at different levels of
activity, e.g. step costs, i.e. in different
relevant ranges, the fixed cost will vary.
40
Cost Classification & Items
41
42
Relevant Cost vs. Irrelevant Cost
Relevant Cost Irrelevant Cost
Cost that will be Cost that will not be
changed by a changed by a
decision decision
43
Relevant Costs
Incremental Cost Opportunity Cost
Additional cost which Benefit which will be
will be specifically forgone when the
incurred because of a choice of one course of
decision action requires an
alternative course of
action be given up
44
Irrelevant Cost
Sunk Cost Committed Cost
Cost of a resource Cost which has been
already acquired and committed although it
are unaffected by has not been incurred
choice between or paid.
alternatives
45
Material Cost:
How Relevant?
46
Illustration 5
Material Cost: How Relevant?
• A job requires 1,000 units of material X which
have already been in the inventory.
• They were purchased at a cost of $8 per unit.
• The materials can be sold at a net realizable
value of $12 per unit.
• It can also be used in another job as substitute
for 1,500 units of material Y of which the
current purchasing price is $10.
47
Illustration 5
Relevant Cost for Material X
Analysis:
•The original purchase
price of material X is
irrelevant since it is a
sunk cost
•The opportunity cost
would be the higher of
NRV or Costing Savings,
i.e. $15,000
•Therefore, the relevant
cost of material X is
$15,000
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Labour Cost:
How Relevant?
49
Illustration 6
Labour Cost: How Relevant?
50
Illustration 6
Labour Cost: How Relevant?
Relevant Costs for Direct $
Labour
Incremental Cost ($400 x 1,000) 400,000
Contribution Lost ($300 x 500) 150,000
550,000
51
Short‐Term Business Decisions
52
Factors to Consider in Business
Decision Making
• Quantitative factors: cost vs. benefit analysis
in monetary terms. Concentrate this in this course
• Qualitative factors: social responsibility,
corporate goodwill, employee morale etc.
53
Accept or Reject
an Order at a
Special Price
54
Accept or Reject
an Order at a
Special Price
55
Accept or Reject
an Order at a
Special Price
56
Illustration 7
Accept or Reject an Order at a Special Price
A firm currently makes 50,000 units of product per
annum and sells at $30 each. The operating
statement is as follows:
$
Sales (50,000 x $30) 1,500,000
Less: Materials (500,000)
Labour (680,000)
Contribution 320,000
Less: Fixed Costs (200,000)
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Net Profit 120,000
Illustration 7
Accept or Reject an Order at a Special Price
A customer offers an order for 10,000 units at
selling price of $28 each.
If the order is accepted:
•Fixed cost would increase to $250,000.
•Extra labour would be required at overtime
premium of 20%.
•4% discount would be obtained for all materials.
58
Illustration 7
Accept or Reject an Order at a Special Price
Cost‐Benefit Analysis for Accepting $
Incremental Benefits
Increase in sales revenue (10,000 x $28) 280,000
Savings in material cost for existing production (500,000 x 4%) 20,000
300,000
Incremental Costs
Material cost for additional production ($500,000/50,000 x 10,000 x 96%) 96,000
Labour cost for additional production ($680,000/50,000 x 10,000 x 120%) 163,200
Increase in fixed cost ($250,000‐$200,000) 50,000
309,200
Decrease in net profit 9,200
59
Illustration 7
Accept or Reject an Oder at a Special Price
• Conclusion: As the incremental benefit is less
than the increment cost, the order should be
rejected.
60
Hire or Not Hire
61
Hire or Not Hire
62
Hire or Not Hire
63
Illustration 8
Hire or Not Hire
• A company currently produced 1,000 units of
product X per month at unit variable costs of
$50.
• Product X was sold at $120 per unit.
• The company is considering hiring an
additional machine which can reduce the unit
variable costs to $48 and increase production
by 20%.
• The monthly hire charge is $200,000.
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Illustration 8
Hire or Not Hire
Cost‐Benefit Analysis for Hiring $
Savings in variable costs for existing production
[($50‐$48) x 1,000] 2,000
Increase in contribution from additional production
[($120‐$48) x (1,000 x 20%)] 14,400
Increase in contribution 16,400
Less: Hire charge 20,000
Decrease in profit 3,600
65
Illustration 8
Hire or Not Hire
• Conclusion: Since hiring would lead to a
decrease in profit, it should not be hired.
66
Make or Buy
67
Make or Buy
68
Make or Buy
69
Illustration 9
Make or Buy
• A company requires 800 units of component X specifically for
a single order and is considering making the components
itself or buying them from outside supplier.
• In making, it requires $3,000 materials, 100 labour hours at
hourly rate of $28 to be diverted from other teams which are
idle but cannot be fired because of the employment contract.
• If the company makes the components itself, the existing
production of product Y will fall by 100 units. Product Y
provides a contribution of $8 per unit.
• The components are sold at a multiple of 1,000 units at
$4,500 per 1,000 units. Any excess of the demand can be re‐
sold at a price of $1 per unit.
70
Illustration 9
Make or Buy
Relevant Cost for Making $
Materials 3,000
Contribution lost ($8 x 100) 800
Total Relevant Cost 3,800
71
Illustration 9
Make or Buy
Relevant Cost for Buying $
Purchase cost 4,500
Re‐sale of excess [ (1,000‐800) x $1] (200)
Total Net Relevant Cost 4,300
72
Illustration 9
Make or Buy
• Conclusion: Since the relevant cost for making
is lower than that of buying, the components
should be made.
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Retain or
Replace
Equipment
74
Retain or
Replace
Equipment
75
Retain or
Replace
Equipment
76
Illustration 10
Retain or Replace Equipment
A company is considering replacing an old machine
with a new one. Details about the old machine and the
new machine are as follows:
Old Machine
Original Cost $1,000,000
Depreciated amount $800,000
Remaining useful life 3 years
Current disposal value $10,000
Disposal value after 3 years Nil
77
Illustration 10
Retain or Replace Equipment
New Machine
Current purchase cost $300,000
Useful life 3 years
Disposal value after 3 years $60,000
The new machine can reduce operating costs
by $80,000 per annum.
78
Illustration 10
Retain or Replace Equipment
Cost‐Benefit Analysis for Replacement $
Incremental Benefits of Replacement
Total costs saving (3 x $80,000) 240,000
Disposal value of new machine after 3 years 60,000
Current disposal value of old machine 10,000
310,000
Less: Incremental Costs
Purchase cost of new machine (300,000)
Net Incremental Benefits of Replacement 10,000
Note: Time value of money is ignored.
79
Illustration 10
Retain or Replace Equipment
• Conclusion: Since replacement would make a
net incremental benefit, it should be replaced.
80
Sell or Process
Further
81
Sell or Process
Further
82
Sell or Process
Further
83
Illustration 11
Sell or Process Further
• A company is considering whether to process a semi‐
finished product which has been produced at total
variable cost of $60,000 and can be sold at $100,000.
• If the semi‐finished product is further processed to
make it a finished product, it can be sold at
$220,000. The costs involved in the process are as
follows:
$
Direct materials 150,000
Direct labour 10,000
84
Overheads 180,000
Illustration 11
Sell or Process Further
• Contract has been signed for the purchase of the
$150,000 materials. The materials are for special
purpose and cannot be used in another alternative.
If it is not used, it can be sold at $30,000.
• Overheads include $70,000 specific to further
process and allocated general overheads of
$110,000.
• The finished product after the further process can be
sold at $220,000.
85
Illustration 11
Sell or Process Further
$
Incremental Benefits from Further Processing
Increase in sales revenue ($220,000 ‐ $100,000) 120,000
Relevant Costs to Completion
Direct materials 30,000
Direct labour 10,000
Overheads 70,000
110,000
Net Incremental Benefits 10,000
86
Illustration 11
Sell or Process Further
• Conclusion: Since the benefit of further
processing is greater than the costs, further
processing is recommended.
87
Eliminate or
Retain an
Unprofitable
Segment
88
Eliminate or
Retain an
Unprofitable
Segment
89
Eliminate or
Retain an
Unprofitable
Segment
90
Illustration 12
Eliminate or Retain an Unprofitable Segment
A Company has two departments producing products X
and Y respectively. The budgeted operating statement
for the coming year is summarized as follows:
Product X Product Y
$ $
Sales 60,000 100,000
Less: Total Cost 70,000 80,000
Net Profit / (Loss) (10,000) 20,000
Of the total cost 70% is variable, 10% is specific fixed
and 20% is general fixed.
91
Illustration 12
Eliminate or Retain an Unprofitable Segment
Contribution Income Statement Product X Product Y Total
$ $ $
Sales 60,000 100,000 160,000
Less: Variable cost (70% of total cost) 49,000 56,000 105,000
Contribution 11,000 46,000 55,000
Less: Specific fixed cost (10% of total cost) 7,000 8,000 15,000
4,000 36,000 40,000
Less: General fixed cost (20% of $150,000) 30,000
Net profit 10,000
92
Illustration 12
Eliminate or Retain an Unprofitable Segment
• Conclusion: Since the department producing
product X makes contribution, it should be
retained. If it is eliminated, the profit will be
only $6,000 instead of $10,000.
93
Activity 2
Integrated Illustrative Question
94
Question (1)
A manufacturing company has been asked to quote for
a one‐off job which would require the following
resources:
Material A
1,000 kg would be required. The material is used
regularly in other jobs. Currently there are 4,000 kg in
the inventory which was purchased at $8 per kg. It can
be sold at $7 if not used. The current replacement cost
is $9 per kg.
95
Question (2)
Material B or Material C
100 kg would be required. Material B is not in the
inventory and has to be ordered at a current price of
$15 per kg. However, material C can be used to
substitute material B. Material C is in inventory and has
been purchased at a cost of $20 per kg. It was
specifically purchased for use in a product line which
has now been discontinued. It can be sold at a net
realizable value of $8 per kg. If it is used to substitute
material B, additional conversion cost of $6 per kg has
to be incurred.
96
Question (3)
Skilled labour
Direct skilled labour cost for the job would be $40,000.
Skilled labour is in short supply. If the workers work for
this job, they cannot work for another job which would
make a total contribution of $5,000.
97
Question (4)
Unskilled labour
Unskilled labour receiving pay totaling $16,000 will be
transferred from another department which will recruit
additional labour at a total cost of $17,000 including
pay and recruitment costs.
98
Question (5)
Machine hours
50 machine hours would be required. A machine
currently lying idle will be used in the job. Details about
the machinery are as follows:
Depreciation due to use $10,000
Current net realization value $240,000
Estimated net realizable value after use $200,000
If the machine is not used, the machine hours can be
hired from a leasing company which charges $1,000
per hour.
99
Question (6)
Required
Calculate the minimum price that should be
quoted for the job.
100
Answer
Relevant Costs $
Material A 9,000
Material C 1,400
Skilled labour 45,000
Unskilled labour 17,000
Machine hours 40,000
112,400
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Further Readings
Burgstahler, D., Horngren, C., Schatzberg, J., Stratton, W., & Sundem,
G. (2008). Introduction to Management Accounting, 14th ed.
Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Chapters 2 & 5‐6.
Drury, C. (2008). Management and Cost Accounting, 7th ed. London:
South‐Western Cengage Learning. Chapters 8‐9 & 11‐12.
Horngren, C. T., Datar, S. M., Foster, G., Raian, M. & Ittner, C. (2009).
Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis, 13th ed. Upper Saddle
River: Prentice Hall. Chapters 3 & 11.
Lucey, T. (2009). Costing, 7th ed. London: South‐Western Cengage
Learning. Chapters 17 & 20‐21.
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