Watershed Hydrology

FRST 385 - FOPR 388

Lecture 10. Streamflow

 Course contents
Modules Lecture
1. Introduction to hydrology
Fundamentals of
2. Watershed concept & hydrologic cycle
Hydrology
3. Energy and mass balances
4. Precipitation
5. Soil water
6. Infiltration

Hydrologic 7. Groundwater
processes 8. Evapotranspiration
9. Runoff generation
10. Streamflow
11. Snow hydrology

Quantitative 12. Experimental design and data collection

methods 13. Frequency analysis
14. Forest operations and water resources
15. Forests and peak flows: a paradigm shift
Forest Hydrology
16. Forests and water yield
17. Forests and water quality

Lecture 10 2
Lecture outline
1. Streamflow processes
1.1 Streamflow within the water & energy balances
1.2 Fundamentals of streamflow
1.3 The hydrograph concept
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
2. Streamflow estimation
2.1 Volumetric method
2.2. Velocity-area method
2.3 Rating curves
2.4 Weirs and flumes
2.5 Dilution gauging
2.6 Empirical equations
2.7 Data availability and access
Glossary of terms

3
1. Streamflow processes
 1. Streamflow processes
1.1 Streamflow within the water & energy balances Flux km3/y mm/y

Precipitation on land 110,300 740

Evaporation from land 72,900 490

Runoff from land 37,400 250

Precipitation on
385,700 107
oceans

Evaporation from
423,100 117
oceans

TOTAL precipitation 496,000 97

TOTAL evaporation 496,000 97

Lecture 10 5
 1. Streamflow processes
1.1 Streamflow within the water & energy balances Processes at the
ground layers
F – Infiltration
L – Lateral flow
Pe – Percolation
D – Direct precipitation
O – Overland flow
Ss – Subsurface flow
Q – Streamflow
O GR – Groundwater recharge
D GD – Groundwater discharge
L
F
Unsaturated
zone
Pe Ss
Q
Saturated
Zone (groundwater)

GR GD

Lecture 10 6
 1. Streamflow processes
1.1 Streamflow within the water & energy balances
INFILTRATION
GROUNDWATER
Lateral flow RECHARGE
Infiltration
Percolation

GROUNDWATER
DISCHARGE
PRECIPITATION
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Throughfall
Interception
Drip Evaporation /
sublimation
Transpiration
Stemflow

Direct

RUNOFF

Saturation-excess
Overland flow Streamflow
Infiltration-excess

Subsurface flow

Lecture 10 7
 1. Streamflow processes
1.1 Streamflow within the water & energy balances
Water balance
Water balance

Input Output Storage P = precipitation ET = evapotranspiration

Gin = ground water discharge Q = streamflow
P + Gin – (I + Es + T + Q + Gout) = S I = Interception Gout = groundwater recharge
Es = evaporation from soil R = runoff (subsurface and overland
ET T = transpiration flow)
S = Storage
Energy balance
Rn = net radiation energy
K* = net shortwave radiation
Energy balance

Radiative, thermal & latent energy → Rn = K* + L* + Fh L* = net longwave radiation

Fh = heat fluxes
Kinetic energy → Ek = 0.5 mv2
Ψg = gravitational potential
Potential energy → Ψ = Ψg + Ψp + Ψm + Ψo Ψp = pressure potential
Ψm = matric potential
Ψo = osmotic potential

Lecture 10 8
 1. Streamflow processes
1.2 Fundamentals of streamflow
Definitions:
• Streamflow: rate at which water leaves a catchment via the • Hydrograph: plot of water level or discharge
stream channel [m3 s-1; L s-1]. Synonyms: discharge, open against time.
channel flow. • Stream network: set of interconnected
• Specific discharge: streamflow standardized by catchment area channels that convey runoff to the outlet of a
[m3 s-1 ha-1] or [m3 s-1 km-2]. watershed.
• Stage: elevation of water surface above some reference (datum) • Stream gauging: the process of measuring
[m]. discharge.
• Daily flow: streamflow averaged over a one day interval [m3 s-1].
• Peak flow: maximum streamflow in a defined time period (daily,
monthly, yearly, etc.) [m3 s-1].
• Low flow: minimum streamflow in a defined time period (daily,
monthly, yearly, etc.) [m3 s-1].
• Annual flood: maximum streamflow in a given year [m3 s-1].

Lecture 10 9
 1. Streamflow processes
1.2 Fundamentals of streamflow
Importance of streamflow:
• Peak flow needed in planning for
flood control or engineering
structures.
• Low flows required to estimate
dependability of water supplies.
• Total streamflow and variation must
be known for design purposes.
• Total streamflow = water availability.

http://www.civildefence.g http://feww.wordpress.com/tag/d
ovt.nz/ elhi-dam/

Lecture 10 10
 1. Streamflow processes
Amazon river basin
1.2 Fundamentals of streamflow

Largest rivers in the world by mean discharge

and specific discharge:
Specific
Drainag Mean
Length discharge
River e area discharg
[km] [m3 s-1 km-
[km2] e [m3 s-1] 2]

Amazon 6,416 6,915,000 175,000 0.025

Ganges-Bramaputra-
Meghna
2,948 1,635,000 42,470 0.026
Congo 4,371 3,822,000 41,200 0.011 WWF - http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/amazon/about_the_amazon/

Orinoco 2,140 880,000 33,000 0.038

Yangtze 6,380 1,940,000 35,000 0.018
Madeira 3,380 1,420,000 31,200 0.022
Rio Negro 2,230 691,000 28,400 0.041
Paraná 3,998 3,100,000 25,700 0.008
Brahmaputra 2,840 536,600 19,200 0.036
Yenisei 5,550 2,580,000 18,040 0.007

Lecture 10 11
 1. Streamflow processes
Crest
1.3 Hydrograph concept

• The rising limb is a function of the storm or snow

melt intensity, initial moisture of the soils, and
basin morphology.
• The point of inflection on the falling side of the Quickflow Runoff end

hydrograph is commonly assumed to mark the

Baseflow
time at which surface inflow to the channel system Runoff start

ceases.
• Hydrograph is a spatially and temporally Adapted from Chang (2006)

integrated response determined by:

- Spatially and temporally varying input rates
- Time required for each drop to travel to the
stream network
- Time required to travel down the stream network

Lecture 10 12
 1. Streamflow processes
1.3 Hydrograph concept

Discharge Rainfall Soil moisture (15 cm)

Combination of a
5,000 56 hydrograph, hyetograph
54 and soil moisture curve for
Rainfall & discharge (l/s)

4,000 the Rietholzbach

52

Soil moisture (%)

catchment (1998).
3,000 50

48
2,000 46

44
1,000
42

0 40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Hours
Lecture 10 13
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
(mm/d)

• Hydroclimate regime
• Precipitation
70 characteristics
Discharge [mm d-1]

60 — 630 mm y-1 (snow Fraser River, CO

50 dominated) • Basin characteristics
Discharge

— 4,560 mm y-1 (rain Fish Creek, Ketchikan, AK

40 dominated) (size, shape, slope,
etc.)
30
20 • Land use
10
0
O N D J F M A M J J A S
Effect of hydroclimate regime and basin size on hydrograph characteristics

Lecture 10 14
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
Hydroclimate regime

Rain

Rain on
snow

Snow

Lecture 10 15
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
(mm/d)

70
Alsea River
Discharge [mm d-1]

60 1,900 mm y-1
50 McKenzie River
Discharge

2,600 mm y-1
40 270 mm y-1 John Day
30
20
10
0
O N D J F M A M J J A S
WY 1997
Effect of precipitation input on hydrograph characteristics

Lecture 10 16
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
Basin size
Hydrograph for a large (Lavaca
river) and small (Garcitas
creek) watershed [adapted
from Chang (2006)].

135 mm
2,116 km2
total
rainfall

238 km2

Lecture 10 17
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
• In small watersheds (< 50 km2 area),
Small watershed the travel time to the watershed outlet
is determined mostly by the hillslope
travel time and tightly coupled to the
runoff generation processes and
timing.
• For larger watersheds (> 50 km2
area), the travel time in the stream
network becomes increasingly
important.

Large watershed

Lecture 10 18
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
Basin size Basin slope
m3 s-1 ha-1

A
B A B

B Basin circularity
Basin shape

1 A

2
A
C B
3

Lecture 10 19
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow
Land use

Comparative hydrographs without (left) and with (right) logging in Deadhorse

creek (treatment), and an unlogged control (Lexen creek) [adapted from
Chang (2006)].
Lecture 10 20
 1. Streamflow processes
1.4 Factors that influence streamflow

Land use

Lecture 10 21
2. Streamflow estimation
 2. Streamflow estimation

• Discharge (Q) is a measure of the volume of water

passing a given point over a period of time or the
average velocity (v) multiplied by the cross sectional
area (A):

Q=v×A [m s-1 × m2] = [m3 s-1]

• Measuring discharge:
• Task of measuring streamflow much simpler than P or ET
• No problems with areal extrapolation
• Lack of streamflow stations
• High cost of installing gauging stations

Lecture 10 23
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.1 Volumetric method

• Volumetric flow measurements may be made at the outlets

of elevated pipes, culverts, and flumes, where a volume of
water (V) is captured during a measured time interval (t)

Q = V / t [m3 s-1]

Lecture 10 24
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.2 Velocity-area method

Appropriate for:

• Streams with smooth cross-sections.

• Laminar flow with no backwater
conditions.
• Converging flows.
• Velocities within typical instrument
measurement ranges.

Lecture 10 25
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.2 Velocity-area method * Lab 6

• Should sample horizontal flow wi = 0.5 × (bi+1 - bi-1)

distribution with at least 20 panels
qi = wi di vi
• Each panel should not comprise Q = qi
more than 5% of total flow (verticals w2
closer together when flow is deeper and w3
w4
faster and farther apart if flow is slower w5

and shallower).
0.2 × d

• Velocity sampled at either:

0.5 × d
• 0.6 × d (if d < 0.75 m) 0.6 × d
• 0.2 and 0.8 × d (if d > 0.75
v = v0.6
0.8 × d
m)

v = 0.5(v0.8 +v0.2)
Lecture 10 26
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.2 Velocity-area method Velocity meters
Floating device
Acoustic Doppler Profiler

Velocity [m s-1]

0.000 1.125 2.250 3.375 4.500

0.00

1.83

3.67
* Lab 6
Depth [m]

5.50

7.33

9.17

11.00

Lecture 10 27
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.3 Rating curves
• Empirical relationships
between stage and
h
discharge.
• Less time consuming than
h0
other methods.
• Applicable to streams where
stage is easy to measure.
• Assumptions: stable channel
bed, steady flow (constant
velocities).

Q = a (h – h0)b
where h = stage, h0 = stage of no
flow, a and b = empirical local
parameters.

Lecture 10 28
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.3 Rating curves

* Lab 5

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/rating-curve

Lecture 10 29
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.4 Weirs and flumes
• Pre-calibrated structures for small watersheds (< 800 ha).
• Weirs and flumes: stable cross section; known empirical
relationship between stage and discharge.

Lecture 10 30
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.4 Weirs and flumes
Ideal conditions for installation:
• Straight channel.
• Channel constriction (not
expansion).
• Stable bed and banks.
• Little or no overbank flow.
• Single channel.
• No backwater influence
(tributary, estuary, ice, debris)
• Little flow turbulence.
• Look for natural weirs!
(Brooks et al. 2003)

Lecture 10 31
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.5 Dilution gauging
• Dilution gauging: method of gauging streams that have a high
amount of turbulence and/or a very inconsistent cross-
sectional area (e.g. most mountain streams).
• Based on the proportional relationship between the electrical
conductivity and concentration of certain tracers in water.
• Very accurate if stream reach properly chosen.
• Reach should be approximately 25 times as long as the width
of the stream, and not have any channels entering or splitting
away from it.
• Sufficient turbulence is required in order to properly mix the
solution in the stream.
• All dilution gauging requires the use of a tracer that can be
measured at low concentrations and a method of measuring
this tracer.
• Tracer should not react with anything in the stream or be
harmful to the environment.
• Typical tracers: common salt, rhodamine dye.

Lecture 10 32
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.5 Dilution gauging

• Salt (NaCl):
- Inexpensive
- Readily available
- Simple to measure as electrical conductivity

• Fluorescent dyes (e.g. rhodamine)

- Detectable to parts per billion
- Can assess mixing visually
- Requires expensive fluorometers to measure

Lecture 10 33
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.5 Dilution gauging
Constant rate injection (Q < 0.1 m3 s-1)

Qin jCin j
Q=
k(ECSS−ECBG)
ECSS
where Q = discharge [L
s-1], Qinj = flow rate of
ECBG
constant injection
solution [L s-1], Cinj =
concentration [mg L-1
NaCl) of constant
injection solution, k =
calibration coefficient
(slope of regression line
of concentration [mg L-1
NaCl] vs. conductivity
[S cm-1]), ECSS =
steady state conductivity
(S cm-1) and ECBG =
background conductivity Dingman (2002)
(S cm-1).

Lecture 10 34
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.5 Dilution gauging
Slug injection (Q ~ 10 m3 s-1)

min j
Q=

kt  (EC(t) −ECBG)
n
where Q = discharge [L
s-1], minj = mass of
tracer injected [g], k =
calibration coefficient
(slope of regression
line of concentration
[mg L-1 NaCl) vs.
conductivity [S cm-1], EC(t)
t = sampling interval ECBG
[s], EC(t) = measured
ECBG
conductivity [S cm-1]
and ECBG = Dingman (2002)
background
conductivity [S cm-1].

Lecture 10 35
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.5 Dilution gauging
1,000

Electric conductivity [µS cm-1]

900
min j 200 g 800
Q=

Q=
kt  (EC(t) −ECBG)
700 200 g
0.00052 g L-1 × 5 s × 6,346 µS cm-1
600
n µS cm-1 500 t = 5 s
= 12.1 L s-1 400
300
Calibration with 14 g L-1 solution
200

0.25
100
Tracer concentration [g L-1]

y = 0.00052x - 0.13976 0
0.20 R² = 1.00000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0.15 Time [s]
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 200 400 600 800
Electric conductivity [µS cm-1]

Dilution ratio (in 1 L) Concentration [g L-1] EC [S cm-1]

0.0000 0.0000 270
(0.005 L × 14 g L-1) / 1.005 L
0.0050 (+5 mL) 0.0697 405
0.0099 (+10 mL) 0.1386 538 (0.010 L × 14 g L-1) / 1.010 L
0.0148 (+15 mL) 0.2069 670

Lecture 10 36
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.6 Empirical equations

Manning’s equation:

V = 1Rh2/3s1/2 Q = V×A
n

V = average velocity in stream

cross-section [m s-1]
Rh = hydraulic radius [m] = A / WP
A = cross-sectional area [m2]
WP = wetted perimeter [m] (a-b-c-d
in figure)
s = energy slope (approximated by
water surface slope) [m m-1]
n = roughness coefficient
Brooks et al. (2003)

Lecture 10 37
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.1 2.6 Empirical equations

Lecture 10 38
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.6 Empirical equations

Applicability of Manning (Chang 2006):

• When there is no gauging station.

• When peak discharge is beyond highest measured
stage.
• When peak discharge of previous flood is of
interest. Robert Manning (1816 – 1897)

Lecture 10 39
 2. Streamflow estimation
2.7 Data availability and access

Real-time data
(Environment
Canada)
(http://www.wateroffice
.ec.gc.ca/index_e.html)

Lecture 10 40
 Glossary of terms
Acoustic Doppler Profiler Slug injection
Annual flood Specific discharge
Constant rate injection Stream stage
Daily flow Stream gauging
Dilution gauging Stream network
Floating device Streamflow
Fluorescent dyes Velocity meters
High flow Velocity-area method
Hydrograph Volumetric flow
Laminar flow Weirs and flumes
Low flow
Manning’s equation
Peak flow
Point of inflection
Rating curve
Rising limb

Lecture 10 41
 Acknowledgements
Image sources
• All images used in this document are either originals by the author or comply with fair dealing under Canadian Copyright Act.
• Unless explicit, click on each image to identify its source and acknowledge copyright holder or author.
• This document cannot be distributed or copied partially or as a whole for purposes other than personal study of students registered in the course.

Contributors
• Dr. Younes Alila.
• Dr. Andres Varhola.

Bibliography

Brooks K.N., Ffolliot P.F., Gregersen H.M, DeBano L.F. 2003. Hydrology and the management of watersheds. Iowa State Press. 574 p.

Brutsaert W. 2005. Hydrology: An introduction. Cambridge University Press. 605 p.

Chang M. 2006. Forest Hydrology: An introduction to water and forests. Second Edition. CRC Press. 474.

Dingman S.L. 2002. Physical Hydrology. Second Edition. Prentice Hall. 646 p.

.
Lecture 10 42
Thank you!!!