Soaps are the potassium or sodium salts of long-chain fatty acids and

detergents are generally alkyl benzene sulfonates.

The main difference between potassium and sodium soaps is

consistency — usually, potassium makes a softer, more water-
soluble soap than sodium.

Soaps

 Soaps are potassium or sodium salts of a carboxylic acid having a

long aliphatic chain attached to it.
 They are surfactants (compounds that reduce the surface tension
between a liquid and another substance) and therefore help in the
emulsification of oils in water.

 Soaps are generally prepared via the saponification of fats and oils.

 The carboxylate end of the soap molecule is hydrophilic whereas

the hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic.

Detergents

 Detergents are the potassium or sodium salts of a long alkyl chain

ending with a sulfonate group.
 They are soluble even in hard water and not precipitated by it.

 This solubility is attributed to the fact that the sulfonate group does
not attach itself to the ions present in hard water.
  Commonly, anionic detergents such as alkyl benzene sulfonates
are used for domestic purposes.

Today, the process of making soap most commonly

involves reacting an organic acid with an alkaline
chemical like potassium hydroxide or sodium
hydroxide. Industrially, the caustic soda base used
most often is sodium hydroxide, which is also called lye.
The main difference between potassium and sodium
soaps is consistency — usually, potassium makes a
softer, more water-soluble soap than sodium.

HOW SOAPS GET MADE

Soap-making is a relatively simple process. A standard

method involves the saponification of oils and fats, which
requires heat. In this method, fats and oils get heated
and then reacted against a liquid alkali — this process
produces soap, plus excess water and glycerine.

Another common way to make soap is by neutralizing

fatty acids with an alkali, most often sodium hydroxide.
First, oils and fats get hydrolyzed, or split, using high-
pressure steam. This step separates the fats into crude
fatty acids and glycerine. Next, the fatty acids get
purified through distillation and then neutralized by an
alkali, which produces soap and water.

If the alkali is potassium hydroxide, the result is a

potassium soap. Potassium soaps are the "soft" liquid
soaps that quickly dissolve in water. Alternately, if the
alkali is sodium hydroxide, the result is a sodium soap.
These are called "hard" soaps and are less water-soluble
than soft soaps.

HOW TO MAKE LIQUID SOAP WITH CAUSTIC SODA

Sodium hydroxide, also called caustic soda or lye, is a

traditional ingredient for soap-making. While potassium
hydroxide is more common in liquid soap-making, it is
possible to produce liquid soaps using caustic soda.

One of the most commonly used chemicals in the soap

industry, sodium hydroxide is a strong base with a broad
range of potential applications. Sodium hydroxide is a
water-soluble compound that comes in pellets, granules,
flakes, or powders. Sodium hydroxide forms through the
electrolysis of sodium chloride, and is a powerful alkali.
When added to water, sodium hydroxide increases the pH
of a substance, which makes it a valuable pH adjuster in
acidic formulas.

An inorganic base, sodium hydroxide does not contain

any carbon atoms, similar to water. When mixed with
water, sodium hydroxide dissociates completely to just
hydroxyl and sodium ions. The hydroxyl ions carry a
negative charge, and the sodium ions have a positive
one. This influx of ions leads to a strong exothermic
reaction, which helps hydrolyze fats in the saponification
process to form soaps.

Caustic soda causes saponification and is an essential

ingredient in soap-making. When flakes or beads of
sodium hydroxide get added to a liquid, it forms a lye
solution. This solution, when mixed with oils or fats, will
lead to the chemical reaction called saponification.
Today, most industrial soap-making takes place through
a continuous process, which produces a steady stream of
soap instead of small batches.

Manufacturers first split natural fats into fatty acids and

glycerin, typically through a tall, vertical steel column
called a hydrolyzer that uses high temperatures to break
the fat into its two components.

Once separated, the fatty acids get distilled for further

purification.

Next, the purified fatty acids get mixed with a precisely

measured amount of caustic soda. The subsequent
saponification creates soap. During this stage, other
chemicals may be added to increase shelf life, cleansing
power or marketability. But you can also make liquid
soap with caustic soda in small batches.

FOUR STEPS TO MAKE LIQUID SOAP

1. You must have a type of fat — the most commonly

used fats derive from plants, such as palm kernel oil,
coconut oil, and olive oil. You can use one type of oil or a
combination of two or three — for example, 70 percent
coconut oil and 30 percent olive oil.

2. Make lye water. Mix the caustic soda with water until it
dissolves. The reaction of sodium hydroxide and water is
exothermic and will produce heat, so use caution during
this stage of the process.
3. Combine the oils with the lye water. Once mixed, allow
the soap to rest up to 24 hours.

4. After the soap has set, slowly add heat and water until
the soap is smooth and at a proper
liquid consistency.

By the end of the saponification process, sodium

hydroxide is no longer present in the soap — it has been
completely dissociated and used in the chemical reaction.
Keep in mind that it is essential to weigh your ingredients
instead of measuring them. The amount of lye is based
on the weight of the oil, not the fluid ounces. Different
oils have different densities — one cup of olive oil will not
weigh the same as one cup of coconut oil. To ensure you
have the right ratio, weigh your ingredients before
mixing.
CHEMICAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANTIBACTERIAL
SOAPS AND STANDARD LIQUID SOAPS

Walk down the soap aisle in any store, and you are
guaranteed to see "antibacterial" soaps next to traditional
labels. To understand the difference between the two
 varieties of liquid soaps, we will examine the
compositions of each, as well as their unique advantages.

 Antibacterial Soaps

For a soap to be considered antibacterial, it must have

active antimicrobial ingredients. More than 75 percent of
liquid soaps stocked in stores have at least one
antibacterial component — triclosan is the most
commonly used ingredient, followed by benzalkonium
chloride and alcohol. However, the industry has recently
begun a shift away from using triclosan.
Antibacterial soaps are useful in settings where immune
systems are at risk, such as health care facilities. Soaps
like hand sanitizer that contain high amounts of alcohol
are effective alternatives when hot water and soap are
not accessible. However, the FDA has reported there is
yet no evidence to prove antibacterial soaps are more
effective than standard soaps. While antibacterial soaps
are specifically designed to eliminate bacteria, they do
not discriminate between beneficial and harmful bacteria
— they also eliminate healthy bacteria on the skin, which
can, in turn, make antibiotics less effective.
 CHEMICAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DETERGENT AND
LIQUID SOAPS

While similar in appearance, detergents and liquid soaps

are not the same products. To understand the differences
between the two types of soap, we will unpack their
individual chemical components and the specific
situations where each one is best to use.

 Detergent
 Liquid Soap

Detergents first became available during World War

II as an alternative to soap — during this period, the oils
necessary to make soap were in scarce supply, and
people needed another type of cleanser. Detergents are
synthetic products, and some may have a negative effect
on the environment.

However, detergents have one primary advantage over

standard liquid soap — detergents do not leave a residue
or film after washing, which has made them the cleanser
of choice for laundry. Detergents have been engineered
to perform well in virtually any temperature or level of
water hardness — they are as effective in cold,
mineralized water as they are at standard temperatures.

How are soaps and detergents different?

Table : Difference between soaps and detergents

Soaps Detergents

1. They are sodium or potassium 1. They are sodium or potassium

salts of fatty acids salts of sulphonic acids.

2. They have –COONa group 2. They have –SO3Na group

3. They do not work well with

3. They work well with hard water,
hard water, acidic water and
acidic water and saline water.
saline water

4. Some detergents having

4. They are fully biodegradable branched hydrocarbon chain are
non biodegradable

5. They do not work well with 5. They work well with woolen
woolen garments. garments

6.It may cause irritation to skin 6. They do not cause irritation to

 skin

7.They take time to dissolve in

7. They dissolve faster in water
water

8. Examples : Sodium lauryl

8. Example : Sodium stearate,
sulphate, sodium      
Sodium palmitate
dodecylbenzenesulphonate.

The comparison between a soap and a detergent is given in Table.

Cleaning
Soap Detergent
agent

Detergents are effective

Soaps are effective
Effectiveness cleaners in both hard
cleaners in soft water.
and soft water.

Formation of Soaps form scum in hard Detergents do not form

scum water. scum in hard water.

Detergents are made

Soaps are made from
from synthetic resources
Sources natural resources (animal
such as petroleum
fats or vegetable oils).
fractions.
 Detergents do not form
Formation of Soaps form precipitate in
precipitate in acidic
precipitate acidic water.
water.

Non-biodegradable
Soaps are biodegradable
Effect on the detergents give thick
and do not cause any
environment foams that kill aquatic
pollution.
lives.

Difference between Soap and Detergent

The key differences between soaps and detergents are tabulated below.

Difference Between Soap and Detergent

Soaps Detergents

Consist of a ‘-COONa’ group

Consist of a ‘-SO3Na’ group
attached to a fatty acid having a
attached to a long alkyl chain.
long alkyl chain.

They are not effective in hard They do not lose their

water and saline water effectiveness in hard water and
 saline water.

Detergents containing a
Soaps are completely
branched hydrocarbon chain are
biodegradable
non-biodegradable

They have a tendency to form

These compounds do not form
sum in a hard water
scum.
environment.

They are derived from natural

Detergents are synthetic
sources such as vegetable oils
derivatives.
and animal fats.

Soaps are environment-friendly These compounds can form a

products since they are thick foam that causes the death
biodegradable. of aquatic life.

Examples of detergents:
Examples of soaps: sodium
deoxycholic acid and sodium
palmitate and sodium stearate.
lauryl sulfate.

Early soap manufacturers simply boiled a solution of wood ash

and animal fat. A foam substance formed at the top of the pot.
When cooled, it hardened into soap.

Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and alkali. The alkali
most commonly used today is sodium hydroxide. Potassium
hydroxide can also be used. Potassium-based soap creates a
more water-soluble product than sodium-based soap, and so it is
called "soft soap." Soft soap, alone or in combination with sodium-
based soap, is commonly used in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a
slaughterhouse. Modern soap makers use fat that has been
processed into fatty acids. This eliminates many impurities, and it
produces as a byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many
vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil,
are also used in soap making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture, and scent of
soap. Fragrances and perfumes are added to the soap mixture to

The above illustrations show the kettle process of making soap.

cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-smelling scent.

Abrasives to enhance the texture of soap include talc, silica, and
marble pumice (volcanic ash). Soap made without dye is a dull
grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers color soap to
make it more enticing to the consumer.

The Manufacturing
Process
The kettle method of making soap is still used today by small
soap manufacturing companies. This process takes from four to
eleven days to complete, and the quality of each batch is
inconsistent due to the variety of oils used. Around 1940,
engineers and scientists developed a more efficient
manufacturing process, called the continuous process. This
procedure is employed by large soap manufacturing companies
all around the world today. Exactly as the name states, in the
continuous process soap is produced continuously, rather than
one batch at a time. Technicians have more control of the
production in the continuous process, and the steps are much
quicker than in the kettle method—it takes only about six hours to
complete a batch of soap.

The Kettle Process

Boiling
  1 Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which is a steel tank
that can stand three stories high and hold several thousand
pounds of material. Steam coils within the kettle heat the
batch and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass thickens
as the fat reacts with the alkali, producing soap and glycerin.

Salting

 2 The soap and glycerin must now be separated. The

mixture is treated with salt, causing the soap to rise to the
top and the glycerin to settle to the bottom. The glycerin is
extracted from the bottom of the kettle.

Strong change

 3 To remove the small amounts of fat that have not

saponified, a strong caustic solution is added to the kettle.
This step in the process is called "strong change." The mass
is brought to a boil again, and the last of the fat turns to
soap. The batch may be given another salt treatment at this
time, or the manufacturer may proceed to the next step.

Pitching

 4 The next step is called "pitching." The soap in the kettle is

boiled again with added water. The mass eventually
 separates into two layers. The top layer is called "neat
soap," which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The lower
layer, called "nigre," contains most of the impurities in the
soap such as dirt and salt, as well as most of the water. The
neat soap is taken off the top. The soap is then cooled. The
finishing process is the 

Developed around 1940 and used by today's major soap-

making companies, the above illustrations show the
continuous process of making soap.

same as for soap made by the continuous process.

The Continuous Process

Splitting

 1 The first step of the continuous process splits natural fat

into fatty acids and glycerin. The equipment used is a
vertical stainless steel column with the diameter of a barrel
called a hydrolizer. It may be as tall as 80 feet (24 m).
Pumps and meters attached to the column allow precise
measurements and control of the process. Molten fat is
pumped into one end of the column, while at the other end
water at high temperature (266°F [130°C]) and pressure is
introduced. This splits the fat into its two components. The
fatty acid and glycerin are pumped out continuously as more
fat and water enter. The fatty acids are then distilled for
purification.

Mixing

 2 The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a precise

amount of alkali to form soap. Other ingredients such as
abrasives and fragrance are also mixed in. The hot liquid
soap may be then whipped to incorporate air.

Cooling and finishing

  3 The soap may be poured into molds and allowed to harden
into a large slab. It may also be cooled in a special freezer.
The slab is cut into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then
stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous process, from
splitting to finishing, can be accomplished in several hours.

Milling

 4 Most toiletry soap undergoes additional processing called

milling. The milled bar lathers up better and has a finer
consistency than non-milled soap. The cooled soap is fed
through several sets of heavy rollers (mills), which crush and
knead it. Perfumes can best be incorporated at this time
because their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold
mixture. After the soap emerges from the mills, it is pressed
into a smooth cylinder and extruded. The extruded soap is
cut into bar size, stamped and wrapped.

Byproducts
Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap manufacture. It is used
to make hand lotion, drugs, and nitroglycerin, the main
component of explosives such as dynamite.
How do Soaps and Detergents Clean out Dirt?

Cleaning a soiled surface is a four-step process. In the first step, the

surface to be cleaned is made wet with water. In the second step, soap or
detergent is applied to the surface to be absorbed.

Soaps and detergents are also called surface-active agents, or surfactants.

Surface active molecules present in soaps and detergents dissolve in
water. This solution serves to loosen surface tension or the force that
holds together molecules on a surface or on cloth. When this happens, it
helps water to spread easily over a surface or soak into clothes.
In the third step, when clothes are rubbed together, either by hand or in a
washing machine, dirt particles are broken up as surface-active
molecules work to separate the dirt from clothes and deposit them in the
water. In the fourth and final step of the cleaning process, the separated
dirt is prevented from going and re-depositing on the surface of clean
clothes. Dirt particles are coated with soap and detergent molecules.
This keeps them suspended in water until the dirt is washed away with
rinsing.

What is the chemistry of soap?

Soaps are surfactants which means they dissolve and can clean in water
and oils. Soap making involves reacting fats/oils with a solid base of
hydroxide, to form glycerin and soap (fatty acid salts). The fat/oil
molecules (triglycerides) consist of glycerin that is chemically bound to
three fatty acids.

Are soaps and detergents basic?

Soaps are fatty acid salts which are water-soluble sodium or potassium.
Soaps are made from fats and oils, or their fatty acids, by chemically
treating them with a heavy alkali. So, Salts are soaps and detergents.
Because of this, they have very simple properties in them and can be
regarded as simple salts.

What is the difference between soap and detergent?

Soaps are the sodium salts of carboxylic acids in long chains. Sodium
salts of long-chain benzene sulphonic acids are detergents. Soaps are
biodegradable while some of the detergents can not be biodegraded.
Soaps have relatively weak cleaning action, whereas detergents have a
strong cleaning effect.

What is the chemical reaction of soap?

Saponification is the term for the soap-producing chemical reaction.

Animal or vegetable fat is converted to soap (a fatty acid) and alcohol
during the process. The reaction requires an alkali solution in water and
also heat (e.g., sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide).
What are the properties of soap?

Soaps are water-soluble, fatty acid sodium salts. Soaps are made of fats
and oils, or they are fatty acids, using solid alkali (a base) to handle
them. The most widely used process for making soap is the making of
fats and oils.

A natural surfactant has to have both the head and tail groups to
come from truly natural sources. Personal care surfactants often
have the same chemistry as paint surfactants, but perhaps
different names or slightly different functions. Another article that
pulls it all together is “breaking that tension with surfactants”iii

Surfactants are materials that lower the surface tension (or

interfacial tension) between two liquids or between a liquid and a
solid. In the general sense, any material that affects the interfacial
surface tension can be considered a surfactant, but in the
practical sense, surfactants may act as wetting
agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants, among
others.
Surfactants play an important role as dispersing, emulsifying,
cleaning, wetting, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many
practical applications and products, including: paints, emulsions
adhesives, inks, biocides (sanitizers), shampoos, toothpastes,
firefighting (foams), detergents, insecticides, deinking of recycled
papers, ski waxes, spermicides (nonoxynol-9). This is an article
about paint, which means surfactants that are used in paint,
emulsions, wetting agents, and in many items used in paint that
are dispersed or emulsified.

The dynamics of surfactant adsorption is of great importance for

practical applications such as in emulsifying or coating processes
as well as foaming, where bubbles or drops are rapidly generated
and need to be stabilized. As the interface is created, the
adsorption is hindered by the diffusion of the surfactant to the
interface, which can result in the kinetics being limited. These
energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions;
steric repulsions form the basis of how dispersants work. Surface
rheology of surfactant layers, is important to the stability of foams
and emulsions.
 In the bulk aqueous phase,
surfactants form masses, such as micelles, where the
hydrophobic tails form the core and the hydrophilic heads are
immersed in the surrounding liquid. Other types of structures can
also be formed, such as spherical micelles or lipid bilayers. The
shape of the molecules depends on the balance in size between
hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the
HLB, Hydrophilic-lipophilic Balance. Higher HLB surfactants (>10)
are hydrophilic (“water loving”) and form O/W (Oil-in-water)
emulsions. Lipophilic surfactants possess low HLB values (1-10)
and form W/O (water-in-oil) emulsions. Dish detergents,
surfactants for emulsion polymerization, and the following
example (SLS = Sodium Lauryl Sulfate) are high HLB surfactants.
Most surfactants’ “tails” are fairly similar, consisting of a
hydrocarbon chain, which can be branched, linear, or
aromatic. Fluorosurfactants have fluorocarbon chains. Siloxane
surfactants have siloxane chains. Recent advances in surfactant
technology have seen the development of mixed chains or/and
complex structures. One example of mixed chain/complex
structures is N,N-dimethyldodecylamine oxide (DDAO) and
sodium decyl-, sodium dodecyl- and sodium tetra-decylsulfate
(abbreviated as SDeS, SDS and STS, respectively).

There are 4 types of surfactants with a brief review of each as

follows. These classifications are based upon the composition of
the polarity of the head group: nonionic, anionic, cationic,
amphoteric.

A non-ionic surfactant has no charge groups in its head. The head

of an ionic surfactant carries a net charge. If the charge is
negative, the surfactant is more specifically called anionic; if the
charge is positive, it is called cationic. If a surfactant contains a
head with two oppositely charged groups, it is termed zwitterionic.
Commonly encountered surfactants of each type are listed as
follows..