AJ Sadler Mathemati Methods Student Book Unit 4PREFACE This tox! forgets Unit Four of the West Australian course Mathematics Methods, a course that is organised info four units allogether, the firs! hwo for year eleven and the last hwo for yeor Wwelve. This West Australian course, ‘Mathematics Methods, is based on the Australian Curriculum Senior Secondary course Mathematical ‘Methods. Apart from small changes lo wording, the unit fours of these courses are closely aligned. Hence this book would also be suitable for students fellowing unit four of the Australian Curriculum course Mathematical Methods The book contains text, examples ond exercises containing, mony carefully eroded questions. A student who studies the appropriate text and relevant examples should make good progress withthe exercise that follows The book commences with o section entitled Preliminary work. This section brielly oullines ‘work of paricular relevance to this unit thot students should ether already have some familiarity with from the mathematics siudied in earlier years, or for which the brief outine included in the section may be sufficient to bring the understonding of the concept up to the necessary level. AAs studenis progress through the book they will ‘encounter questions involving this preliminary work in ihe Miscellaneous exereises thai eaiue ol the tend of each chapter. These miscellaneous exercises ‘also include questions involving work from preceding chopters fo encourage the continual revision needed throughout the unit Some chaplers commence with a ‘Situation’ or ‘wo for students to consider, either individually or €8 a group. In this way students are encouraged to think and discuss « situation, which they are able to tackle using their existing knowledge, but which {acs 0 « forerunner and slimulus for the ideas that follow. Students should be encouraged to discuss their solutions and answers to these situations and perhaps to present heir method of solution to obhers, For this reason answets to these situations are generally not included in the book. AA mes in this series of books | have found it appropriate fo go a litle outside the confines of the syllabus forthe unit involved, In this regard readers will {ind thot in this tex thot when considering sampling J include mention of ‘capture — recapture’ as on example of sampling, a technique not specifically mentioned in the syllabus, and when considering random sampling | found it appropriate to consider «@ few simulation actviies, When introducing the idea of an interval estimate of a population proportion | also consider the point estimate Alan Sadler sen 9720170205205CONTENTS PRELIMINARY WORK Number The absolute valve Algebra, Function. The exponential function, 6% Summary statistics Probability Rordom variables. Probability cistibution of « diserele rondom variable. ‘Meon, veriance ond standard deviation of o discrete rondom vatiable The binomial probably distribution Calculus Limit of a sum Applications of caleulus Use of technology. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Logarithms. Lawes of logarithms Using logarithms to solve equations Notural logarithms Logarithmic functions Graphs of logarithmic functions logarithmic seal. Grophs with logarithmic scales. Use of logarithmic scales Miscellaneous exercise one CALCULUS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Differentiating y = Inx Integration to give logerthmic functions Miscellaneous exercise hwo é 13 16 19 19 21 22 22 25 28 30 34 39 CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLES 42 Distibution os a histogram ag Continuous random variables......49 Probably densiy fnetion (od)... 50 Uniform [or rectangular) distributions 52 Nonunifonn distributions. 56 Expected volue, variance and standard deviation oa Change of scale and gin. 66 (Cumulative disribution function ....67 Miscellaneous exercise thee on. 73 Ison 9790170395205THE NORMAL RANDOM SAMPLING 102 SAMPLE PROPORTIONS 126 DISTRIBUTION 76 Sompling 104 Variation between somes... 128 Standard scores 78 How big should our sompla be? . 104 Sample proportion distribution... 135 Normal distribution 80 How should we select How would we determine the Using o ealevlatar 82 our sample? 105 distribution off if we don't In the old days = using @ book Random sampling. 105 know p? 137, of tables 82 Generating random numbers ...... 105 Why is it useful to know Nokia 84 Spentied sampling how the sample proportions A Seated empl 107 gre distributed? 138 ‘Quantiles. 85 Other forms of sampling 107 Confidence intervals 146 The normal distribution pdf 89 Coptuerecopiure 108 Margin of eror 19 Using the normal distibution Simletions. 112 toanedel dana 95 Random number generating ahaa re ‘Can sve vee the normal dstibution from other dsmbutons via Wnsteosinathelevelo cofcnce to model discrete dato?. 98 shore simuotions nie esos He wagie ore: Limitations of probability models Varibilty of random sample... 120 les check 152 for predicting real beheviour Miscellaneous exercise sx 156 {or prediceg tol beh 5% iscllnecus exerise fe... 123 Miscellaneous exercise four. 98 ANSWERS 161 INDEX 7 sen 9720170205205IMPORTANT NOTE ‘This series of texts has been written based on my interpretation of the appropriate Mathematics Methods syllabus documents as they stand at the time of writing. Tes likel y that as time progresses some points of interpretation will become elarified and pethaps even some changes could be made to the “original syllabus. [urge teachers of the Mathematics Methods course, and students following the course, to check with the appropriate curriculum authority to make themselves aware of the latest version of the syllabus current at the time they are studying the course, tv MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Acknowledgements [As with all of my previous books Lam again indebted to my wife, Rosemary, for her assistance, encouragement and help at every stage. To my three beautiful daughters, Rosalyn, Jennifer and Donelle, thank you for the continued understanding you show when am ‘still doing sums’ and for the love and belief you show. ‘To the delightfully supportive team at Cengage ~ I thank you all Alan Sadler Ise 9740170295205PRELIMINARY WORK ‘This book assumes that you are already familiar with a number of mathematical ideas from your mathematical studies in earlier years. ‘This section outlines the ideas which are of particular relevance to Unit Four of the Mathematics Methads course and for which some familiarity will be assumed, or for which the brief explanation given here may be sufficient to bring your understanding of the concept up to the necessary level. Read this ‘preliminary work’ section and if anything is not familiar to you, and you don’t understand the brief mention or explanation given here, you may need to do some further reading to bring your understanding of those concepts up to an appropriate level for this unit. (If you do understand the work but feel somewhat ‘rusty’ with regards to applying the ideas some of the chapters afford further opportunities for revision as do some of the questions in the miscellaneous exercises at the end of chapters.) ‘Chapters in this book will continue some of the topics from this preliminary work by building on the assumed familiarity with the work. ‘+ The miscellaneous exercises that feature at the end of each chapter may include questions requiring an understanding of the topies briefly explained here. Number Itis assumed that you are familiar with, and competent in the use of, positive and negative numbers, recurring decimals (e.g. 0.666 66..., written 0.6), square roots and cube roots and that you are able to choose levels of accuracy to suit contexts and distinguish between exact values, approximations and estimates. Numbers expressed with positive, negative and fractional powers should also be familiar to you as should be the following index laws: oxa" = am (aby = atx" Al a (a ( £ Note:The set of numbers that you are currently familiar with is called the set of real numbers. We use the symbol for this set. R contains many subsets of numbers such as the whole numbers, the integers, the prime numbers ete. (Lfyou are also a student of Mathematics Specialist you will have encountered numbers beyond this real system. Such considerations are beyond the scope of this unit.) The absolute value ‘The absolute value of a number is the distance on the number line that the number is from the or The absolute value of x is written |x| and equals x when x is positive, and equals —v when x is negative. Thus|3|=3, |-3)=3, |4|=4, |-4] =4. ‘sen 9720170205205Algebra tis assumed that you are already familiar with: ‘manipulating algebraic expressions in particular, expanding, simplifying, factorising, and solving equations, in particular, solving: linear equations, quadratic equations, simultaneous equations, exponential equations, e.g, 2*+ trigonometric equations, e.g, sin Function It's assumed that you are familiar with the idea that in mathematics any rule that takes any input value that it ‘can cope with, and assigns to ita particular output value, is called a function. Familiarity with the fanction notation f(x) is also assumed. Iecan be useful at times to consider a function as a machine, A box of numbers (the domain) is fed into the machine, a certain rule is applied to each number, and the resulting output forms a new box of numbers, the range, In this way fw) =x" + 3, with domain (1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, could be ‘pictured’ as follows: np Laks If we are not given a specific domain we assume it to be all the numbers that the funetion ean cope with. This is the function’ natural domain or implied domain. tis assumed you are particularly familiar with the characteristic equations and graphs of linear functions, ‘quadratic functions and with the graphs of 3 yes’, yeve and i y=sins, y= eos and ye. Tis further assumed that the effect altering the values of a, 8, cand d have on the graph of y= af Tx ~ 0] + d is something you have previously considered for various functions. ‘The idea of using the output from one function as the input of a second function should also be familiar to you. In this way we form a composite function, also referred to as a function of a function. For example, if fa) = 2 (the square it function) and ge) = x43, (the add three function) then fgG) = fle+3) and gfe) = te’) +3) = 43. (wi) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205The exponential function, e* In addition to being familiar with the various laws of indices, eg. @” xa" =a" " you should also have encountered ‘¢’, which can be defined as lim (J } and be familiar with the function f(a) = ¢" + Ify=e" then 4 =. The exponential fimction differentiates to itself! + The constant ¢ (= 2.71828) allows us to describe many situations involving growth (or decay) mathematically. ‘Many growth and decay situations involve some variable, say A, growing, or decaying continuously, according toa rule of the form A = Age where Ais the amount present at time f, Apis the initial amount (i. the amount present at ¢= 0), and is some constant dependent on the situation. Summary sta' ‘Measures of central tendency “The mean, the median and the mode are all measures used to summarise a set of scores. The mean and the median each indicate a ‘central score’. The mode is often included in these ‘averages’ but there is no guarantee that the mode is any ‘central’ measure, Measures of spread (or dispersion) The range of a set of scores is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score and gives a simple measure of how widely the scores are spread. Whilst the range is easy to calculate itis determined using just two of the scores and does not take any of the other scores into account. For this reason it is of limited use. ‘You should be familiar with variance and standard deviation as more sophisticated measures of dispersion. ‘The variance is found by finding how much each of the scores differs from the mean, squaring these values and finding the average (mean) of the squared values. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. Consider the eight scores listed below, for which the mean is 18. Scores: 2 15 16 16 18 2 22 25 Deviation from mean: 6 3 2 2 0 2 4 47 2 a 3) 4 24 DE)? + DP (4)? 4? Witieezalicenes Gere = 15.25 Standard deviation = VI525 ice. 3.91 (correct to two decimal places). ‘sen 9720170205205‘You should be able to determine the mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation and variance of a set of scores when the scores are presented in various forms (e.g. asa list, asa frequency table, asa dot frequency graph etc), using the ability of your calculator to determine these statistical quantities as appropriate. x =18 ‘The mean of the scores. yx 144 ‘The sum of the scores. ye? 2714 ‘The sum of the squares of the scores. xn =3.90512483 xon1 = 417475405 nn =8 ‘The standard deviation of the scores. A different standard deviation — see note (2) below. ‘The number of scores, TTTtTT (1). The standard deviation is a measure of spread. For most distributions very few, if any, of the scores would be more than three standard deviations from the mean, i.e. the vast majority of the scores (and probably all of them) would lie between (¥ - 36) and (¥ +30). 2) The display shown above has two different standard deviations: 4, is the standard deviation of the eight scores. G,,_, gives an answer a litee bigger than 6, by dividing the sum of the squared deviations by (a ~ 1) rather than ». This would be used if the eight scores were a sample taken from a larger population and we wanted to use the standard deviation of the sample to estimate the standard deviation of the whole population, Division by (7 ~ 1) rather than» compensates for the fact that there is usually less variation in a small sample than there is in the population itself Ifthe sample is large, then 7 will be large and there will be little difference between 6, and 6, 1. Change of scale and origin Consider again the set of eight scores: 2 15 16 16 18 2 22 25 ‘The scores are displayed below left as a dot frequency diagram: x =18 wx = 144 Be = 2714 xon = 3.90512483, xon-1 = 4,17475405 no =8 ® MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205Now suppose we increase all of the scores by 20. This will see them all move 20 places to the right on the dot frequency diagram, i.e. a change of origin. With all of the scores increased by 20 we would expect the mean to increase by 20. However, the points are no more, or less, spread out, than they were before. Hence the standard deviation should be unchanged. x 38 dx =304 me 1674 xon 90512483 x0n-1 = 4.17475405 A Suppose instead we were to multiply all of the original scores by 2, ie. a change of sale, ‘The scores would again all increase in value but would also become more spread out than the original set. We would expect the mean and the standard deviation of this new set of scores to be twice the mean and standard deviation of the original set. ox es ee ee ee x 10856 PT xon =7.81024967 10 ” 30 ” 30 xon-1 =8,34950811 no -8 Probability ‘The probability of something happening is a measure of the likelihood of it happening and is given as a number between zero (no chance of happening) to 1 (certain to happen). With activities such as rolling a die of flipping a coin, whilst we are unable to consistently predict the outcome of ‘ particular die roll or coin flip, when these activities are repeated a large number of times each has a predictable long-run pattern. For less predictable events the long-term relative frequency with which an event occurs is then our best guess at the probability of the event occurring. Probability based on experimental or observed data like this is called empirical probability. You should be familiar with the various ‘probability rules’ listed on the next page ‘sen 9720170205205For complementary events (A and 4’) P(A’) = 1-P(A) For conditional probability (BA): PANB) PBA) PAD ForAand B (An B): “To determine the probability of A and B occurring we multiply the probabilities together, paying due regard to whether the occurrence of one of the events affects the likelihood of the other occurring: P(ANB) = P(A)xP(BIA) IfA and B are independent events, P(B|A) = P(B) and so P(ANB) = P(A)xPB) For A or B (AUB): ‘To determine the probability of A or B occurring we add the probabilities together and then make the necessary subtraction to compensate for the ‘double counting of the overlap’ P(AUB) = P(A)+PQB)-P(ANB) IFA and B are mutually exclusive events, P(A. B)= 0 and so PUB) = P(A)+P(B) Random variables Suppose a normal fair coin is flipped 3 times. The 8 equally likely outcomes are: TIT HIT THT TTH THH HTH HHT HHH ‘If X represents the number of heads obtained, then X can take the values 0, 1,2, 3 TIT HTT THT TTH THH HTH HHT HHH ae = nt = ss ‘The value X takes, 0, 1,2 or 3, depends upon a random selection process. We call Xa discrete random variable. ‘The word diserete means ‘separate’ or ‘individually distinct” which is the case here because X can only take the distinct values 0, 1,2 or 3. ‘The possible values of a random variable must be numerical. Diserete random veriables commonly occur when we are counting events, for example the number of successes in a number of attempts. In this unit we will extend our understanding of random variables to consider continuous random variables. These commonly occur when we are measuring something, for example heights, weights, times etc. The variable is not restricted to certain values but can now take any value (usually within certain limits of reasonableness). MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205Probability distribution of a discrete random variable For the random variable X referred to on the previous page, the table below gives the probability associated with each value the variable X can take. Number ofheads (XJ 0 1 23 a eee ee 3 8 @ 8 1 We write PX=3)=5. ‘This table of probabilities completed for the three flips of a coin situation shows how the total probability of 1 is distributed amongst the possible values the variable X'can take. The table gives the probability distribution for the random variable X. ‘The possible values the random variable can take must together cover all eventualities without overlap. We say they must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. ‘The sum of the probabilities in a probability distribution must be 1. ‘From our understanding of probability it aso follows that for each value of x, 0 < P= $1 For each value the random variable, X, can take, the table assigns the corresponding probability of X taking that value. In mathematics we call a rule or relationship that assigns to each element of one set an element from a second set, a function. The pairs of values in the previous table show the probability function for the random variable X. We frequently use the notation f(x) to represent a function so we will sometimes use f(x) for P(X = 2). Mean, variance and standard deviation of a discrete random variable ‘When working with random variables the mean value is sometimes referred to as the expected value. For the random variable X, the mean or expected value is sometimes written as E(X). Do not be misled by the use of the word ‘expected’. It is not the value we expect to get with one roll of a die, for example, butis instead the number ‘we expect our long-term average to be close to. For the probability distribution shown at the top of this page, the mean or expected value 1 3 3 1 = OXE + IKE + 2KE + 3x5 = 1S For the probability distribution shown below: x ilalsalels PRE 01 02 02 04 O12 the mean or expected value = 1x0.1+2x0.2+3x0.2+4x04+5x0.1 = 32 ‘sen 9720170205205If the discrete random variable, X, has possible values x;, with P(X'= x,) =p; then EQ) = 2G; p;) the summation being carried out over all of the possible values x; If we use the Greek letter, i, (mu, pronounced myc) to represent B(X), then the variance, sometimes written Var(X), is equal to 2p,(x, — 1)? Prior to the ready availability of calculators, applying this formula could be a tedious process, especially if E(X) ‘was not an integer. In such cases, the alternative formula Var(X) = E(X?) — [E(X)? could be used. ‘The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. ‘The standard deviation of Xis sometimes written SDQ). The binomial probability distribution Awial which can be considered to have just two mutually exclusive outcomes, sometimes referred to as sucess (@) and failure (0), is called a Bernoulli trial. If the probability of success is p then the long term mean =p and variance = p(I ~p). Ifa Bernoulli trial is performed repeatedly, with the probability of success in a trial occurring with constant probability, ie. the trials are independent, the distribution that arises by considering the number of successes is called a binomial distribution. Ifa Bernoulli trial is performed n times, and the probability of suecess in each trial is p, the probability of exactly xx successes in the 7 trials is "Cc. rl-p* ‘The number of trials, n, and the probability of success on each trial, p, are called the parameters of the distribution. If we know that a random variable is binomially distributed and the parameters and p are known, the probability distribution can be completely determined. If the discrete random variable X is binomially distributed with parameters » and p this is sometimes written as: X-b(@,p), X-Bon,p), —- X-bin(a,p) or =~ X~ Bint, p). For example, suppose that each question of multiple-choice test paper offers five answers, one of which is correct. Ifa student answers 7 questions by simply guessing which response is correct each time, and if we define the random variable Xas how many of these seven questions the student gets correct, we have: Number of trials and (success, ic. gets question correct) = 0.2. Hence X ~ Bin(7, 0.2). Thus P(X =3) 730.25 0.8% = 0.1147 For a binomial distribution involving » trials, with p the probability of success on each trial: Mean = np and Standard deviation = Jnp(- p) or Jnpq where q = (1 —p), the probability of failure’ on each trial. ) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205Calculus Differentiation Iti assumed that you are familiar with the idea of the gradient, or slope, ofa line and in particular that whilst a straight line has the same gradient everywhere, the gradient of a curve varies as we move along the curve. To find the gradient at a particular point, P, on a curve y= f(x) we choose some other point, Q, on the curve whose x-coordinate is alittle more than that of point P. fle+h) Suppose P has an +-coordinate of + and Q has an x-coordinate of (¢ +h). “The corresponding y-coordinates of P and Q will then be f(s) and f+ 1). Thos the gradient of PQ = L@+/= fle) a fie) We then bring Q closer and closer to P, ie. we allow h to tend to zero, and we determine the limiting value of the gradient of PQ. as h tends to zero. ie. Gradient at P= limit of. flu h)~ Fx) h This gives us the instantaneous rate of change of the function at P, ‘The process of determining the gradient formula or gradient function of a curve is called differentiation. ‘Writing h, the small increase, or increment, in the x coordinate, as dx, and writing f(x + f) — f(a), the small increment in the y coordinate, as 8y, we have. Gradient function = im ab ag ¥ This derivative is written as 4 and pronounced ‘dee y by dee x ay of ad © Ify=f(x) then the derivative of y with respect to x can be writ as =, ~- or — f(x). y= fl then the derivative ofy with respect ten as ©, F or fe, ‘+ Ashorthand notation using a ‘dash’ may be used for differentiation with respect to x. Thus ify = f(a) we can 4 write 2 as (°6) or simply orf ‘+ Whenever we are faced with the task of finding the gradient formula, gradient function, or derivative of some ‘new’ function, for which we do not already have a rule, we can simply go back to the basic principle: Gradientat P(e, f@) = tin FE+= LE) ‘sen 9720170205205Applying this ‘limiting chord process’ leads to the following results: Teer then 4 = ana?! foy=¢ then 2 =e, Tf 7 = sinz(forvinradians) then 4 Bteor Tf 7 = cosr(forxinradians) then 4 ene “These facts, together with the rules that follow, allow us to determine the gradient funetion for many other functions. With w and v each functions of x, then: of uty, Sum and difference rules. BS BS oT y=uxy, ‘The product rule. * re 4 ‘The quotient rule. * If y=f@)andu=go9, 4 “The chain rule. sf 5=1ferr, & - mp) From the cata rule st ye", & = poet From the chain rule, Antidifferentiation You should also be familiar with the idea of antidifferentiation which, as its name suggests, is the opposite of differentiation. a |S Eg. 1 2 =ax" then antidifferentiation gives y +e eT nel Remembered as: Inorease the power by one and divide by the new power: Antidifferentiation is also known as integration, which uses the symbol J an Hence Jote= nt i) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205Limit of a sum ‘The following should remind you of the idea of finding the area under a curve by summing strips of area, and of the fundamental theorem of calculus. “To determine the area between some function y = f(x) and the x axis, from =a tox=b (see the diagram on the right) we could divide the area into a large number of equal-width strips, each approximately rectangular, and sum the areas of the strips. ‘One such rectangular strip, of area y &x, is shown in the second diagram on the right. ‘The more strips, the smaller 6x and the greater our accuracy. Tf the exact area of the region is A then A = lim Yi ydx ‘With a summation involved we use a ‘stretched S’ to represent this limit. = — pe = foe Avery useful mathematical fact is that this ‘limit of a sum’ process, called integration, can be determined using antidifferentiation, Indeed this explains why we freely use the same ‘stretched S symbol’, and the word ‘integrate’, when we are finding antiderivatives. ‘Hence to find the area under a curve, the limit of a sum we obtain by considering rectangles can be evaluated using antidifferentiation, a much easier process than summing the areas of many rectangles. ‘ Toevaluate f’ f)av: (1) Antidifferentiate f(x) with respect tox (and omit the “+ ¢). 2). Substitute b into your answer from (1). @) Substitute a into your answer from (1). @) Calculate: Part 2) answer) ~ Part (3) answer) Tn this way, evaluating fi f(a) de gives a specific answer, without any ‘+ 2 being involved. Integrals ofthis form are called definite integrals. ‘sen 9720170205205Hence the limit of a sum, which we call a definite integral, can be evaluated using antidifferentiation, because integration and differentiation are opposite processes. This is what the fundamental theorem of calculus is all about. ‘The two boxed results shown below show the opposite nature of this relationship between the definite integral and differentiation, They are the two parts of the fundamental theorem of calculus. [rem -so-fo amd Af Food) =s09 From the rule above left we see that integrating the derivative of a function ‘gives us the function back’ and from the rule above right, differentiating the integral of a funetion ‘gives us the function back’. Applications of calculus From your previous studies you should be familiar with applying calculus in relation to the following concepts: Determining the area under a curve and between curves. Locating turning points and points of inflection, Optimisation. Rectilinear motion. Small changes and marginal rates of change. “Total change from rate of change. Use of technology You are encouraged to use your calculator, computer programs and the intemet during this unit. ted However you should make sure that you can also perform the o basic processes such as solving equations, sketching graphs, differentiation, determining definie integrals, without the assistance of such technology when required to do so. The illustrations of calculator displays shown in the book may not exactly match the display from your caleulater. The: illustrations are not meant to show you exactly what your 4.7 2,19, 28 Applying this idea to the concept of logarithms: Input 1000, 100, 10,1, 04 tp eee Ourpu maak o Input 842405 mm Ne)=log xy OP oa => 2 Lot 125, 25,5, 4 02 mp 1(x) = logs x Output max L OA Graphs of logarithmic functions ‘What do the graphs of y = logs, y= Inx,y = logsx, y= logy, ete., look like? [As the Preliminary work mentioned, it is anticipated that you are familiar Use your calculator to with how the graph of view the graphs of differs from that of y y= log,x for various volves of a > 0. In particular, starting with y= f(a): ‘+ Mulciplying the right hand side of the equation by ‘a’ stretches (dilates) the graph parallel to the _yraxis with scale factor ‘a’, If‘a’ is negative the graph is also reflected in the x-axis. ‘+ Replacing x by dx dilates the graph parallel to the x-axis with a scale factor off. * Replacing « by 2 —c translates the graph c units to the right. (fc is negative the translation is to the left). + Adding ‘d” to the right hand side of the equation translates the graph d units vertically upwards. (lf dis negative the translation is vertically downwards) ‘Are these same effects evident when we consider the graphs of logarithmic functions? sen 97a0170095205, |- Logarithmic functions @Exercise 1E 1 Determine the coordinates of the point where the graph of y= log, (x +8) euts @ the a-axis, b the y-axis. 2 What are the coordinates of the point that is common to all graphs of the form y=log,.? 3 Find the coordinates of the point where the graph of y = log, cuts the line y = 1 4 What is the equation of the vertical asymptote of the graph of a y=log,x? b y=log,(e-3)? © y=log,x-3? 5. The graph below shows y = logs. ‘Use the graph to determine approximate solutions to each of the following. a logsx=0.5, Bb logse= 1.5, © x-5°*=0, do logs(e = = 13. © Now solve each of the equations algebraically, with the assistance of your calculator to evaluate powers, giving answers rounded to 3 decimal places. 6 The graph below shows y=log,«,y=log,(e~B), and y=log,x+< Determine the values of a, band c given that they are all positive integers. ‘ : saeeee ; — + eed ; oo — is zo (20) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison o7eo1 70295205Logarithmic scale ‘The number line below shows a linear scale. Suppose we start at a particular number location on this line, If moving a particular distance to the right (or left), increases (or decreases) the number we are located at by, say, 10, then on this linear scale all such movements of this size will increase (or decrease) the number we are located at by 10. -10 10 10 0 0 0 =o o i0 20 30 However, on a logarithmic scale, if moving a particular distance to the right (or lei) multiplies (or divides) the number we are located at by, say, 10, then all such movements to the right (or lefi) will multiply (or divide) by 10. 0. +10 x10 x10 x10 NNN ob OL T io 100 1000 In this way, in a logarithmic scale, the distance between consecutive powers of ten is constant. 001 or 1 i0 100 1000 10" w w 0! ty 10° Notice that the logarithmic seale shown above displays the numbers 1 to 1000 in the space that the linear scale atthe top of the page displayed just zero to 30.’This ability to display a greater range in the same space is one feature that makes logarithmie scales useful. Consider again Sicuation One ‘encountered at the beginning of this chapter, for example. It would be difficult on a linear scale to show both the comparatively small world population of one million and the much larger current population of more than seven billion, Use of a logarithmic scale may solve this problem, Before the ready availability of electronic calculators a device called a slide rule was a helpful aid when performing calculations. ‘The slide rule was marked using a logarithmic scale rather than a linear scale. By placing two such scales with the same base together, and adding length « to length #, the fact that logya + log, = log, (ab) means that the combined length gives the product ax b. sen 9740170095205, |« Logarithmic functions @ @)Graphs with logarithmic scales Some graph paper have a logarithmic scale on. x one axis (log-linear graph paper) or on both axes (log-log paper). ‘The log-linear graph on the right has a logarithmic scale on the y-axis. 10= 100 10? = 1000 (On this graph, functions with equations of the form yn 10 =10 will appear as straight lines (as indeed will all functions of the form y = kd, Wet for k, a and b constants). Use of logarithmic scales As mentioned on the previous page, if we wish to display data that has a large range, a logarithmic scale can be useful. ‘We have also already seen in this chapter that this ‘multiplication effect’ of a logarithmic scale is used in the Richter scale of earthquake intensity, in the modelling of memory activity, in measuring the acidity or alkalinity of solutions (the pH value) and in sound measurement (decibels). Three of these applications are mentioned again below and also mention is made of the use of a logarithmic scale in inusical seales. The Richter scale A seismograph is an instrument that measures vibrations from an earthquake graphically. The base ten logarithm of the amplitude of these measurements (corrected for the distance the seismograph is from the earthquake epicentre) gives the strength of the earthquake on the Richter scale. ‘The use of base ten logarithms means that for each unit increase on the Richter scale, the amplitude of the vibrations is multiplied by ten. pH scale ‘The pH scale (potential of Hydrogen) is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. This is the negative of the logarithm to the base ten of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre. A pH of 7 is regarded as nentral. Pure water is neutral, itis neither acidic nor alkaline. The pH of pure water isa reference point for acidity and alkalinity. A pH above 7 indicates a solution is alkaline, below 7 indicates the solution is acidic. A solution with a pH of 3 is ten times as acidic as a solution with a pH of 4 A solution with a pH of 10 is one hundred times as alkaline as a solution with a pH of 8. @) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison 9790170395205Scale of loudness ‘The decibel (4B) scale measures loudness and is based on multiples of ten. Hence this too is a logarithmic scale using base ten logarithms. ut Music scale ‘If one musical note has frequency fand another has frequency 2f the frequency ratio is said to be one octave. Thus, each time the frequency doubles we go up one octave. This use of powers again means that a logarithmic scale is used. ‘To determine how many doublings are involved in a change from a frequency f, to fy we solve hoy log? ging x= vtte( £) 1 A particular scale measures Nas a function of L according to the rule Jogie(2L). Find a NwhenL=3.2x 10%, b Lwhen2 2_Ifx octaves are involved between a note of frequency f; hertz (Hz) and one of fy Hz then - fh vegipete( @ How many octaves are there between a frequency of 20 Hz.to one of 50 Hz? b If something has a frequency range of 3 octaves, and the lower frequency is, express the higher frequency in terms of i 3. The pH ofa solution is defined as where His the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre. a Find EH for pure water, pH=7. b Find the pH for lemon juice, H* = 0.01 moles per litre. sen 9740170095205, |« Logarithmic functions @ @)4. The ‘logit’ function (pronounced /oujit) is used in some branches of probability and statistics. If pis the probability of an event occurring then logit(p) = oe : D @ fp =0.2 find logit(?) giving your answer correct to two decimal places. b Iflogit(p) =4 find p giving your answer correct to two decimal places. € Ifanevent has a probability of occurring of p what is the significance of logit(p) being negative? di If for real x and real k, n() = k, show that x will always be between zero and one, ‘whatever the value of &. 5 Comment on the following statement: ‘The cost of the damage caused by an earthquake of Richter scale 7 is ten times that of one with Richter scale 6. 6 With the linear scale shown below indicating 0, 10 and 20, o 10 20 we know where to mark 1, 2, 3, ete. rs é io 20 However, with the logarithmic scale below, indicating 1, 10 and 100, 1 to 100 where would we mark 2,4, 5,20, 30, 50? “Try to draw such a logarithmic scale yourself with these numbers appropriately placed. (Use 5 em for the distance from 1 to 10, and the distance from 10 to 100, ie, use $ em to represent ‘multiplication by 10°.) (As mentioned on page 21, before the ready availability of electronic calculators a device called slide rule used such a scale and was helpful in performing calculations.) @) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205,Miscellaneous exercise one bbe This miscellaneous exercise may include questions involving the work of this chapter and the ideas mentioned in the Preliminary work section at the beginning of the book. Differentiate the following with respect tox. 1 sx! x3 lets Se 7 10e oe 1 V1 3c" 1 ‘Write each of the following as exponential statements. 13 log,81=4 14 15 log, 16 17 logsc=b 18 19 loga=6 20 ‘Write each of the following as logarithmic statements, 212° 23 +1 =0.25 25 T=y 27 10'=2 x(a? +1) @ +18 2 tat ta? an 3e 2eé 430" log,216 log,b=¢ logia= loge Evaluate each of the following (without the assistance of a calculator). 29 log,32 30 31 logio10 32 93 Stine 34 logs 125 Jog 1000 4-Ine? isan 9700170995205, 1, Logarithmic functions @ @)35 Ginve 36 togs8+In(4) ¢ 37 log, 38 loge 39 log, (z') 40 log, Ja ‘Use natural logarithms to solve each of the following equations, giving exact answers. 41 ett=12 42 &=25 43 ¢-!=150 44 e134 45 5e*' 434%! = 200 46 2120 =-35 Express each of the following as a single logarithm. AT 3loge+logy 48 2logr—3logy 49 2loga + logh—3loge 50 3+loge 51 2+Ine 52 3-Inx+2Iny 53 A particular company required P tonnes of fossil fuel in 2010. Figures suggest that this annual requirement is increasing in such a way that ¢ years after 2010 the company will require Pe" tonnes. If this suggested rule is correct, by what year will the requirement for fossil fuel for this company be approximately five times its 2010 requirement? = 54 A body is initially at rest at an origin, O. It then moves in a straight line such that its acceleration, tseconds later, is 0.1¢""" m/s”, @ Find the velocity of the body when t= 10. b Find the displacement of the body from O when r= 10. ¢ Finda formula involving 7 for the distance the body travels from t= Tto t= T+ 1. ‘Use your formula from ¢ to determine, correct to 3 decimal places, the distance the body moves in the third second, @ the tenth second. (s) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 ISBN 9780170395205,Calculus involving Pre Fetes ated ey © Differentiating y = Inx Se elcome ACM oR LoL oy See ota coo}‘The Preliminary zwork section at the beginning of this book reminded ws: ‘Whenever we are faced with the task of finding the gradient formula, gradient function, or derivative of some ‘new’ function, for which we do not already have a rule, we can simply go back to the basie principle: Gradient at P(;fla)) = tim, Auk set lim In + A)— Inf) ao h BS Thusif = y=Inx then Let us explore this limit for some values of x. Suppose x= 2. 2+ h)-h h 1 0.405465 (6 decimal places) ot 0.487 902 (6 decimal places) oo 0.498754 (6 decimal places) 0.001 0.499875 (6 decimal places) 0.0001 0499988 (6 decimal places) 0.00001 0499999 (6 decimal places) ‘The table suggests that ate = 2,y=Ins has a gradient of 0.5, i. i. Complete similar tables for y= Inx at x= 5, and atx = 10, and use your tables to suggest the gradient ofy=Inx for these values of x. sen 9740170095205, 2. Calculus involving logarithmic functions @Inx Did your results for the gradient of y = Inx at x= 2, 5 and 10 suggest that: If y= ing then Rather than considering im. Beet Hote) for other values of x we can confirm the result suggested above using the fact that 4 (A statement that is justified at the bottom of this page.) IF y=logy then x de From this it follows that Boe, y ‘Thus & de Ify=log: then -t Justification of the fact that: 2 = eal 4 ‘We cannot simply assume this result to be true by the rules of fractions hecause 4 is nota fraction (itis the limit of a fraction). Instead the result can be justified as follows: Using the chain rule: ‘equation [1] ‘Thus equation [1] becomes and so Be MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison o7eo1 70295205Differentiate 3x + log. b 3Inx Solution a If y = 3x°+logx b If y = 3ine ae Ea 4) de ‘y de x = 2 Differentiate log,(3x? + Sx). Solution If yy = log,Gx"+5x) Let ou = 3x 45x then y = loge. # = 645 and ca de ‘The general statement of the above example is: = log, f(a) a ea Hy=log,f(e) then, by the chain rule, 7 70) Differentiate a log,(3x+5) blog,’ +5) Solution a If y = log,Gx+5) b If y = log.@’+5) a. 2. as ae But de 45 sen 9740170095205, 2. Calculus involving logarithmic functions @@ (a)Differentiate log, [(e + 3)( + 4)]- Solution ey = log l@+3\e+4)] = log? + 7x4 12) 4 247 de @+D@+4), ‘The reader should confirm that if the above question was first written as log. (© +3) + log.(e +4) and then differentiated the same answer would result, Exercise 2A Differentiate each of the following with respect to x. For some it may be advisable to use the laws of logatithms before differentiating. 1 log,x 2 log.2x 3 Sx? + log, Ate loge B loge 12) 6 In@e 3) 7 In@x-3) B Ing? +1) 9 In(coss) 10 log.) WL log.) 12 log.GVx) 13 tog.(2) 14 log.teGe-+ 3)] 15 log. +4e-3)] 16 slog, 17 (og.a)? 18 log, (2) 19 1 20 elog,x 21 ex Tog. = = 22. (1 +log.07 23 log Lule + 960-43) 24 og,|**)| 3 25 log, {(x" +5)'] 26 tes 4] 27 tr | 222") @) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison o7eo1 70295205Find the gradient of each of the following curves at the given point on the curve. 28 y=Tlog,x at (1, 0). 29 y=xlog.x at (e’, 2”). 30 y= 3x" +log.x at (I, 3). 31 ole at (1,0). Find the exact coordinates of the point(s) on the following curves where the gradient is as stated. 32. y=Inx gradient, 0.25. 33 y=In(@’), gradient 4. 34 y=In(Ge 5), gradient 0.24. 35 y=In[o(e+3)], gradient 0.5. Find the equation of the tangent to the given curve atthe indicated point. 36 y=log,x at the point (1, 0). 37 y=log,x at the point (e, 1). R th log. b emembering from chaper one that logy = [EE dilfrentite each ofthe following. 38 y=log,x. 39 y=loggx. AO If) ~ S0ln.x, use caleulus to determine the appronimate small change in y when.» changes from 16 to 10.1 Check your answer by evaluating (501n 10.1 ~ 501n 10), correct to four decimal places. 41 An object moves along a straight line such that its displacement, x metres, from an origin O, at time ¢ seconds, is given by serene Find the velocity and acceleration of the object when ¢= 2. 42. Use calculus to determine the nature and coordinates of any turning points on the graph of yax? ~50In 2x, +> 0. sen 9740170095205, 2. Calculus involving logarithmic functions @Integration to give logarithmic functions sIne 7 oi —— «(7 th a” ‘Thus de = Inxte = x £'@) If y=Infes) then 7 Fe" ‘Thus LO ye 2 Infs) +e. F(x) Any algebraic fraction for which the numerator is the derivative of the denominator will integrate to give a natural logarithmic function. Note: * With Inz only defined for x>0 this unit will only consider: fie for ¥>0, and [age for fis)>0. “Thus, for this unit dae=inv+s, for 2>0. oa Jee Inx+e, for x>0. Fay =e) +e for f0)>0. * Although it is beyond the requirements of this unit, suppose we were asked to determine hae forv0, fie = lnrte, x and fors<0, fide = fata = Incayre x =e Combining these two statements using the absolute value gives Jide = nlelte veo. ‘This is mentioned here to explain why your calculator may, when asked to determine J a display an answer that includes the absolute value MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison 9790170395205In the next two examples, two methods of solution are shown. In one method the approach is to make an intelligent first attempt at the antiderivative, differentiate it, and then use the result to adjust the first attempt appropriately. If we are attempting to antidifferentiate an expression that is of the form Le) f(x) or some scalar multiple thereof, our initial attempt should be of the form nfs. In ‘method two’ the given expression is first manipulated so that the task becomes that of determining fo * from which the answer, alnf(x) + ¢, follows. ‘The reader should be able to follow both methods but is advised to adopt whichever one they prefer. ae Find ls ds: (for x > 0). Solution Intelligent guess Rearrange ‘Ty y = Inde a as ze ar Th de Oe =e 3 rg =i = dinete ‘Our initial trial needs to be multiplied by 3. e fxd = Sines. ‘The answers for the two methods used above may appear different but in fact they are different ways of writing the same thing: Sinzete 2 Stin24insl+e 5 = aeonstant +5 Ina te 3 = 5 In + aconstant. sen 9740170095205, 2. Calculus involving logarithmic functions @Find is de, Solution Noticing that the numerator is 2 multiple of the derivative of the denominator we either make an intelligent guess and then adjust, or rearrange. Intelligent guess Rearrange y = In@’+1). 2x 10 2x a a a = sxfF ae — a 4d el 41 SIn@’ +I) +e Our initial trial needs to be multiplied by 5. 10r 8 Sez de = Sin@?+Ite With practice, the integrals ean be written directly. - 16 Ise? Find Sage @e+5>0 b oa de @+1>0). Solution 16 ie = BinQet5)+e b fae = Sing? +1) +e det wel Find the area between the x-axis and y 2 from x=2 wr=5. Solution First make a sketch or view the situation on a calculator display. s1 Required area = J 2). find an expression for 34 a Find é exactly (> 1), given that the region shown shaded in the diagram has an area of 1 square unit. b Ifthe line x=é divides the shaded region in the diagram into two regions each of area 0.5 square units, find 8. € If (0)is midway between (1, 0) and (t, 0) find the exact 2 and the x-axis from = Lto=0. woe) area between, @) MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison 9790170395205Miscellaneous exercise two ‘This miscellaneous exercise may include questions involving the work of this chapter, the work of any previous chapters, and the ideas mentioned in the Preliminary work section at the beginning of the book. Find 4 for each of the following. 1 y=sin2x 2 y=cos3x Seec any 5 yee 6 y-Gr-1) 7 y=1+2log,* 8 y=7ine 5 fae 10 y=log.(1 +x 40°) 11 Solve 2* = 11 giving the exact answer using base ten logarithms. 12 Iflog,3 —p amd log,4—y, express each of dhe following i wins ofp ut y vt boul p aud 4: a log,25 b log,500 © log,80 d log,10 ee log,(202°) # log.4 13. Without the assistance of a calculator, determine the value of x (x > 0) in each of the following statements. a log, 64 b log,64=2 © log,64=6 logy 100=x e log17 log? = loge £ log17 +log2 = loge g logy? =xlog2 h 3log2=logx 14 Find an expression for p in each of the following: v a log.x+logy © 3log,r—log.y log.p=¥ 2+ 05logigy=logiop ison 9780170098205 2. Calculus involving logarithmic functions @15 Find the equation of the tangent to y=Inx at the point (¢, 2). 16 A pump is used to extract air from a steel container. Fach minute, the pump reduces the amount of air in the container by 12% of what it was at the beginning of that minute. Write down an expression for Q, the quantity of in terms of Qg, the initial quantity present. For how long must the pump work if we require just 5% of the original amount to remain? in the container after t minutes pumping, 17 Given that f(a) = 3x7 In x + 2) determine a f'@), bf). 18 The graph on the right shows part of the curve y= (og.x)—1 Answer the following without the use of a graphic caleulator. @ Determine the exact coordinates of points A and B, the x-axis intercepts, and prove that there are no other places where this function cuts either axis. b Determine the exact coordinates of point C, the local minimum, and prove that this funetion has no other stationary points. € Determine whether or not y = (log,a)? ~ 1 has any points of inflection and ifso determine their sation. 19 Use the first principles definition: 4 poy jon fet) fe) OT woprovethat = Asin cose and “gos ==sina. E ane aes You may assume the following: in Sith © lim——=1 mh © timbres a h + inc h)) = linn FH) + im (0). MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison o7eo1 70295205Continuous random variables Rr Mure Meer CLF Cer etme rel ZolioL od © Probability density function (pdf) © Uniform (or rectangular) distributions ONT uM iu ey * Expected value, variance and standard deviation © Change of scale and origin © Cumulative distribution function OOo east Cie aaSituation Suppose that at a particular time the people living in Australia, and aged less than 100, had the following age distribution: OSage<50: 15613000 people. 50 50) Nore: Because X'is a continuous variable we are not restricted to particular values, as we would be with a discrete variable. Between zero and ten there are, in theory, an infinite number of values thac X can take, Hence the probability of any particular value is negligible. Le, P(Y=) = 0. Thus there is no difference between P(50 < X'< 60), P(S0 a From the table, POE VO|K> 50) = FS = 0085 0.01 ym the gra 2 ee 0 Or from the graph, PO 90IX>50) = To aarromsomeani ~ 0% sen 9720170395205 Continuous random variables @*‘The initial situation, involving the age distribution of Australians aged between 0 and 100, involved data based on the entire population — i.e. the ages were given for ail people aged under 100 living in Australia (with some rounding of figures involved). Asked to determine probabilities for one item selected from the population, when we know the relevant data for the whole population, means, that the probabilities will be accurate, not estimates. Flowever, in some cases the continuous variable jay be for a sample drawn from a larger population, as in example 1. We could then use the relative frequencies of our sample to give an estimate of the probabilities for the population. ‘The lengths of 50 non-premature newborn _ frequency babies born in an Australian hospital gave rise © oy to the frequency histogram on the right: 2 Use the above information to suggest values iO for each of the following probabilities where Xemis the length of a randomly selected non-premature newborn baby born in an : s : Australian hospital 3 2 a PXS50.5) 1 ' — b P(9550.5|X< 53.5) Length (em) Solution @ Of the 50 measurements that contributed to the histogram, 18 (= 1 +3 +5 +9) of them involve a length less than or equal to 50.5 em. 18 50 0.36 ‘The given data suggests that P(X s 50.5) b Ofthe 50 measurements that contributed to the histogram, 39 9+ 14+ 12 +4) of them involve a length between 49.5 cm and 53.5 cm. ‘The given data suggests that (49.5 < X'<53.5) = 0.78 € Given that X< 53.5 we need only consider the 48 lengths for which this is true. P05 < X <53.5) POX <53.5) 30 8 P(X > 50.5|X< 53.5) ive. 0.625. MATHEMATICS METHODS Unit 4 Ison 9790170395205Exercise 3A 1 The road accident statistics for a country for one a showed that for motoreyelists (divers not passengeTs) ‘As (evr) aa in the age range fifteen to fifty-nine, 186 had died Ba sc2) a in road accidents with the distribution of the ages 2bs5o 2 3° of these riders as shown on the right. 25<¥<30 2» Ifone of these fatalities is selected at random, determine 30<"<35 9 the probability that it will be for a motorcyclist aged 3510) d P@6|X< 10) sen 9720170395205 3. Continuous random variables @3 To test the strength of a particular type of wire under load, samples of the wire have increasing loads attached to one end of the wire, whilst the other end is fixed in a clamp. The load that causes the wire to break is noted. The results for 50 such samples gave rise to the following relative frequency histogram. Relative frequency oa. 038 0.6 oz a dos et 1» 20 a 2 a 2 2s Toad eg) @ How many of the 50 wires broke when a load between 22 kg and 24 kg was attached? b _Ifarandom sample of wire of this type breaks when the load attached is X'kg, use the above results to suggest values for each of the following probabilities. i PoY>21) P(X< 21) POX <21|20< ¥< 23) 4. During research into a particular species of animal, a number of the adult male animals are caught, measured, tagged and released back into the wild. “The lengths of these animals gave rise to the following histogram of relative frequencies. Relasve frequency os oars 03 02 2 ous on 007s 007s 0.075 02s 0025 0.025 0.025 po m0 0S Tengah (om) If an adult male animal of this species is captured and measured, use the above data to suggest the probability the length of the animal, Z. cm, is such that: a L333 b L233 © 3035 given that L> 33 @ L>33 given that 32 140) Continuous random variables Each question of the previous exercise involved a continuous variable. The age of a motorcyclist, the length of time it takes to get a prescription ready, the load that causes a wire to break, the length ofan animal and the weight of an apple are all things which can take any value, between reasonable limits appropriate to the situation. In practice the accuracy of a measurement will be limited by the measuring device we use, but if infinite accuracy were possible amy value, between reasonable limits, would be possible. rete random variables commonly occur when we are counting events, for example the number of successes in a number of trials as with the binomial distribution. * Continuous random variables commonly occur when we are measuring something, for example, heights, weights, times. Suppose X is a continuous random variable that can take any value, x, in an interval. Ie makes no sense to talk of P(X =2) because, with an infinite number of possible values, the probability of X taking any ‘one particular value is negligible. Instead we talk of the probability of the value of X lying in some range of values, 2s in the previous exercise. Rather than having a probability distribution in which each of the possible values has a particular probability, as in a discrete random variable, with continuous random variables we instead talk of a probability density function, or pdf. sen 9720170395205 Continuous random variables @*